Dual actions of lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate (LSD), 2-bromo-D-lysergic acid diethylamide bitartrate (BOL) and methysergide on dorsal root potentials evoked by stimulation of raphe nuclei.

PubMed

Larson, A A; Chinn, C; Proudfit, H K; Anderson, E G

1981-04-01

A variety of drugs reported to antagonize serotonin were found to affect spinal cord potentials evoked by electrical stimulation of the caudal raphe nuclei of the cat. These brain stem-evoked dorsal root potentials (DRPs) consisted of a short latency depolarization (DRP-1), which was evoked by stimulation of a wide variety of sites in the medial brain stem and a long latency potential (DRP-2), which was elicited only when stimuli were applied near the raphe. The ability of serotonergic antagonists to increase or decrease these DRPs was dependent on the dose of the drug administered. High doses of lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate (LSD), 2-bromo-D-lysergic acid diethylamide bitartrate (BOL), methysergide and cinanserin each produced an immediate inhibition of DRP-2 and a simultaneous enhancement of DRP-1, both of which recovered by approximately 30 min. Each of the drugs produced a dose-related inhibition of DRP-2 at high doses, with LSD being the most potent and cinanserin the least potent. In contrast, low doses of LSD, BOL and methysergide elicited little or no immediate change in either DRP-2 or DRP-1, but produced an enhancement of DRP-2 which developed slowly over a period of 60 to 90 min. This increase in DRP-2 was most dramatic after administration of LSD and was not accompanied by changes in DRP-1. The inhibition of DRP-2 by high doses of LSD, BOL, methysergide and cinanserin may result primarily from inhibition of postsynaptic serotonergic receptors located on the primary afferent terminals. The increase in DRP-2 produced by low doses of LSD, BOL and methysergide is postulated to result from an interaction with receptors distinct from those which produced the inhibition of DRP-2 at higher doses.

Interactions between lysergic acid diethylamide and dopamine-sensitive adenylate cyclase systems in rat brain.

PubMed

Hungen, K V; Roberts, S; Hill, D F

1975-08-22

Investigations were carried out on the interactions of the hallucinogenic drug, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (D-LSD), and other serotonin antagonists with catecholamine-sensitive adenylate cyclase systems in cell-free preparations from different regions of rat brain. In equimolar concentration, D-LSD, 2-brono-D-lysergic acid diethylamide (BOL), or methysergide (UML) strongly blocked maximal stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity by either norepinephrine or dopamine in particulate preparations from cerebral cortices of young adult rats. D-LSD also eliminated the stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity of equimolar concentrations of norepinephrine or dopamine in particulate preparations from rat hippocampus. The effects of this hallucinogenic agent on adenylate cyclase activity were most striking in particulate preparations from corpus striatum. Thus, in 10 muM concentration, D-LSD not only completely eradicated the response to 10 muM dopamine in these preparations but also consistently stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. L-LSD (80 muM) was without effect. Significant activation of striatal adenylate cyclase was produced by 0.1 muM D-LSD. Activation of striatal adenylate cyclase of either D-LSD or dopamine was strongly blocked by the dopamine-blocking agents trifluoperazine, thioridazine, chlorpromazine, and haloperidol. The stimulatory effects of D-LSD and dopamine were also inhibited by the serotonin-blocking agents, BOL, 1-methyl-D-lysergic acid diethylamide (MLD), and cyproheptadine, but not by the beta-adrenergic-blocking agent, propranolol. However, these serotonin antagonists by themselves were incapable of stimulating adenylate cyclase activity in the striatal preparations. Several other hallucinogens, which were structurally related to serotonin, were also inactive in this regard, e.g., mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, psilocin and bufotenine. Serotonin itself produced a small stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity in striatal preparations and

78 FR 44965 - Notice of Temporary Closure and Temporary Restrictions of Specific Uses on Public Lands for the...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-07-25

... acid diethylamide: urine, 25 ng/ml; blood, 10 ng/ml (g) Marijuana: urine, 10 ng/ml; blood, 2 ng/ml (h) Marijuana metabolite: urine, 15 ng/ml; blood, 5 ng/ml (i) Methamphetamine: urine, 500 ng/ml; blood, 100 ng...

Neuropharmacological reassessment of the discriminative stimulus properties of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

PubMed

Cunningham, K A; Appel, J B

1987-01-01

The neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying the behavioral effects of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) were assessed by comparing the discriminative stimulus properties of LSD with those of agonists and antagonists that act selectively at putative serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) receptor subtypes (5-HT1 and 5-HT2). Male Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 23) were trained to discriminate LSD (0.08 mg/kg) from saline and given substitution tests with the following agents: 8-hydroxy-2(di-n-propyl-amino) tetralin (8-OHDPAT; 0.02-0.64 mg/kg), Ru 24969 (0.2-3.2 mg/kg), m-chlorophenylpiperazine (MCPP; 0.1-1.6 mg/kg), 1-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP; 0.1-1.6 mg/kg), and quipazine (0.2-3.2 mg/kg). Only quipazine mimicked LSD. In combination tests, BC 105 (0.2-3.2 mg/kg), 2-bromolysergic acid diethylamide (BOL; 0.1-1.6 mg/kg), Ly 53857 (0.4-3.2 mg/kg), metergoline (0.05-0.8 mg/kg), ketanserin (0.2-3.2 mg/kg), and pipenperone (0.0025-0.08 mg/kg), all of which act as 5-HT2 antagonists, blocked the LSD cue; only spiperone (0.02-0.32 mg/kg) was without effect. Although commonalities may exist among "5-HT agonists", the present results demonstrate that such "agonists" are not identical. Since putative 5-HT1 agonists do not mimic LSD and the LSD cue is potently blocked by 5-HT2 antagonists, it appears that 5-HT2 neuronal systems are of greater importance than 5-HT1 systems in mediating the discriminative stimulus and, perhaps, other effects of LSD.

Possible role of biochemiluminescent photons for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-induced phosphenes and visual hallucinations.

PubMed

Kapócs, Gábor; Scholkmann, Felix; Salari, Vahid; Császár, Noémi; Szőke, Henrik; Bókkon, István

2017-01-01

Today, there is an increased interest in research on lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) because it may offer new opportunities in psychotherapy under controlled settings. The more we know about how a drug works in the brain, the more opportunities there will be to exploit it in medicine. Here, based on our previously published papers and investigations, we suggest that LSD-induced visual hallucinations/phosphenes may be due to the transient enhancement of bioluminescent photons in the early retinotopic visual system in blind as well as healthy people.

The muscle findings in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with lysergic acid diethylamide.

PubMed Central

Behan, W M; Bakheit, A M; Behan, P O; More, I A

1991-01-01

A detailed pathological description of the muscle findings in a case of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) following ingestion of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is given, including the first ultrastructural analysis. Focal necrosis, oedema, and hypercontraction of fibres with glycogen and lipid depletion, were identified, all of which had resolved completely a year later. The findings are compared with those in malignant hyperthermia. It is suggested that the results support the view that in NMS, the muscle rigidity is due to central mechanisms and, in both this disorder and malignant hyperthermia, it is responsible for the hyperpyrexia and its life-threatening complications. Images PMID:1940949

Electrochemistry and analytical determination of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) via adsorptive stripping voltammetry.

PubMed

Merli, Daniele; Zamboni, Daniele; Protti, Stefano; Pesavento, Maria; Profumo, Antonella

2014-12-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is hardly detectable and quantifiable in biological samples because of its low active dose. Although several analytical tests are available, routine analysis of this drug is rarely performed. In this article, we report a simple and accurate method for the determination of LSD, based on adsorptive stripping voltammetry in DMF/tetrabutylammonium perchlorate, with a linear range of 1-90 ng L(-1) for deposition times of 50s. LOD of 1.4 ng L(-1) and LOQ of 4.3 ng L(-1) were found. The method can be also applied to biological samples after a simple extraction with 1-chlorobutane. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Lysergic acid diethylamide: a drug of 'use'?

PubMed

Das, Saibal; Barnwal, Preeti; Ramasamy, Anand; Sen, Sumalya; Mondal, Somnath

2016-06-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), described as a classical hallucinogen, began its journey from the middle of the last century following an accidental discovery. Since then, it was used as a popular and notorious substance of abuse in various parts of the world. Its beneficial role as an adjunct to psychotherapy was much unknown, until some 'benevolent' experiments were carried out over time to explore some of its potential uses. But, many of its effects were unclear and seemed to be a psychedelic enigma. In this review article, we have described the receptor pharmacology, mechanism of action, effects and adverse effects of LSD on the normal body system. We have also highlighted its addictive potentials and the chances of developing tolerance. We have assimilated some of the interesting therapeutic uses of this drug, such as an antianxiety agent, a creativity enhancer, a suggestibility enhancer, and a performance enhancer. We have also described LSD to be successfully used in drug and alcohol dependence, and as a part of psychedelic peak therapy in terminally ill patients. The relevant chronological history and literature in the light of present knowledge and scenarios have been discussed. Based on available evidence, LSD could be tried therapeutically in certain specific conditions under controlled settings. But as we mention, due to all the safety concerns, the use of this nonaddictive 'entheogen' in actual practice warrants a lot of expertise, caution, cooperation and ethical considerations.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

PubMed

Krebs, Teri S; Johansen, Pål-Ørjan

2012-07-01

Assessments of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of alcoholism have not been based on quantitative meta-analysis. Hence, we performed a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in order to evaluate the clinical efficacy of LSD in the treatment of alcoholism. Two reviewers independently extracted the data, pooling the effects using odds ratios (ORs) by a generic inverse variance, random effects model. We identified six eligible trials, including 536 participants. There was evidence for a beneficial effect of LSD on alcohol misuse (OR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.36-2.84; p = 0.0003). Between-trial heterogeneity for the treatment effects was negligible (I² = 0%). Secondary outcomes, risk of bias and limitations are discussed. A single dose of LSD, in the context of various alcoholism treatment programs, is associated with a decrease in alcohol misuse.

Evidence for a central 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor stimulation by lysergic acid diethylamide

PubMed Central

Andén, N.-E.; Corrodi, H.; Fuxe, K.; Hökfelt, T.

1968-01-01

1. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) precursor, 5-hydroxytryptophan produced similar functional effects in rat spinal cord and brain to the 5-hydroxytryptamine precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan, which indicates that LSD stimulates central 5-HT receptors. 2. By means of combined histochemical and biochemical techniques it was found that LSD reduced the turnover rate of brain and spinal cord 5-HT, studied after inhibition of the tryptophan hydroxylase by α-propyldopacetamide. The turnover of brain noradrenaline but not dopamine was somewhat accelerated. 3. The functional and chemical effects by LSD were related to dose and to time. They were not observed after the LSD analogues 2-bromo-LSD and methylsergide. 4. The retardation of the 5-HT turnover by LSD may be due to negative feed-back mechanisms evoked by direct stimulation of the central 5-HT receptors. ImagesFIG. 1FIG. 2 PMID:5302837

Lysergic acid diethylamide: a drug of ‘use’?

PubMed Central

Das, Saibal; Barnwal, Preeti; Ramasamy, Anand; Sen, Sumalya; Mondal, Somnath

2016-01-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), described as a classical hallucinogen, began its journey from the middle of the last century following an accidental discovery. Since then, it was used as a popular and notorious substance of abuse in various parts of the world. Its beneficial role as an adjunct to psychotherapy was much unknown, until some ‘benevolent’ experiments were carried out over time to explore some of its potential uses. But, many of its effects were unclear and seemed to be a psychedelic enigma. In this review article, we have described the receptor pharmacology, mechanism of action, effects and adverse effects of LSD on the normal body system. We have also highlighted its addictive potentials and the chances of developing tolerance. We have assimilated some of the interesting therapeutic uses of this drug, such as an antianxiety agent, a creativity enhancer, a suggestibility enhancer, and a performance enhancer. We have also described LSD to be successfully used in drug and alcohol dependence, and as a part of psychedelic peak therapy in terminally ill patients. The relevant chronological history and literature in the light of present knowledge and scenarios have been discussed. Based on available evidence, LSD could be tried therapeutically in certain specific conditions under controlled settings. But as we mention, due to all the safety concerns, the use of this nonaddictive ‘entheogen’ in actual practice warrants a lot of expertise, caution, cooperation and ethical considerations. PMID:27354909

The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review.

PubMed

Passie, Torsten; Halpern, John H; Stichtenoth, Dirk O; Emrich, Hinderk M; Hintzen, Annelie

2008-01-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was synthesized in 1938 and its psychoactive effects discovered in 1943. It was used during the 1950s and 1960s as an experimental drug in psychiatric research for producing so-called "experimental psychosis" by altering neurotransmitter system and in psychotherapeutic procedures ("psycholytic" and "psychedelic" therapy). From the mid 1960s, it became an illegal drug of abuse with widespread use that continues today. With the entry of new methods of research and better study oversight, scientific interest in LSD has resumed for brain research and experimental treatments. Due to the lack of any comprehensive review since the 1950s and the widely dispersed experimental literature, the present review focuses on all aspects of the pharmacology and psychopharmacology of LSD. A thorough search of the experimental literature regarding the pharmacology of LSD was performed and the extracted results are given in this review. (Psycho-) pharmacological research on LSD was extensive and produced nearly 10,000 scientific papers. The pharmacology of LSD is complex and its mechanisms of action are still not completely understood. LSD is physiologically well tolerated and psychological reactions can be controlled in a medically supervised setting, but complications may easily result from uncontrolled use by layman. Actually there is new interest in LSD as an experimental tool for elucidating neural mechanisms of (states of) consciousness and there are recently discovered treatment options with LSD in cluster headache and with the terminally ill.

Ca2+ channel blockade prevents lysergic acid diethylamide-induced changes in dopamine and serotonin metabolism.

PubMed

Antkiewicz-Michaluk, L; Románska, I; Vetulani, J

1997-07-30

To investigate the effect of a single and multiple administration of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) on cerebral metabolism of dopamine and serotonin, male Wistar rats were treated with low and high doses (0.1 and 2.0 mg/kg i.p.) of LSD and the levels of dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, homovanillic acid, 3-methoxytyramine, serotonin and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid were assayed by HPLC in the nucleus accumbens, striatum and frontal cortex. Some rats received nifedipine, 5 mg/kg i.p., before each injection of LSD to assess the effect of a Ca2+ channel blockade. High-dose LSD treatment (8 x 2 mg/kg per day) caused a strong stimulation of dopamine metabolism in the nucleus accumbens and striatum, and serotonin metabolism in the nucleus accumbens: the changes were observed 24 (but not 1 h) after the last dose. The changes induced by the low-dose treatment (8 x 0.1 mg/kg per day) had a different pattern, suggesting the release of dopamine from vesicles to cytoplasm. Co-administration of nifedipine completely prevented the LSD-induced biochemical changes. The results suggest that Ca2+ channel blocking agents may prevent development of some behavioral consequences of chronically used LSD.

Lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin for the management of patients with persistent pain: a potential role?

PubMed

Whelan, Andy; Johnson, Mark I

2018-05-01

Recently, there has been interest in lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin for depression, anxiety and fear of death in terminal illness. The aim of this review is to discuss the potential use of LSD and psilocybin for patients with persistent pain. LSD and psilocybin are 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor agonists and may interact with nociceptive and antinociceptive processing. Tentative evidence from a systematic review suggests that LSD (7 studies, 323 participants) and psilocybin (3 studies, 92 participants) may be beneficial for depression and anxiety associated with distress in life-threatening diseases. LSD and psilocybin are generally safe if administered by a healthcare professional, although further investigations are needed to assess their utility for patients with persistent pain, especially associated with terminal illness.

Metabolism of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) to 2-oxo-3-hydroxy LSD (O-H-LSD) in human liver microsomes and cryopreserved human hepatocytes.

PubMed

Klette, K L; Anderson, C J; Poch, G K; Nimrod, A C; ElSohly, M A

2000-10-01

The metabolism of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) to 2-oxo-3-hydroxy lysergic acid diethylamide (O-H-LSD) was investigated in liver microsomes and cyropreserved hepatocytes from humans. Previous studies have demonstrated that O-H-LSD is present in human urine at concentrations 16-43 times greater than LSD, the parent compound. Additionally, these studies have determined that O-H-LSD is not generated during the specimen extraction and analytical processes or due to parent compound degradation in aqueous urine samples. However, these studies have not been conclusive in demonstrating that O-H-LSD is uniquely produced during in vivo metabolism. Phase I drug metabolism was investigated by incubating human liver microsomes and cryopreserved human hepatocytes with LSD. The reaction was quenched at various time points, and the aliquots were extracted using liquid partitioning and analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. O-H-LSD was positively identified in all human liver microsomal and human hepatocyte fractions incubated with LSD. In addition, O-H-LSD was not detected in any microsomal or hepatocyte fraction not treated with LSD nor in LSD specimens devoid of microsomes or hepatocytes. This study provides definitive evidence that O-H-LSD is produced as a metabolic product following incubation of human liver microsomes and hepatocytes with LSD.

Medical Readings on Drug Abuse.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Byrd, Oliver E.

Summaries are presented of over 150 articles in the recent medical and psychiatric literature. Topics covered are: effects of drugs, tobacco, alcohol, drugs used in medicine, vapor sniffing, marijuana, barbiturates, tranquilizers, amphetamines, methamphetamine, lysergic acid diethylamide, other hallucinogens, heroin and the opiates, psychiatric…

Ontogeny of the behavioral effects of lysergic acid diethylamide in cats.

PubMed

Trulson, M E; Howell, G A

1984-07-01

The ontogeny of the behavioral effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was examined in cats between the ages of 4 and 112 days postpartum. The kittens showed little LSD-induced behavioral change prior to 14 days of age. By the age of 21 days, however, the kittens exhibited many of the behavioral signs characteristic of LSD-induced behaviors in adult cats. These behaviors include limb-flicking, abortive grooming, head-shakes, grooming, and investigatory responses. In general, these behaviors began at a low frequency of occurrence, then increased rapidly with advancing age, reaching adult values by approximately 35-40 days of age, and remained relatively constant through 112 days postpartum. The time course for the behavioral effects following an acute injection of LSD showed the adult pattern, i.e., persisting for approximately 8 hr post-injection, from their earliest appearance during ontogeny. Young kittens (21-42 days of age) were resistant to the development of tolerance following repeated administration of the drug. LSD was capable of eliciting certain behaviors, such as head-shakes and grooming, well in advance of the age at which they normally appear spontaneously. This indicates that the neuronal and musculature substrata are developed for the performance of these behaviors long before the kitten naturally employs them.

Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD).

PubMed

Nichols, David E

2018-03-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is one of the most potent psychoactive agents known, producing dramatic alterations of consciousness after submilligram (≥20 μg) oral doses. Following the accidental discovery of its potent psychoactive effects in 1943, it was supplied by Sandoz Laboratories as an experimental drug that might be useful as an adjunct for psychotherapy, or to give psychiatrists insight into the mental processes in their patients. The finding of serotonin in the mammalian brain in 1953, and its structural resemblance to LSD, quickly led to ideas that serotonin in the brain might be involved in mental disorders, initiating rapid research interest in the neurochemistry of serotonin. LSD proved to be physiologically very safe and nonaddictive, with a very low incidence of adverse events when used in controlled experiments. Widely hailed by psychiatry as a breakthrough in the 1950s and early 1960s, clinical research with LSD ended by about 1970, when it was formally placed into Schedule 1 of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 following its growing popularity as a recreational drug. Within the past 5 years, clinical research with LSD has begun in Europe, but there has been none in the United States. LSD is proving to be a powerful tool to help understand brain dynamics when combined with modern brain imaging methods. It remains to be seen whether therapeutic value for LSD can be confirmed in controlled clinical trials, but promising results have been obtained in small pilot trials of depression, anxiety, and addictions using psilocybin, a related psychedelic molecule.

The paradoxical psychological effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

PubMed

Carhart-Harris, R L; Kaelen, M; Bolstridge, M; Williams, T M; Williams, L T; Underwood, R; Feilding, A; Nutt, D J

2016-05-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a potent serotonergic hallucinogen or psychedelic that modulates consciousness in a marked and novel way. This study sought to examine the acute and mid-term psychological effects of LSD in a controlled study. A total of 20 healthy volunteers participated in this within-subjects study. Participants received LSD (75 µg, intravenously) on one occasion and placebo (saline, intravenously) on another, in a balanced order, with at least 2 weeks separating sessions. Acute subjective effects were measured using the Altered States of Consciousness questionnaire and the Psychotomimetic States Inventory (PSI). A measure of optimism (the Revised Life Orientation Test), the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, and the Peter's Delusions Inventory were issued at baseline and 2 weeks after each session. LSD produced robust psychological effects; including heightened mood but also high scores on the PSI, an index of psychosis-like symptoms. Increased optimism and trait openness were observed 2 weeks after LSD (and not placebo) and there were no changes in delusional thinking. The present findings reinforce the view that psychedelics elicit psychosis-like symptoms acutely yet improve psychological wellbeing in the mid to long term. It is proposed that acute alterations in mood are secondary to a more fundamental modulation in the quality of cognition, and that increased cognitive flexibility subsequent to serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) stimulation promotes emotional lability during intoxication and leaves a residue of 'loosened cognition' in the mid to long term that is conducive to improved psychological wellbeing.

Specificity of the Antibody Receptor Site to D-Lysergamide: Model of a Physiological Receptor for Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

PubMed Central

Vunakis, Helen Van; Farrow, John T.; Gjika, Hilda B.; Levine, Lawrence

1971-01-01

Antibodies to D-lysergic acid have been produced in rabbits and guinea pigs and a radioimmunoassay for the hapten was developed. The specificity of this lysergamide-antilysergamide reaction was determined by competitive binding with unlabeled lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psychotomimetic drugs, neurotransmitters, and other compounds with diverse structures. LSD and several related ergot alkaloids were potent competitors, three to seven times more potent than lysergic acid itself. The N,N-dimethyl derivatives of several compounds, including tryptamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, 4-hydroxytryptamine, 5-methoxytryptamine, tyramine, and mescaline, were only about ten times less effective than lysergic acid, even though these compounds lack some of the ring systems of lysergic acid. The pattern of inhibition by related compounds with various substituents suggests that the antibody receptor site recognizes structural features resembling the LSD molecule. In particular, the aromatic nucleus and the dimethylated ethylamine side chain in phenylethylamine and tryptamine derivatives may assume in solution a conformation resembling ring A and the methylated nitrogen in ring C of LSD. Among the tryptamine derivatives, a large percentage of the most potent competitors are also psychotomimetic compounds. PMID:5283939

Detection of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in urine by gas chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry.

PubMed

Sklerov, J H; Kalasinsky, K S; Ehorn, C A

1999-10-01

A confirmatory method for the detection and quantitation of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is presented. The method employs gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS-MS) using an internal ionization ion trap detector for sensitive MS-MS-in-time measurements of LSD extracted from urine. Following a single-step solid-phase extraction of 5 mL of urine, underivatized LSD can be measured with limits of quantitation and detection of 80 and 20 pg/mL, respectively. Temperature-programmed on-column injections of urine extracts were linear over the concentration range 20-2000 pg/mL (r2 = 0.999). Intraday and interday coefficients of variation were < 6% and < 13%, respectively. This procedure has been applied to quality-control specimens and LSD-positive samples in this laboratory. Comparisons with alternate GC-MS methods and extraction procedures are discussed.

Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects.

PubMed

Schmid, Yasmin; Enzler, Florian; Gasser, Peter; Grouzmann, Eric; Preller, Katrin H; Vollenweider, Franz X; Brenneisen, Rudolf; Müller, Felix; Borgwardt, Stefan; Liechti, Matthias E

2015-10-15

After no research in humans for >40 years, there is renewed interest in using lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in clinical psychiatric research and practice. There are no modern studies on the subjective and autonomic effects of LSD, and its endocrine effects are unknown. In animals, LSD disrupts prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response, and patients with schizophrenia exhibit similar impairments in PPI. However, no data are available on the effects of LSD on PPI in humans. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study, LSD (200 μg) and placebo were administered to 16 healthy subjects (8 women, 8 men). Outcome measures included psychometric scales; investigator ratings; PPI of the acoustic startle response; and autonomic, endocrine, and adverse effects. Administration of LSD to healthy subjects produced pronounced alterations in waking consciousness that lasted 12 hours. The predominant effects induced by LSD included visual hallucinations, audiovisual synesthesia, and positively experienced derealization and depersonalization phenomena. Subjective well-being, happiness, closeness to others, openness, and trust were increased by LSD. Compared with placebo, LSD decreased PPI. LSD significantly increased blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, pupil size, plasma cortisol, prolactin, oxytocin, and epinephrine. Adverse effects produced by LSD completely subsided within 72 hours. No severe acute adverse effects were observed. In addition to marked hallucinogenic effects, LSD exerts methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like empathogenic mood effects that may be useful in psychotherapy. LSD altered sensorimotor gating in a human model of psychosis, supporting the use of LSD in translational psychiatric research. In a controlled clinical setting, LSD can be used safely, but it produces significant sympathomimetic stimulation. Copyright © 2015 Society of Biological Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A single dose of lysergic acid diethylamide influences gene expression patterns within the mammalian brain.

PubMed

Nichols, Charles D; Sanders-Bush, Elaine

2002-05-01

Hallucinogenic drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have profound effects on humans including hallucinations and detachment from reality. These remarkable behavioral effects have many similarities to the debilitating symptoms of neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. The effects of hallucinogens are thought to be mediated by serotonin receptor activation; however, how these drugs elicit the unusual behavioral effects remains largely a mystery, despite much research. We have undertaken the first comprehensive analysis of gene expression influenced by acute LSD administration in the mammalian brain. These studies represent a novel approach to elucidate the mechanism of action of this class of drugs. We have identified a number of genes that are predicted to be involved in the processes of synaptic plasticity, glutamatergic signaling and cytoskeletal architecture. Understanding these molecular events will lead to new insights into the etiology of disorders whose behavioral symptoms resemble the temporary effects of hallucinogenic drugs, and also may ultimately result in new therapies.

Lysergic acid diethylamide and [-]-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine increase extracellular glutamate in rat prefrontal cortex.

PubMed

Muschamp, John W; Regina, Meredith J; Hull, Elaine M; Winter, Jerrold C; Rabin, Richard A

2004-10-08

The ability of hallucinogens to increase extracellular glutamate in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) was assessed by in vivo microdialysis. The hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD; 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) caused a time-dependent increase in PFC glutamate that was blocked by the 5-HT(2A) antagonist M100907 (0.05 mg/kg, i.p.). Similarly, the 5-HT(2A/C) agonist [-]-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM; 0.6 mg/kg, i.p.), which is a phenethylamine hallucinogen, increased glutamate to 206% above saline-treated controls. When LSD (10 microM) was directly applied to the PFC by reverse dialysis, a rapid increase in PFC glutamate levels was observed. Glutamate levels in the PFC remained elevated after the drug infusion was discontinued. These data provide direct evidence in vivo for the hypothesis that an enhanced release of glutamate is a common mechanism in the action of hallucinogens.

Genetic toxicology of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25).

PubMed

Cohen, M M; Shiloh, Y

The acute and the chronic psychotomimetic potentials of the hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) have been recognized for almost 40 years. That additional types of the biological effects should have come under scrutiny was directly attributable to widespread use and abuse of this drug on a world-wide basis. Although "genetic toxicology" encompasses a broad spectrum of disciplines, including many areas of highly specialized research, perhaps the most germane, and those on which this review has concentrated, are Clastogenicity, Mutagenicity, Teratogenicity and Oncogenicity. Based on our current understanding and interpretation of the available data, the genetic toxicology of LSD provides an excellent example of Newton's "third law of motion", e.g., to every force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. From the published material it is impossible to draw clear cut conclusions regarding any of the above "problem areas" in spite of the considerable scientific effort invested. Most of the in vitro studies performed on the clastogenicity of LSD indicate either suppression of mitosis or enhanced chromosome damage. However, extrapolation of such results to the in vivo situation is very difficult. With regard to in vivo human use of the drug, no concensus is attainable as to chromosome breakage and the inconsistencies within and between studies remain inexplicable. However, several of the "controlled" investigations assessing the in vivo effect of chemically pure LSD suggest a transient increase in lymphocyte chromosome breakage. On the other hand, the results of cytogenetic studies on experimental animals are contradictory. Although human studies are nonexistent, in those experimental organisms tested, using accepted techniques, LSD proved to be, at best, a weak mutagen, if mutagenic at all. Teratogenicity studies in animals are confusing due to the multitude of organisms and plethora of discriminant parameters studied. However, with regard to man there

Return of the lysergamides. Part I: Analytical and behavioral characterization of 1-propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide (1P-LSD)

PubMed Central

Brandt, Simon D.; Kavanagh, Pierce V.; Westphal, Folker; Stratford, Alexander; Elliott, Simon P.; Hoang, Khoa; Wallach, Jason; Halberstadt, Adam L.

2015-01-01

1-Propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide hemitartrate (1P-LSD) has become available as a ‘research chemical’ in form of blotters and powdered material. This non-controlled derivative of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has previously not been described in the published literature despite being closely related to 1-acetyl-LSD (ALD-52), which was developed in the 1950s. This study describes the characterization of 1P-LSD in comparison with LSD using various chromatographic, mass spectrometric methods and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. An important feature common to LSD and other serotonergic hallucinogens is that they produce 5-HT2A-receptor activation and induce the head-twitch response (HTR) in rats and mice. In order to assess whether 1P-LSD displays LSD-like properties and activates the 5-HT2A receptor, male C57BL/6J mice were injected with vehicle (saline) or 1P-LSD (0.025–0.8 mg/kg, IP) and HTR assessed for 30 min using magnetometer coil recordings. It was found that 1P-LSD produced a dose-dependent increase in HTR counts, and that it had ~38% (ED50 = 349.6 nmol/kg) of the potency of LSD (ED50 = 132.8 nmol/kg). Furthermore, the HTR was abolished when 1P-LSD administration followed pre-treatment with the selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100907 (0.1 mg/kg, SC), which confirms that the behavioral response is mediated by activation of the 5-HT2A receptor. These results indicate that 1P-LSD produces LSD-like effects in mice, consistent with its classification as a serotonergic hallucinogen. Nevertheless, the extent to which 1P-LSD might show psychoactive effects in humans similar to LSD remains to be investigated. PMID:26456305

Adolescent Drug Use in a Southern, Middle-Class Metropolitan High School.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Chandler, Joyce; Page, Richard

1991-01-01

Examined patterns of drug use among southern, metropolitan, middle to upper-middle class high school students (n=240). Found that alcohol use was much more prevalent than was marijuana use. There was little evidence that many students had ever used cocaine in any form, depressants, phencyclidine (PCP), or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).(NB)

A review of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of addictions: historical perspectives and future prospects.

PubMed

Liester, Mitchell B

2014-01-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a semisynthetic compound with strong psychoactive properties. Chemically related to serotonin, LSD was initially hypothesized to produce a psychosislike state. Later, LSD was reported to have benefits in the treatment of addictions. However, widespread indiscriminate use and reports of adverse affects resulted in the classification of LSD as an illicit drug with no accepted medical use. This article reviews LSD's storied history from its discovery, to its use as a research tool, followed by its widespread association with the counterculture movement of the 1960s, and finally to its rebirth as a medicine with potential benefits in the treatment of addictions. LSD's pharmacology, phenomenology, effects at neurotransmitter receptors, and effects on patterns of gene expression are reviewed. Based upon a review of the literature, it is concluded that further research into LSD's potential as a treatment for addictions is warranted.

Lysergic acid diethylamide causes photoreceptor cell damage through inducing inflammatory response and oxidative stress.

PubMed

Hu, Qi-Di; Xu, Ling-Li; Gong, Yan; Wu, Guo-Hai; Wang, Yu-Wen; Wu, Shan-Jun; Zhang, Zhe; Mao, Wei; Zhou, Yu-Sheng; Li, Qin-Bo; Yuan, Jian-Shu

2018-01-19

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), a classical hallucinogen, was used as a popular and notorious substance of abuse in various parts of the world. Its abuse could result in long-lasting abnormalities in retina and little is known about the exact mechanism. This study was to investigate the effect of LSD on macrophage activation state at non-toxic concentration and its resultant toxicity to photoreceptor cells. Results showed that cytotoxicity was caused by LSD on 661 W cells after co-culturing with RAW264.7 cells. Treatment with LSD-induced RAW264.7 cells to the M1 phenotype, releasing more pro-inflammatory cytokines, and increasing the M1-related gene expression. Moreover, after co-culturing with RAW264.7 cells, significant oxidative stress in 661 W cells treated with LSD was observed, by increasing the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and decreasing the level of glutathione (GSH) and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). Our study demonstrated that LSD caused photoreceptor cell damage by inducing inflammatory response and resultant oxidative stress, providing the scientific rationale for the toxicity of LSD to retina.

Effect of intravenous administration of D-lysergic acid diethylamide on initiation of protein synthesis in a cell-free system derived from brain.

PubMed

Cosgrove, J W; Brown, I R

1984-05-01

An initiating cell-free protein synthesis system derived from brain was utilized to demonstrate that the intravenous injection of D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) to rabbits resulted in a lesion at the initiation stage of brain protein synthesis. Three inhibitors of initiation, edeine, poly(I), and aurintricarboxylic acid were used to demonstrate a reduction in initiation-dependent amino acid incorporation in the brain cell-free system. One hour after LSD injection, there was also a measurable decrease in the formation of 40S and 80S initiation complexes in vitro, using either [35S]methionine or [35S]Met-tRNAf. Analysis of the methionine pool size after LSD administration indicated there was no change in methionine levels. Analysis of the formation of initiation complexes in the brain cell-free protein synthesis system prepared 6 h after LSD administration indicated that there was a return to control levels at this time. The effects of LSD on steps in the initiation process are thus reversible.

Return of the lysergamides. Part II: Analytical and behavioural characterization of N6 -allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2'S,4'S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ).

PubMed

Brandt, Simon D; Kavanagh, Pierce V; Westphal, Folker; Elliott, Simon P; Wallach, Jason; Colestock, Tristan; Burrow, Timothy E; Chapman, Stephen J; Stratford, Alexander; Nichols, David E; Halberstadt, Adam L

2017-01-01

Lysergic acid N,N-diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the most intriguing psychoactive substances known and numerous analogs have been explored to varying extents in previous decades. In 2013, N 6 -allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2'S,4'S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ) appeared on the 'research chemicals'/new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in both powdered and blotter form. This study reports the analytical characterization of powdered AL-LAD and LSZ tartrate samples and their semi-quantitative determination on blotter paper. Included in this study was the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection and GC solid-state infrared analysis. One feature shared by serotonergic psychedelics, such as LSD, is the ability to mediate behavioural responses via activation of 5-HT 2A receptors. Both AL-LAD and LSZ displayed LSD-like responses in male C57BL/6 J mice when employing the head-twitch response (HTR) assay. AL-LAD and LSZ produced nearly identical inverted-U-shaped dose-dependent effects, with the maximal responses occurring at 200 µg/kg. Analysis of the dose responses by nonlinear regression confirmed that LSZ (ED 50  = 114.2 nmol/kg) was equipotent to LSD (ED 50  = 132.8 nmol/kg) in mice, whereas AL-LAD was slightly less potent (ED 50  = 174.9 nmol/kg). The extent to which a comparison in potency can be translated directly to humans requires further investigation. Chemical and pharmacological data obtained from NPS may assist research communities that are interested in various aspects related to substance use and forensic identification. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Marijuana

MedlinePlus

... Search Share Print Home » Drugs of Abuse » Marijuana Marijuana Email Facebook Twitter Brief Description Marijuana refers to ... drugs-abuse/marijuana. . press ctrl+c to copy Marijuana and Cannabinoids: A Neuroscience Research Summit March 22- ...

Marijuana.

PubMed

Ammerman, Seth

2014-04-01

Marijuana use in pediatric populations remains an ongoing concern, and marijuana use by adolescents had known medical, psychological, and cognitive side effects. Marijuana alters brain development and has detrimental effects on brain structure and function in ways that are incompletely understood at this point in time. Furthermore, marijuana smoke contains tar and other harmful chemicals, so marijuana cannot be recommended by physicians. At this time, no studies suggest a benefit of marijuana use by children and adolescents. In the context of limited but clear evidence showing harm or potential harm from marijuana use by adolescents, any recommendations for medical marijuana use by adolescents are based on research studies with adults and on anecdotal evidence. Criminal prosecution for marijuana possession adversely affects hundreds of thousands of youth yearly in the United States, particularly minority youth. Current evidence does not support a focus on punishment for youth who use marijuana. Rather, drug education and treatment programs should be encouraged to better help youth who are experimenting with or are dependent on marijuana. Decriminalization of recreational use of marijuana by adults has not led to an increase in youth use rates of recreational marijuana. Thus, decriminalization may be a reasonable alternative to outright criminalization, as long as it is coupled with drug education and treatment programs. The effect of outright legalization of adult recreational use of marijuana on youth use is unknown.

Return of the lysergamides. Part I: Analytical and behavioural characterization of 1-propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide (1P-LSD).

PubMed

Brandt, Simon D; Kavanagh, Pierce V; Westphal, Folker; Stratford, Alexander; Elliott, Simon P; Hoang, Khoa; Wallach, Jason; Halberstadt, Adam L

2016-09-01

1-Propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide hemitartrate (1P-LSD) has become available as a 'research chemical' in the form of blotters and powdered material. This non-controlled derivative of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has previously not been described in the published literature despite being closely related to 1-acetyl-LSD (ALD-52), which was developed in the 1950s. This study describes the characterization of 1P-LSD in comparison with LSD using various chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods, infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. An important feature common to LSD and other serotonergic hallucinogens is that they produce 5-HT2A -receptor activation and induce the head-twitch response (HTR) in rats and mice. In order to assess whether 1P-LSD displays LSD-like properties and activates the 5-HT2A receptor, male C57BL/6 J mice were injected with vehicle (saline) or 1P-LSD (0.025-0.8 mg/kg, IP) and HTR assessed for 30 min using magnetometer coil recordings. It was found that 1P-LSD produced a dose-dependent increase in HTR counts, and that it had ~38% (ED50  = 349.6 nmol/kg) of the potency of LSD (ED50  = 132.8 nmol/kg). Furthermore, HTR was abolished when 1P-LSD administration followed pretreatment with the selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100907 (0.1 mg/kg, SC), which was consistent with the concept that the behavioural response was mediated by activation of the 5-HT2A receptor. These results indicate that 1P-LSD produces LSD-like effects in mice, consistent with its classification as a serotonergic hallucinogen. Nevertheless, the extent to which 1P-LSD might show psychoactive effects in humans similar to LSD remains to be investigated. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

From Psychiatry to Flower Power and Back Again: The Amazing Story of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide.

PubMed

Mucke, Hermann A M

2016-07-08

Among the psychedelic drugs that enjoyed a period of popularity in psychiatric research during the 1950s and 1960s, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is the most prominent one. Psychiatrists of that time had seen LSD not only as a tool for psychotherapy but also as a potential therapeutic for anxiety, depression, alcohol abuse, autism, and even schizophrenia. When it became a quasi-religious epitome of the Hippie counterculture in the mid 1960s, and cases of what we now call hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and acute psychotic "flashbacks" mounted, authorities moved to make LSD illegal. Although research was never actually forbidden, the field almost completely dried out until the early 2010s. Using today's tools of molecular pharmacology, functional imaging, and neuronal network theory, neuropsychiatry is now resurrecting LSD research-with implications that leave us with many medical and ethical questions. Few people are aware that this is a repurposed compound, originally developed in an effort to synthesize a new analeptic. On top of all potential LSD might have in psychiatry, it also serves as a reminder of the unexpected potential that discarded early-stage compounds can have.

Marijuana Primes, Marijuana Expectancies, and Arithmetic Efficiency*

PubMed Central

Hicks, Joshua A.; Pedersen, Sarah L.; McCarthy, Denis M.; Friedman, Ronald S.

2009-01-01

Objective: Previous research has shown that primes associated with alcohol influence behavior consistent with specific alcohol expectancies. The present study examined whether exposure to marijuana-related primes and marijuana expectancies interact to produce similar effects. Specifically, the present study examined whether marijuana primes and marijuana expectancies regarding cognitive and behavioral impairment interact to influence performance on an arithmetic task. Method: Two independent samples (N = 260) of undergraduate students (both marijuana users and nonusers) first completed measures of marijuana-outcome expectancies associated with cognitive and behavioral impairment and with general negative effects (Sample 2). Later in the semester, participants were exposed to marijuana-related (or neutral) primes and then completed an arithmetic task. Results: Results from Sample 1 indicated that participants who were exposed to marijuana-themed magazine covers performed more poorly on the arithmetic task if they expected that marijuana would lead to cognitive and behavioral impairment. Results from Sample 2 indicated that, for marijuana users, cognitive and behavioral impairment expectancies, but not expectancies regarding general negative effects, similarly moderated arithmetic performance for participants exposed to marijuana-related words. Conclusions: Results support the hypothesis that the implicit activation of specific marijuana-outcome expectancies can influence cognitive processes. Implications for research on marijuana are discussed. PMID:19371490

The effect of (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide and other drugs on the carotid sinus reflex

PubMed Central

Ginzel, K. H.

1958-01-01

In cats, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) selectively blocked the reflex blood pressure rise following carotid chemoreceptor stimulation. It also reduced or abolished the chemoreceptor component of the pressor response to occlusion of the common carotid arteries. It did not inhibit the respiratory reflexes arising from the carotid chemoreceptors, unless spontaneous respiration was interfered with as a whole. The site of action was central, probably below the intercollicular level, regardless of whether the drug was administered by the intravenous route or into the lateral ventricle of the brain. LSD did not block the baroreceptor depressor reflex elicited by stimulation of one carotid sinus nerve. LSD frequently caused the systemic pressure to fall, even after vagotomy and atropine, and this effect might account for the occasional reduction of the baroreceptor component of the carotid occlusion response. On the other hand, no relationship was found between the action of LSD on vasomotor tone and its blocking effect on the chemoreceptor pressor reflex. Some derivatives of LSD produced effects similar to those described for LSD, whether or not they possessed a psychotropic action in man, and independently of their efficiency as antagonists to 5-hydroxytryptamine. Of a series of compounds chemically unrelated to LSD, chlorpromazine was found to block the chemoreceptor pressor rise after intracerebroventricular injection. PMID:13584725

The effect of (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide and other drugs on the carotid sinus reflex.

PubMed

GINZEL, K H

1958-09-01

In cats, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) selectively blocked the reflex blood pressure rise following carotid chemoreceptor stimulation. It also reduced or abolished the chemoreceptor component of the pressor response to occlusion of the common carotid arteries. It did not inhibit the respiratory reflexes arising from the carotid chemoreceptors, unless spontaneous respiration was interfered with as a whole. The site of action was central, probably below the intercollicular level, regardless of whether the drug was administered by the intravenous route or into the lateral ventricle of the brain.LSD did not block the baroreceptor depressor reflex elicited by stimulation of one carotid sinus nerve. LSD frequently caused the systemic pressure to fall, even after vagotomy and atropine, and this effect might account for the occasional reduction of the baroreceptor component of the carotid occlusion response. On the other hand, no relationship was found between the action of LSD on vasomotor tone and its blocking effect on the chemoreceptor pressor reflex.Some derivatives of LSD produced effects similar to those described for LSD, whether or not they possessed a psychotropic action in man, and independently of their efficiency as antagonists to 5-hydroxytryptamine. Of a series of compounds chemically unrelated to LSD, chlorpromazine was found to block the chemoreceptor pressor rise after intracerebroventricular injection.

Dynamic changes in prefrontal cortex gene expression following lysergic acid diethylamide administration.

PubMed

Nichols, Charles D; Garcia, Efrain E; Sanders-Bush, Elaine

2003-03-17

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a psychoactive drug that transiently alters human perception, behavior, and mood at extremely low doses. Certain aspects of the behavior elicited by acute doses of LSD closely resemble symptoms of mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Characterizing gene expression profiles after LSD will be important for understanding how it alters behavior, and will lead to novel insights into disorders, such as schizophrenia, whose behavioral symptoms resemble the temporary effects of hallucinogenic drugs. We previously identified a small collection of genes within the rat prefrontal cortex that respond to LSD. Many of the products of these genes are involved in the process of synaptic plasticity. In the current report, we present a detailed analysis of the expression of these genes within the brain using RNase protection analysis. We find that the gene response to LSD is quite dynamic. The expression of some genes increases rapidly and decreases rapidly, while other genes change more gradually. Dose-response studies show two classes of expression; gene expression maximally stimulated at lower doses, versus gene expression that continues to rise at the higher doses. The role of the 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptor in mediating the increases in gene expression was examined in a series of experiments using receptor specific antagonists. Most expression increases were due to activation of the 5-HT(2A) receptor, however expression of two genes had neither a 5-HT(1A) nor a 5-HT(2A) receptor component.

Determination of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in mouse blood by capillary electrophoresis/ fluorescence spectroscopy with sweeping techniques in micellar electrokinetic chromatography.

PubMed

Fang, Ching; Liu, Ju-Tsung; Chou, Shiu-Huey; Lin, Cheng-Huang

2003-03-01

The separation and on-line concentration of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in mouse blood was achieved by means of capillary electrophoresis/fluorescence spectroscopy using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as the surfactant. Techniques involving on-line sample concentration, including sweeping micellar electrokinetic chromatography (sweeping-MEKC) and cation-selective exhaustive injection-sweep-micellar electrokinetic chromatography (CSEI-sweep-MEKC) were applied; the optimum on-line concentration and separation conditions were determined. In the analysis of an actual sample, LSD was found in a blood sample from a test mouse (0.1 mg LSD fed to a 20 g mouse; approximately 1/10 to the value of LD(50)). As a result, 120 and 30 ng/mL of LSD was detected at 20 and 60 min, respectively, after ingestion of the doses.

Marijuana use/cessation expectancies and marijuana use in college students

PubMed Central

Brackenbury, Lauren M.; Ladd, Benjamin O.; Anderson, Kristen G.

2016-01-01

Background Research suggests that marijuana expectancies are associated with problematic marijuana use; however, these marijuana-related cognitions remain relatively understudied. Objective This study examined marijuana-related decision-making among college students by exploring the relationships among marijuana expectancies and marijuana use variables. Method College students (N = 357) endorsing lifetime marijuana use completed an online survey on marijuana use expectancies, marijuana cessation expectancies, marijuana use, and future marijuana use intentions. A simple regression framework was used to test the effect of each type of expectancies on marijuana outcome; a hierarchical regression framework tested the unique predictive validity when both types were entered into the same model. Results Both marijuana use expectancies and marijuana cessation expectancies independently predicted a number of marijuana use variables. Additionally, marijuana use expectancies and marijuana cessation expectancies contributed significant unique variance to the prediction of marijuana use. Conclusions It is important to consider both use expectancies and cessation expectancies, as these two domains of marijuana-related cognitions appear to act independently, rather than as opposite ends of the same construct. Longitudinal studies are needed to further examine how these factors interact to influence marijuana use and problems over time. PMID:26678375

Safety and Efficacy of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-Assisted Psychotherapy for Anxiety Associated With Life-threatening Diseases

PubMed Central

Gasser, Peter; Holstein, Dominique; Michel, Yvonne; Doblin, Rick; Yazar-Klosinski, Berra; Passie, Torsten; Brenneisen, Rudolf

2014-01-01

Abstract A double-blind, randomized, active placebo-controlled pilot study was conducted to examine safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-assisted psychotherapy in 12 patients with anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. Treatment included drug-free psychotherapy sessions supplemented by two LSD-assisted psychotherapy sessions 2 to 3 weeks apart. The participants received either 200 μg of LSD (n = 8) or 20 μg of LSD with an open-label crossover to 200 μg of LSD after the initial blinded treatment was unmasked (n = 4). At the 2-month follow-up, positive trends were found via the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in reductions in trait anxiety (p = 0.033) with an effect size of 1.1, and state anxiety was significantly reduced (p = 0.021) with an effect size of 1.2, with no acute or chronic adverse effects persisting beyond 1 day after treatment or treatment-related serious adverse events. STAI reductions were sustained for 12 months. These results indicate that when administered safely in a methodologically rigorous medically supervised psychotherapeutic setting, LSD can reduce anxiety, suggesting that larger controlled studies are warranted. PMID:24594678

Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases.

PubMed

Gasser, Peter; Holstein, Dominique; Michel, Yvonne; Doblin, Rick; Yazar-Klosinski, Berra; Passie, Torsten; Brenneisen, Rudolf

2014-07-01

A double-blind, randomized, active placebo-controlled pilot study was conducted to examine safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-assisted psychotherapy in 12 patients with anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. Treatment included drug-free psychotherapy sessions supplemented by two LSD-assisted psychotherapy sessions 2 to 3 weeks apart. The participants received either 200 μg of LSD (n = 8) or 20 μg of LSD with an open-label crossover to 200 μg of LSD after the initial blinded treatment was unmasked (n = 4). At the 2-month follow-up, positive trends were found via the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in reductions in trait anxiety (p = 0.033) with an effect size of 1.1, and state anxiety was significantly reduced (p = 0.021) with an effect size of 1.2, with no acute or chronic adverse effects persisting beyond 1 day after treatment or treatment-related serious adverse events. STAI reductions were sustained for 12 months. These results indicate that when administered safely in a methodologically rigorous medically supervised psychotherapeutic setting, LSD can reduce anxiety, suggesting that larger controlled studies are warranted.

Older marijuana users' marijuana risk perceptions: associations with marijuana use patterns and marijuana and other substance use disorders.

PubMed

Choi, Namkee G; DiNitto, Diana M; Marti, C Nathan

2017-12-10

Compared to their non-using age peers, older marijuana users are known to have lower marijuana risk perceptions. We examined associations of older marijuana users' risk perceptions with their marijuana use patterns and substance use disorders. Data are from 2013 to 2015 National Survey of Drug Use and Health (N = 24,057 respondents aged 50+ years). Bivariate logistic regression was used to compare risk perceptions among never users, former users, and past-year users aged 50+ years. Multivariable logistic regression was used to test associations between risk perception and marijuana use status and between risk perception and marijuana use patterns. Among the total sample, former (AOR = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.27-0.32) and past-year (AOR = 0.05, 95% CI = 0.04-0.06) marijuana users had significantly lower odds of moderate/great risk perception (as opposed to no/slight risk perception) than never users. Among past-year users, odds of moderate/great risk perception were lower among those who used marijuana more frequently (AOR = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.07-0.28 for 300+ days of use compared to 1-11 days of use) and who reported any medical marijuana use (AOR = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.14-0.51). However, those who had marijuana use disorder were 3.5 times more likely to report moderate/great risk perception (AOR = 3.50, 95% CI = 1.62-7.58). Those who had a college education, had higher incomes, and resided in states with medical marijuana laws also had lower risk perceptions. Public health education on scientific evidence about marijuana's benefits and harms and age-appropriate treatment for older adults with substance use problems are needed. Research on risk perception formation using longitudinal data among older adults is also needed.

d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) as a Model of Psychosis: Mechanism of Action and Pharmacology.

PubMed

De Gregorio, Danilo; Comai, Stefano; Posa, Luca; Gobbi, Gabriella

2016-11-23

d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is known for its hallucinogenic properties and psychotic-like symptoms, especially at high doses. It is indeed used as a pharmacological model of psychosis in preclinical research. The goal of this review was to understand the mechanism of action of psychotic-like effects of LSD. We searched Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and articles' reference lists for preclinical studies regarding the mechanism of action involved in the psychotic-like effects induced by LSD. LSD's mechanism of action is pleiotropic, primarily mediated by the serotonergic system in the Dorsal Raphe, binding the 5-HT 2A receptor as a partial agonist and 5-HT 1A as an agonist. LSD also modulates the Ventral Tegmental Area, at higher doses, by stimulating dopamine D₂, Trace Amine Associate receptor 1 (TAAR₁) and 5-HT 2A . More studies clarifying the mechanism of action of the psychotic-like symptoms or psychosis induced by LSD in humans are needed. LSD's effects are mediated by a pleiotropic mechanism involving serotonergic, dopaminergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus, the LSD-induced psychosis is a useful model to test the therapeutic efficacy of potential novel antipsychotic drugs, particularly drugs with dual serotonergic and dopaminergic (DA) mechanism or acting on TAAR₁ receptors.

d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) as a Model of Psychosis: Mechanism of Action and Pharmacology

PubMed Central

De Gregorio, Danilo; Comai, Stefano; Posa, Luca; Gobbi, Gabriella

2016-01-01

d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is known for its hallucinogenic properties and psychotic-like symptoms, especially at high doses. It is indeed used as a pharmacological model of psychosis in preclinical research. The goal of this review was to understand the mechanism of action of psychotic-like effects of LSD. We searched Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and articles’ reference lists for preclinical studies regarding the mechanism of action involved in the psychotic-like effects induced by LSD. LSD’s mechanism of action is pleiotropic, primarily mediated by the serotonergic system in the Dorsal Raphe, binding the 5-HT2A receptor as a partial agonist and 5-HT1A as an agonist. LSD also modulates the Ventral Tegmental Area, at higher doses, by stimulating dopamine D2, Trace Amine Associate receptor 1 (TAAR1) and 5-HT2A. More studies clarifying the mechanism of action of the psychotic-like symptoms or psychosis induced by LSD in humans are needed. LSD’s effects are mediated by a pleiotropic mechanism involving serotonergic, dopaminergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus, the LSD-induced psychosis is a useful model to test the therapeutic efficacy of potential novel antipsychotic drugs, particularly drugs with dual serotonergic and dopaminergic (DA) mechanism or acting on TAAR1 receptors. PMID:27886063

Pediatric marijuana exposures in a medical marijuana state.

PubMed

Wang, George Sam; Roosevelt, Genie; Heard, Kennon

2013-07-01

An increasing number of states are decriminalizing the use of medical marijuana, and the effect on the pediatric population has not been evaluated. To compare the proportion of marijuana ingestions by young children who sought care at a children's hospital in Colorado before and after modification of drug enforcement laws in October 2009 regarding medical marijuana possession. Retrospective cohort study from January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2011. Tertiary-care children's hospital emergency department in Colorado. A total of 1378 patients younger than 12 years evaluated for unintentional ingestions: 790 patients before September 30, 2009, and 588 patients after October 1, 2009. Marijuana ingestion. Marijuana exposure visits, marijuana source, symptoms, and patient disposition. The proportion of ingestion visits in patients younger than 12 years (age range, 8 months to 12 years)that were related to marijuana exposure increased after September 30, 2009, from 0 of 790 (0%; 95% CI, 0%-0.6%) to 14 of 588 (2.4%; 95% CI, 1.4%-4.0%) (P < .001). Nine patients had lethargy, 1 had ataxia, and 1 had respiratory insufficiency. Eight patients were admitted, 2 to the intensive care unit. Eight of the 14 cases involved medical marijuana, and 7 of these exposures were from food products. We found a new appearance of unintentional marijuana ingestions by young children after modification of drug enforcement laws for marijuana possession in Colorado. The consequences of unintentional marijuana exposure in children should be part of the ongoing debate on legalizing marijuana.

Release of [3H-noradrenaline from the motor adrenergic nerves of the anococcygeus muscle by lysergic acid diethylamide, tyramine or nerve stimulation.

PubMed Central

McGrath, J C; Olverman, H J

1978-01-01

1 A method is described for labelling the neuronal noradrenaline (NA) stores of rat anococcygeus with [3H]-NA and detecting subsequent release of 3H from the superfused tissue by nerve stimulation or drugs. 2 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or tyramine but not barium chloride or carbachol increased the efflux of 3H although each drug produced an equivalent contractile response. This confirms that LDS has an indirect sympathomimetic action. 3 LSD was found to produce a proportionately smaller reduction of the nerve-induced efflux of 3H than of the accompanying contractile response. 4 The inhibition of nerve-induced contractile responses by LSD was shown to be independent of the neuronal uptake of noradrenaline and any post-junctional inhibition demonstrated to be non-specific. PMID:728688

Actions of derivatives of lysergic acid on the heart of venus mercenaria

PubMed Central

Wright, Anne McCoy; Moorhead, Merilyn; Welsh, J. H.

1962-01-01

5-Hydroxytryptamine and a number of (+)-lysergic acid derivatives have been tested on the heart of Venus mercenaria. One group of derivatives was found to increase the amplitude and frequency of heart beat in a manner much like 5-hydroxytryptamine. It included the monoethylamide, diethylamide, propanolamide (ergometrine), butanolamide (methylergometrine) and certain peptide derivatives of lysergic acid without substituents in positions 1 or 2. Of these, lysergic acid diethylamide was the most active. Given sufficient time (up to 4 hr), as little as 10 ml. of 10-16 M lysergic acid diethylamide produced a maximum increase in amplitude and frequency in about one-half of the 80 hearts on which it was tested. Its action was very slowly reversed by washing, as was true of all lysergic acid derivatives. A second group of lysergic acid derivatives, substituted in positions 1 or 2, had weak excitor action, if any, and specific 5-hydroxytryptamine blocking action. This group consisted of 1-methyl-, 1-acetyl-, and 2-bromo-lysergic acid diethylamide and 1-methyllysergic acid butanolamide (methysergide). Of these, the last showed least signs of excitor action, usually none up to 10-4 M, and it blocked 5-hydroxytryptamine in a molar ratio of about one to one. PMID:14008412

Marijuana

MedlinePlus

Marijuana is a green, brown, or gray mix of dried, crumbled parts from the marijuana plant. It can be rolled up and smoked ... in food or inhale it using a vaporizer. Marijuana can cause problems with memory, learning, and behavior. ...

Medical marijuana

MedlinePlus

... this page: //medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000899.htm Medical marijuana To use the sharing features on this page, ... have legalized marijuana for medical use. How Does Medical Marijuana Work? Medical marijuana may be: Smoked Vaporized Eaten ...

Detection of metabolites of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in human urine specimens: 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD, a prevalent metabolite of LSD.

PubMed

Poch, G K; Klette, K L; Hallare, D A; Manglicmot, M G; Czarny, R J; McWhorter, L K; Anderson, C J

1999-03-05

Seventy-four urine specimens previously found to contain lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were analyzed by a new procedure for the LSD metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD) using a Finnigan LC-MS-MS system. This procedure proved to be less complex, shorter to perform and provides cleaner chromatographic characteristics than the method currently utilized by the Navy Drug Screening Laboratories for the extraction of LSD from urine by GC-MS. All of the specimens used in the study screened positive for LSD by radioimmunoassay (Roche Abuscreen). Analysis by GC-MS revealed detectable amounts of LSD in all of the specimens. In addition, isolysergic diethylamide (iso-LSD), a byproduct of LSD synthesis, was quantitated in 64 of the specimens. Utilizing the new LC-MS-MS method, low levels of N-desmethyl-LSD (nor-LSD), another identified LSD metabolite, were detected in some of the specimens. However, all 74 specimens contained O-H-LSD at significantly higher concentrations than LSD, iso-LSD, or nor-LSD alone. The O-H-LSD concentration ranged from 732 to 112 831 pg/ml (mean, 16340 pg/ml) by quantification with an internal standard. The ratio of O-H-LSD to LSD ranged from 1.1 to 778.1 (mean, 42.9). The presence of O-H-LSD at substantially higher concentrations than LSD suggests that the analysis for O-H-LSD as the target analyte by employing LC-MS-MS will provide a much longer window of detection for the use of LSD than the analysis of the parent compound, LSD.

On-line identification of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in tablets using a combination of a sweeping technique and micellar electrokinetic chromatography/77 K fluorescence spectroscopy.

PubMed

Fang, Ching; Liu, Ju-Tsung; Lin, Cheng-Huang

2003-03-01

This work describes a novel method for the accurate determination of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in tablets. A technique involving sweeping-micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) was used for the initial on-line concentration and separation, after which a cryogenic molecular fluorescence experiment was performed at 77 K. Using this approach, not only the separation of LSD from the tablet extract was achieved, but on-line spectra were readily distinguishable and could be unambiguously assigned. The results are in agreement with analyses by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Thus, this method, which was found to be accurate, sensitive and rapid, has the potential for use as a reliable complementary method to GC-MS in such analyses.

Medical Marijuana Legalization and Marijuana Use Among Youth in Oregon.

PubMed

Paschall, Mallie J; Grube, Joel W; Biglan, Anthony

2017-06-01

While the legalization of marijuana for medical and recreational use has raised concerns about potential influences on marijuana use and beliefs among youth, few empirical studies have addressed this issue. We examined the association between medical marijuana patients and licensed growers per 1000 population in 32 Oregon counties from 2006 to 2015, and marijuana use among youth over the same period. We obtained data on registered medical marijuana patients and licensed growers from the Oregon Medical Marijuana Program and we obtained data on youth marijuana use, perceived parental disapproval, and demographic characteristics from the Oregon Healthy Teens Survey. Across 32 Oregon counties, the mean rate of marijuana patients per 1000 population increased from 2.9 in 2006 to 18.3 in 2015, whereas the grower rate increased from 3.8 to 11.9. Results of multi-level analyses indicated significant positive associations between rates of marijuana patients and growers per 1000 population and the prevalence of past 30-day marijuana use, controlling for youth demographic characteristics. The marijuana patient and grower rates were also inversely associated with parental disapproval of marijuana use, which decreased from 2006 to 2015 and acted as a mediator. These findings suggest that a greater number of registered marijuana patients and growers per 1000 population in Oregon counties was associated with a higher prevalence of marijuana use among youth from 2006 to 2015, and that this relationship was partially attributable to perceived norms favorable towards marijuana use.

Return of the lysergamides. Part II: Analytical and behavioural characterization of N6-allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2’S,4’S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ)

PubMed Central

Brandt, Simon D.; Kavanagh, Pierce V.; Westphal, Folker; Elliott, Simon P.; Wallach, Jason; Colestock, Tristan; Burrow, Timothy E.; Chapman, Stephen J.; Stratford, Alexander; Nichols, David E.; Halberstadt, Adam L.

2017-01-01

Lysergic N,N-diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the most intriguing psychoactive substances known and numerous analogs have been explored to a varying extent in previous decades. In 2013, N6-allyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (AL-LAD) and (2’S,4’S)-lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide (LSZ) have appeared on the ‘research chemicals’ / new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in both powdered and blotter form. This study reports the analytical characterization of powdered AL-LAD and LSZ tartrate samples and their semi-quantitative determination on blotter paper. Included in this study was the use of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, gas chromatography mass spectrometry (MS), low and high-resolution electrospray MS(/MS), high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection and GC solid-state infrared analysis. One feature shared by serotonergic psychedelics, such as LSD, is the ability to mediate behavioral responses via activation of 5-HT2A receptors. Both AL-LAD and LSZ displayed LSD-like responses in male C57BL/6J mice when employing the head-twitch response (HTR) assay. AL-LAD and LSZ produced nearly identical inverted-U-shaped dose-dependent effects, with the maximal responses occurring at 200 µg/kg. Analysis of the dose-responses by nonlinear regression confirmed that LSZ (ED50 = 114.2 nmol/kg) was equipotent to LSD (ED50 = 132.8 nmol/kg) in mice, whereas AL-LAD was slightly less potent (ED50 = 174.9 nmol/kg). The extent to which a comparison in potency can be translated directly to humans requires further investigation. Availability of both chemical and pharmacological data obtained from NPS as they appear on the market provides important data to research communities that are interested in various aspects related substance use and forensic identification. PMID:27265891

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects.

PubMed

Dolder, Patrick C; Schmid, Yasmin; Steuer, Andrea E; Kraemer, Thomas; Rentsch, Katharina M; Hammann, Felix; Liechti, Matthias E

2017-10-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used recreationally and in clinical research. The aim of the present study was to characterize the pharmacokinetics and exposure-response relationship of oral LSD. We analyzed pharmacokinetic data from two published placebo-controlled, double-blind, cross-over studies using oral administration of LSD 100 and 200 µg in 24 and 16 subjects, respectively. The pharmacokinetics of the 100-µg dose is shown for the first time and data for the 200-µg dose were reanalyzed and included. Plasma concentrations of LSD, subjective effects, and vital signs were repeatedly assessed. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using compartmental modeling. Concentration-effect relationships were described using pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling. Geometric mean (95% confidence interval) maximum plasma concentration values of 1.3 (1.2-1.9) and 3.1 (2.6-4.0) ng/mL were reached 1.4 and 1.5 h after administration of 100 and 200 µg LSD, respectively. The plasma half-life was 2.6 h (2.2-3.4 h). The subjective effects lasted (mean ± standard deviation) 8.2 ± 2.1 and 11.6 ± 1.7 h for the 100- and 200-µg LSD doses, respectively. Subjective peak effects were reached 2.8 and 2.5 h after administration of LSD 100 and 200 µg, respectively. A close relationship was observed between the LSD concentration and subjective response within subjects, with moderate counterclockwise hysteresis. Half-maximal effective concentration values were in the range of 1 ng/mL. No correlations were found between plasma LSD concentrations and the effects of LSD across subjects at or near maximum plasma concentration and within dose groups. The present pharmacokinetic data are important for the evaluation of clinical study findings (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging studies) and the interpretation of LSD intoxication. Oral LSD presented dose-proportional pharmacokinetics and first-order elimination up to 12 h. The effects of LSD were related

Association of State Recreational Marijuana Laws With Adolescent Marijuana Use.

PubMed

Cerdá, Magdalena; Wall, Melanie; Feng, Tianshu; Keyes, Katherine M; Sarvet, Aaron; Schulenberg, John; O'Malley, Patrick M; Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Galea, Sandro; Hasin, Deborah S

2017-02-01

Historical shifts are occurring in marijuana policy. The effect of legalizing marijuana for recreational use on rates of adolescent marijuana use is a topic of considerable debate. To examine the association between the legalization of recreational marijuana use in Washington and Colorado in 2012 and the subsequent perceived harmfulness and use of marijuana by adolescents. We used data of 253 902 students in eighth, 10th, and 12th grades from 2010 to 2015 from Monitoring the Future, a national, annual, cross-sectional survey of students in secondary schools in the contiguous United States. Difference-in-difference estimates compared changes in perceived harmfulness of marijuana use and in past-month marijuana use in Washington and Colorado prior to recreational marijuana legalization (2010-2012) with postlegalization (2013-2015) vs the contemporaneous trends in other states that did not legalize recreational marijuana use in this period. Perceived harmfulness of marijuana use (great or moderate risk to health from smoking marijuana occasionally) and marijuana use (past 30 days). Of the 253 902 participants, 120 590 of 245 065(49.2%) were male, and the mean (SD) age was 15.6 (1.7) years. In Washington, perceived harmfulness declined 14.2% and 16.1% among eighth and 10th graders, respectively, while marijuana use increased 2.0% and 4.1% from 2010-2012 to 2013-2015. In contrast, among states that did not legalize recreational marijuana use, perceived harmfulness decreased by 4.9% and 7.2% among eighth and 10th graders, respectively, and marijuana use decreased by 1.3% and 0.9% over the same period. Difference-in-difference estimates comparing Washington vs states that did not legalize recreational drug use indicated that these differences were significant for perceived harmfulness (eighth graders: % [SD], -9.3 [3.5]; P = .01; 10th graders: % [SD], -9.0 [3.8]; P = .02) and marijuana use (eighth graders: % [SD], 5.0 [1.9]; P = .03; 10th graders

Medical Marijuana.

PubMed

Capriotti, Teri

2016-01-01

The use of medicinal marijuana is increasing. Marijuana has been shown to have therapeutic effects in certain patients, but further research is needed regarding the safety and efficacy of marijuana as a medical treatment for various conditions. A growing body of research validates the use of marijuana for a variety of healthcare problems, but there are many issues surrounding the use of this substance. This article discusses the use of medical marijuana and provides implications for home care clinicians.

Marijuana's acute effects on cognitive bias for affective and marijuana cues.

PubMed

Metrik, Jane; Aston, Elizabeth R; Kahler, Christopher W; Rohsenow, Damaris J; McGeary, John E; Knopik, Valerie S

2015-10-01

Marijuana produces acute increases in positive subjective effects and decreased reactivity to negative affective stimuli, though may also acutely induce anxiety. Implicit attentional and evaluative processes may explicate marijuana's ability to acutely increase positive and negative emotions. This within-subjects study examined whether smoked marijuana with 2.7-3.0% delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), relative to placebo, acutely changed attentional processing of rewarding and negative affective stimuli as well as marijuana-specific stimuli. On 2 separate days, regular marijuana users (N = 89) smoked placebo or active THC cigarette and completed subjective ratings of mood, intoxication, urge to smoke marijuana, and 2 experimental tasks: pleasantness rating (response latency and perceived pleasantness of affective and marijuana-related stimuli) and emotional Stroop (attentional bias to affective stimuli). On the pleasantness rating task, active marijuana increased response latency to negatively valenced and marijuana-related (vs. neutral) visual stimuli, beyond a general slowing of response. Active marijuana also increased pleasantness ratings of marijuana images, although to a lesser extent than placebo due to reduced marijuana urge after smoking. Overall, active marijuana did not acutely change processing of positive emotional stimuli. There was no evidence of attentional bias to affective word stimuli on the emotional Stroop task with the exception of attentional bias to positive word stimuli in the subgroup of marijuana users with cannabis dependence. Marijuana may increase allocation of attentional resources toward marijuana-specific and negatively valenced visual stimuli without altering processing of positively valenced stimuli. Marijuana-specific cues may be more attractive with higher levels of marijuana craving and less wanted with low craving levels. (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).

Marijuana practices and patterns of use among young adult medical marijuana patients and non-patient marijuana users.

PubMed

Lankenau, Stephen E; Fedorova, Ekaterina V; Reed, Megan; Schrager, Sheree M; Iverson, Ellen; Wong, Carolyn F

2017-01-01

Little is known about young adult medical marijuana patients (MMP) and their marijuana using patterns and practices, which includes frequency of use, sourcing of marijuana products, forms/modes of administration, and patterns of illicit/prescription drug misuse, compared to non-patient marijuana users (NPU). Young adults (N=366) aged 18-26 years old were sampled in Los Angeles in 2014-15 and segmented into NPU (n=156), marijuana users who never had a medical marijuana (MM) recommendation, and MMP (n=210), marijuana users with a current, verified MM recommendation. Differences regarding self-reported marijuana and other drug use during the past 90days are expressed as unadjusted risk ratios or differences in means. MMP reported significantly greater mean days of use (76.4 vs. 59.2, p<0.001) and mean dollars spent on marijuana products (564.5 vs. 266.9, p<0.001) than NPU. Approximately one-quarter (22.6%) of both MMP and NPU report selling marijuana obtained from a dispensary to someone else in the past 90days. MMP were more likely to report vaporization modalities for concentrates (URR=1.5, 95% C.I.=1.2, 2.0) and for marijuana (URR=1.5, 95% C.I.=1.1, 2.1) than NPU. Though not significant, trends toward lower misuse of prescription drugs in the past 90days were observed among MMP compared to NPU. MMP reported greater access to marijuana via dispensaries, more frequent and intensive use of marijuana, and greater use of non-combustible forms of marijuana compared to NPU. MMP reported less recent misuse of prescription drugs compared to NPU. Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Quantitation of lysergic acid diethylamide in urine using atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization ion trap mass spectrometry.

PubMed

Cui, Meng; McCooeye, Margaret A; Fraser, Catharine; Mester, Zoltán

2004-12-01

A quantitative method was developed for analysis of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in urine using atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization ion trap mass spectrometry (AP MALDI-ITMS). Following solid-phase extraction of LSD from urine samples, extracts were analyzed by AP MALDI-ITMS. The identity of LSD was confirmed by fragmentation of the [M + H](+) ion using tandem mass spectrometry. The quantification of LSD was achieved using stable-isotope-labeled LSD (LSD-d(3)) as the internal standard. The [M + H](+) ion fragmented to produce a dominant fragment ion, which was used for a selected reaction monitoring (SRM) method for quantitative analysis of LSD. SRM was compared with selected ion monitoring and produced a wider linear range and lower limit of quantification. For SRM analysis of samples of LSD spiked in urine, the calibration curve was linear in the range of 1-100 ng/mL with a coefficient of determination, r(2), of 0.9917. This assay was used to determine LSD in urine samples and the AP MALDI-MS results were comparable to the HPLC/ ESI-MS results.

From Medical to Recreational Marijuana Sales: Marijuana Outlets and Crime in an Era of Changing Marijuana Legislation.

PubMed

Freisthler, Bridget; Gaidus, Andrew; Tam, Christina; Ponicki, William R; Gruenewald, Paul J

2017-06-01

A movement from medical to recreational marijuana use allows for a larger base of potential users who have easier access to marijuana, because they do not have to visit a physician before using marijuana. This study examines whether changes in the density of marijuana outlets were related to violent, property, and marijuana-specific crimes in Denver, CO during a time in which marijuana outlets began selling marijuana for recreational, and not just medical, use. We collected data on locations of crimes, marijuana outlets and covariates for 481 Census block groups over 34 months (N = 16,354 space-time units). A Bayesian Poisson space-time model assessed statistical relationships between independent measures and crime counts within "local" Census block groups. We examined spatial "lag" effects to assess whether crimes in Census block groups adjacent to locations of outlets were also affected. Independent of the effects of covariates, densities of marijuana outlets were unrelated to property and violent crimes in local areas. However, the density of marijuana outlets in spatially adjacent areas was positively related to property crime in spatially adjacent areas over time. Further, the density of marijuana outlets in local and spatially adjacent blocks groups was related to higher rates of marijuana-specific crime. This study suggests that the effects of the availability of marijuana outlets on crime do not necessarily occur within the specific areas within which these outlets are located, but may occur in adjacent areas. Thus studies assessing the effects of these outlets in local areas alone may risk underestimating their true effects.

Marijuana abstinence effects in marijuana smokers maintained in their home environment.

PubMed

Budney, A J; Hughes, J R; Moore, B A; Novy, P L

2001-10-01

Although withdrawal symptoms are commonly reported by persons seeking treatment for marijuana dependence, the validity and clinical significance of a marijuana withdrawal syndrome has not been established. This controlled outpatient study examined the reliability and specificity of the abstinence effects that occur when daily marijuana users abruptly stop smoking marijuana. Twelve daily marijuana smokers were assessed on 16 consecutive days during which they smoked marijuana as usual (days 1-5), abstained from smoking marijuana (days 6-8), returned to smoking marijuana (days 9-13), and again abstained from smoking marijuana (days 14-16). An overall measure of withdrawal discomfort increased significantly during the abstinence phases and returned to baseline when marijuana smoking resumed. Craving for marijuana, decreased appetite, sleep difficulty, and weight loss reliably changed across the smoking and abstinence phases. Aggression, anger, irritability, restlessness, and strange dreams increased significantly during one abstinence phase, but not the other. Collateral observers confirmed participant reports of these symptoms. This study validated several specific effects of marijuana abstinence in heavy marijuana users, and showed they were reliable and clinically significant. These withdrawal effects appear similar in type and magnitude to those observed in studies of nicotine withdrawal.

Association of State Recreational Marijuana Laws With Adolescent Marijuana Use

PubMed Central

Cerdá, Magdalena; Wall, Melanie; Feng, Tianshu; Keyes, Katherine M.; Sarvet, Aaron; Schulenberg, John; O’Malley, Patrick M.; Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Galea, Sandro; Hasin, Deborah S.

2017-01-01

IMPORTANCE Historical shifts are occurring in marijuana policy. The effect of legalizing marijuana for recreational use on rates of adolescent marijuana use is a topic of considerable debate. OBJECTIVE To examine the association between the legalization of recreational marijuana use in Washington and Colorado in 2012 and the subsequent perceived harmfulness and use of marijuana by adolescents. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS We used data of 253 902 students in eighth, 10th, and 12th grades from 2010 to 2015 from Monitoring the Future, a national, annual, cross-sectional survey of students in secondary schools in the contiguous United States. Difference-indifference estimates compared changes in perceived harmfulness of marijuana use and in past-month marijuana use in Washington and Colorado prior to recreational marijuana legalization (2010–2012) with post legalization (2013–2015) vs the contemporaneous trends in other states that did not legalize recreational marijuana use in this period. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Perceived harmfulness of marijuana use (great or moderate risk to health from smoking marijuana occasionally) and marijuana use (past 30 days). RESULTS Of the 253 902 participants, 120 590 of 245 065(49.2%) were male, and the mean (SD) age was 15.6 (1.7) years. In Washington, perceived harmfulness declined 14.2%and 16.1% among eighth and 10th graders, respectively, while marijuana use increased 2.0% and 4.1% from 2010–2012 to 2013–2015. In contrast, among states that did not legalize recreational marijuana use, perceived harmfulness decreased by 4.9% and 7.2%among eighth and 10th graders, respectively, and marijuana use decreased by 1.3%and 0.9%over the same period. Difference-in-difference estimates comparing Washington vs states that did not legalize recreational drug use indicated that these differences were significant for perceived harmfulness (eighth graders:%[SD], −9.3 [3.5]; P = .01; 10th graders:%[SD], −9.0 [3.8]; P = .02) and

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) administration selectively downregulates serotonin2 receptors in rat brain.

PubMed

Buckholtz, N S; Zhou, D F; Freedman, D X; Potter, W Z

1990-04-01

A dosage regimen of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) that reliably produces behavioral tolerance in rats was evaluated for effects on neurotransmitter receptor binding in rat brain using a variety of radioligands selective for amine receptor subtypes. Daily administration of LSD [130 micrograms/kg (0.27 mumol/kg) intraperitoneally (IP)] for 5 days produced a decrease in serotonin2 (5-hydroxytryptamine2, 5-HT2) binding in cortex (measured 24 hours after the last drug administration) but did not affect binding to other receptor systems (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, beta-adrenergic, alpha 1- or alpha 2-adrenergic, D2-dopaminergic) or to a recognition site for 5-HT uptake. The decrease was evident within 3 days of LSD administration but was not demonstrable after the first LSD dose. Following 5 days of LSD administration the decrease was still present 48 hours, but not 96 hours, after the last administration. The indole hallucinogen psilocybin [1.0 mg/kg (3.5 mumol/kg) for 8 days] also produced a significant decrease in 5HT2 binding, but neither the nonhallucinogenic analog bromo-LSD [1.3 mg/kg (2.4 mumol/kg) for 5 days] nor mescaline [10 mg/kg (40.3 mumol/kg) for 5 or 10 days] affected 5-HT2 binding. These observations suggest that LSD and other indole hallucinogens may act as 5-HT2 agonists at postsynaptic 5-HT2 receptors. Decreased 5-HT2 binding strikingly parallels the development and loss of behavioral tolerance seen with repeated LSD administration, but the decreased binding per se cannot explain the gamut of behavioral tolerance and cross-tolerance phenomena among the indole and phenylethylamine hallucinogens.

76 FR 17778 - Control of Ergocristine, a Chemical Precursor Used in the Illicit Manufacture of Lysergic Acid...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2011-03-31

... substance lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). This rule is being finalized as proposed. Therefore, handlers of... INFORMATION: Background Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a synthetic schedule I hallucinogen. It is the... clarity, but reduced ability to control what is experienced. Illicit Production of LSD LSD has been...

Marijuana intoxication

MedlinePlus

Cannabis intoxication; Intoxication - marijuana (cannabis); Pot; Mary Jane; Weed; Grass; Cannabis ... The intoxicating effects of marijuana include relaxation, ... to fast and predictable signs and symptoms. Eating marijuana ...

Health conditions and motivations for marijuana use among young adult medical marijuana patients and non-patient marijuana users.

PubMed

Lankenau, Stephen E; Ataiants, Janna; Mohanty, Salini; Schrager, Sheree; Iverson, Ellen; Wong, Carolyn F

2018-02-01

While marijuana has been legal for medical purposes in California since 1996, little is known about the health histories of young adult medical marijuana patients who are a significant proportion of medical marijuana patients. We examined whether young adult medical marijuana patients reported health conditions and motivations for use that were consistent with medical use of marijuana in California. Young adults (N = 366) aged 18 to 26 years were sampled in Los Angeles in 2014-2015 and segmented into medical marijuana 'patients' (n = 210), marijuana users with a current recommendation, and non-patient users or 'non-patients' (n = 156), marijuana users who never had a medical marijuana recommendation. Differences between patients and non-patients regarding self-reported health histories and past/current motivations for marijuana use were expressed as unadjusted risk ratios. Compared with non-patients, patients were significantly more likely to report a range of lifetime health problems, such as psychological, physical pain and gastrointestinal. In the past 90 days, patients were significantly more likely to report motivations for marijuana use than non-patients concerning sleep, anxiety, physical pain and focusing. Psychological and pain problems were the most common health conditions reported to receive a medical marijuana recommendation. Patients were significantly less likely than non-patients to report any privacy concerns about obtaining a medical marijuana recommendation. Patients were significantly more likely to report a range of health conditions and motivations associated with medical use than non-patients. A great majority of patients reported obtaining a medical marijuana recommendation for health problems in accordance with the California law. [Lankenau SE, Ataiants J,Mohanty S, Schrager S, Iverson E, Wong CF.Health conditions and motivations for marijuana use among young adultmedical marijuana patients and non-patient marijuana users. Drug

Effects of repeated administration of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor phenelzine on the discriminability of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and 1-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl) piperazine (TFMPP).

PubMed

Cunningham, K A; Carroll, B A; Appel, J B

1986-01-01

Rats trained to discriminate d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD; 0.08 mg/kg) or 1-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl) piperazine (TFMPP; 0.8 mg/kg) were treated with the monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) phenelzine (10 mg/kg/day) for 7 days. After a 24 h "washout" period, they were challenged with the training drug (and dose) or saline, during extinction test sessions. Following 0.08 mg/kg LSD, LSD-trained rats responded primarily on the saline lever (29% drug-appropriate responding) while, after TFMPP (0.8 mg/kg), TFMPP-trained animals responded on the drug lever (75% drug-appropriate responding). These preliminary data suggest that, if serotonin receptors are involved in the behavioral effects of TFMPP, these receptors differ from those involved in the effects of LSD.

Clonazepam treatment of lysergic acid diethylamide-induced hallucinogen persisting perception disorder with anxiety features.

PubMed

Lerner, Arturo G; Gelkopf, Marc; Skladman, Irena; Rudinski, Dmitri; Nachshon, Hanna; Bleich, Avi

2003-03-01

An unique and intriguing characteristic of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and LSD-like substances is the recurrence of some of the symptoms which appear during the intoxication, in the absence of recent intake of hallucinogens. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a condition in which the re-experiencing of one or more perceptual symptoms causes significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning and may be extremely debilitating. Benzodiazepines are one of the recommended agents for the treatment of HPPD but it is unclear which of them may be more helpful. The goal of our investigation was to assess the efficacy of clonazepam in the treatment of LSD-induced HPPD. Sixteen patients fulfilled entrance criteria. All complained of HPPD with anxiety features for at least 3 months and were drug free at least 3 months. They received clonazepam 2 mg/day for 2 months. Follow-up was continued for 6 months. They were weekly evaluated during the 2 months of clonazepam administration and monthly during the follow-up period using the Clinical Global Impression Scale, a Self-report Scale and Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale. Patients reported a significant relief and the presence of only mild symptomatology during the clonazepam administration. This improvement was clearly sustained and persisted during a 6-month follow-up period. This study suggests that high potency benzodiazepines like clonazepam, which has serotonergic properties, may be more effective than low-potency benzodiazepines in the treatment of some patients with LSD-induced HPPD.

Return of the lysergamides. Part III: Analytical characterization of N6 -ethyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (ETH-LAD) and 1-propionyl ETH-LAD (1P-ETH-LAD).

PubMed

Brandt, Simon D; Kavanagh, Pierce V; Westphal, Folker; Elliott, Simon P; Wallach, Jason; Stratford, Alexander; Nichols, David E; Halberstadt, Adam L

2017-10-01

The psychoactive properties of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have fascinated scientists across disciplines and the exploration of other analogues and derivatives has been motivated by deepening the understanding of ligand-receptor interactions at the molecular level as well as by the search for new therapeutics. Several LSD congeners have appeared on the new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in the form of blotters or powders. Examples include 1-propionyl-LSD (1P-LSD), AL-LAD, and LSZ. The absence of analytical data for novel compounds is a frequent challenge encountered in clinical and toxicological investigations. Two newly emerging lysergamides, namely N 6 -ethyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (ETH-LAD) and 1P-ETH-LAD, were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), GC solid-state infrared analysis, high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection as well as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Limited analytical data for ETH-LAD were previously available, whereas information about 1P-ETH-LAD has not previously been encountered in the scientific literature. This study extends the characterization of lysergamides distributed on the NPS market, which will help to make analytical data available to clinicians, toxicologists, and other stakeholders who are likely to encounter these substances. The analysis of a test incubation of 1P-ETH-LAD with human serum at 37°C by LC single quadrupole MS at various time points (0-6 h, once per hour and one measurement after 24 h) revealed the formation of ETH-LAD, suggesting that 1P-ETH-LAD might serve as a pro-drug. 1P-ETH-LAD was still detectable in serum after 24 h. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Selective labeling of serotonin receptors by d-[3H]lysergic acid diethylamide in calf caudate.

PubMed Central

Whitaker, P M; Seeman, P

1978-01-01

Since it was known that d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) affected catecholaminergic as well as serotoninergic neurons, the objective in this study was to enhance the selectivity of [3H]LSD binding to serotonin receptors in vitro by using crude homogenates of calf caudate. In the presence of a combination of 50 nM each of phentolamine (added to preclude the binding of [3H]LSD to alpha-adrenoceptors), apomorphine, and spiperone (added to preclude the binding of [3H]LSD to dopamine receptors), it was found by Scatchard analysis that the total number of [3H]LSD sites went down to 300 fmol/mg, compared to 1100 fmol/mg in the absence of the catecholamine-blocking drugs. The IC50 values (concentrations to inhibit binding by 50%) for various drugs were tested on the binding of [3H]LSD in the presence of 50 nM each of apomorphine (A), phentolamine (P) and spiperone (S). With this combination, the IC50 for serotonin was 35 nM (compared to 1000 nM without it), indicating that [3H]LSD had become considerably more selectively displaceable by serotonin under these conditions whereas the effects of norepinephrine and dopamine on [3H]LSD binding were eliminated. Various ergots had approximately equal IC50 values against [3H]serotonin and [3H]LSD but tryptamines were much more selective against [3H]serotonin; the data may indicate the existence of the two types of serotonin receptors. PMID:32537

Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide on Circulating Steroid Levels in Healthy Subjects.

PubMed

Strajhar, P; Schmid, Y; Liakoni, E; Dolder, P C; Rentsch, K M; Kratschmar, D V; Odermatt, A; Liechti, M E

2016-03-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A ) receptor agonist that is used recreationally worldwide. Interest in LSD research in humans waned after the 1970s, although the use of LSD in psychiatric research and practice has recently gained increasing attention. LSD produces pronounced acute psychedelic effects, although its influence on plasma steroid levels over time has not yet been characterised in humans. The effects of LSD (200 μg) or placebo on plasma steroid levels were investigated in 16 healthy subjects using a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study design. Plasma concentration-time profiles were determined for 15 steroids using liquid-chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry. LSD increased plasma concentrations of the glucocorticoids cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone and 11-dehydrocorticosterone compared to placebo. The mean maximum concentration of LSD was reached at 1.7 h. Mean peak psychedelic effects were reached at 2.4 h, with significant alterations in mental state from 0.5 h to > 10 h. Mean maximal concentrations of cortisol and corticosterone were reached at 2.5 h and 1.9 h, and significant elevations were observed 1.5-6 h and 1-3 h after drug administration, respectively. LSD also significantly increased plasma concentrations of the androgen dehydroepiandrosterone but not other androgens, progestogens or mineralocorticoids compared to placebo. A close relationship was found between plasma LSD concentrations and changes in plasma cortisol and corticosterone and the psychotropic response to LSD, and no clockwise hysteresis was observed. In conclusion, LSD produces significant acute effects on circulating steroids, especially glucocorticoids. LSD-induced changes in circulating glucocorticoids were associated with plasma LSD concentrations over time and showed no acute pharmacological tolerance. © 2016 British Society for Neuroendocrinology.

Twitter chatter about marijuana.

PubMed

Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A; Krauss, Melissa; Fisher, Sherri L; Salyer, Patricia; Grucza, Richard A; Bierut, Laura Jean

2015-02-01

We sought to examine the sentiment and themes of marijuana-related chatter on Twitter sent by influential Twitter users and to describe the demographics of these Twitter users. We assessed the sentiment and themes of a random sample (n = 7,000) of influential marijuana-related tweets (sent from February 5, 20114, to March 5, 2014). Demographics of the users tweeting about marijuana were inferred using a social media analytics company (Demographics Pro for Twitter). Most marijuana-related tweets reflected a positive sentiment toward marijuana use, with pro-marijuana tweets outnumbering anti-marijuana tweets by a factor of greater than 15. The most common theme of pro-marijuana tweets included the Tweeter stating that he/she wants/plans to use marijuana, followed by tweeting about frequent/heavy/or regular marijuana use, and that marijuana has health benefits and/or should be legalized. Tweeters of marijuana-related content were younger and a greater proportion was African-American compared with the Twitter average. Marijuana Twitter chatter sent by influential Twitter users tends to be pro-marijuana and popular among African-Americans and youth/young adults. Marijuana-related harms may afflict some individuals; therefore, our findings should be used to inform online and offline prevention efforts that work to target individuals who are most at risk for harms associated with marijuana use. Copyright © 2015 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Serotonin-Sensitive Adenylate Cyclase in Neural Tissue and Its Similarity to the Serotonin Receptor: A Possible Site of Action of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

PubMed Central

Nathanson, James A.; Greengard, Paul

1974-01-01

An adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1) that is activated specifically by low concentrations of serotonin has been identified in homogenates of the thoracic ganglia of an insect nervous system. The activation of this enzyme by serotonin was selectively inhibited by extremely low concentrations of D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 2-bromo-LSD, and cyproheptadine, agents which are known to block certain serotonin receptors in vivo. The inhibition was competitive with respect to serotonin, and the calculated inhibitory constant of LSD for this serotonin-sensitive adenylate cyclase was 5 nM. The data are consistent with a model in which the serotonin receptor of neural tissue is intimately associated with a serotonin-sensitive adenylate cyclase which mediates serotonergic neurotransmission. The results are also compatible with the possibility that some of the physiological effects of LSD may be mediated through interaction with serotonin-sensitive adenylate cyclase. PMID:4595572

Medical marijuana laws in 50 states: investigating the relationship between state legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse and dependence

PubMed Central

Cerdá, Magdalena; Wall, Melanie; Keyes, Katherine M; Galea, Sandro; Hasin, Deborah

2011-01-01

Background Marijuana is the most frequently used illicit substance in the United States. Little is known of the role that macro-level factors, including community norms and laws related to substance use, play in determining marijuana use, abuse and dependence. We tested the relationship between state-level legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. Methods We used the second wave of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), a national survey of adults aged 18+ (n=34,653). Selected analyses were replicated using the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), a yearly survey of ~68,000 individuals aged 12+. We measured past-year cannabis use and DSM-IV abuse/dependence. Results In NESARC, residents of states with medical marijuana laws had higher odds of marijuana use (OR: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.49-2.47) and marijuana abuse/dependence (OR: 1.81; 95% CI: 1.22-2.67) than residents of states without such laws. Marijuana abuse/dependence was not more prevalent among marijuana users in these states (OR: 1.03; 95% CI: 0.67-1.60), suggesting that the higher risk for marijuana abuse/dependence in these states was accounted for by higher rates of use. In NSDUH, states that legalized medical marijuana also had higher rates of marijuana use. Conclusions States that legalized medical marijuana had higher rates of marijuana use. Future research needs to examine whether the association is causal, or is due to an underlying common cause, such as community norms supportive of the legalization of medical marijuana and of marijuana use. PMID:22099393

Marijuana: Facts for Teens.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

National Inst. on Drug Abuse (DHHS), Rockville, MD. Div. of Research.

Using a question and answer format, this booklet is designed to inform teens about the dangers of marijuana usage. Inset facts about marijuana and teen perspectives compliment the following topics: (1) What is marijuana? (2) How is marijuana used? (3) How long does marijuana stay in the user's body? (4) How many teens smoke marijuana? (5) Why do…

Marijuana (Weed, Pot) Facts

MedlinePlus

... That People Abuse » Marijuana (Weed, Pot) Facts Marijuana (Weed, Pot) Facts Listen Marijuana is a green, brown, or gray mix of dried, shredded leaves and flowers from the marijuana plant. Marijuana can be rolled up and smoked ...

How does state marijuana policy affect U.S. youth? Medical marijuana laws, marijuana use and perceived harmfulness: 1991–2014

PubMed Central

Keyes, Katherine M.; Wall, Melanie; Cerdá, Magdalena; Schulenberg, John; O’Malley, Patrick M.; Galea, Sandro; Feng, Tianshu; Hasin, Deborah S.

2016-01-01

Aims To test, among US students: 1) whether perceived harmfulness of marijuana has changed over time, 2) whether perceived harmfulness of marijuana changed post-passage of state medical marijuana laws (MML) compared with pre-passage; 3) whether perceived harmfulness of marijuana mediates and/or modifies the relation between MML and marijuana use as a function of grade level. Design Cross-sectional nationally-representative surveys of U.S. students, conducted annually, 1991–2014, in the Monitoring The Future study. Setting Surveys conducted in schools in all coterminous states; 21 states passed MML between 1996–2014. Participants The sample included 1,134,734 adolescents in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades. Measures State passage of MML; perceived harmfulness of marijuana use (perceiving great or moderate risk to health from smoking marijuana occasionally versus slight or no risk); and marijuana use (prior 30 days). Data were analyzed using time-varying multi-level regression modeling. Findings Perceived harmfulness of marijuana significantly decreased since 1991 (from an estimated 84.0% in 1991 to 53.8% in 2014, p<0.01). Across time, perceived harmfulness was lower in states that passed MML (OR=0.86, 95% C.I. 0.75–0.97). In states with MML, perceived harmfulness of marijuana increased among 8th graders after MML passage (OR=1.21, 95% C.I. 1.08–1.36), while marijuana use decreased (OR=0.81, 95% C.I. 0.72–0.92). Results were null for other grades, and for all grades combined. Increases in perceived harmfulness among 8th graders after MML passage was associated with ~33% of the decrease in use. When adolescents were stratified by perceived harmfulness, use in 8th graders decreased to a greater extent among those who perceived marijuana as harmful. Conclusions While perceived harmfulness of marijuana use is decreasing nationally among adolescents, passage of medical marijuana laws is associated with increases in perceived harmfulness among young adolescents, and

Marijuana and lung diseases.

PubMed

Joshi, Manish; Joshi, Anita; Bartter, Thaddeus

2014-03-01

Cannabis sativa (marijuana) is used throughout the world, and its use is increasing. In much of the world, marijuana is illicit. While inhalation of smoke generated by igniting dried components of the plant is the most common way marijuana is used, there is concern over potential adverse lung effects. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent studies that explore the impact upon the respiratory system of inhaling marijuana smoke. Smoking marijuana is associated with chronic bronchitis symptoms and large airway inflammation. Occasional use of marijuana with low cumulative use is not a risk factor for the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The heavy use of marijuana alone may lead to airflow obstruction. The immuno-histopathologic and epidemiologic evidence in marijuana users suggests biological plausibility of marijuana smoking as a risk for the development of lung cancer; at present, it has been difficult to conclusively link marijuana smoking and cancer development. There is unequivocal evidence that habitual or regular marijuana smoking is not harmless. A caution against regular heavy marijuana usage is prudent. The medicinal use of marijuana is likely not harmful to lungs in low cumulative doses, but the dose limit needs to be defined. Recreational use is not the same as medicinal use and should be discouraged.

State-Level Medical Marijuana Laws, Marijuana Use and Perceived Availability of Marijuana Among the General U.S. Population

PubMed Central

Martins, Silvia S.; Mauro, Christine M.; Santaella-Tenorio, Julian; Kim, June H.; Cerda, Magdalena; Keyes, Katherine M.; Hasin, Deborah S.; Galea, Sandro; Wall, Melanie

2016-01-01

Background Little is known on how perceived availability of marijuana is associated with medical marijuana laws. We examined the relationship between medical marijuana laws (MML) and the prevalence of past-month marijuana use, with perceived availability of marijuana. Methods Data were from respondents included in the National Survey of Drug Use and Health restricted use data portal 2004–2013. Multilevel logistic regression of individual- level data was used to test differences between MML and non-MML states and changes in prevalence of past-month marijuana use and perceived availability from before to after passage of MML among adolescents, young adults and older adults controlling for demographics. Results Among adults 26+, past-month prevalence of marijuana use increased from 5.87% to 7.15% after MML passage (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 1.24 [1.16–1.31]), but no change in prevalence of use was found for 12–17 or 18–25 year-olds. Perceived availability of marijuana increased after MML were enacted among those 26+ but not in younger groups. Among all age groups, prevalence of marijuana use and perception of it being easily available was higher in states that would eventually pass MML by 2013 compared to those that had not. Perceived availability was significantly associated with increased risk of past-month marijuana use in all age groups. Conclusion Evidence suggests perceived availability as a driver of change in use of marijuana due to MML. To date, this has only occurred in adults 26+ and different scenarios that could explain this change need to be further explored. PMID:27755989

State-level medical marijuana laws, marijuana use and perceived availability of marijuana among the general U.S. population.

PubMed

Martins, Silvia S; Mauro, Christine M; Santaella-Tenorio, Julian; Kim, June H; Cerda, Magdalena; Keyes, Katherine M; Hasin, Deborah S; Galea, Sandro; Wall, Melanie

2016-12-01

Little is known on how perceived availability of marijuana is associated with medical marijuana laws. We examined the relationship between medical marijuana laws (MML) and the prevalence of past-month marijuana use, with perceived availability of marijuana. Data were from respondents included in the National Survey of Drug Use and Health restricted use data portal 2004-2013. Multilevel logistic regression of individual-level data was used to test differences between MML and non-MML states and changes in prevalence of past-month marijuana use and perceived availability from before to after passage of MML among adolescents, young adults and older adults controlling for demographics. Among adults 26+, past-month prevalence of marijuana use increased from 5.87% to 7.15% after MML passage (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 1.24 [1.16-1.31]), but no change in prevalence of use was found for 12-17 or 18-25 year-olds. Perceived availability of marijuana increased after MML was enacted among those 26+ but not in younger groups. Among all age groups, prevalence of marijuana use and perception of it being easily available was higher in states that would eventually pass MML by 2013 compared to those that had not. Perceived availability was significantly associated with increased risk of past-month marijuana use in all age groups. Evidence suggests perceived availability as a driver of change in use of marijuana due to MML. To date, this has only occurred in adults 26+ and different scenarios that could explain this change need to be further explored. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Medical marijuana policies and hospitalizations related to marijuana and opioid pain reliever.

PubMed

Shi, Yuyan

2017-04-01

Twenty-eight states in the U.S have legalized medical marijuana, yet its impacts on severe health consequences such as hospitalizations remain unknown. Meanwhile, the prevalence of opioid pain reliever (OPR) use and outcomes has increased dramatically. Recent studies suggested unintended impacts of legalizing medical marijuana on OPR, but the evidence is still limited. This study examined the associations between state medical marijuana policies and hospitalizations related to marijuana and OPR. State-level annual administrative records of hospital discharges during 1997-2014 were obtained from the State Inpatient Databases (SID). The outcome variables were rates of hospitalizations involving marijuana dependence or abuse, opioid dependence or abuse, and OPR overdose in 1000 discharges. Linear time-series regressions were used to assess the associations of implementing medical marijuana policies to hospitalizations, controlling for other marijuana- and OPR-related policies, socioeconomic factors, and state and year fixed effects. Hospitalizations related to marijuana and OPR increased sharply by 300% on average in all states. Medical marijuana legalization was associated with 23% (p=0.008) and 13% (p=0.025) reductions in hospitalizations related to opioid dependence or abuse and OPR overdose, respectively; lagged effects were observed after policy implementation. The operation of medical marijuana dispensaries had no independent impacts on OPR-related hospitalizations. Medical marijuana polices had no associations with marijuana-related hospitalizations. Medical marijuana policies were significantly associated with reduced OPR-related hospitalizations but had no associations with marijuana-related hospitalizations. Given the epidemic of problematic use of OPR, future investigation is needed to explore the causal pathways of these findings. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Medical marijuana policies and hospitalizations related to marijuana and opioid pain reliever*

PubMed Central

Shi, Yuyan

2017-01-01

Objectives Twenty-eight states in the U.S. have legalized medical marijuana, yet its impacts on severe health consequences such as hospitalizations remain unknown. Meanwhile, the prevalence of opioid pain reliever (OPR) use and outcomes has increased dramatically. Recent studies suggested unintended impacts of legalizing medical marijuana on OPR, but the evidence is still limited. This study examined the associations between state medical marijuana policies and hospitalizations related to marijuana and OPR. Methods State-level annual administrative records of hospital discharges during 1997–2014 were obtained from the State Inpatient Databases (SID). The outcome variables were rates of hospitalizations involving marijuana dependence or abuse, opioid dependence or abuse, and OPR overdose in 1,000 discharges. Linear time-series regressions were used to assess the associations of implementing medical marijuana policies to hospitalizations, controlling for other marijuana- and OPR-related policies, socioeconomic factors, and state and year fixed effects. Results Hospitalizations related to marijuana and OPR increased sharply by 300% on average in all states. Medical marijuana legalization was associated with 23% (p=.008) and 13% (p=.025) reductions in hospitalizations related to opioid dependence or abuse and OPR overdose, respectively; lagged effects were observed after policy implementation. The operation of medical marijuana dispensaries had no independent impacts on OPR- related hospitalizations. Medical marijuana polices had no associations with marijuana-related hospitalizations. Conclusion Medical marijuana policies were significantly associated with reduced OPR-related hospitalizations but had no associations with marijuana-related hospitalizations. Given the epidemic of problematic use of OPR, future investigation is needed to explore the causal pathways of these findings. PMID:28259087

The hallucinogen d-lysergic acid diethylamide (d-LSD) induces the immediate-early gene c-Fos in rat forebrain.

PubMed

Frankel, Paul S; Cunningham, Kathryn A

2002-12-27

The hallucinogen d-lysergic acid diethylamide (d-LSD) evokes dramatic somatic and psychological effects. In order to analyze the neural activation induced by this unique psychoactive drug, we tested the hypothesis that expression of the immediate-early gene product c-Fos is induced in specific regions of the rat forebrain by a relatively low, behaviorally active, dose of d-LSD (0.16 mg/kg, i.p.); c-Fos protein expression was assessed at 30 min, and 1, 2 and 4 h following d-LSD injection. A time- and region-dependent expression of c-Fos was observed with a significant increase (P<0.05) in the number of c-Fos-positive cells detected in the anterior cingulate cortex at 1 h, the shell of the nucleus accumbens at 1 and 2 h, the bed nucleus of stria terminalis lateral at 2 h and the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus at 1, 2 and 4 h following systemic d-LSD administration. These data demonstrate a unique pattern of c-Fos expression in the rat forebrain following a relatively low dose of d-LSD and suggest that activation of these forebrain regions contributes to the unique behavioral effects of d-LSD. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.

Marijuana-Related Posts on Instagram.

PubMed

Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A; Krauss, Melissa J; Sowles, Shaina J; Bierut, Laura J

2016-08-01

Instagram is a highly visual social networking site whose audience continues to grow, especially among young adults. In the present study, we examine marijuana-related content on Instagram to better understand the varied types of marijuana-related social networking occurring on this popular social media platform. We collected 417,561 Instagram posts with marijuana-related hashtags from November 29 to December 12, 2014. We assessed content of a random sample (n = 5000) of these posts with marijuana-related hashtags. Approximately 2136 (43 %) were explicit about marijuana and further analyzed. Of the 2136 marijuana-related posts, images of marijuana were common (n = 1568). Among these 1568 marijuana images, traditional forms (i.e., buds/leaves) were the most common (63 %), followed by some novel forms of marijuana, including marijuana concentrates (20 %). Among the 568 posts that displayed marijuana being ingested, 20 % showed someone dabbing marijuana concentrates. Marijuana-related advertisements were also observed among the 2136 marijuana-related posts (9 %). Our findings signal the promotion of marijuana use in its traditional plant-based form; trendy and novel modes of marijuana ingestion were also endorsed. This content along with the explicit marketing of marijuana that we observed on Instagram have potential to influence social norms surrounding marijuana use.

Marijuana-Related Posts on Instagram

PubMed Central

Krauss, Melissa J.; Sowles, Shaina J.; Bierut, Laura J.

2016-01-01

Instagram is a highly visual social networking site whose audience continues to grow, especially among young adults. In the present study, we examine marijuana-related content on Instagram to better understand the varied types of marijuana-related social networking occurring on this popular social media platform. We collected 417,561 Instagram posts with marijuana-related hashtags from November 29 to December 12, 2014. We assessed content of a random sample (n = 5000) of these posts with marijuana-related hashtags. Approximately 2136 (43 %) were explicit about marijuana and further analyzed. Of the 2136 marijuana-related posts, images of marijuana were common (n = 1568). Among these 1568 marijuana images, traditional forms (i.e., buds/leaves) were the most common (63 %), followed by some novel forms of marijuana, including marijuana concentrates (20 %). Among the 568 posts that displayed marijuana being ingested, 20 % showed someone dabbing marijuana concentrates. Marijuana-related advertisements were also observed among the 2136 marijuana-related posts (9 %). Our findings signal the promotion of marijuana use in its traditional plant-based form; trendy and novel modes of marijuana ingestion were also endorsed. This content along with the explicit marketing of marijuana that we observed on Instagram have potential to influence social norms surrounding marijuana use. PMID:27262456

The effects of intracranial administration of hallucinogens on operant behavior in the rat. I. Lysergic acid diethylamide.

PubMed

Mokler, D J; Stoudt, K W; Sherman, L C; Rech, R H

1986-10-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was infused in one microliter volumes into discrete brain regions of rats trained to press a bar for food reinforcement. The sites were chosen as major areas of the brain 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) system: the dorsal and median raphe nuclei, dorsal hippocampus, lateral habenular nuclei, and the prefrontal cortex. Following training in a fixed ratio-40 (FR-40) operant behavior rats were implanted for the lateral habenular nuclei, dorsal hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. Following recovery from surgery, LSD (8.6 to 86 micrograms) or vehicle was infused immediately before a daily operant session. Infusion of vehicle was inactive. LSD produced a dose-dependent decrease in reinforcements and an increase in 10-sec periods of non-responding (pause intervals). LSD was significantly more potent when infused into the dorsal raphe nucleus than following intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration, whereas LSD was less potent when infused into the median raphe, lateral habenula or dorsal hippocampus. ED50s for increases in pause intervals were 9, 13, 23, 25, and 54 micrograms for infusion into the dorsal raphe, prefrontal cortex, dorsal hippocampus, median raphe, and lateral habenular nuclei, respectively. The ED50 for ICV administration in a previous study was 15 micrograms. The ED50 of LSD placed into the prefrontal cortex did not differ significantly from that of the ICV infusion.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Marijuana Use and New Concerns about Medical Marijuana. E-Fact Sheet

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Higher Education Center for Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Violence Prevention, 2010

2010-01-01

While alcohol remains the drug of choice among college students, marijuana ranks number two with 32 percent reporting using marijuana in 2008. That's a modest decline from 2001, when 36 percent of college students reported marijuana use. While levels of marijuana use by students are determined through a number of national and local surveys, no…

Medical marijuana.

PubMed

Marmor, J B

1998-06-01

Although many clinical studies suggest the medical utility of marijuana for some conditions, the scientific evidence is weak. Many patients in California are self-medicating with marijuana, and physicians need data to assess the risks and benefits. The only reasonable solution to this problem is to encourage research on the medical effects of marijuana. The current regulatory system should be modified to remove barriers to clinical research with marijuana. The NIH panel has identified several conditions for which there may be therapeutic benefit from marijuana use and that merit further research. Marijuana should be held to the same evaluation standards of safety and efficacy as other drugs (a major flaw in Proposition 215) but should not have to be proved better than current medications for its use to be adopted. The therapeutic window for marijuana and THC between desired effect and unpleasant side effects is narrow and is a major reason for discontinuing use. Although the inhaled route of administration has the benefit of allowing patients to self-titrate the dose, the smoking of crude plant material is problematic. The NIH panel recommended that a high priority be given to the development of a controlled inhaled form of THC. The presence of a naturally occurring cannabinoid-receptor system in the brain suggests that research on selective analogues of THC may be useful to enhance its therapeutic effects and minimize adverse effects.

Substance use - marijuana

MedlinePlus

Substance abuse - marijuana; Drug abuse - marijuana; Drug use - marijuana; Cannabis; Grass; Hashish; Mary Jane; Pot; Weed ... several minutes. If you eat foods containing the drug as an ingredient, such as brownies, you may ...

Daily marijuana users with past alcohol problems increase alcohol consumption during marijuana abstinence.

PubMed

Peters, Erica N; Hughes, John R

2010-01-15

Drug abuse treatment programs typically recommend complete abstinence because of a fear that clients who stop use of one drug will substitute another. A within-subjects study investigated whether consumption of alcohol and other substances changes during marijuana abstinence. Twenty-eight daily marijuana users who were not trying to stop or reduce their marijuana consumption completed an 8-day baseline period in which they used marijuana and other drugs as usual, a 13-day marijuana abstinence period, and a 7-day return-to-baseline period. Participants provided self-report of substance use daily and submitted urine samples twice weekly to verify marijuana abstinence. A diagnosis of past alcohol abuse or dependence significantly moderated the alcohol increase from baseline to marijuana abstinence (p<0.01), such that individuals with this diagnosis significantly increased alcohol use (52% increase) but those without this history did not (3% increase). Increases in marijuana withdrawal discomfort scores and alcohol craving scores from baseline to marijuana abstinence significantly and positively correlated with increases in alcohol use. Increases in cigarettes, caffeine, and non-marijuana illicit drugs did not occur. This study provides empirical validation of drug substitution in a subgroup of daily marijuana users, but results need to be replicated in individuals who seek treatment for marijuana problems. Copyright (c) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Medical marijuana.

PubMed Central

Marmor, J B

1998-01-01

Although many clinical studies suggest the medical utility of marijuana for some conditions, the scientific evidence is weak. Many patients in California are self-medicating with marijuana, and physicians need data to assess the risks and benefits. The only reasonable solution to this problem is to encourage research on the medical effects of marijuana. The current regulatory system should be modified to remove barriers to clinical research with marijuana. The NIH panel has identified several conditions for which there may be therapeutic benefit from marijuana use and that merit further research. Marijuana should be held to the same evaluation standards of safety and efficacy as other drugs (a major flaw in Proposition 215) but should not have to be proved better than current medications for its use to be adopted. The therapeutic window for marijuana and THC between desired effect and unpleasant side effects is narrow and is a major reason for discontinuing use. Although the inhaled route of administration has the benefit of allowing patients to self-titrate the dose, the smoking of crude plant material is problematic. The NIH panel recommended that a high priority be given to the development of a controlled inhaled form of THC. The presence of a naturally occurring cannabinoid-receptor system in the brain suggests that research on selective analogues of THC may be useful to enhance its therapeutic effects and minimize adverse effects. PMID:9656007

Medical marijuana legalization and cigarette and marijuana co-use in adolescents and adults.

PubMed

Wang, Julie B; Ramo, Danielle E; Lisha, Nadra E; Cataldo, Janine K

2016-09-01

Medical marijuana legalization is associated with a higher prevalence of marijuana use which may affect cigarette use and nicotine dependence in co-users. In the present study, we examined relationships between statewide legalization of medical marijuana and prevalence of cigarette and marijuana co-use and nicotine dependence in co-using adolescents and adults. Data were analyzed from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. We compared cigarette and marijuana co-use in the past 30days across age categories (12-64 years) by statewide medical marijuana legalization. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the odds of having nicotine dependence among current cigarette smokers who also reported past 30-day marijuana use and "ever but not current" marijuana use (vs. "never" use) adjusting for covariates including statewide legalization of medical marijuana. Overall, 5.1% of the sample reported past 30-day cigarette and marijuana co-use and a higher proportion of co-users resided in states where medical marijuana was legal compared to illegal (5.8% vs. 4.8%; p=0.0011). Co-use was associated with greater odds of having nicotine dependence compared to cigarette-only use across age categories. Odds were highest and up to 3-times higher in adolescents aged 12-17 years (OR=3.54; 95%CI: 1.81-6.92) and adults aged 50-64 years (OR=3.08; CI: 1.45-6.55). Marijuana policy could inadvertently affect cigarette and marijuana co-use and pose challenges to tobacco cessation. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Marijuana: Facts for Teens. Revised.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

National Inst. on Drug Abuse (DHEW/PHS), Rockville, MD.

This booklet provides teenagers with information concerning the use of marijuana. It is presented in a question/answer format. The following sixteen questions are briefly answered: What is marijuana? How is marijuana used? How long does marijuana stay in the user's body? How many teens smoke marijuana? Why do young people use marijuana? What…

Marijuana Neurobiology and Treatment

PubMed Central

Elkashef, Ahmed; Vocci, Frank; Huestis, Marilyn; Haney, Margaret; Budney, Alan; Gruber, Amanda; el-Guebaly, Nady

2008-01-01

Marijuana is the number one illicit drug of abuse worldwide and a major public health problem, especially in the younger population. The objective of this article is to update and review the state of the science and treatments available for marijuana dependence based on a pre-meeting workshop that was presented at ISAM 2006. At the workshop, several papers were presented addressing the neurobiology and pharmacology of marijuana and treatment approaches, both psychotherapy and medications, for marijuana withdrawal. Medicolegal and ethical issues concerning marijuana medical use were also discussed. Concise summaries of these presentations are incorporated in this article, which is meant to be an updated review of the state of the science. Major advances have been made in understanding the underpinning of marijuana dependence and the role of the CNS cannabinoid system, which is a major area for targeting medications to treat marijuana withdrawal and dependence, as well as other addictions. Behavioral therapies are efficacious for facilitating abstinence from marijuana. Nefazadone, Marinol, and buspirone are showing early positive signals for efficacy in ameliorating marijuana withdrawal symptoms. Effective psychotherapeutic approaches are available and promising medications studies need to be confirmed in outpatient trials. The next few years looking promising for translational research efforts to make treatment widely accessible to patients with marijuana dependence. PMID:19042204

Dronabinol and marijuana in HIV-positive marijuana smokers. Caloric intake, mood, and sleep.

PubMed

Haney, Margaret; Gunderson, Erik W; Rabkin, Judith; Hart, Carl L; Vosburg, Suzanne K; Comer, Sandra D; Foltin, Richard W

2007-08-15

Individuals with HIV constitute the largest group using cannabinoids for medicinal reasons; yet, no studies have directly compared the tolerability and efficacy of smoked marijuana and oral dronabinol maintenance in HIV-positive marijuana smokers. This placebo-controlled within-subjects study evaluated marijuana and dronabinol across a range of behaviors: eating topography, mood, cognitive performance, physiologic measures, and sleep. HIV-positive marijuana smokers (n = 10) completed 2 16-day inpatient phases. Each dronabinol (5 and 10 mg) and marijuana (2.0% and 3.9% Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) dose was administered 4 times daily for 4 days, but only 1 drug was active per day, thereby maintaining double-blind dosing. Four days of placebo washout separated each active cannabinoid condition. As compared with placebo, marijuana and dronabinol dose dependently increased daily caloric intake and body weight in HIV-positive marijuana smokers. All cannabinoid conditions produced significant intoxication, except for low-dose dronabinol (5 mg); the intoxication was rated positively (eg, "good drug effect") with little evidence of discomfort and no impairment of cognitive performance. Effects of marijuana and dronabinol were comparable, except that only marijuana (3.9% THC) improved ratings of sleep. These data suggest that for HIV-positive marijuana smokers, both dronabinol (at doses 8 times current recommendations) and marijuana were well tolerated and produced substantial and comparable increases in food intake.

DEA Multimedia Drug Library: Marijuana

MedlinePlus

... confidencial Press Room » Multi-Media Library » Image Gallery » Marijuana MARIJUANA To Save Images: First click on the thumbnail ... Save in directory and then click Save. Indoor Marijuana Grow Indoor Marijuana Grow Loose Marijuana Marinol 10mg ...

Marijuana and Lung Disease.

PubMed

Tashkin, Donald P

2018-05-17

As marijuana smoking prevalence increases in the U.S. concern regarding its potential risks to lung health has also risen, given the general similarity in the smoke contents between marijuana and tobacco. Most studies have found a significant association between marijuana smoking and chronic bronchitis symptoms after adjustment for tobacco. While reports are mixed regarding associations between marijuana smoking and lung function, none has shown a relationship to decrements in forced expired volume in 1 sec (FEV1) and few have found a relationship to a decreased ratio of FEV1 to forced vital capacity (FVC), possibly related to an association between marijuana and an increased FVC. A few studies have found a modest reduction in specific airway conductance in relation to marijuana, probably reflecting endoscopic evidence of bronchial mucosal edema among habitual marijuana smokers. Diffusing capacity in marijuana smokers has been normal and two studies of thoracic high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) have not shown any association of marijuana smoking with emphysema. Although bronchial biopsies from habitual marijuana smokers have shown precancerous histopathological changes, a large cohort study and a pooled analysis of six well-designed case-control studies have not found evidence of a link between marijuana smoking and lung cancer. The immunosuppressive effects of delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol raise the possibility of an increased risk of pneumonia, but further studies are needed to evaluate this potential risk. Several cases series have demonstrated pneumothoraces/pneumomediastinum, as well as bullous lung disease, in marijuana smokers, but these associations require epidemiologic studies for firmer evidence of possible causality. Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Inc.

Marijuana: respiratory tract effects.

PubMed

Owen, Kelly P; Sutter, Mark E; Albertson, Timothy E

2014-02-01

Marijuana is the most commonly used drug of abuse in the USA. It is commonly abused through inhalation and therefore has effects on the lung that are similar to tobacco smoke, including increased cough, sputum production, hyperinflation, and upper lobe emphysematous changes. However, at this time, it does not appear that marijuana smoke contributes to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Marijuana can have multiple physiologic effects such as tachycardia, peripheral vasodilatation, behavioral and emotional changes, and possible prolonged cognitive impairment. The carcinogenic effects of marijuana are unclear at this time. Studies are mixed on the ability of marijuana smoke to increase the risk for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, lung cancer, prostate cancer, and cervical cancer. Some studies show that marijuana is protective for development of malignancy. Marijuana smoke has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on the immune system. Components of cannabis are under investigation as treatment for autoimmune diseases and malignancy. As marijuana becomes legalized in many states for medical and recreational use, other forms of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have been developed, such as food products and beverages. As most research on marijuana at this time has been on whole marijuana smoke, rather than THC, it is difficult to determine if the currently available data is applicable to these newer products.

Being Blunt About Marijuana: Parent Communication About Marijuana with Their Emerging Adult Children

PubMed Central

Froidevaux, Nicole M.; LaBrie, Joseph W.

2016-01-01

While research suggests that parents continue to influence students’ marijuana use after matriculation to college, there is limited data examining how parents communicate about marijuana use and what impact parent marijuana communication has on college student outcomes. The aim of the current study is to investigate the types of parent marijuana messages that college students receive and the relationship between parent communication and students’ marijuana attitudes and behaviors. Students (N = 506) completed a survey assessing marijuana approval, use, negative consequences, and parent communication. A factor analysis of parent communication items yielded three factors: risk communication, permissive communication, and marijuana use communication. Risk communication was the most common form of communication. In multivariate models, risk communication was associated with increased odds of a student remaining abstinent but not with frequency of marijuana use or negative consequences. Greater permissive communication was associated with more approving student attitudes, greater odds of non-abstinence, more frequent use in the past year, and more negative consequences. These findings highlight the need to consider the different types of messages parents deliver when designing interventions aimed at engaging parents in marijuana prevention efforts. PMID:27438296

Adolescent Marijuana Use and Perceived Ease of Access Before and After Recreational Marijuana Implementation in Colorado.

PubMed

Harpin, Scott B; Brooks-Russell, Ashley; Ma, Ming; James, Katherine A; Levinson, Arnold H

2018-02-23

As of January 1, 2017, eight states have approved laws for recreational marijuana use. While the social impacts of these changes remain under debate, the influence on adolescent marijuana use is a key policy and health issue across the U.S. To examine changes in adolescent marijuana-use behaviors in the first year after recreational marijuana implementation in Colorado, and to analyze the effect of retail marijuana store proximity on youth use and perceptions. Secondary analysis of Healthy Kids Colorado Survey data from 40 schools surveyed before and after recreational marijuana sales were implemented (2013 student n = 12,240; 2014 student n = 11,931). Self-reported marijuana use, ease of access, and perceived harms were compared between years and by proximity of recreational marijuana stores to surveyed schools. Adolescent marijuana use behaviors, wrongness of use, and perceptions of risk of harm were unchanged from baseline to one-year follow-up. Perceived ease of access to marijuana increased (from 46% to 52%). Proximity of recreational marijuana stores was not significantly associated with perceived ease of access to marijuana. Conclusions/Importance: In the first study of adolescent marijuana use and perceptions after state retail implementation of recreational marijuana, there was little change in adolescent marijuana use but a significant change in perception of ease of access. Public health workers and policymakers should continue to monitor these changes as essential for evaluating the impact of liberalization of marijuana policies.

Medical marijuana: legal considerations.

PubMed

Schouten, J T

1999-01-01

In 1998, Washington State passed a law, Initiative 692 (I-692), that gives individuals who are charged with possession of marijuana for medical purposes a possible affirmative defense. The law lets these individuals provide a note from their doctor or a copy of their medical records stating they have a condition that may benefit from the use of marijuana. I-692 does not legalize the medical use of marijuana and does not affect Federal law, which makes obtaining, possessing, and growing marijuana illegal. The Washington law limits the amount of marijuana a patient can possess to a 60-day supply and defines the conditions for which medical marijuana may be used. These conditions include HIV, cancer, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy.

SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER AND MARIJUANA USE PROBLEMS: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF MARIJUANA EFFECT EXPECTANCIES

PubMed Central

Buckner, Julia D.; Schmidt, Norman B.

2009-01-01

Background: Individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) appear particularly vulnerable to marijuana-related problems. Yet, mechanisms underlying this association are unclear. Methods: This study examined the role of marijuana effect expectancies in the relation between SAD and marijuana problems among 107 marijuana users (43.0% female), 26.2% of whom met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders—Fourth Edition criteria for SAD. Anxiety and mood disorders were determined during clinical interviews using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule—IV-L (ADIS-IV). Results: Analyses (including sex, marijuana use frequency, major depressive disorder, and other anxiety disorders) suggest that SAD was the only disorder significantly associated with past 3-month marijuana problems. Compared to those without SAD, individuals with SAD were more likely to endorse the following marijuana expectancies: cognitive/behavioral impairment and global negative expectancies. Importantly, these expectancies mediated the relations between SAD status and marijuana problems. Conclusions: These data support the contention that SAD is uniquely related to marijuana problems and provide insight into mechanisms underlying this vulnerability. PMID:19373871

Lysergic acid diethylamide-induced Fos expression in rat brain: role of serotonin-2A receptors.

PubMed

Gresch, P J; Strickland, L V; Sanders-Bush, E

2002-01-01

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) produces altered mood and hallucinations in humans and binds with high affinity to serotonin-2A (5-HT(2A)) receptors. Although LSD interacts with other receptors, the activation of 5-HT(2A) receptors is thought to mediate the hallucinogenic properties of LSD. The goal of this study was to identify the brain sites activated by LSD and to determine the influence of 5-HT(2A) receptors in this activation. Rats were pretreated with the 5-HT(2A) receptor antagonist MDL 100907 (0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle 30 min prior to LSD (500 microg/kg, i.p.) administration and killed 3 h later. Brain tissue was examined for Fos protein expression by immunohistochemistry. LSD administration produced a five- to eight-fold increase in Fos-like immunoreactivity in medial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and central nucleus of amygdala. However, in dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens no increase in Fos-like immunoreactivity was observed. Pretreatment with MDL 100907 completely blocked LSD-induced Fos-like immunoreactivity in medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, but only partially blocked LSD-induced Fos-like immunoreactivity in amygdala. Double-labeled immunohistochemistry revealed that LSD did not induce Fos-like immunoreactivity in cortical cells expressing 5-HT(2A) receptors, suggesting an indirect activation of cortical neurons. These results indicate that the LSD activation of medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex is mediated by 5-HT(2A) receptors, whereas in amygdala 5-HT(2A) receptor activation is a component of the response. These findings support the hypothesis that the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and perhaps the amygdala, are important regions involved in the production of hallucinations. Copyright 2002 IBRO

Dopamine D2High receptors stimulated by phencyclidines, lysergic acid diethylamide, salvinorin A, and modafinil.

PubMed

Seeman, Philip; Guan, Hong-Chang; Hirbec, Hélène

2009-08-01

Although it is commonly stated that phencyclidine is an antagonist at ionotropic glutamate receptors, there has been little measure of its potency on other receptors in brain tissue. Although we previously reported that phencyclidine stimulated cloned-dopamine D2Long and D2Short receptors, others reported that phencyclidine did not stimulate D2 receptors in homogenates of rat brain striatum. This study, therefore, examined whether phencyclidine and other hallucinogens and psychostimulants could stimulate the incorporation of [(35)S]GTP-gamma-S into D2 receptors in homogenates of rat brain striatum, using the same conditions as previously used to study the cloned D2 receptors. Using 10 microM dopamine to define 100% stimulation, phencyclidine elicited a maximum incorporation of 46% in rat striata, with a half-maximum concentration of 70 nM for phencyclidine, when compared with 80 nM for dopamine, 89 nM for salvinorin A (48 nM for D2Long), 105 nM for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 120 nM for R-modafinil, 710 nM for dizocilpine, 1030 nM for ketamine, and >10,000 nM for S-modafinil. These compounds also inhibited the binding of the D2-selective ligand [(3)H]domperidone. The incorporation was inhibited by the presence of 200 microM guanylylimidodiphosphate and also by D2 blockade, using 10 microM S-sulpiride, but not by D1 blockade with 10 microM SCH23390. Hypertonic buffer containing 150 mM NaCl inhibited the stimulation by phencyclidine, which may explain negative results by others. It is concluded that phencyclidine and other psychostimulants and hallucinogens can stimulate dopamine D2 receptors at concentrations related to their behavioral actions.

Effectiveness of a Marijuana Expectancy Manipulation: Piloting the Balanced-Placebo Design for Marijuana

PubMed Central

Metrik, Jane; Rohsenow, Damaris J.; Monti, Peter M.; McGeary, John; Cook, Travis A. R.; de Wit, Harriet; Haney, Margaret; Kahler, Christopher W.

2009-01-01

Although alcohol and nicotine administration studies have demonstrated that manipulating subjects’ expectancies regarding drug content affects drug response, research with marijuana has not adequately studied drug expectancy effects. The present pilot study was the first to evaluate the credibility and effect of expectancy manipulation on subjective measures and smoking patterns using a marijuana administration balanced-placebo design (BPD). In a 2 × 2 instructional set (told delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] vs. told no THC) by drug (smoked marijuana with 2.8% THC vs. placebo) between-subjects design, the authors examined the effect of marijuana expectancy manipulation and the pharmacologic effect on affective and physiologic measures, cigarette ratings, and smoking behavior with 20 marijuana smokers (mean age = 20 years; 25% female). Large main effects of expectancy were found on ratings of cigarette potency, strength, taste, smell, and satisfaction, and observed smoking behavior. Pharmacologic effects were particularly evident for self-reported physical reactions to marijuana and cigarette potency and satisfaction ratings. This study demonstrated the feasibility of the BPD research with marijuana and yielded promising results for future studies examining the independent and combined effects of marijuana pharmacology and expectancies. PMID:19653787

Does Marijuana Help Treat Glaucoma?

MedlinePlus

... Ophthalmologist Patient Stories Español Eye Health / Tips & Prevention Marijuana Sections Does Marijuana Help Treat Glaucoma? Why Eye ... Don't Recommend Marijuana for Glaucoma Infographic Does Marijuana Help Treat Glaucoma? Leer en Español: La marihuana ...

Marijuana: Facts for Teens

MedlinePlus

... Publications » Marijuana: Facts for Teens » Letter to Teens Marijuana: Facts for Teens Email Facebook Twitter Letter to ... about 1 in 14 teens say they used marijuana in the past month. 1 So, if you ...

Examining the Relationship between Marijuana Use, Medical Marijuana Dispensaries, and Abusive and Neglectful Parenting

PubMed Central

Freisthler, Bridget; Gruenewald, Paul J.; Wolf, Jennifer Price

2015-01-01

The current study extends previous research by examining whether and how current marijuana use and the physical availability of marijuana are related to child physical abuse, supervisory neglect, or physical neglect by parents while controlling for child, caregiver, and family characteristics in a general population survey in California. Individual level data on marijuana use and abusive and neglectful parenting were collected during a telephone survey of 3,023 respondents living in 50 mid-size cities in California. Medical marijuana dispensaries and delivery services data were obtained via six websites and official city lists. Data were analyzed using negative binomial and linear mixed effects multilevel models with individuals nested within cities. Current marijuana use was positively related to frequency of child physical abuse and negatively related to physical neglect. There was no relationship between supervisory neglect and marijuana use. Density of medical marijuana dispensaries and delivery services was positively related to frequency of physical abuse. As marijuana use becomes more prevalent, those who work with families, including child welfare workers must screen for how marijuana use may affect a parent’s ability to provide for care for their children, particularly related to physical abuse. PMID:26198452

Psychometric evaluation of the Marijuana Reduction Strategies Self-Efficacy Scale with young recreational marijuana users.

PubMed

Davis, Alan K; Osborn, Lawrence A; Rosenberg, Harold; Cross, Nicole; Lauritsen, Kirstin J; Ashrafioun, Lisham; Bradbury, Stacey; Feuille, Margaret; Lackey, Jennifer H; Hawley, Anna; Leith, Jaclyn

2014-12-01

This study evaluated the cue-reactivity and several psychometric properties of a questionnaire designed to assess marijuana users' self-efficacy to employ 21 specific cognitive-behavioral strategies to reduce their marijuana use. Using a web-based recruitment and data-collection procedure, 513 regular marijuana users completed dependent measures following marijuana-related or control cue exposure. Although exposure to marijuana-related stimuli significantly increased reported craving, mean reduction-strategy self-efficacy scores did not differ as a function of cue exposure. Reliability analyses supported retaining all 21 items as a single scale. Reduction-strategy self-efficacy was positively associated with marijuana-refusal self-efficacy and with recent past use of reduction strategies, was negatively associated with quantity and frequency of marijuana use and marijuana-related problems, and was positively but weakly associated with general self-efficacy. The most frequently reported strategies that were employed reflected restricting marijuana use to once per day, not keeping a large stash available, turning down unwanted hits, and not obtaining more marijuana right away if one's supply runs out. These findings further support the reliability and validity of the questionnaire when administered to a diverse sample of regular marijuana users. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Marijuana Use Among Patients With Glaucoma in a City With Legalized Medical Marijuana Use.

PubMed

Belyea, David A; Alhabshan, Rashed; Del Rio-Gonzalez, Ana Maria; Chadha, Nisha; Lamba, Tania; Golshani, Cyrus; Merchant, Kunal; Passi, Neena; Dan, Jacob A

2016-03-01

Previous research has shown several limitations associated with the use of marijuana as a treatment for glaucoma. However, little is known regarding patients' perceptions toward using marijuana for glaucoma and their intentions to use this therapeutic alternative. To identify factors among patients with glaucoma that could lead to intentions to use marijuana for treatment. This cross-sectional survey study of 204 patients with glaucoma or suspected to have glaucoma was conducted at an academic-based glaucoma clinic in Washington, DC, between February 1 and July 31, 2013. Patients completed a self-administered survey assessing demographics, perceived severity of glaucoma, prior knowledge about marijuana use in glaucoma, past marijuana use, perceptions toward marijuana use (legality, systemic adverse effects, safety and effectiveness, and false beliefs), satisfaction with current glaucoma management, relevance of treatment costs, and intentions to use marijuana for glaucoma. Medical records were reviewed for disease severity. Data analysis was conducted from September 1, 2013, to September 30, 2015. The main outcome was patients' intentions to use marijuana for glaucoma. Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with patients' intentions to use marijuana for glaucoma. Of the 334 patients who were invited to participate in the study, 204 (61.1%) completed the survey. About half the participants were women (104 [51.0]%), and 82 (40.2%) were white. Regression analysis of 204 respondents indicated that perceptions of legality of marijuana use (β, 0.378; 95% CI, 0.205 to 0.444; P < .001), false beliefs regarding marijuana (β, 0.323; 95% CI, 0.236 to 0.504; P < .001), satisfaction with current glaucoma care (β, -0.222; 95% CI, -0.362 to -0.128; P < .001), and relevance of marijuana and glaucoma treatment costs (β, 0.127; 95% CI, 0.008 to 0.210; P = .04) were significantly associated with intentions to use marijuana for glaucoma

The impacts of marijuana dispensary density and neighborhood ecology on marijuana abuse and dependence

PubMed Central

Mair, Christina; Freisthler, Bridget; Ponicki, William R.; Gaidus, Andrew

2015-01-01

Background As an increasing number of states liberalize cannabis use and develop laws and local policies, it is essential to better understand the impacts of neighborhood ecology and marijuana dispensary density on marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. We investigated associations between marijuana abuse/dependence hospitalizations and community demographic and environmental conditions from 2001–2012 in California, as well as cross-sectional associations between local and adjacent marijuana dispensary densities and marijuana hospitalizations. Methods We analyzed panel population data relating hospitalizations coded for marijuana abuse or dependence and assigned to residential ZIP codes in California from 2001 through 2012 (20,219 space-time units) to ZIP code demographic and ecological characteristics. Bayesian space-time misalignment models were used to account for spatial variations in geographic unit definitions over time, while also accounting for spatial autocorrelation using conditional autoregressive priors. We also analyzed cross-sectional associations between marijuana abuse/dependence and the density of dispensaries in local and spatially adjacent ZIP codes in 2012. Results An additional one dispensary per square mile in a ZIP code was cross-sectionally associated with a 6.8% increase in the number of marijuana hospitalizations (95% credible interval 1.033, 1.105) with a marijuana abuse/dependence code. Other local characteristics, such as the median household income and age and racial/ethnic distributions, were associated with marijuana hospitalizations in cross-sectional and panel analyses. Conclusions Prevention and intervention programs for marijuana abuse and dependence may be particularly essential in areas of concentrated disadvantage. Policy makers may want to consider regulations that limit the density of dispensaries. PMID:26154479

Marijuana advertising exposure among current marijuana users in the U.S.

PubMed

Krauss, Melissa J; Sowles, Shaina J; Sehi, Auriann; Spitznagel, Edward L; Berg, Carla J; Bierut, Laura J; Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A

2017-05-01

Little is known about marijuana advertising exposure among users in the U.S. We examined the prevalence of advertising exposure among young adult marijuana users through traditional and new media, and identified characteristics associated with seeking advertisements. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 18-34 year-old past-month marijuana users in the U.S. using a pre-existing online panel (N=742). The survey queried about passively viewing and actively seeking marijuana advertisements in the past month, sources of advertisements, and marijuana use characteristics. Over half of participants were exposed to marijuana advertising in the past month (28% passively observed advertisements, 26% actively sought advertisements). Common sources for observing advertisements were digital media (i.e., social media, online, text/emails; 77%). Similarly, those actively seeking advertisements often used Internet search engines (65%) and social media (53%). Seeking advertisements was more common among those who used medically (41% medical only, 36% medical and recreational) than recreational users (18%), who used concentrates or edibles (44% and 43%) compared to those who did not (20% and 19%), and who used multiple times per day (33%) compared to those who did not (19%) (all p<0.01). Exposure to marijuana advertising among users is common, especially via digital media, and is associated with medical use, heavier use, and use of novel products with higher THC concentrations (i.e., concentrates) or longer intoxication duration (i.e., edibles). As the U.S. marijuana policy landscape changes, it will be important to examine potential causal associations between advertising exposure and continuation or frequency/quantity of use. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Marijuana advertising exposure among current marijuana users in the U.S

PubMed Central

Krauss, Melissa J.; Sowles, Shaina J.; Sehi, Auriann; Spitznagel, Edward L.; Berg, Carla J.; Bierut, Laura J.; Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A.

2017-01-01

Background Little is known about marijuana advertising exposure among users in the U.S. We examined the prevalence of advertising exposure among young adult marijuana users through traditional and new media, and identified characteristics associated with seeking advertisements. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 18–34 year-old past-month marijuana users in the U.S. using a pre-existing online panel (N=742). The survey queried about passively viewing and actively seeking marijuana advertisements in the past month, sources of advertisements, and marijuana use characteristics. Results Over half of participants were exposed to marijuana advertising in the past month (28% passively observed advertisements, 26% actively sought advertisements). Common sources for observing advertisements were digital media (i.e., social media, online, text/emails; 77%). Similarly, those actively seeking advertisements often used Internet search engines (65%) and social media (53%). Seeking advertisements was more common among those who used medically (41% medical only, 36% medical and recreational) than recreational users (18%), who used concentrates or edibles (44% and 43%) compared to those who did not (20% and 19%), and who used multiple times per day (33%) compared to those who did not (19%) (all p<0.01). Conclusions Exposure to marijuana advertising among users is common, especially via digital media, and is associated with medical use, heavier use, and use of novel products with higher THC concentrations (i.e., concentrates) or longer intoxication duration (i.e., edibles). As the U.S. marijuana policy landscape changes, it will be important to examine potential causal associations between advertising exposure and continuation or frequency/quantity of use. PMID:28365173

Marijuana protective behavioral strategies as a moderator of the effects of risk/protective factors on marijuana-related outcomes.

PubMed

Bravo, Adrian J; Anthenien, Amber M; Prince, Mark A; Pearson, Matthew R

2017-06-01

Given that both marijuana use and cannabis use disorder peak among college students, it is imperative to determine the factors that may reduce risk of problematic marijuana use and/or the development of cannabis use disorder. From a harm reduction perspective, the present study examined whether the use of marijuana protective behavioral strategies (PBS) buffers or amplifies the effects of several distinct risk and protective factors that have been shown to relate to marijuana-related outcomes (i.e., use frequency and consequences). Specifically, we examined marijuana-PBS use as a moderator of the effects of impulsivity-like traits, marijuana use motives, gender, and marijuana use frequency on marijuana-related outcomes in a large sample of college students (n=2093 past month marijuana users across 11 universities). In all models PBS use was robustly related with use frequency and consequences (i.e., strongly negatively associated with marijuana outcomes). Among interactions, we found: 1) unique significant interactions between specific impulsivity-like traits (i.e., premeditation, perseverance, and sensation seeking) and marijuana-PBS use in predicting marijuana consequences, 2) unique significant interactions between each marijuana use motive and marijuana-PBS use in predicting marijuana use frequency and 3) marijuana-PBS use buffered the risk associated with male gender in predicting both marijuana outcomes. Our results suggest that marijuana-PBS use can buffer risk factors and enhance protective factors among marijuana using college students. Future research is needed to understand context-specific factors and individual-level factors that may make marijuana-PBS use more effective. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Psychosocial correlates of adolescent marijuana use: variations by status of marijuana use.

PubMed

Farhat, Tilda; Simons-Morton, Bruce; Luk, Jeremy W

2011-04-01

This study examined the associations between psychosocial factors and status of marijuana use: former experimentation, current occasional, and current frequent use. Data were collected from a nationally-representative sample of U.S. tenth-graders who participated in the 2005/6 Health Behavior in School-aged Children Study (n=1465). Multinomial regressions, run separately by gender, examined the association of risk and protective factors from the individual (life satisfaction; academic achievement; aggression, bullying) and contextual (mothers and fathers' knowledge of adolescents' activities, school climate) domains with status of marijuana use (former experimentation, current occasional use, current frequent use). Former experimental and current marijuana uses were negatively associated with protective factors such as academic achievement, mothers' and fathers' knowledge of adolescents' activities, and life satisfaction, but not with positive school climate. Former experimental and current marijuana uses were positively associated with aggression and bullying perpetration. Most associations varied by gender and status of marijuana use. In adjusted analyses, aggression emerged as the sole risk factor and fathers' knowledge as the sole protective factor associated with most statuses of marijuana use, across gender. Fathers may be particularly important in preventing adolescent marijuana use, and interventions promoting fathers' knowledge of adolescents' activities are warranted. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Marijuana Use and Cardiovascular Disease.

PubMed

Franz, Christopher A; Frishman, William H

2016-01-01

Marijuana is currently the most used illicit substance in the world. With the current trend of decriminalization and legalization of marijuana in the US, physicians in the US will encounter more patients using marijuana recreationally over a diverse range of ages and health states. Therefore, it is relevant to review marijuana's effects on human cardiovascular physiology and disease. Compared with placebo, marijuana cigarettes cause increases in heart rate, supine systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and forearm blood flow via increased sympathetic nervous system activity. These actions increase myocardial oxygen demand to a degree that they can decrease the time to exercise-induced angina in patients with a history of stable angina. In addition, marijuana has been associated with triggering myocardial infarctions (MIs) in young male patients. Smoking marijuana has been shown to increase the risk of MI onset by a factor of 4.8 for the 60 minutes after marijuana consumption, and to increase the annual risk of MI in the daily cannabis user from 1.5% to 3% per year. Human and animal models suggest that this effect may be due to coronary arterial vasospasm. However, longitudinal studies have indicated that marijuana use may not have a significant effect on long-term mortality. While further research is required to definitively determine the impact of marijuana on cardiovascular disease, it is reasonable to recommend against recreational marijuana use, especially in individuals with a history of coronary artery disorders.

The impacts of marijuana dispensary density and neighborhood ecology on marijuana abuse and dependence.

PubMed

Mair, Christina; Freisthler, Bridget; Ponicki, William R; Gaidus, Andrew

2015-09-01

As an increasing number of states liberalize cannabis use and develop laws and local policies, it is essential to better understand the impacts of neighborhood ecology and marijuana dispensary density on marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. We investigated associations between marijuana abuse/dependence hospitalizations and community demographic and environmental conditions from 2001 to 2012 in California, as well as cross-sectional associations between local and adjacent marijuana dispensary densities and marijuana hospitalizations. We analyzed panel population data relating hospitalizations coded for marijuana abuse or dependence and assigned to residential ZIP codes in California from 2001 through 2012 (20,219 space-time units) to ZIP code demographic and ecological characteristics. Bayesian space-time misalignment models were used to account for spatial variations in geographic unit definitions over time, while also accounting for spatial autocorrelation using conditional autoregressive priors. We also analyzed cross-sectional associations between marijuana abuse/dependence and the density of dispensaries in local and spatially adjacent ZIP codes in 2012. An additional one dispensary per square mile in a ZIP code was cross-sectionally associated with a 6.8% increase in the number of marijuana hospitalizations (95% credible interval 1.033, 1.105) with a marijuana abuse/dependence code. Other local characteristics, such as the median household income and age and racial/ethnic distributions, were associated with marijuana hospitalizations in cross-sectional and panel analyses. Prevention and intervention programs for marijuana abuse and dependence may be particularly essential in areas of concentrated disadvantage. Policy makers may want to consider regulations that limit the density of dispensaries. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

"Anything above marijuana takes priority": Obstetric providers' attitudes and counseling strategies regarding perinatal marijuana use.

PubMed

Holland, Cynthia L; Nkumsah, Michelle Abena; Morrison, Penelope; Tarr, Jill A; Rubio, Doris; Rodriguez, Keri L; Kraemer, Kevin L; Day, Nancy; Arnold, Robert M; Chang, Judy C

2016-09-01

To describe obstetric provider attitudes, beliefs, approaches, concerns, and needs about addressing perinatal marijuana use with their pregnant patients. We conducted individual semi-structured interviews with obstetric providers and asked them to describe their thoughts and experiences about addressing perinatal marijuana use. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, coded and reviewed to identify themes. Fifty-one providers participated in semi-structured interviews. Providers admitted they were not familiar with identified risks of marijuana use during pregnancy, they perceived marijuana was not as dangerous as other illicit drugs, and they believed patients did not view marijuana as a drug. Most provider counseling strategies focused on marijuana's status as an illegal drug and the risk of child protective services being contacted if patients tested positive at time of delivery. When counseling about perinatal marijuana use, obstetric providers focus more on legal issues than on health risks. They describe needing more information regarding medical consequences of marijuana use during pregnancy. Provider training should include information about potential consequences of perinatal marijuana use and address ways to improve obstetric providers' counseling. Future studies should assess changes in providers' attitudes as more states consider the legalization of marijuana. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The availability of medical marijuana dispensary and adolescent marijuana use.

PubMed

Shi, Yuyan

2016-10-01

To examine the association between medical marijuana dispensary (MMD) availability and adolescent marijuana use. The study sample was comprised of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders (N=14,953) from 141 schools in the 2014 Monitoring the Future study, who resided in the 18 states that had legalized medical marijuana as of January 1, 2014. Multilevel logistic regressions with random effects were conducted to quantify the cross-sectional associations of the availability of MMD within 5- and 25-mile buffers from the centroid of school zip codes with self-reported recent use (past-year) and current use (past-month) of marijuana, controlling for individual characteristics and school, zip code, and state contextual factors. In the combined sample, the availability of MMD was not associated with recent or current use of marijuana. Subsample analyses suggested that the availability within a 5-mile buffer was associated with a higher likelihood of recent use in 8th graders (OR=1.93, 95% CI=1.11-3.33) and the availability within a 5- to 25-mile buffer was associated with a higher likelihood of recent use in 10th graders (OR=1.33, 95% CI=1.00-1.77). The availability of MMD was not associated with recent use in 12th graders or current use in any grades. The availability of MMD was not associated with current use of marijuana among adolescents. There was some evidence suggesting that the availability of MMD within short to medium traveling distance may be associated with a higher level of recent use in middle schoolers who are also at a high risk of experimenting with marijuana. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Experiences of marijuana-vaporizer users.

PubMed

Malouff, John M; Rooke, Sally E; Copeland, Jan

2014-01-01

Using a marijuana vaporizer may have potential harm-reduction advantages on smoking marijuana, in that the user does not inhale smoke. Little research has been published on use of vaporizers. In the first study of individuals using a vaporizer on their own initiative, 96 adults anonymously answered questions about their experiences with a vaporizer and their use of marijuana with tobacco. Users identified 4 advantages to using a vaporizer over smoking marijuana: perceived health benefits, better taste, no smoke smell, and more effect from the same amount of marijuana. Users identified 2 disadvantages: inconvenience of setup and cleaning and the time it takes to get the device operating for each use. Only 2 individuals combined tobacco in the vaporizer mix, whereas 15 combined tobacco with marijuana when they smoked marijuana. Almost all participants intended to continue using a vaporizer. Vaporizers seem to have appeal to marijuana users, who perceive them as having harm-reduction and other benefits. Vaporizers are worthy of experimental research evaluating health-related effects of using them.

Rules regarding marijuana and its use in personal residences: findings from marijuana users and nonusers recruited through social media.

PubMed

Berg, Carla J; Buller, David B; Schauer, Gillian L; Windle, Michael; Stratton, Erin; Kegler, Michelle C

2015-01-01

Recent changes in policy and social norms related to marijuana use have increased its use and concern about how/where marijuana should be used. We aimed to characterize rules regarding marijuana and its use in homes. We recruited 1,567 US adults aged 18-34 years through Facebook advertisements to complete an online survey assessing marijuana use, social factors, perceptions of marijuana, and rules regarding marijuana and its use in the home, targeting tobacco and marijuana users to ensure the relevance of this topic. Overall, 648 (41.6%) were current marijuana users; 46.0% of participants reported that "marijuana of any type is not allowed in their home or on their property." Of those allowing marijuana on their property, 6.4% prohibited use of marijuana in their home. Of the remainder, 29.2% prohibited smoking marijuana, and 11.0% prohibited vaping, eating, or drinking marijuana. Correlates of more restrictive rules included younger age, being female, having marijuana, perceiving use to be less socially acceptable and more harmful, and being a nonuser (p's <.05). Attitudes and subjective norms regarding marijuana are correlates of allowing marijuana in residential settings. Future work should examine areas of risk regarding household marijuana rules.

Marijuana and chocolate.

PubMed

James, J S

1996-10-18

Three substances in chocolate and cocoa powder may mimic cannabinoid by activating receptors or increasing anandamide levels. Anandamide is a lipid that binds to cannabinoid receptors and mimics the psychoactive effects of the drug. Chocolate is widely believed to enhance the effect of marijuana. A practical implication of this finding is that the amount of marijuana needed for medicinal purposes may be decreased by using it with chocolate, reducing both the risks and cost associated with marijuana.

The Effect of Medical Marijuana Laws on Marijuana-Related Attitude and Perception Among US Adolescents and Young Adults.

PubMed

Wen, Hefei; Hockenberry, Jason M; Druss, Benjamin G

2018-05-16

Marijuana liberalization policies are gaining momentum in the USA, coupled with limited federal interference and growing dispensary industry. This evolving regulatory landscape underscores the importance of understanding the attitudinal/perceptual pathways from marijuana policy to marijuana use behavior, especially for adolescents and young adults. Our study uses the restricted-access National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) 2004-2012 data and a difference-in-differences design to compare the pre-policy, post-policy changes in marijuana-related attitude/perception between adolescents and young adults from ten states that implemented medical marijuana laws during the study period and those from the remaining states. We examined four attitudinal/perception pathways that may play a role in adolescent and young adult marijuana use behavior, including (1) perceived availability of marijuana, (2) perceived acceptance of marijuana use, (3) perceived wrongfulness of recreational marijuana use, and (4) perceived harmfulness of marijuana use. We found that state implementation of medical marijuana laws between 2004 and 2012 was associated with a 4.72% point increase (95% CI 0.15, 9.28) in the probability that young adults perceived no/low health risk related to marijuana use. Medical marijuana law implementation is also associated with a 0.37% point decrease (95% CI - 0.72, - 0.03) in the probability that adolescents perceived parental acceptance of marijuana use. As more states permit medical marijuana use, marijuana-related attitude/perception need to be closely monitored, especially perceived harmfulness. The physical and psychological effects of marijuana use should be carefully investigated and clearly conveyed to the public.

Examination of the Divergence in Trends for Adolescent Marijuana Use and Marijuana-specific Risk Factors in Washington State

PubMed Central

Fleming, Charles B.; Guttmannova, Katarina; Cambron, Christopher; Rhew, Isaac C.; Oesterle, Sabrina

2016-01-01

Purpose As marijuana laws have become more permissive, survey data on adolescents in the United States have shown an increase in marijuana-specific risk factors, particularly in the proportion of youth who do not perceive marijuana use as harmful. Prevalence of marijuana use among youth, however, has changed little. Using representative data from Washington State, which has legalized medical and nonmedical marijuana for adults, we examined two competing hypotheses to account for this divergence in population trends. Methods Data were from 2000 – 2014 biennial Washington State surveys of 10th-grade students. First, we assessed whether associations between marijuana use and marijuana-specific risk factors have weakened over time. Second, we examined whether decreases in alcohol and cigarette use can account for the lack of expected increase in marijuana use prevalence. Results Despite stability in marijuana use prevalence, there were increases in marijuana-specific risk factors of low perceived harm, youth favorable attitudes about use, and perceived community attitudes favorable to use. Associations between marijuana use and marijuana-use predictors varied little across time; if anything, the positive association between low perceived harm and marijuana use grew stronger. Decreases in prevalence of alcohol and cigarette use largely accounted for stability in marijuana use during a period when marijuana risk factors increased. Conclusions Decreases in other types of substance use or in the underlying, common risk for substance use may have mitigated effects of increases in marijuana-specific risk factors. PMID:27318426

Marijuana use and mortality.

PubMed Central

Sidney, S; Beck, J E; Tekawa, I S; Quesenberry, C P; Friedman, G D

1997-01-01

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of marijuana use to mortality. METHODS: The study population comprised 65171 Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program enrollees, aged 15 through 49 years, who completed questionnaires about smoking habits, including marijuana use, between 1979 and 1985. Mortality follow-up was conducted through 1991. RESULTS: Compared with nonuse or experimentation (lifetime use six or fewer times), current marijuana use was not associated with a significantly increased risk of non-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) mortality in men (relative risk [RR] = 1.12, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.89, 1.39) or of total mortality in women (RR = 1.09, 95% CI = 0.80, 1.48). Current marijuana use was associated with increased risk of AIDS mortality in men (RR = 1.90, 95% CI = 1.33, 2.73), an association that probably was not causal but most likely represented uncontrolled confounding by male homosexual behavior. This interpretation was supported by the lack of association of marijuana use with AIDS mortality in men from a Kaiser Permanente AIDS database. Relative risks for ever use of marijuana were similar. CONCLUSIONS: Marijuana use in a prepaid health care-based study cohort had little effect on non-AIDS mortality in men and on total mortality in women. PMID:9146436

Planting the seed for marijuana use: Changes in exposure to medical marijuana advertising and subsequent adolescent marijuana use, cognitions, and consequences over seven years.

PubMed

D'Amico, Elizabeth J; Rodriguez, Anthony; Tucker, Joan S; Pedersen, Eric R; Shih, Regina A

2018-05-10

Marijuana use during adolescence is associated with neurocognitive deficits and poorer functioning across several domains. It is likely that more states will pass both medical and recreational marijuana legalization laws in the coming elections; therefore, we must begin to look more closely at the longitudinal effects of medical marijuana (MM) advertising on marijuana use among adolescents so that we can better understand effects that this advertising may have on their subsequent marijuana use and related outcomes. We followed two cohorts of 7th and 8th graders (mean age 13) recruited from school districts in Southern California from 2010 until 2017 (mean age 19) to examine effects of MM advertising on adolescents' marijuana use, cognitions, and consequences over seven years. Latent growth models examined trajectories of self-reported exposure to medical marijuana ads in the past three months and trajectories of use, cognitions, and consequences. Higher average exposure to MM advertising was associated with higher average use, intentions to use, positive expectancies, and negative consequences. Similarly, higher rates of change in MM advertising exposure were associated with higher rates of change in use, intentions, expectancies, and consequences over seven years. Results suggest that exposure to MM advertising may not only play a significant role in shaping attitudes about marijuana, but may also contribute to increased marijuana use and related negative consequences throughout adolescence. This highlights the importance of considering regulations for marijuana advertising, similar to regulations in place for the promotion of tobacco and alcohol in the U.S. Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Comparison of the analgesic effects of dronabinol and smoked marijuana in daily marijuana smokers.

PubMed

Cooper, Ziva D; Comer, Sandra D; Haney, Margaret

2013-09-01

Recent studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids to treat pain, yet none have compared the analgesic effectiveness of smoked marijuana to orally administered Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; dronabinol). This randomized, placebo-controlled, double-dummy, double-blind study compared the magnitude and duration of analgesic effects of smoked marijuana and dronabinol under well-controlled conditions using a validated experimental model of pain. Healthy male (N=15) and female (N=15) daily marijuana smokers participated in this outpatient study comparing the analgesic, subjective, and physiological effects of marijuana (0.00, 1.98, or 3.56% THC) to dronabinol (0, 10, or 20 mg). Pain response was assessed using the cold-pressor test (CPT): participants immersed their left hand in cold water (4 °C), and the time to report pain (pain sensitivity) and withdraw the hand from the water (pain tolerance) were recorded. Subjective pain and drug effect ratings were also measured as well as cardiovascular effects. Compared with placebo, marijuana and dronabinol decreased pain sensitivity (3.56%; 20 mg), increased pain tolerance (1.98%; 20 mg), and decreased subjective ratings of pain intensity (1.98, 3.56%; 20 mg). The magnitude of peak change in pain sensitivity and tolerance did not differ between marijuana and dronabinol, although dronabinol produced analgesia that was of a longer duration. Marijuana (1.98, 3.56%) and dronabinol (20 mg) also increased abuse-related subjective ratings relative to placebo; these ratings were greater with marijuana. These data indicate that under controlled conditions, marijuana and dronabinol decreased pain, with dronabinol producing longer-lasting decreases in pain sensitivity and lower ratings of abuse-related subjective effects than marijuana.

Does Marijuana Contribute to Intimate Partner Aggression? Temporal Effects in a Community Sample of Marijuana-Using Couples.

PubMed

Testa, Maria; Derrick, Jaye L; Wang, Weijun; Leonard, Kenneth E; Kubiak, Audrey; Brown, Whitney C; Collins, R Lorraine

2018-05-01

Although patterns of marijuana use are positively associated with intimate partner aggression, there is little evidence that episodes of marijuana use contribute to the occurrence of episodes of relationship conflict and aggression. The present ecological momentary assessment study considered the temporal relationship between marijuana use episodes and the occurrence of conflict, verbal aggression, and physical aggression between intimate partners in the next 2 hours. A sample of 183 cohabiting marijuana-using couples (ages 18-30) were recruited from the community. For 30 consecutive days, each partner independently reported episodes of marijuana use and partner conflict, including verbal and physical aggression perpetration and victimization within conflicts. Temporal associations between each partner's marijuana use and subsequent conflict and aggression were examined using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. Analyses accounted for between-person effects of marijuana use frequency and total conflicts. We observed temporal effects of actor (but not partner) marijuana use on men's and women's reports of conflict and verbal aggression perpetration and victimization within 2 hours of use. Marijuana use episodes did not alter the likelihood of physical aggression in the next 2 hours. Partner concordance in marijuana use had no effect on verbal or physical aggression or victimization. The positive temporal effects of marijuana on conflict and verbal aggression remained significant after accounting for the effect of drinking episodes. Within generally concordant, marijuana-using young couples, marijuana use episodes contribute to the occurrence of relationship conflict and verbal aggression.

Research Reports: Marijuana

MedlinePlus

... c to copy Marijuana and Cannabinoids: A Neuroscience Research Summit March 22-23, 2016 Meeting Summary Featured ... Parents Need to Know Marijuana: Facts for Teens ​Research Reports This series of reports simplifies the science ...

Complex discriminative stimulus properties of (+)lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in C57Bl/6J mice.

PubMed

Benneyworth, Michael A; Smith, Randy L; Barrett, Robert J; Sanders-Bush, Elaine

2005-06-01

The drug discrimination procedure is the most frequently used in vivo model of hallucinogen activity. Historically, most drug discrimination studies have been conducted in the rat. With the development of genetically modified mice, a powerful new tool has become available for investigating the mechanisms of drug-induced behavior. The current paper is part of an ongoing effort to determine the utility of the drug discrimination technique for evaluating hallucinogenic drugs in mice. To establish the training procedures and characterize the stimulus properties of (+)lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in mice. Using a two-lever drug discrimination procedure, C57Bl/6J mice were trained to discriminate 0.45 mg/kg LSD vs saline on a VI30 sec schedule of reinforcement, with vanilla-flavored Ensure serving as the reinforcer. As in rats, acquisition was orderly, but the training dose was nearly five-fold higher for mice than rats. LSD lever selection was dose-dependent. Time-course studies revealed a rapid loss of the LSD stimulus effects. The 5-HT(2A/2C) receptor agonist, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine [(-)DOB] (1.0 mg/kg), substituted fully for LSD and the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist, 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)-tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) (1.6 mg/kg), substituted partially for LSD. Pretreatment with the 5-HT(2A) receptor-selective antagonist, MDL 100907, or the 5-HT(1A)-selective antagonist WAY 100635, showed that each antagonist only partially blocked LSD discrimination. Substitution of 1.0 mg/kg (-)DOB for LSD was fully blocked by pretreatment with MDL 100907 but unaltered by WAY 100635 pretreatment. These data suggest that in mice the stimulus effects of LSD have both a 5-HT(2A) receptor and a 5-HT(1A) receptor component.

Can Marijuana Make It Better? Prospective Effects of Marijuana and Temperament on Risk for Anxiety and Depression

PubMed Central

Grunberg, Victoria A.; Cordova, Kismet A.; Bidwell, L. Cinnamon; Ito, Tiffany A.

2015-01-01

Increases in marijuana use in recent years highlight the importance of understanding how marijuana affects mental health. Of particular relevance is the effect of marijuana use on anxiety and depression given that marijuana use is highest among late adolescents/early adults, the same age range in which risk for anxiety and depression is the highest. Here we examine how marijuana use moderates the effects of temperament on level of anxiety and depression in a prospective design in which baseline marijuana use and temperament predict anxiety and depression one year later. We found that harm avoidance (HA) is associated with higher anxiety and depression a year later, but only among those low in marijuana use. Those higher in marijuana use show no relation between HA and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Marijuana use also moderated the effect of novelty seeking (NS), with symptoms of anxiety and depression increasing with NS only among those with high marijuana use. NS was unrelated to symptoms of anxiety and depression among those low in marijuana use. The temperament dimension of reward dependence was unrelated to anxiety and depression symptoms. Our results suggest that marijuana use does not have an invariant relationship with anxiety and depression, and that the effects of relatively stable temperament dimensions can be moderated by other contextual factors. PMID:26415059

Can marijuana make it better? Prospective effects of marijuana and temperament on risk for anxiety and depression.

PubMed

Grunberg, Victoria A; Cordova, Kismet A; Bidwell, L Cinnamon; Ito, Tiffany A

2015-09-01

Increases in marijuana use in recent years highlight the importance of understanding how marijuana affects mental health. Of particular relevance is the effect of marijuana use on anxiety and depression given that marijuana use is highest among late adolescents/early adults, the same age range in which risk for anxiety and depression is the highest. Here we examine how marijuana use moderates the effects of temperament on level of anxiety and depression in a prospective design in which baseline marijuana use and temperament predict anxiety and depression 1 year later. We found that harm avoidance (HA) is associated with higher anxiety and depression a year later, but only among those low in marijuana use. Those higher in marijuana use show no relation between HA and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Marijuana use also moderated the effect of novelty seeking (NS), with symptoms of anxiety and depression increasing with NS only among those with high marijuana use. NS was unrelated to symptoms of anxiety and depression among those low in marijuana use. The temperament dimension of reward dependence was unrelated to anxiety and depression symptoms. Our results suggest that marijuana use does not have an invariant relationship with anxiety and depression, and that the effects of relatively stable temperament dimensions can be moderated by other contextual factors. (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).

Marijuana. Specialized Information Service.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Do It Now Foundation, Phoenix, AZ.

The document presents a collection of articles about marijuana. Article 1 reports on the results of a study by the National Academy of Sciences on the health effects of marijuana. A summary report of adverse health and behavioral consequences of cannabis (marijuana) use is provided in article 2. Article 3 presents the Surgeon General's warnings on…

Comparison of the Analgesic Effects of Dronabinol and Smoked Marijuana in Daily Marijuana Smokers

PubMed Central

Cooper, Ziva D; Comer, Sandra D; Haney, Margaret

2013-01-01

Recent studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids to treat pain, yet none have compared the analgesic effectiveness of smoked marijuana to orally administered Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; dronabinol). This randomized, placebo-controlled, double-dummy, double-blind study compared the magnitude and duration of analgesic effects of smoked marijuana and dronabinol under well-controlled conditions using a validated experimental model of pain. Healthy male (N=15) and female (N=15) daily marijuana smokers participated in this outpatient study comparing the analgesic, subjective, and physiological effects of marijuana (0.00, 1.98, or 3.56% THC) to dronabinol (0, 10, or 20 mg). Pain response was assessed using the cold-pressor test (CPT): participants immersed their left hand in cold water (4 °C), and the time to report pain (pain sensitivity) and withdraw the hand from the water (pain tolerance) were recorded. Subjective pain and drug effect ratings were also measured as well as cardiovascular effects. Compared with placebo, marijuana and dronabinol decreased pain sensitivity (3.56% 20 mg), increased pain tolerance (1.98% 20 mg), and decreased subjective ratings of pain intensity (1.98, 3.56% 20 mg). The magnitude of peak change in pain sensitivity and tolerance did not differ between marijuana and dronabinol, although dronabinol produced analgesia that was of a longer duration. Marijuana (1.98, 3.56%) and dronabinol (20 mg) also increased abuse-related subjective ratings relative to placebo; these ratings were greater with marijuana. These data indicate that under controlled conditions, marijuana and dronabinol decreased pain, with dronabinol producing longer-lasting decreases in pain sensitivity and lower ratings of abuse-related subjective effects than marijuana. PMID:23609132

Stigma among California's Medical Marijuana Patients.

PubMed

Satterlund, Travis D; Lee, Juliet P; Moore, Roland S

2015-01-01

The enactment of California's Proposition 215 stipulates that patients may use marijuana for medical reasons, provided that it is recommended by a physician. Yet, medical marijuana patients risk being stigmatized for this practice. This article examines the way in which medical marijuana patients perceive and process stigma, and how it affects their interactions and experiences with others. Eighteen semi-structured interviews of medical marijuana patients were carried out using a semi-structured interview guide. Most patients circumvented their own physicians in obtaining a recommendation to use medicinal marijuana, and also used a host of strategies in order to justify their medical marijuana use to family, friends, and colleagues in order to stave off potential stigma. The stigmatization of medical marijuana thus has a profound effect on how patients seek treatment, and whether they seek medical marijuana treatment at all.

Stigma Among California's Medical Marijuana Patients

PubMed Central

Satterlund, Travis D.; Lee, Juliet P.; Moore, Roland S.

2014-01-01

The enactment of California's Proposition 215 stipulates that patients may use marijuana for medical reasons, provided that it is recommended by a physician. Yet, medical marijuana patients risk being stigmatized for this practice. This paper examines the way in which medical marijuana patients perceive and process stigma, and how it affects their interactions and experiences with others. Eighteen semi-structured interviews of medical marijuana patients were carried out using a semi-structured interview guide. Most patients circumvented their own physicians in obtaining a recommendation to use medicinal marijuana, and also used a host of strategies in order to justify their medical marijuana use to family, friends and colleagues in order to stave off potential stigma. The stigmatization of medical marijuana thus has a profound effect on how patients seek treatment, and whether they seek medical marijuana treatment at all. PMID:25715067

Reasons for Marijuana Use Among Young Adults and Long-Term Associations With Marijuana Use and Problems

PubMed Central

Patrick, Megan E.; Bray, Bethany C.; Berglund, Patricia A.

2016-01-01

Objective: This study examines reasons for marijuana use among young adults age 19/20 in the United States and the extent to which patterns of reasons are associated with marijuana use and problems 15 years later. Method: The national Monitoring the Future study provided data on marijuana users at age 19/20 who were also surveyed at age 35 (n = 2,288; 50% women; 83% White). Latent class analysis was used to identify distinct patterns of reasons for marijuana use, which were then used as predictors of later marijuana use and problems. Results: Five latent classes described the following patterns of reasons for marijuana use at age 19/20: Experimental, Get High + Relax, Typical, Typical + Escape, and Coping + Drug Use. Highest risk for later marijuana use and problems was found for people with Coping + Drug Use and Get High + Relax reasons in young adulthood; those with Experimental reasons were at lowest risk for later use or problems. Conclusions: Coping and getting high emerged as strong predictors of later marijuana use and problems. Results support the predictive value of self-reported reasons for using marijuana among young adults. PMID:27797689

The Impact of Recreational Marijuana Legislation in Washington, DC on Marijuana Use Cognitions.

PubMed

Clarke, Paige; Dodge, Tonya; Stock, Michelle L

2018-04-13

There is little published research that tests the effect of recreational marijuana legislation on risk-related cognitions and how individuals respond immediately after legislative approval. The objective was to test whether learning about the passage of Initiative 71, a voter referendum that legalized recreational use of marijuana in the District of Columbia, would lead individuals to adopt more favorable marijuana cognitions than they had before the Initiative was passed. Undergraduate students (N = 402) completed two web-based questionnaires in 2014. The first questionnaire was completed prior to the referendum vote and the follow-up questionnaire was completed after voters approved Initiative 71. Attitudes, perceived norms, intentions, prototypes, and willingness were measured at time 1 and time 2. Study hypotheses were tested using repeated-measures analysis of covariance. Results showed that attitudes, intentions, perceived norms, and willingness to use marijuana were more favorable after Initiative 71 was passed. However, the increase in attitudes and willingness was moderated by past experience with marijuana whereby the increases were statistically significant only among those with the least experience. The increase in perceived norms was also moderated by past experience whereby increases were statistically significant among those who were moderate or heavy users. The passage of Initiative 71 had no effect on favorable prototypes. Conclusion/Importance: Legalization may have the unintended outcome of leading to more favorable intentions to use marijuana and might lead abstainers or experimental users to become more frequent users of marijuana via more positive attitudes and willingness towards marijuana use.

Marijuana withdrawal and aggression among a representative sample of U.S. marijuana users

PubMed Central

Smith, Philip H.; Homish, Gregory G.; Leonard, Kenneth E.; Collins, R. Lorraine

2013-01-01

Background Previous laboratory-based research suggests that withdrawal from marijuana may cause increased aggression. It is unclear whether this finding extends beyond the laboratory setting to the general population of marijuana users. The purpose of this study was to test a cross-sectional association between marijuana withdrawal symptoms and aggression among a representative sample of U.S. adult marijuana users, and to test whether this association was moderated by previous history of aggression. Methods Data were analyzed from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Wave Two data (2004–2005) were used for all variables except for history of aggression, which was assessed during the Wave One interview (2001–2002). Two outcomes were examined: self-report general aggression and relationship aggression. Odds ratios for aggression based on withdrawal symptoms and the interaction between withdrawal symptoms and history of aggression were calculated using logistic regression, adjusting for covariates and accounting for the complex survey design. Results Among marijuana users with a history of aggression, marijuana withdrawal was associated with approximately 60% higher odds of past year relationship aggression (p < 0.05). There was no association between withdrawal symptoms and relationship aggression among those without a history of aggression, and no association with general aggression regardless of history of aggression. Conclusions The findings from this study support the notion that laboratory-based increases in aggression due to marijuana withdrawal extend to the general population of marijuana users who have a previous history of aggression. PMID:23380439

Pharmacokinetics and Concentration-Effect Relationship of Oral LSD in Humans.

PubMed

Dolder, Patrick C; Schmid, Yasmin; Haschke, Manuel; Rentsch, Katharina M; Liechti, Matthias E

2015-06-24

The pharmacokinetics of oral lysergic acid diethylamide are unknown despite its common recreational use and renewed interest in its use in psychiatric research and practice. We characterized the pharmacokinetic profile, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship, and urine recovery of lysergic acid diethylamide and its main metabolite after administration of a single oral dose of lysergic acid diethylamide (200 μg) in 8 male and 8 female healthy subjects. Plasma lysergic acid diethylamide concentrations were quantifiable (>0.1 ng/mL) in all the subjects up to 12 hours after administration. Maximal concentrations of lysergic acid diethylamide (mean±SD: 4.5±1.4 ng/mL) were reached (median, range) 1.5 (0.5-4) hours after administration. Concentrations then decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-life of 3.6±0.9 hours up to 12 hours and slower elimination thereafter with a terminal half-life of 8.9±5.9 hours. One percent of the orally administered lysergic acid diethylamide was eliminated in urine as lysergic acid diethylamide, and 13% was eliminated as 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-lysergic acid diethylamide within 24 hours. No sex differences were observed in the pharmacokinetic profiles of lysergic acid diethylamide. The acute subjective and sympathomimetic responses to lysergic acid diethylamide lasted up to 12 hours and were closely associated with the concentrations in plasma over time and exhibited no acute tolerance. These first data on the pharmacokinetics and concentration-effect relationship of oral lysergic acid diethylamide are relevant for further clinical studies and serve as a reference for the assessment of intoxication with lysergic acid diethylamide. © The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of CINP.

Pharmacokinetics and Concentration-Effect Relationship of Oral LSD in Humans

PubMed Central

Dolder, Patrick C.; Schmid, Yasmin; Haschke, Manuel; Rentsch, Katharina M.

2016-01-01

Background: The pharmacokinetics of oral lysergic acid diethylamide are unknown despite its common recreational use and renewed interest in its use in psychiatric research and practice. Methods: We characterized the pharmacokinetic profile, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship, and urine recovery of lysergic acid diethylamide and its main metabolite after administration of a single oral dose of lysergic acid diethylamide (200 μg) in 8 male and 8 female healthy subjects. Results: Plasma lysergic acid diethylamide concentrations were quantifiable (>0.1ng/mL) in all the subjects up to 12 hours after administration. Maximal concentrations of lysergic acid diethylamide (mean±SD: 4.5±1.4ng/mL) were reached (median, range) 1.5 (0.5–4) hours after administration. Concentrations then decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-life of 3.6±0.9 hours up to 12 hours and slower elimination thereafter with a terminal half-life of 8.9±5.9 hours. One percent of the orally administered lysergic acid diethylamide was eliminated in urine as lysergic acid diethylamide, and 13% was eliminated as 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-lysergic acid diethylamide within 24 hours. No sex differences were observed in the pharmacokinetic profiles of lysergic acid diethylamide. The acute subjective and sympathomimetic responses to lysergic acid diethylamide lasted up to 12 hours and were closely associated with the concentrations in plasma over time and exhibited no acute tolerance. Conclusions: These first data on the pharmacokinetics and concentration-effect relationship of oral lysergic acid diethylamide are relevant for further clinical studies and serve as a reference for the assessment of intoxication with lysergic acid diethylamide. PMID:26108222

Role of the 5-HT2A Receptor in Self- and Other-Initiated Social Interaction in Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-Induced States: A Pharmacological fMRI Study.

PubMed

Preller, Katrin H; Schilbach, Leonhard; Pokorny, Thomas; Flemming, Jan; Seifritz, Erich; Vollenweider, Franz X

2018-04-04

Distortions of self-experience are critical symptoms of psychiatric disorders and have detrimental effects on social interactions. In light of the immense need for improved and targeted interventions for social impairments, it is important to better understand the neurochemical substrates of social interaction abilities. We therefore investigated the pharmacological and neural correlates of self- and other-initiated social interaction. In a double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced, crossover study 24 healthy human participants (18 males and 6 females) received either (1) placebo + placebo, (2) placebo + lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD; 100 μg, p.o.), or (3) ketanserin (40 mg, p.o.) + LSD (100 μg, p.o.) on three different occasions. Participants took part in an interactive task using eye-tracking and functional magnetic resonance imaging completing trials of self- and other-initiated joint and non-joint attention. Results demonstrate first, that LSD reduced activity in brain areas important for self-processing, but also social cognition; second, that change in brain activity was linked to subjective experience; and third, that LSD decreased the efficiency of establishing joint attention. Furthermore, LSD-induced effects were blocked by the serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT 2A R) antagonist ketanserin, indicating that effects of LSD are attributable to 5-HT 2A R stimulation. The current results demonstrate that activity in areas of the "social brain" can be modulated via the 5-HT 2A R thereby pointing toward this system as a potential target for the treatment of social impairments associated with psychiatric disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Distortions of self-representation and, potentially related to this, dysfunctional social cognition are central hallmarks of various psychiatric disorders and critically impact disease development, progression, treatment, as well as real-world functioning. However, these deficits are insufficiently targeted by current treatment

Perceptions of Social Norms and Exposure to Pro-Marijuana Messages Are Associated with Adolescent Marijuana Use

PubMed Central

Roditis, Maria L.; Delucchi, Kevin; Chang, Audrey; Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie

2016-01-01

Despite consistent declines in rates of cigarette use among adolescents in the last five years, rates of marijuana use have remained constant, with marijuana being the most widely used illegal drug among adolescents. More work is needed to understand how social norms, perceived risks and benefits, and social media messaging impact use of marijuana. This study compared perceptions and social norms related to marijuana, blunts and cigarettes. Additionally, we assessed how perceptions related to social norms, risks and benefits, and exposure to pro- versus anti-marijuana messaging is related to use. Participants were 786 adolescents from Southern and Northern California (36.7% male, 63.3% females; mean age = 16.1 years; SD = 1.6). Participants came from diverse ethnic backgrounds, with 207 (26.61%) White, 171 (21.98%) Asian/Pacific Islander, 232 (29.82%) Hispanic, and 168 (21.59%) other. Results indicated that marijuana and blunts were consistently perceived as more socially acceptable and less risky than cigarettes (p<0.01). Participants who reported that their friends used marijuana had a 27% greater odds of using marijuana themselves. Further, seeing messages about the good things or benefits of marijuana use was associated with a 6% greater odds of use [OR 1.06 (CI 1.00, 1.12)]. This study's findings offer a number of important public health implications, particularly as states move towards legalization of marijuana for recreational use. As this occurs, states need to take adolescents’ perceptions of risks, benefits, social norms, and peer influences into account as they implement strategies to reduce youth use of marijuana and blunts. PMID:27746339

Marijuana Use in Pregnancy.

PubMed

Roth, Cheryl K; Satran, Lori A; Smith, Shauna M

2015-01-01

With the legalization of both medical and recreational use of marijuana in some U.S. states, nurses and other clinicians should be prepared to care for pregnant women who have used marijuana during pregnancy. This column describes the prevalence of cannabis use among women, the effect cannabis has on the body and the potential maternal, fetal and neonatal effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. © 2015 AWHONN.

Marijuana - Multiple Languages

MedlinePlus

... Facts about Marijuana - العربية (Arabic) PDF Karen Chemical Dependency Taskforce of Minnesota Burmese (myanma bhasa) Expand Section ... about Marijuana - myanma bhasa (Burmese) MP3 Karen Chemical Dependency Taskforce of Minnesota Dari (دری) Expand Section Facts ...

Perceptions of social norms and exposure to pro-marijuana messages are associated with adolescent marijuana use.

PubMed

Roditis, Maria L; Delucchi, Kevin; Chang, Audrey; Halpern-Felsher, Bonnie

2016-12-01

Despite consistent declines in rates of cigarette use among adolescents in the last five years, rates of marijuana use have remained constant, with marijuana being the most widely used illegal drug among adolescents. More work is needed to understand how social norms, perceived risks and benefits, and social media messaging impact use of marijuana. This study compared perceptions and social norms related to marijuana, blunts and cigarettes. Additionally, we assessed how perceptions related to social norms, risks and benefits, and exposure to pro- versus anti-marijuana messaging is related to use. Participants were 786 adolescents from Southern and Northern California (36.7% male, 63.21% females; mean age=16.1years; SD=1.6). Participants came from diverse ethnic backgrounds, with 207 (26.61%) White, 171 (21.98%) Asian/Pacific Islander, 232 (29.82%) Hispanic, and 168 (21.59%) other. Results indicated that marijuana and blunts were consistently perceived as more socially acceptable and less risky than cigarettes (p<0.01). Participants who reported that their friends used marijuana had a 27% greater odds of using marijuana themselves. Further, seeing messages about the good things or benefits of marijuana use was associated with a 6% greater odds of use [OR 1.06 (CI 1.00, 1.12)]. This study's findings offer a number of important public health implications, particularly as states move towards legalization of marijuana for recreational use. As this occurs, states need to take adolescents' perceptions of risks, benefits, social norms, and peer influences into account as they implement strategies to reduce youth use of marijuana and blunts. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Marijuana poisoning.

PubMed

Fitzgerald, Kevin T; Bronstein, Alvin C; Newquist, Kristin L

2013-02-01

The plant Cannabis sativa has been used for centuries for the effects of its psychoactive resins. The term "marijuana" typically refers to tobacco-like preparations of the leaves and flowers. The plant contains more than 400 chemicals but the cannabinoid δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the major psychoactive constituent. "Hashish" is the resin extracted from the tops of flowering plants and generally has a much higher THC concentration. Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States. Currently, several states have passed legislation to decriminalize possession of small amounts of marijuana for both medical and personal use and several other states have similar legislation under consideration. The most common form of marijuana use in humans is inhalation of the smoke of marijuana cigarettes, followed by ingestion. In animals, although secondhand smoke inhalation is possible, the most common source of exposure is through ingestion of the owner's marijuana supply. The minimum lethal oral dose for dogs for THC is more than 3 g/kg. Although the drug has a high margin of safety, deaths have been seen after ingestion of food products containing the more concentrated medical-grade THC butter. There are two specific cannabinoid receptors in humans and dogs, CB1 (primarily in central nervous system) and CB2 (peripheral tissues). In animals, following oral ingestion, clinical effects begin within 60 minutes. All of the neuropharmacologic mechanisms by which cannabinoids produce psychoactive effects have not been identified. However, CB1 activity is believed to be responsible for the majority of cannabinoid clinical effects. Highly lipid soluble, THC is distributed in fat, liver, brain, and renal tissue. Fifteen percent of THC is excreted into the urine and the rest is eliminated in the feces through biliary excretion. Clinical signs of canine intoxication include depression, hypersalivation, mydriasis, hypermetria, vomiting, urinary incontinence

Adolescents’ Attitudes toward Anti-marijuana Ads, Usage Intentions, and Actual Marijuana Usage

PubMed Central

Alvaro, Eusebio M.; Crano, William D.; Siegel, Jason T.; Hohman, Zachary; Johnson, Ian; Nakawaki, Brandon

2015-01-01

The association of adolescents’ appraisals of the anti-marijuana television ads used in the National Youth Anti-drug Media Campaign with future marijuana use was investigated. The 12 to 18 year old respondents (N = 2993) were first classified as users, resolute nonusers, or vulnerable nonusers (Crano, Siegel, Alvaro, Lac, & Hemovich, 2008). Usage status and the covariates of gender, age, and attitudes toward marijuana were used to predict attitudes toward the ads (Aad) in the first phase of a multi-level linear analysis. All covariates were significantly associated with Aad, as was usage status: resolute nonusers evaluated the ads significantly more positively than vulnerable nonusers and users (all p < .001), who did not differ. In the second phase, the covariates along with Aad and respondents’ usage status predicted intentions and actual usage one year after initial measurement. The lagged analysis disclosed negative associations between Aad and usage intentions, and between Aad and actual marijuana use (both p < .05); however, this association held only for users (p < .01), not vulnerable or resolute nonusers. Users reporting more positive attitudes towards the ads were less likely to report intention to use marijuana and to continue marijuana use at 1-year follow-up. These findings may inform designers of persuasion-based prevention campaigns, guiding pre-implementation efforts in the design of ads that targeted groups find appealing and thus, influential. PMID:23528197

Medical marijuana: California update.

PubMed

James, J S

1996-08-23

The Cannabis Buyers' Club in San Francisco remains closed after it was raided by the office of California Attorney General Dan Lungren. Many individuals with serious illnesses such as AIDS and cancer are without safe access to medical marijuana to relieve the symptoms of their diseases. The need for access to medicinal marijuana, the return of the confiscated confidential medical records held at the buyers' club, and the passage of California Proposition 215 in the November election, which allows for the legitimate use of marijuana for medical purposes are of immediate concern. Since the raid, the Cannabis Buyers' Club has denied charges that it sold marijuana to teenagers, saying the drug was sold to a teen's mother, an undercover narcotics officer. However, the club admitted to sales to non-medical individuals who used fraudulent documents in order to obtain the drug and acknowledges the need to tighten procedures. Individuals may be able to obtain marijuana at other buyers' clubs if they have documentation of a medical need. While literature on the medical use of marijuana is lacking, the Federal government continues to block any efforts toward medical research on this issue. A list of other cannabis buyers' clubs in California is included, as well as a list of organizations working for Proposition 215.

Brain glucose metabolism in chronic marijuana users at baseline and during marijuana intoxication.

PubMed

Volkow, N D; Gillespie, H; Mullani, N; Tancredi, L; Grant, C; Valentine, A; Hollister, L

1996-05-31

Despite the widespread abuse of marijuana, knowledge about its effects in the human brain is limited. Brain glucose metabolism with and without delta 9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (main psychoactive component of marijuana) was evaluated in eight normal subjects and eight chronic marijuana abusers with positron emission tomography. At baseline, marijuana abusers showed lower relative cerebellar metabolism than normal subjects. THC increased relative cerebellar metabolism in all subjects, but only abusers showed increases in orbitofrontal cortex, prefrontal cortex, and basal ganglia. Cerebellar metabolism during THC intoxication was significantly correlated with the subjective sense of intoxication. The decreased cerebellar metabolism in marijuana abusers at baseline could account for the motor deficits previously reported in these subjects. The activation of orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia by THC in the abusers but not in the normal subjects could underlie one of the mechanisms leading to the drive and the compulsion to self-administer the drug observed in addicted individuals.

Automated extraction of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and N-demethyl-LSD from blood, serum, plasma, and urine samples using the Zymark RapidTrace with LC/MS/MS confirmation.

PubMed

de Kanel, J; Vickery, W E; Waldner, B; Monahan, R M; Diamond, F X

1998-05-01

A forensic procedure for the quantitative confirmation of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and the qualitative confirmation of its metabolite, N-demethyl-LSD, in blood, serum, plasma, and urine samples is presented. The Zymark RapidTrace was used to perform fully automated solid-phase extractions of all specimen types. After extract evaporation, confirmations were performed using liquid chromatography (LC) followed by positive electrospray ionization (ESI+) mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (MS/MS) without derivatization. Quantitation of LSD was accomplished using LSD-d3 as an internal standard. The limit of quantitation (LOQ) for LSD was 0.05 ng/mL. The limit of detection (LOD) for both LSD and N-demethyl-LSD was 0.025 ng/mL. The recovery of LSD was greater than 95% at levels of 0.1 ng/mL and 2.0 ng/mL. For LSD at 1.0 ng/mL, the within-run and between-run (different day) relative standard deviation (RSD) was 2.2% and 4.4%, respectively.

Effect of intravenous administration of d-lysergic acid diethylamide on subsequent protein synthesis in a cell-free system derived from brain.

PubMed

Cosgrove, J W; Clark, B D; Brown, I R

1981-03-01

An initiating cell-free protein synthesis system derived from brain was utilized to demonstrate that the intravenous injection of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) to rabbits induced a transient inhibition of translation following a brief stimulatory period. Subfractionation of the brain cell-free system into postribosomal supernatant (PRS) and microsome fractions demonstrated that LSD in vivo induced alterations in both of these fractions. In addition to the overall inhibition of translation in the cell-free system, differential effects were noted, i.e., greater than average relative decreases in in vitro labeling of certain brain proteins and relative increases in others. The brain proteins of molecular weights 75K and 95K, which were increased in relative labeling under conditions of LSD-induced hyperthermia, are similar in molecular weight to two of the major "heat shock" proteins reported in tissue culture systems. Injection of LSD to rabbits at 4 degrees C prevented LSD-induced hyperthermia but behavioral effects of the drug were still apparent. The overall decrease in cell-free translation was still observed but the differential labeling effects were not. LSD appeared to influence cell-free translation in the brain at two dissociable levels: (a) an overall decrease in translation that was observed even in the absence of LSD-induced hyperthermia and (b) differential labeling effects on particular proteins that were dependent on LSD-induced hyperthermia.

Marijuana Smoking in Patients With Leukemia.

PubMed

Khwaja, Sara; Yacoub, Abraham; Cheema, Asima; Rihana, Nancy; Russo, Robin; Velez, Ana Paula; Nanjappa, Sowmya; Sandin, Ramon L; Bohra, Chandrashekar; Gajanan, Ganesh; Greene, John N

2016-07-01

Worldwide, marijuana (cannabis) is a widely used drug. The incidence of marijuana smoking is increasing and is second only to tobacco as the most widely smoked substance in the general population. It is also the second most commonly used recreational drug after alcohol. Some adverse effects of marijuana smoking have been documented; however, the number of studies on the pulmonary effects of marijuana in individuals with leukemia is limited. In our case series, we report on 2 men with acute myeloid leukemia with miliary nodular lung patterns on computed tomography of the chest due to heavy marijuana use. We also report on 2 patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia who had a history of smoking marijuana and then developed lung opacities consistent with mold infection.

Marijuana alters the human cerebellar clock.

PubMed

O'Leary, Daniel S; Block, Robert I; Turner, Beth M; Koeppel, Julie; Magnotta, Vincent A; Ponto, Laura Boles; Watkins, G Leonard; Hichwa, Richard D; Andreasen, Nancy C

2003-06-11

The effects of marijuana on brain perfusion and internal timing were assessed using [15O] water PET in occasional and chronic users. Twelve volunteers who smoked marijuana recreationally about once weekly, and 12 volunteers who smoked daily for a number of years performed a self-paced counting task during PET imaging, before and after smoking marijuana and placebo cigarettes. Smoking marijuana increased rCBF in the ventral forebrain and cerebellar cortex in both groups, but resulted in significantly less frontal lobe activation in chronic users. Counting rate increased after smoking marijuana in both groups, as did a behavioral measure of self-paced tapping, and both increases correlated with rCBF in the cerebellum. Smoking marijuana appears to accelerate a cerebellar clock altering self-paced behaviors.

The effect of marijuana scenes in anti-marijuana public service announcements on adolescents' evaluation of ad effectiveness.

PubMed

Kang, Yahui; Cappella, Joseph N; Fishbein, Martin

2009-09-01

This study explored the possible negative impact of a specific ad feature-marijuana scenes-on adolescents' perceptions of ad effectiveness. A secondary data analysis was conducted on adolescents' evaluations of 60 anti-marijuana public service announcements that were a part of national and state anti-drug campaigns directed at adolescents. The major finding of the study was that marijuana scenes in anti-marijuana public service announcements negatively affected ad liking and thought valence toward the ads among adolescents who were at higher levels of risk for marijuana use. This negative impact was not reversed in the presence of strong anti-marijuana arguments. The results may be used to partially explain the lack of effectiveness of the anti-drug media campaign. It may also help researchers design more effective anti-marijuana ads by isolating adverse elements in the ads that may elicit boomerang effects in the target population.

EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL AVAILABILITY OF MEDICAL MARIJUANA AND MARIJUANA USE ACROSS FIFTY CALIFORNIA CITIES

PubMed Central

Freisthler, Bridget; Gruenewald, Paul J.

2014-01-01

Background The purpose of the current study is to assess statistical associations between individual demographic and personality characteristics, the city-level physical availability of medical marijuana (as measured through densities per roadway mile of storefront dispensaries and delivery services), and the incidence and prevalence of marijuana use. Method Individual level data on marijuana use were collected during a telephone survey of 8,853 respondents living in 50 mid-size cities in California. Data on medical marijuana dispensaries and delivery services were obtained via six different websites and official city lists. Three outcome variables pertaining to lifetime, past year use, and frequency of past year use were analyzed using random effects logistic models (for lifetime and past year use) and random effects tobit models (for frequency of past 365-day use). Results The current study finds that the total physical availability of medical marijuana through dispensaries and delivery services per roadway mile at the city-level is positively related to current marijuana use and greater frequency of use, controlling for a variety of demographic and personality characteristics. As expected, current physical availability of medical marijuana was unrelated to lifetime use. Conclusions Regulations on the number and densities of marijuana outlets may be a sufficient means to restrain overall levels of marijuana use within cities. However, alternative use of delivery services may also provide easy access to marijuana and mitigate these effects. PMID:25156224

Examining the relationship between the physical availability of medical marijuana and marijuana use across fifty California cities.

PubMed

Freisthler, Bridget; Gruenewald, Paul J

2014-10-01

The purpose of the current study is to assess statistical associations between individual demographic and personality characteristics, the city-level physical availability of medical marijuana (as measured through densities per roadway mile of storefront dispensaries and delivery services), and the incidence and prevalence of marijuana use. Individual level data on marijuana use were collected during a telephone survey of 8853 respondents living in 50 mid-size cities in California. Data on medical marijuana dispensaries and delivery services were obtained via six different websites and official city lists. Three outcome variables pertaining to lifetime, past year use, and frequency of past year use were analyzed using random effects logistic models (for lifetime and past year use) and random effects tobit models (for frequency of past 365-day use). The current study finds that the total physical availability of medical marijuana through dispensaries and delivery services per roadway mile at the city-level is positively related to current marijuana use and greater frequency of use, controlling for a variety of demographic and personality characteristics. As expected, current physical availability of medical marijuana was unrelated to lifetime use. Regulations on the number and densities of marijuana outlets may be a sufficient means to restrain overall levels of marijuana use within cities. However, alternative use of delivery services may also provide easy access to marijuana and mitigate these effects. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Immunoassay screening of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and its confirmation by HPLC and fluorescence detection following LSD ImmunElute extraction.

PubMed

Grobosch, T; Lemm-Ahlers, U

2002-04-01

In all, 3872 urine specimens were screened for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) using the CEDIA DAU LSD assay. Forty-eight samples, mainly from psychiatric patients or drug abusers, were found to be LSD positive, but only 13 (27%) of these could be confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) following immunoaffinity extraction (IAE). Additional analysis for LSD using the DPC Coat-a-Count RIA was performed to compare the two immunoassay screening methods. Complete agreement between the DPC RIA assay and HPLC-FLD results was observed at concentrations below a cutoff concentration of 500 pg/mL. Samples that were LSD positive in the CEDIA DAU assay but not confirmed by HPLC-FLD were also investigated for interfering compounds using REMEDI HS drug-profiling system. REMEDI HS analysis identified 15 compounds (parent drugs and metabolites) that are believed to cross-react in the CEDIA DAU LSD assay: ambroxol, prilocaine, pipamperone, diphenhydramine, metoclopramide, amitriptyline, doxepine, atracurium, bupivacaine, doxylamine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, promethazine, ranitidine, and tramadole. The IAE/HPLC-FLD combination is rapid, easy to perform and reliable. It can reduce costs when standard, rather than more advanced, HPLC equipment is used, especially for labs that perform analyses for LSD infrequently. The chromatographic analysis of LSD, nor-LSD, and iso-LSD is not influenced by any of the tested cross-reacting compounds even at a concentration of 100 ng/mL.

(+)Lysergic acid diethylamide, but not its nonhallucinogenic congeners, is a potent serotonin 5HT1C receptor agonist

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Burris, K.D.; Breeding, M.; Sanders-Bush, E.

Activation of central serotonin 5HT2 receptors is believed to be the primary mechanism whereby lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and other hallucinogens induce psychoactive effects. This hypothesis is based on extensive radioligand binding and electrophysiological and behavioral studies in laboratory animals. However, the pharmacological profiles of 5HT2 and 5HT1C receptors are similar, making it difficult to distinguish between effects due to activation of one or the other receptor. For this reason, it was of interest to investigate the interaction of LSD with 5HT1C receptors. Agonist-stimulated phosphoinositide hydrolysis in rat choroid plexus was used as a direct measure of 5HT1C receptor activation.more » (+)LSD potently stimulated phosphoinositide hydrolysis in intact choroid plexus and in cultures of choroid plexus epithelial cells, with EC50 values of 9 and 26 nM, respectively. The effect of (+)LSD in both systems was blocked by 5HT receptor antagonists with an order of activity consistent with interaction at 5HT1C receptors. Neither (+)-2-bromo-LSD nor lisuride, two nonhallucinogenic congeners of LSD, were able to stimulate 5HT1C receptors in cultured cells or intact choroid plexus. In contrast, lisuride, like (+)LSD, is a partial agonist at 5HT2 receptors in cerebral cortex slices and in NIH 3T3 cells transfected with 5HT2 receptor cDNA. The present finding that (+)LSD, but not its nonhallucinogenic congeners, is a 5HT1C receptor agonist suggests a possible role for these receptors in mediating the psychoactive effects of LSD.« less

Use of Marijuana Edibles by Adolescents in California

PubMed Central

Friese, Bettina; Slater, Michael D.; Battle, Robynn S.

2017-01-01

We explored how adolescent marijuana edible users differ in regards to marijuana use and related beliefs from marijuana users who do not use edibles. We analyzed California Healthy Kids Survey data collected in one Northern California school district with a racially and ethnically diverse student population. Survey respondents were youth in grades 9 – 12. Overall, 33% of respondents reported having used marijuana in their lifetime, and 50% of lifetime marijuana users reported using marijuana in the past 30 days. Seventy-two percent of lifetime marijuana users and 82% of past month marijuana users reported having used edibles in their lifetime. Comparing marijuana users who have never used edibles to those users who have, we found that edible users reported using marijuana more frequently in their lifetime. Edible users were also more likely to have used marijuana in the past 30 days, more frequently in the past 30 days, more likely on school property and more frequently on school property. Edible users and non-users differed in their perceptions of risk; edible users were less likely to agree that edible use is very risky. Edible users also reported a younger age of first marijuana use and more attempts to stop using marijuana than non-edible users. Multi-level regression analyses indicate that prevalence of edible use among marijuana users was related to perceived risk of edible use. Perceived risk of edible use among marijuana users was higher among marijuana users who do not use edibles, females, and those youth who perceive school rules to be clear. The findings indicate that prevalence of edible use is high among marijuana users, especially frequent users. PMID:28470448

The Effect of Marijuana Scenes in Anti-marijuana Public Service Announcements on Adolescents’ Evaluation of Ad Effectiveness

PubMed Central

Kang, Yahui; Cappella, Joseph N.; Fishbein, Martin

2014-01-01

This study explored the possible negative impact of a specific ad feature—marijuana scenes—on adolescents’ perception of ad effectiveness. A secondary data analysis was conducted on adolescents’ evaluations of 60 anti-marijuana public service announcements (PSAs) that were a part of national and state anti-drug campaigns directed at adolescents. The major finding of the study was that marijuana scenes in anti-marijuana PSAs negatively affected ad liking and thought valence toward the ads among adolescents who are at higher levels of risk for marijuana use. This negative impact was not reversed in the presence of strong anti-marijuana arguments. The results may be used to partially explain the lack of effectiveness of the anti-drug media campaign. It may also help us design more effective anti-marijuana PSAs by isolating adverse elements in the ads that may elicit boomerang effects in the target population. Limitations of the study and future directions were discussed. PMID:19735026

Exposure to and Content of Marijuana Product Reviews.

PubMed

Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A; Krauss, Melissa J; Sowles, Shaina J; Murphy, Gabrielle M; Bierut, Laura J

2018-02-01

Many individuals now seek out product reviews in order to make an informed decision prior to making a purchase. In this study, we investigate consumers' exposure to and content within product reviews about marijuana because of their potential to shape marijuana purchasing decisions. The terms "weed review," "marijuana review," and "cannabis review" were searched on YouTube on June 10-11, 2015; the team viewed and coded the content of 83 product review videos about marijuana. In addition, we surveyed young adult (18-34 years old) current (past month) marijuana users (n = 742) from across the USA online to assess exposure to product reviews about marijuana and associations with socio-demographic characteristics and marijuana use behaviors. In our content analysis of videos, we observed that the reviewers tended to consume marijuana during the video and often shared personal, favorable experiences towards the marijuana they ingested (e.g., became as high as possible or experienced positive effects on physical and mental health). Most videos normalized marijuana use and could be easily accessed by underage youth. About one third (34%) of the survey participants viewed/sought a product review about marijuana in the past 30 days. In a multivariable logistic regression model, living in a state where recreational use is legal or using multiple forms of marijuana was associated with increased odds of viewing/seeking marijuana reviews. Prevention messages should counter product reviews about marijuana that tend to normalize and promote marijuana use given that they are more readily viewed by individuals who are increasingly susceptible to marijuana's potential harms.

Marijuana: Facts Parents Need to Know

MedlinePlus

... Parents Need to Know » A Letter to Parents Marijuana: Facts Parents Need to Know Email Facebook Twitter ... their children to review the scientific facts about marijuana: (1) Marijuana: Facts Parents Need to Know and ( ...

Support for Marijuana Legalization and Predictors of Intentions to Use Marijuana More Often in Response to Legalization Among U.S. Young Adults.

PubMed

Cohn, Amy M; Johnson, Amanda L; Rose, Shyanika W; Rath, Jessica M; Villanti, Andrea C

2017-01-28

As of 2015, more than half of U.S. states have legalized, medicalized, or decriminalized marijuana. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of support for marijuana legalization in a national sample of young adults and the intention to use marijuana more frequently if it were legalized. Data were from Wave 7 (weighted N = 3532) of the Truth Initiative Young Adult Cohort, a national sample of men and women aged 18-34. We assessed demographics, past 30-day substance (alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, other drug use), depression and anxiety, social smoking, marijuana harm perceptions (relative to cigarettes), and state-level marijuana policies as correlates of support for marijuana legalization and intentions to use marijuana more often if it were legalized. Multivariable models of correlates of support for legalization and intentions to use marijuana were conducted separately for the full sample and for nonmarijuana users. Weighted estimates showed that 39% of the full sample and 9% of nonmarijuana users supported marijuana legalization. Multivariable models showed that lower marijuana harm perceptions and lifetime and past 30-day tobacco use were common predictors of support for marijuana legalization and intentions to use marijuana among non-users of marijuana. Conclusions/Importance: Over a third of the sample supported marijuana legalization. Tobacco use and perceptions that marijuana is less harmful than cigarettes were robust risk correlates of support for marijuana legalization and intentions to use more frequently among nonusers. Public health campaigns should target these factors to deter marijuana-related harm in susceptible young adults.

An indoor air quality-pharmacokinetic simulation of passive inhalation of marijuana smoke and the resultant buildup of 11-nor-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in urine.

PubMed

Giardino, N J

1997-03-01

In military courts of law, the good soldier defense is often used by the defendant to explain the presence of 11-nor-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in urine (hereafter referred to as THCA) above the Department of Defense (DOD) established limit of 15 ng/mL. The defense will contend the defendant unwittingly breathed side-stream marijuana smoke, thus resulting in the presence of THCA in the defendant's urine. The purpose of this work was to link an indoor air quality model (IAQ) with a pharmacokinetic (PK) model to predict a passive marijuana smoker's resultant concentration of the major urinary metabolite THCA.

Pharmacologic Implications of Marijuana Use During Pregnancy.

PubMed

Fantasia, Heidi Collins

Marijuana is the most commonly used recreational drug in the United States, including among women of childbearing age and women who are pregnant. Changing legal statutes that allow for the use of medical marijuana and the decriminalization of marijuana for personal use reflect more permissive societal views on the use of this drug. Active compounds in marijuana cross the placenta rapidly and are excreted in breast milk. Results of studies of the effects of marijuana on a developing fetus and neonate are conflicting, but researchers have identified chronic marijuana exposure as a risk factor for preterm birth and small-for-gestational-age infants. This article reviews the pharmacology of marijuana and discusses implications for nurses who work with women of childbearing age. © 2017 AWHONN, the Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses.

Medical marijuana: Legal and regulatory considerations.

PubMed

Kaplan, Louise

2015-10-16

Nearly half of the United States has legalized medical marijuana. Advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs) in six states can authorize patients for medical marijuana use. Knowledge of legal and regulatory aspects of medical marijuana laws will protect an APRN's license and the public.

Marijuana motivations across adolescence: impacts on use and consequences.

PubMed

Anderson, Kristen G; Sitney, Miranda; White, Helene R

2015-02-01

Background. Motivational models for marijuana use have focused on reasons to use marijuana, but rarely consider motives to abstain. We examined how both adolescent marijuana abstinence motives and use motives contribute to marijuana use and problems at the end of emerging adulthood. Methods. 434 community recruited youth who had not initiated marijuana use at baseline were followed from adolescence (at ages 12, 15, and 18 years) into emerging adulthood (age 25 years). Motives to abstain and to use marijuana, marijuana consumption, and marijuana-related problems were assessed across time. Results. Endorsing more motives to abstain from marijuana across adolescence predicted less marijuana use in emerging adulthood and fewer marijuana-related problems when controlling for past motives to abstain and marijuana-related behavior. Positive reinforcement use motives related to increased marijuana consumption and problems, and negative reinforcement motives predicted problems when controlling for past marijuana use motives and behaviors. Expansion motives during adolescence related to lower marijuana use in emerging adulthood. When considered together, motives to abstain buffered the effect of negative reinforcement motives on outcomes at age 25 for youth endorsing a greater number of abstinence motives. Conclusions/ Implications. Given these findings, inclusion of both motives to use and abstain is warranted within comprehensive models of marijuana use decision making and may provide important markers for prevention and intervention specialists.

Becoming a medical marijuana user.

PubMed

Lankenau, Stephen E; Kioumarsi, Avat; Reed, Megan; McNeeley, Miles; Iverson, Ellen; Wong, Carolyn F

2018-02-01

Since marijuana became legal for medical use in California in 1996, reasons for medical use among medical marijuana patients (MMP) have become increasingly well described in qualitative studies. However, few studies have detailed how the use of marijuana for medical purposes fits into the broader career trajectories of either becoming a marijuana user or becoming a MMP, including the social influences on medical use. Young adult MMP (N=40) aged 18 to 26 years old were recruited in Los Angeles, CA in 2014-15 and administered a semi-structured interview that included questions focusing on marijuana use practices before and after becoming MMP. MMP were categorized into three trajectory groups: primarily medical users (n=30); primarily non-medical users (n=3); and medical users who transitioned to non-medical users (n=7). Most medical users discovered medicinal effects from marijuana in the context of non-medical use as adolescents prior to becoming MMP. Becoming a mature MMP followed interactions with dispensary staff or further self-exploration of medical uses and often involved a social process that helped confirm the legitimacy of medical use and identity as a medical user. In some cases, MMP transitioned back to non-medical users as health conditions improved or remained primarily non-medical users even after becoming MMP for reasons unrelated to health, e.g., protection against arrest. Becoming a medical marijuana user was an important career trajectory that was influenced by early discoveries of effective medicinal use, interaction with proponents of medical use at dispensaries, experiences with new kinds of medical use, and the demands of particular health condition requiring more or less treatment with marijuana. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Predictors of Recent Marijuana Use and Past Year Marijuana Use Among a National Sample of Hispanic Youth.

PubMed

King, Keith A; Vidourek, Rebecca A; Merianos, Ashley L; Bartsch, Lauren A

2015-01-01

Marijuana use rates remain higher among Hispanic youth compared to youth from other ethnic groups. The purpose of the study was to examine if sex, age, authoritarian parenting, perceived school experiences, lifetime depression, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of marijuana use predicted recent marijuana use and past year marijuana use among Hispanic youth. The participants of this study were a nationwide sample of Hispanic youth (n = 3,457) in the United States. A secondary data analysis of the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health was performed. Unadjusted odds ratios were computed via univariate logistic regression analyses and all statistically significant variables were retained and included in the final multiple logistic regression analyses. Recent marijuana use was operationally defined as use within the past 30 days, and marijuana use in the past year was defined as use within the past year. Results indicated that 7.5% of Hispanic youth used within the past month and 14.5% of Hispanic youth used within the past year. Results revealed that significant predictors for recent use were age, authoritarian parenting, perceived school experiences, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of youth marijuana use. Predictors for past year were age, perceived school experiences, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of youth marijuana use. Findings from this study can be used to address the public health problem of marijuana use among Hispanic youth that is ultimately contributing to health disparities among this ethnic group nationwide. Recommendations for future studies are included.

Marijuana: Facts Parents Need To Know. Revised.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

National Inst. on Drug Abuse (DHEW/PHS), Rockville, MD.

This booklet is designed to educate parents about marijuana so that they can communicate with their children in a way that will prevent drug abuse. The information is presented in a question/answer format. The following 25 questions are addressed: What is marijuana? What are the current slang terms for marijuana? How is marijuana used? How many…

Is medical marijuana legalisation possible in Poland?

PubMed

Rogowska-Szadkowska, Dorota; Strumiło, Julia; Chlabicz, Sławomir

2018-03-01

In some countries of the world it is legal to use plant-based marijuana for therapeutic purposes. When we had learned that 7,000 petitioners (including doctors) signed the petition to enable access to marijuana for patients in the Czech Republic, we decided to examine the knowledge about marijuana's medical properties among Polish medical students. Anonymous questionnaire study was conducted on a group of 181 of students of the last (sixth) year of medical school. It was demonstrated that students are not provided with sufficient information about therapeutic administration of plant-based marijuana during medical studies. The majority of interviewees mentioned only one indication for medical marijuana use. All students did not interchange medical conditions for which marijuana is used in 30 USA states or Canada. Marijuana smoking for medical purposes differs from recreational smoking, and its effect does not depend on occurrence of symptoms from the central nervous system. Few studies, that were carried out along with numerous previously unreported cases of patients, demonstrated that plant-derived marijuana had therapeutic effect on many diseases where conventional medicine was of no help. All doctors, including medical students, should receive more information about the therapeutic properties of marijuana. Copyright© by the National Institute of Public Health, Prague 2018.

Colorado family physicians' attitudes toward medical marijuana.

PubMed

Kondrad, Elin; Reid, Alfred

2013-01-01

Over the last decade, the use of medical marijuana has expanded dramatically; it is now permitted in 16 states and the District of Columbia. Our study of family physicians in Colorado is the first to gather information about physician attitudes toward this evolving practice. We distributed an anonymous web-based electronic survey to the 1727 members of the Colorado Academy of Family Physicians' listserv. Items included individual and practice characteristics as well as experience with and attitudes toward medical marijuana. Five hundred twenty family physicians responded (30% response rate). Of these, 46% did not support physicians recommending medical marijuana; only 19% thought that physicians should recommend it. A minority thought that marijuana conferred significant benefits to physical (27%) and mental (15%) health. Most agreed that marijuana poses serious mental (64%) and physical (61%) health risks. Eighty-one percent agreed that physicians should have formal training before recommending medical marijuana, and 92% agreed that continuing medical education about medical marijuana should be available to family physicians. Despite a high prevalence of use in Colorado, most family physicians are not convinced of marijuana's health benefits and believe its use carries risks. Nearly all agreed on the need for further medical education about medical marijuana.

Marijuana Craving During a Public Speaking Challenge: Understanding Marijuana Use Vulnerability among Women and those with Social Anxiety Disorder

PubMed Central

Silgado, José; Schmidt, Norman B.

2010-01-01

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is associated with risk for developing marijuana dependence, yet it remains unclear whether urge to use marijuana increases in anticipation of social anxiety-provoking situation, during the situation, or afterwards (to avoid post-event processing). The present study examined the timing of marijuana craving in response to a social anxiety task among 60 (50% female; 33% with SAD) marijuana users randomly assigned to either a speech or reading task. Participants completed ratings of marijuana craving at baseline (prior to being informed of task assignment), before, during, and after task. Among women and participants with SAD, the speech task was associated with greater craving than the reading task. This effect was particularly pronounced during the social anxiety induction task. This effect was not observed for men or participants without SAD. Identification of timing of urge to use marijuana has important implications for treatment and relapse prevention of marijuana problems among women and people with SAD (a group at particular risk for marijuana-related problems). PMID:20797696

Toxicology observation: nystagmus after marijuana use.

PubMed

Kibby, Thomas; Halcomb, S Eliza

2013-05-01

Traditional teaching has held that horizontal-gaze nystagmus is a sign of intoxication by sedatives such as alcohol but not marijuana. This is a case report of an adult male who presents with 3 days of visual disturbance and dizziness following marijuana use. The exam was notable for gaze-evoked nystagmus and ataxia. Lab testing was normal except that urine drug screening was positive for marijuana only. Imaging included computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head. Prior studies showing a negative association of nystagmus with marijuana are reviewed. This case is presented as a possible exception to the generalisation that marijuana is not associated with nystagmus. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.

Effects of Marijuana on Fetal Development.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Hoyt, Les Leanne

1981-01-01

Presents an historical perspective of the public view of marijuana and examines current empirical research concerning the consequences of marijuana use on the human fetus. Included are 1979 university survey results which explore respondents' knowledge about the effects of marijuana and the relationship this has to the mass media. (Author)

Marijuana use and car crash injury.

PubMed

Blows, Stephanie; Ivers, Rebecca Q; Connor, Jennie; Ameratunga, Shanthi; Woodward, Mark; Norton, Robyn

2005-05-01

To investigate the relationship between marijuana use prior to driving, habitual marijuana use and car crash injury. Population based case-control study in Auckland, New Zealand. Case vehicles were all cars involved in crashes in which at least one occupant was hospitalized or killed anywhere in the Auckland region, and control vehicles were a random sample of cars driving on Auckland roads. The drivers of 571 case and 588 control vehicles completed a structured interview. Self reported marijuana use in the 3 hours prior to the crash/survey and habitual marijuana use over the previous 12 months were recorded, along with a range of other variables potentially related to crash risk. The main outcome measure was hospitalization or death of a vehicle occupant due to car crash injury. Acute marijuana use was significantly associated with car crash injury, after controlling for the confounders age, gender, ethnicity, education level, passenger carriage, driving exposure and time of day (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.2-12.9). However, after adjustment for these confounders plus other risky driving at the time of the crash (blood alcohol concentration, seat-belt use, travelling speed and sleepiness score), the effect of acute marijuana intake was no longer significant (OR 0.8, 95% CI 0.2-3.3). There was a strong significant association between habitual use and car crash injury after adjustment for all the above confounders plus acute use prior to driving (OR 9.5, 95% CI 2.8-32.3). This population-based case-control study indicates that habitual use of marijuana is strongly associated with car crash injury. The nature of the relationship between marijuana use and risk-taking is unclear and needs further research. The prevalence of marijuana use in this driving population was low, and acute use was associated with habitual marijuana use, suggesting that intervention strategies may be more effective if they are targeted towards high use groups.

Exposure to Advertisements and Marijuana Use Among US Adolescents.

PubMed

Dai, Hongying

2017-11-30

This study examined whether exposure to marijuana advertisements was associated with current marijuana use and frequency of use among US adolescents in grades 8, 10, and 12. Weighted estimates of exposure to marijuana advertisements and marijuana use from the 2014 and 2015 Monitoring the Future studies were investigated. Factors associated with the prevalence and frequency of marijuana use were analyzed by using logistic regression and linear regression models, respectively. Of all respondents (n = 12,988), 13.8% reported marijuana use in the past 30 days. Exposure to marijuana advertisements was prevalent among adolescents, with 52.8% reporting exposure from internet advertisements, 32.1% from television advertisements, 24.1% from magazine or newspaper advertisements, 19.7% from radio advertisements, 19.0% from advertisements on storefronts, and 16.6% from billboards. In the multivariable analysis, current use of marijuana among adolescents was associated with exposure to marijuana advertisements on storefronts (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.4, P < .001), magazines or newspapers (adjusted OR = 1.6, P < .001), billboards (adjusted OR = 1.4, P = .002), internet (adjusted OR = 1.8, P < .001), television (adjusted OR = 1.4, P < .001) and radio (adjusted OR = 1.7, P < .001). Exposure to marijuana advertisements from the internet was associated with increased use of marijuana (β = 0.3, P = .04). Exposure to marijuana advertisements was associated with higher odds of current marijuana use among adolescents. Regulations that limit marijuana advertisements to adolescents and educational campaigns on harmfulness of illicit marijuana use are needed.

Marijuana Use and Self-reported Quality of Eyesight.

PubMed

Akano, Obinna F

2017-05-01

There is increasing use of marijuana among young adults and more states in the United States are legalizing medical marijuana use. A number of studies have revealed both the beneficial and harmful effects of marijuana to the human system. Despite some beneficial effects, studies have shown marijuana to have a lot of deleterious effects on the visual system, which subsequently reduces the quality of eyesight. The aim of this study was to investigate if heavy marijuana smoking is associated with a poor quality of eyesight compared with light/no use of marijuana. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youths (NLSY79), a nationally representative sample of 12,686 young men and women surveyed in 1979 to 2010 was used for this study. The quality of eyesight of 1304 heavy marijuana users was compared with 1304 respondents with light or no marijuana use. The t test, multivariate and weighted logistic regression were used in the data analysis. There was no statistically significant difference in the self-reported quality of eyesight among heavy marijuana smokers compared with youths who never used marijuana or are light marijuana users. Among heavy marijuana smokers, males and high school graduates have decreased odds of reporting a poor quality of eyesight, whereas blacks have increased odds of reporting a poor quality of eyesight. The self-reported quality of eyesight among marijuana users can aid clinicians and other health practitioners facilitate the development of sex-, racial/ethnic-, and educational level-informed prevention and early intervention programs and also help characterize public opinions regarding cannabis, which are particularly relevant given the ongoing debate concerning the medicalization and legalization of cannabis in the United States.

Medical marijuana use among adolescents in substance abuse treatment.

PubMed

Salomonsen-Sautel, Stacy; Sakai, Joseph T; Thurstone, Christian; Corley, Robin; Hopfer, Christian

2012-07-01

To assess the prevalence and frequency of medical marijuana diversion and use among adolescents in substance abuse treatment and to identify factors related to their medical marijuana use. This study calculated the prevalence and frequency of diverted medical marijuana use among adolescents (n = 164), ages 14-18 years (mean age = 16.09, SD = 1.12), in substance abuse treatment in the Denver metropolitan area. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were completed to determine factors related to adolescents' use of medical marijuana. Approximately 74% of the adolescents had used someone else's medical marijuana, and they reported using diverted medical marijuana a median of 50 times. After adjusting for gender and race/ethnicity, adolescents who used medical marijuana had an earlier age of regular marijuana use, more marijuana abuse and dependence symptoms, and more conduct disorder symptoms compared with those who did not use medical marijuana. Medical marijuana use among adolescent patients in substance abuse treatment is very common, implying substantial diversion from registered users. These results support the need for policy changes that protect against diversion of medical marijuana and reduce adolescent access to diverted medical marijuana. Future studies should examine patterns of medical marijuana diversion and use in general population adolescents. Copyright © 2012 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the United States: a systematic review and meta‐analysis

PubMed Central

Sarvet, Aaron L.; Wall, Melanie M.; Fink, David S.; Greene, Emily; Le, Aline; Boustead, Anne E.; Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Keyes, Katherine M.; Cerdá, Magdalena; Galea, Sandro

2018-01-01

Abstract Aims To conduct a systematic review and meta‐analysis of studies in order to estimate the effect of US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) on past‐month marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. Methods A total of 2999 papers from 17 literature sources were screened systematically. Eleven studies, developed from four ongoing large national surveys, were meta‐analyzed. Estimates of MML effects on any past‐month marijuana use prevalence from included studies were obtained from comparisons of pre–post MML changes in MML states to changes in non‐MML states over comparable time‐periods. These estimates were standardized and entered into a meta‐analysis model with fixed‐effects for each study. Heterogeneity among the study estimates by national data survey was tested with an omnibus F‐test. Estimates of effects on additional marijuana outcomes, of MML provisions (e.g. dispensaries) and among demographic subgroups were abstracted and summarized. Key methodological and modeling characteristics were also described. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Results None of the 11 studies found significant estimates of pre–post MML changes compared with contemporaneous changes in non‐MML states for marijuana use prevalence among adolescents. The meta‐analysis yielded a non‐significant pooled estimate (standardized mean difference) of −0.003 (95% confidence interval = −0.012, +0.007). Four studies compared MML with non‐MML states on pre‐MML differences and all found higher rates of past‐month marijuana use in MML states pre‐MML passage. Additional tests of specific MML provisions, of MML effects on additional marijuana outcomes and among subgroups generally yielded non‐significant results, although limited heterogeneity may warrant further study. Conclusions Synthesis of the current evidence does not support the hypothesis that US medical marijuana laws (MMLs) until

State Estimates of Adolescent Marijuana Use and Perceptions of Risk of Harm from Marijuana Use: 2013 and 2014

MedlinePlus

... aged 12 to 17 across the nation used marijuana in the past month. Adolescent marijuana use ranged from 4.98 percent in Alabama ...  adolescents nationwide perceived great risk in smoking marijuana once a month (i.e., monthly use), ranging ...

Predictors of Adult Marijuana Use Among Parents and Nonparents.

PubMed

Epstein, Marina; Bailey, Jennifer A; Steeger, Christine M; Hill, Karl G; Skinner, Martie L

2018-02-01

The current study examined predictors of marijuana use among adults, including subsamples of adults who are actively parenting (i.e., have regular face-to-face contact with a child) and those who have no children. Participants were a community sample of 808 adults and two subsamples drawn from the full group: 383 adults who were actively parenting and 135 who had no children. Multilevel models examined predictors of marijuana use in these three groups from ages 27 to 39. Becoming a parent was associated with a decrease in marijuana use. Regular marijuana use in young adulthood (ages 21-24), partner marijuana use, and pro-marijuana attitudes increased the likelihood of past-year marijuana use among all participants. Being a primary caregiver (among parents) was associated with less marijuana use. Overall, predictors of marijuana use were similar for all adults, regardless of parenting status. Study results suggest that the onset of parenthood alone may be insufficient to reduce adult marijuana use. Instead, preventive intervention targets may include changing adult pro-marijuana attitudes and addressing marijuana use behaviors of live-in partners. Lastly, universal approaches targeting parents and nonparents may be effective for general adult samples.

ADHD and marijuana use expectancies in young adulthood

PubMed Central

Harty, Seth C.; Pedersen, Sarah L.; Gnagy, Elizabeth M.; Pelham, William E.; Molina, Brooke S. G.

2015-01-01

Objective This study examined mean level differences in marijuana expectancies and the differential associations between expectancies and marijuana use for individuals with and without a history of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Background Substance use expectancies are a widely studied risk factor for alcohol and other drug use. The relations between marijuana use expectancies and self-reported marijuana use have not been examined in young adults with ADHD, a population shown to be at risk for marijuana use. Method Participants were 306 (190 ADHD and 116 nonADHD) young adults (M age = 20.06, SD = 2.03) from the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS) who provided data about marijuana use and marijuana use expectancies. Results Individuals in the ADHD group reported lower levels of social enhancement, tension reduction, and cognitive and behavioral impairment expectancies compared to individuals in the nonADHD group. Positive and negative marijuana use expectancies were associated with marijuana use frequency in the whole sample and statistically significant ADHD group by expectancy interactions were found. Sexual enhancement expectancies were more strongly associated with marijuana use frequency among individuals with ADHD histories while cognitive behavioral impairment expectancies were more strongly associated with marijuana use frequency among individuals without ADHD. Conclusions Marijuana use expectancies may be acquired, and operate differently, for individuals with and without ADHD histories. Although future research is needed to test this speculation, these differences may be associated with ADHD-related difficulties in higher order cognitive processes that affect the encoding and utilization of expectations regarding marijuana’s effects. PMID:26548364

Temporal trends in marijuana attitudes, availability and use in Colorado compared to non-medical marijuana states: 2003-11.

PubMed

Schuermeyer, Joseph; Salomonsen-Sautel, Stacy; Price, Rumi Kato; Balan, Sundari; Thurstone, Christian; Min, Sung-Joon; Sakai, Joseph T

2014-07-01

In 2009, policy changes were accompanied by a rapid increase in the number of medical marijuana cardholders in Colorado. Little published epidemiological work has tracked changes in the state around this time. Using the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, we tested for temporal changes in marijuana attitudes and marijuana-use-related outcomes in Colorado (2003-11) and differences within-year between Colorado and thirty-four non-medical-marijuana states (NMMS). Using regression analyses, we further tested whether patterns seen in Colorado prior to (2006-8) and during (2009-11) marijuana commercialization differed from patterns in NMMS while controlling for demographics. Within Colorado those reporting "great-risk" to using marijuana 1-2 times/week dropped significantly in all age groups studied between 2007-8 and 2010-11 (e.g. from 45% to 31% among those 26 years and older; p=0.0006). By 2010-11 past-year marijuana abuse/dependence had become more prevalent in Colorado for 12-17 year olds (5% in Colorado, 3% in NMMS; p=0.03) and 18-25 year olds (9% vs. 5%; p=0.02). Regressions demonstrated significantly greater reductions in perceived risk (12-17 year olds, p=0.005; those 26 years and older, p=0.01), and trend for difference in changes in availability among those 26 years and older and marijuana abuse/dependence among 12-17 year olds in Colorado compared to NMMS in more recent years (2009-11 vs. 2006-8). Our results show that commercialization of marijuana in Colorado has been associated with lower risk perception. Evidence is suggestive for marijuana abuse/dependence. Analyses including subsequent years 2012+ once available, will help determine whether such changes represent momentary vs. sustained effects. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Exposure to Advertisements and Marijuana Use Among US Adolescents

PubMed Central

2017-01-01

Introduction This study examined whether exposure to marijuana advertisements was associated with current marijuana use and frequency of use among US adolescents in grades 8, 10, and 12. Methods Weighted estimates of exposure to marijuana advertisements and marijuana use from the 2014 and 2015 Monitoring the Future studies were investigated. Factors associated with the prevalence and frequency of marijuana use were analyzed by using logistic regression and linear regression models, respectively. Results Of all respondents (n = 12,988), 13.8% reported marijuana use in the past 30 days. Exposure to marijuana advertisements was prevalent among adolescents, with 52.8% reporting exposure from internet advertisements, 32.1% from television advertisements, 24.1% from magazine or newspaper advertisements, 19.7% from radio advertisements, 19.0% from advertisements on storefronts, and 16.6% from billboards. In the multivariable analysis, current use of marijuana among adolescents was associated with exposure to marijuana advertisements on storefronts (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.4, P < .001), magazines or newspapers (adjusted OR = 1.6, P < .001), billboards (adjusted OR = 1.4, P = .002), internet (adjusted OR = 1.8, P < .001), television (adjusted OR = 1.4, P < .001) and radio (adjusted OR = 1.7, P < .001). Exposure to marijuana advertisements from the internet was associated with increased use of marijuana (β = 0.3, P = .04). Conclusion Exposure to marijuana advertisements was associated with higher odds of current marijuana use among adolescents. Regulations that limit marijuana advertisements to adolescents and educational campaigns on harmfulness of illicit marijuana use are needed. PMID:29191259

Sociopsychological Characteristics of Undergraduate Marijuana Users

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Cunningham, William H.; And Others

1974-01-01

Presents a study of 547 college students which found that: 1) It is possible to distinguish between undergraduate subjects who smoke marijuana and those who do not, 2) It is possible to draw a reasonable clear picture of the marijuana users' demographic characteristics, and 3) There is a positive relationship between the use of marijuana and the…

Marijuana: Facts Parents Need To Know.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

National Inst. on Drug Abuse (DHHS), Rockville, MD. Div. of Research.

Marijuana is the illegal drug most often used in the United States. In the early 1990s marijuana use doubled among 8th graders and significantly increased among 10th and 12th graders. Accompanying this pattern of use is a significant erosion in antidrug perceptions and knowledge among young people. While marijuana use among high school seniors…

Marijuana as medicine?

PubMed

Grodeck, B

1997-01-01

Recent laws in California and Arizona allow doctors to legally recommend marijuana for the pain and discomfort associated with AIDS and other serious illnesses. Federal authorities continue to oppose this legislation, and promise to prosecute physicians who recommend or prescribe the drug. A 1990 survey of cancer specialists showed that 54 percent were in favor of the law, and 44 percent had already broken the law by recommending marijuana to their patients.

Clinical Challenges in the Growing Medical Marijuana Field.

PubMed

Barker, Jonathan

2018-03-01

Unique clinical challenges arise with the growing number of patients who possess medical marijuana cards. Medical marijuana patients with mental disorders can have worsening symptoms with marijuana use. Often there is sparse continuity of care between the patient and the medical marijuana practitioner. Lack of communication between the patient's treating practitioners and the practitioner who has authorized the medical marijuana can be problematic. This article is a discussion of the new clinical challenges practitioners are likely to encounter with the growing number of medical marijuana patients. [Full article available at http://rimed.org/rimedicaljournal-2018-03.asp].

Clinical Challenges in the Growing Medical Marijuana Field.

PubMed

Barker, Jonathan

2018-02-02

Unique clinical challenges arise with the growing number of patients who possess medical marijuana cards. Medical marijuana patients with mental disorders can have worsening symptoms with marijuana use. Often there is sparse continuity of care between the patient and the medical marijuana practitioner. Lack of communication between the patient's treating practitioners and the practitioner who has authorized the medical marijuana can be problematic. This article is a discussion of the new clinical challenges practitioners are likely to encounter with the growing number of medical marijuana patients. [Full article available at http://rimed.org/rimedicaljournal-2018-02.asp].

Changes in undergraduates' marijuana, heavy alcohol and cigarette use following legalization of recreational marijuana use in Oregon.

PubMed

Kerr, David C R; Bae, Harold; Phibbs, Sandi; Kern, Adam C

2017-11-01

Recreational marijuana legalization (RML) went into effect in Oregon in July 2015. RML is expected to influence marijuana use by adolescents and young adults in particular, and by those with a propensity for substance use. We sought to quantify changes in rates of marijuana use among college students in Oregon from pre- to post-RML relative to college students in other states across the same time period. Repeated cross-sectional survey data from the 2012-16 administrations of the Healthy Minds Study. Seven 4-year universities in the United States. There were 10 924 undergraduate participants. One large public Oregon university participated in 2014 and 2016 (n = 588 and 1115, respectively); six universities in US states where recreational marijuana use was illegal participated both in 2016 and at least once between 2012 and 2015. Self-reported marijuana use in the past 30 days (yes/no) was regressed on time (pre/post 2015), exposure to RML (i.e. Oregon students in 2016) and covariates using mixed-effects logistic regression. Moderation of RML effects by recent heavy alcohol use was examined. Rates of marijuana use increased from pre- to post-2015 at six of the seven universities, a trend that was significant overall. Increases in rates of marijuana use were significantly greater in Oregon than in comparison institutions, but only among students reporting recent heavy alcohol use. Rates of Oregon college students' marijuana use increased (relative to that of students in other states) following recreational marijuana legislation in 2015, but only for those who reported recent heavy use of alcohol. Such alcohol misuse may be a proxy for vulnerabilities to substance use or lack of prohibitions (e.g. cultural) against it. © 2017 Society for the Study of Addiction.

Periodontal and oral manifestations of marijuana use.

PubMed

Rawal, Swati Y; Tatakis, Dimitris N; Tipton, David A

2012-01-01

Marijuana, prepared from the plant Cannabis sativa, is the most widely used illicit drug in the United States. Marijuana use has been associated with adverse psychosocial and health effects, including effects on oral tissues. Periodontal literature has limited references to the periodontal effects of cannabis use. In this report, we present two cases of marijuana-associated gingival enlargement and review the literature on oral complications of marijuana use. Two asymptomatic males, aged 23 and 42 years, presented independently for oral prophylaxis. Both had an unremarkable medical history and related a history of significant marijuana use of 2-16 years duration. Common findings following oral and periodontal examination were nicotinic stomatitis-like lesions, uvulitis and gingival enlargement. Marginal and papillary gingiva of the anterior dentition were the areas primarily affected by gingival enlargement, while some of these areas exhibited a nodular or "pebbly" appearance. Marijuana-associated gingival enlargement was diagnosed in the reported cases. A review of the literature revealed two other reports of marijuana-associated gingival enlargement, all in young adult males with chronic (2 or more years) cannabis use. These authors reported a resemblance to phenytoin-induced enlargement. Biochemical similarities between phenytoin and cannabis active compounds suggest possible common pathogenetic mechanisms. Uvulitis and nicotinic stomatitis appear to be the two most common of the several oral manifestations of marijuana use. Chronic marijuana use may result in gingival enlargement with clinical characteristics similar to phenytoin-induced enlargement.

Medical marijuana: medical necessity versus political agenda.

PubMed

Clark, Peter A; Capuzzi, Kevin; Fick, Cameron

2011-12-01

Marijuana is classified by the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) as an illegal Schedule I drug which has no accepted medical use. However, recent studies have shown that medical marijuana is effective in controlling chronic non-cancer pain, alleviating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, treating wasting syndrome associated with AIDS, and controlling muscle spasms due to multiple sclerosis. These studies state that the alleviating benefits of marijuana outweigh the negative effects of the drug, and recommend that marijuana be administered to patients who have failed to respond to other therapies. Despite supporting evidence, the DEA refuses to reclassify marijuana as a Schedule II drug, which would allow physicians to prescribe marijuana to suffering patients. The use of medical marijuana has continued to gain support among states, and is currently legal in 16 states and the District of Columbia. This is in stark contrast to the federal government's stance of zero-tolerance, which has led to a heated legal debate in the United States. After reviewing relevant scientific data and grounding the issue in ethical principles like beneficence and nonmaleficence, there is a strong argument for allowing physicians to prescribe marijuana. Patients have a right to all beneficial treatments and to deny them this right violates their basic human rights.

Medical marijuana: Medical necessity versus political agenda

PubMed Central

Clark, Peter A.; Capuzzi, Kevin; Fick, Cameron

2011-01-01

Summary Marijuana is classified by the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) as an illegal Schedule I drug which has no accepted medical use. However, recent studies have shown that medical marijuana is effective in controlling chronic non-cancer pain, alleviating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, treating wasting syndrome associated with AIDS, and controlling muscle spasms due to multiple sclerosis. These studies state that the alleviating benefits of marijuana outweigh the negative effects of the drug, and recommend that marijuana be administered to patients who have failed to respond to other therapies. Despite supporting evidence, the DEA refuses to reclassify marijuana as a Schedule II drug, which would allow physicians to prescribe marijuana to suffering patients. The use of medical marijuana has continued to gain support among states, and is currently legal in 16 states and the District of Columbia. This is in stark contrast to the federal government’s stance of zero-tolerance, which has led to a heated legal debate in the United States. After reviewing relevant scientific data and grounding the issue in ethical principles like beneficence and nonmaleficence, there is a strong argument for allowing physicians to prescribe marijuana. Patients have a right to all beneficial treatments and to deny them this right violates their basic human rights. PMID:22129912

Mediating processes between stress and problematic marijuana use.

PubMed

Ketcherside, Ariel; Filbey, Francesca M

2015-06-01

The literature widely reports that stress is associated with marijuana use, yet, to date, the path from stress to marijuana-related problems has not been tested. In this study, we evaluated whether negative affect mediates the relationship between stress and marijuana use. To that end, we tested models to determine mediators between problems with marijuana use (via Marijuana Problem Scale), stress (via Early Life Stress Questionnaire, Perceived Stress Scale), and negative affect (via Beck Depression Inventory; Beck Anxiety Inventory) in 157 current heavy marijuana users. Mediation tests and bootstrap confidence intervals were carried out via the "Mediation" package in R. Depression and anxiety scores both significantly mediated the relationship between perceived stress and problematic marijuana use. Only depression significantly mediated the relationship between early life stress and problematic marijuana use. Early life stress, perceived stress and problematic marijuana use were significant only as independent variables and dependent variables. These findings demonstrate that (1) depression mediated both early life stress and perceived stress, and problematic marijuana use, and, (2) anxiety mediated perceived stress and problematic marijuana use. This mediation analysis represents a strong first step toward understanding the relationship between these variables; however, longitudinal studies are needed to determine causality between these variables. To conclude, addressing concomitant depression and anxiety in those who report either perceived stress or early life stress is important for the prevention of cannabis use disorders. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Neurocognition in College-Aged Daily Marijuana Users

PubMed Central

Becker, Mary P.; Collins, Paul F.; Luciana, Monica

2014-01-01

Background Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit substance in the United States. Use, particularly when it occurs early, has been associated with cognitive impairments in executive functioning, learning, and memory. Methods This study comprehensively measured cognitive ability as well as comorbid psychopathology and substance use history to determine the neurocognitive profile associated with young adult marijuana use. College-aged marijuana users who initiated use prior to age 17 (n=35) were compared to demographically-matched controls (n=35). Results Marijuana users were high functioning, demonstrating comparable IQs to controls and relatively better processing speed. Marijuana users demonstrated relative cognitive impairments in verbal memory, spatial working memory, spatial planning, and motivated decision-making. Comorbid use of alcohol, which was heavier in marijuana users, was unexpectedly found to be associated with better performance in some of these areas. Conclusions This study provides additional evidence of neurocognitive impairment in the context of adolescent and young adult marijuana use. Findings are discussed in relation to marijuana’s effects on intrinsic motivation and discrete aspects of cognition. PMID:24620756

Marijuana Use, Recent Marijuana Initiation, and Progression to Marijuana Use Disorder Among Young Male and Female Adolescents Aged 12–14 Living in US Households

PubMed Central

Forman-Hoffman, Valerie L; Glasheen, Cristie; Batts, Kathryn R

2017-01-01

Marijuana initiation during adolescence, and early adolescence in particular, is associated with adverse health consequences. Our study used 2005–2014 data from the annual, cross-sectional National Survey on Drug Use and Health to study the prevalence and correlates of marijuana initiation, use, and marijuana use disorder (MUD; abuse or dependence) among 12- to 14-year olds living in civilian US households (n = 84 954). Examined correlates included age, sex, race/ethnicity, poverty status, metropolitan status, year of survey, depression, tobacco use, alcohol use, and fighting at school. Sex differences in the correlates of lifetime use and past year marijuana initiation were tested via interaction. Lifetime prevalence of marijuana use was 5.5%; 3.2% reported past year initiation. About 1 in 6 (16.8%) past year initiates progressed to MUD within 12 months of first use. Although men had higher prevalence of lifetime use than women, past year initiation did not differ by sex. On examining the sex*race/ethnicity interaction effects, findings determined that non-Hispanic black and Hispanic men had higher prevalence estimates of ever using marijuana and incidence of past year initiation as compared with non-Hispanic white men; these race/ethnicity differences were not found among women. Identifying correlates of initiation and progression to MUD among young adolescents is critical to improve prevention and treatment program targets. PMID:28615948

A behavioral economic approach to assessing demand for marijuana.

PubMed

Collins, R Lorraine; Vincent, Paula C; Yu, Jihnhee; Liu, Liu; Epstein, Leonard H

2014-06-01

In the United States, marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug. Its prevalence is growing, particularly among young adults. Behavioral economic indices of the relative reinforcing efficacy (RRE) of substances have been used to examine the appeal of licit (e.g., alcohol) and illicit (e.g., heroin) drugs. The present study is the first to use an experimental, simulated purchasing task to examine the RRE of marijuana. Young-adult (M age = 21.64 years) recreational marijuana users (N = 59) completed a computerized marijuana purchasing task designed to generate demand curves and the related RRE indices (e.g., intensity of demand-purchases at lowest price; Omax-max. spent on marijuana; Pmax-price at which marijuana expenditure is max). Participants "purchased" high-grade marijuana across 16 escalating prices that ranged from $0/free to $160/joint. They also provided 2 weeks of real-time, ecological momentary assessment reports on their marijuana use. The purchasing task generated multiple RRE indices. Consistent with research on other substances, the demand for marijuana was inelastic at lower prices but became elastic at higher prices, suggesting that increases in the price of marijuana could lessen its use. In regression analyses, the intensity of demand, Omax, and Pmax, and elasticity each accounted for significant variance in real-time marijuana use. These results provide support for the validity of a simulated marijuana purchasing task to examine marijuana's reinforcing efficacy. This study highlights the value of applying a behavioral economic framework to young-adult marijuana use and has implications for prevention, treatment, and policies to regulate marijuana use. PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved.

Smoked marijuana as a cause of lung injury.

PubMed

Tashkin, D P

2005-06-01

In many societies, marijuana is the second most commonly smoked substance after tobacco. While delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is unique to marijuana and nicotine to tobacco, the smoke of marijuana, like that of tobacco, consists of a toxic mixture of gases and particulates, many of which are known to be harmful to the lung. Although far fewer marijuana than tobacco cigarettes are generally smoked on a daily basis, the pulmonary consequences of marijuana smoking may be magnified by the greater deposition of smoke particulates in the lung due to the differing manner in which marijuana is smoked. Whereas THC causes modest short-term bronchodilation, regular marijuana smoking produces a number of long-term pulmonary consequences, including chronic cough and sputum, histopathologic evidence of widespread airway inflammation and injury and immunohistochemical evidence of dysregulated growth of respiratory epithelial cells, that may be precursors to lung cancer. The THC in marijuana could contribute to some of these injurious changes through its ability to augment oxidative stress, cause mitochondrial dysfunction, and inhibit apoptosis. On the other hand, physiologic, clinical or epidemiologic evidence that marijuana smoking may lead to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or respiratory cancer is limited and inconsistent. Habitual use of marijuana is also associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of alveolar macrophages, including impairment in microbial phagocytosis and killing that is associated with defective production of immunostimulatory cytokines and nitric oxide, thereby potentially predisposing to pulmonary infection. In view of the growing interest in medicinal marijuana, further epidemiologic studies are needed to clarify the true risks of regular marijuana smoking on respiratory health.

Reward-related brain response and craving correlates of marijuana cue exposure: a preliminary study in treatment-seeking marijuana-dependent subjects.

PubMed

Goldman, Marina; Szucs-Reed, Regina P; Jagannathan, Kanchana; Ehrman, Ronald N; Wang, Ze; Li, Yin; Suh, Jesse J; Kampman, Kyle; O'Brien, Charles P; Childress, Anna Rose; Franklin, Teresa R

2013-01-01

: Determining the brain substrates underlying the motivation to abuse addictive drugs is critical for understanding and treating addictive disorders. Laboratory neuroimaging studies have demonstrated differential activation of limbic and motivational circuitry (eg, amygdala, hippocampus, ventral striatum, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex) triggered by cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol cues. The literature on neural responses to marijuana cues is sparse. Thus, the goals of this study were to characterize the brain's response to marijuana cues, a major motivator underlying drug use and relapse, and determine whether these responses are linked to self-reported craving in a clinically relevant population of treatment-seeking marijuana-dependent subjects. : Marijuana craving was assessed in 12 marijuana-dependent subjects using the Marijuana Craving Questionnaire-Short Form. Subsequently, blood oxygen level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired during exposure to alternating 20-second blocks of marijuana-related versus matched nondrug visual cues. : Brain activation during marijuana cue exposure was significantly greater in the bilateral amygdala and the hippocampus. Significant positive correlations between craving scores and brain activation were found in the ventral striatum and the medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (P < 0.0001). : This study presents direct evidence for a link between reward-relevant brain responses to marijuana cues and craving and extends the current literature on marijuana cue reactivity. Furthermore, the correlative relationship between craving and brain activity in reward-related regions was observed in a clinically relevant sample (treatment-seeking marijuana-dependent subjects). Results are consistent with prior findings in cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol cue studies, indicating that the brain substrates of cue-triggered drug motivation are shared across abused substances.

A Behavioral Economic Approach to Assessing Demand for Marijuana

PubMed Central

Collins, R. Lorraine; Vincent, Paula C.; Yu, Jihnhee; Liu, Liu; Epstein, Leonard H.

2014-01-01

In the U.S., marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug. Its prevalence is growing, particularly among young adults. Behavioral economic indices of the relative reinforcing efficacy (RRE) of substances have been used to examine the appeal of licit (e.g., alcohol) and illicit (e.g., heroin) drugs. The present study is the first to use an experimental, simulated purchasing task to examine the RRE of marijuana. Young-adult (M age = 21.64 years) recreational marijuana users (N = 59) completed a computerized marijuana purchasing task designed to generate demand curves and the related RRE indices (e.g., intensity of demand - purchases at lowest price; Omax - max. spent on marijuana; Pmax - price at which marijuana expenditure is max). Participants “purchased” high-grade marijuana across 16 escalating prices that ranged from $0/free to $160/joint. They also provided 2-weeks of real-time, ecological momentary assessment reports on their marijuana use. The purchasing task generated multiple RRE indices. Consistent with research on other substances, the demand for marijuana was inelastic at lower prices but became elastic at higher prices, suggesting that increases in the price of marijuana could lessen its use. In regression analyses, the intensity of demand, Omax and Pmax, and elasticity each accounted for significant variance in real-time marijuana use. These results provide support for the validity of a simulated marijuana purchasing task to examine its reinforcing efficacy. This study highlights the value of applying a behavioral economic framework to young-adult marijuana use and has implications for prevention, treatment, and policies to regulate marijuana use. PMID:24467370

Marijuana: Current Concepts†

PubMed Central

Greydanus, Donald E.; Hawver, Elizabeth K.; Greydanus, Megan M.; Merrick, Joav

2013-01-01

Marijuana (cannabis) remains a controversial drug in the twenty-first century. This paper considers current research on use of Cannabis sativa and its constituents such as the cannabinoids. Topics reviewed include prevalence of cannabis (pot) use, other drugs consumed with pot, the endocannabinoid system, use of medicinal marijuana, medical adverse effects of cannabis, and psychiatric adverse effects of cannabis use. Treatment of cannabis withdrawal and dependence is difficult and remains mainly based on psychological therapy; current research on pharmacologic management of problems related to cannabis consumption is also considered. The potential role of specific cannabinoids for medical benefit will be revealed as the twenty-first century matures. However, potential dangerous adverse effects from smoking marijuana are well known and should be clearly taught to a public that is often confused by a media-driven, though false message and promise of benign pot consumption. PMID:24350211

Epidemiologic review of marijuana use and cancer risk.

PubMed

Hashibe, Mia; Straif, Kurt; Tashkin, Donald P; Morgenstern, Hal; Greenland, Sander; Zhang, Zuo-Feng

2005-04-01

Marijuana is the most commonly used illegal drug in the United States and is considered by young adults to be the illicit drug with the least risk. On the other hand, marijuana smoke contains several of the same carcinogens and co-carcinogens as the tar from tobacco, raising concerns that smoking of marijuana may be a risk factor for tobacco-related cancers. We reviewed two cohort studies and 14 case-control studies with assessment of the association of marijuana use and cancer risk. In the cohort studies, increased risks of lung or colorectal cancer due to marijuana smoking were not observed, but increased risks of prostate and cervical cancers among non-tobacco smokers, as well as adult-onset glioma among tobacco and non-tobacco smokers, were observed. The 14 case-control studies included four studies on head and neck cancers, two studies on lung cancer, two studies on non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, one study on anal cancer, one study on penile cancer, and four studies on childhood cancers with assessment of parental exposures. Zhang and colleagues reported that marijuana use may increase risk of head and neck cancers in a hospital-based case-control study in the United States, with dose-response relations for both frequency and duration of use. However, Rosenblatt and co-workers reported no association between oral cancer and marijuana use in a population-based case-control study. An eightfold increase in risk among marijuana users was observed in a lung cancer study in Tunisia. However, there was no assessment of the dose response, and marijuana may have been mixed with tobacco. Parental marijuana use during gestation was associated with increased risks of childhood leukemia, astrocytoma, and rhabdomyosarcoma, but dose-response relations were not assessed. In summary, sufficient studies are not available to adequately evaluate marijuana impact on cancer risk. Several limitations of previous studies include possible underreporting where marijuana use is illegal, small

The Changing Drug Culture: Medical and Recreational Marijuana.

PubMed

Albertson, Timothy E; Chenoweth, James A; Colby, Daniel K; Sutter, Mark E

2016-02-01

The major psychoactive compounds in marijuana (cannabis) are cannabinoids, the most significant of which is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. There are also two synthetic pharmaceutical cannabinoids, nabilone and dronabinol, available by prescription in the United States. The use of marijuana has increased in the United States with passage of medical marijuana laws in many states and legalization of recreational marijuana use in several states. In addition, the potency of marijuana has increased in recent years. Marijuana has been used for a variety of medical purposes, including management of nausea and vomiting, appetite and immunologic stimulation in patients with HIV infection and AIDS, glaucoma, neurologic disorders, and pain relief. Studies on the benefits of marijuana as a treatment for various conditions have been inconsistent, except for those on pain management. Marijuana has adverse effects, and has been associated with driving impairment, psychosis, dependence and withdrawal syndromes, hyperemesis, acute cardiac events, some cancers, and impaired lung function. As with studies on the benefits of marijuana, studies of adverse effects have yielded inconsistent results. Except for impaired driving and the occurrence of dependence and withdrawal syndromes, the adverse effects of marijuana use have not been fully studied. Written permission from the American Academy of Family Physicians is required for reproduction of this material in whole or in part in any form or medium.

Frequency and Risk of Marijuana Use among Substance-Using Health Care Patients in Colorado with and without Access to State Legalized Medical Marijuana.

PubMed

Richmond, Melissa K; Pampel, Fred C; Rivera, Laura S; Broderick, Kerryann B; Reimann, Brie; Fischer, Leigh

2015-01-01

With increasing use of state legalized medical marijuana across the country, health care providers need accurate information on patterns of marijuana and other substance use for patients with access to medical marijuana. This study compared frequency and severity of marijuana use, and use of other substances, for patients with and without state legal access to medical marijuana. Data were collected from 2,030 patients who screened positive for marijuana use when seeking health care services in a large, urban safety-net medical center. Patients were screened as part of a federally funded screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment (SBIRT) initiative. Patients were asked at screening whether they had a state-issued medical marijuana card and about risky use of tobacco, alcohol, and other illicit substances. A total of 17.4% of marijuana users had a medical marijuana card. Patients with cards had higher frequency of marijuana use and were more likely to screen at moderate than low or high risk from marijuana use. Patients with cards also had lower use of other substances than patients without cards. Findings can inform health care providers of both the specific risks of frequent, long-term use and the more limited risks of other substance use faced by legal medical marijuana users.

Marijuana Neurobiology and Treatment

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Elkashef, Ahmed; Vocci, Frank; Huestis, Marilyn; Haney, Margaret; Budney, Alan; Gruber, Amanda; el-Guebaly, Nady

2008-01-01

Marijuana is the number one illicit drug of abuse worldwide and a major public health problem, especially in the younger population. The objective of this article is to update and review the state of the science and treatments available for marijuana dependence based on a pre-meeting workshop that was presented at ISAM 2006. At the workshop,…

Marijuana Use Among 10th Grade Students - Washington, 2014.

PubMed

Shah, Anar; Stahre, Mandy

2016-12-30

Some studies have suggested that long-term, regular use of marijuana starting in adolescence might impair brain development and lower intelligence quotient (1,2). Since 2012, purchase of recreational or retail marijuana has become legal for persons aged ≥21 years in the District of Columbia, Alaska, California, Colorado, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington, raising concern about increased marijuana access by youths. The law taxing and regulating recreational or retail marijuana was approved by Washington voters in 2012 and the first retail licenses were issued in July 2014; medical marijuana use has been legal since 1998. To examine the prevalence, characteristics, and behaviors of current marijuana users among 10th grade students, the Washington State Department of Health analyzed data from the state's 2014 Healthy Youth Survey (HYS) regarding current marijuana use. In 2014, 18.1% of 10th grade students (usually aged 15-16 years) reported using marijuana during the preceding 30 days; of these students, 32% reported using it on ≥10 days. Among the marijuana users, 65% reported obtaining marijuana through their peer networks, which included friends, older siblings, or at a party. Identification of comprehensive and sustainable public health interventions are needed to prevent and reduce youth marijuana use. Establishment of state and jurisdiction surveillance of youth marijuana use could be useful to anticipate and monitor the effects of legalization and track trends in use before states consider legalizing recreational or retail marijuana.

Burden of arrhythmia in recreational marijuana users.

PubMed

Desai, Rupak; Patel, Upenkumar; Deshmukh, Abhishek; Sachdeva, Rajesh; Kumar, Gautam

2018-08-01

Marijuana or Cannabis is extensively used as a recreational substance globally. Case reports have reported cardiac arrhythmias immediately following recreational marijuana use. However, the burden of arrhythmias in hospitalized marijuana users have not been evaluated through prospective or cross-sectional studies. Therefore, we planned to measure temporal trends of the frequency of arrhythmias in hospitalized marijuana users using National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database in the United States. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

[Marijuana for medical purposes--public health perspective].

PubMed

Gazdek, Davorka

2014-01-01

Studies show significant negative effects of smoking marijuana on physical and mental health as well as social and occupational functioning. At the same time, there are more considerations about its ability to treat a number of diseases. This review summarizes current data in scientific literature that examines the medical effects of marijuana on human health with particular emphasis on its potential in medicine. Marijuana has a range of adverse health effects, particularly relating to young people because of higher risk for psychosis, traffic accidents, and cognitive impairment. Marijuana may be helpful in relieving symptoms of nausea and vomiting, increasing appetite and pain relief for persons with cancer, AIDS and multiple sclerosis. Smoking marijuana can impose significant public health risks. If there is a medical role for using marijuana, it lies in the application of clearly defined medical protocols and chemically defined compounds, not with using the unprocessed cannabis plant.

Health Risk Behaviors With Synthetic Cannabinoids Versus Marijuana.

PubMed

Clayton, Heather B; Lowry, Richard; Ashley, Carmen; Wolkin, Amy; Grant, Althea M

2017-04-01

Data are limited on the behavioral risk correlates of synthetic cannabinoid use. The purpose of this study was to compare the behavioral risk correlates of synthetic cannabinoid use with those among marijuana users. Data from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, a cross-sectional survey conducted in a nationally representative sample of students in grades 9 through 12 ( N = 15 624), were used to examine the association between self-reported type of marijuana use (ie, never use of marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids, ever use of marijuana only, and ever use of synthetic cannabinoids) and self-report of 36 risk behaviors across 4 domains: substance use, injury/violence, mental health, and sexual health. Multivariable models were used to calculate adjusted prevalence ratios. Students who ever used synthetic cannabinoids had a significantly greater likelihood of engaging in each of the behaviors in the substance use and sexual risk domains compared with students who ever used marijuana only. Students who ever used synthetic cannabinoids were more likely than students who ever used marijuana only to have used marijuana before age 13 years, to have used marijuana ≥1 times during the past 30 days, and to have used marijuana ≥20 times during the past 30 days. Several injury/violence behaviors were more prevalent among students who ever used synthetic cannabinoids compared with students who ever used marijuana only. Health professionals and school-based substance use prevention programs should include strategies focused on the prevention of both synthetic cannabinoids and marijuana. Copyright © 2017 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

The Effects of Medical Marijuana Laws on Potency

PubMed Central

Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Heaton, Paul

2014-01-01

Background Marijuana potency has risen dramatically over the past two decades. In the United States, it is unclear whether state medical marijuana policies have contributed to this increase. Methods Employing a differences-in-differences model within a mediation framework, we analyzed data on n = 39,157 marijuana samples seized by law enforcement in 51 U.S. jurisdictions between 1990-2010, producing estimates of the direct and indirect effects of state medical marijuana laws on potency, as measured by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol content. Results We found evidence that potency increased by a half percentage point on average after legalization of medical marijuana, although this result was not significant. When we examined specific medical marijuana supply provisions, results suggest that legal allowances for retail dispensaries had the strongest influence, significantly increasing potency by about one percentage point on average. Our mediation analyses examining the mechanisms through which medical marijuana laws influence potency found no evidence of direct regulatory impact. Rather, the results suggest that the impact of these laws occurs predominantly through a compositional shift in the share of the market captured by high-potency sinsemilla. Conclusion Our findings have important implications for policymakers and those in the scientific community trying to understand the extent to which greater availability of higher potency marijuana increases the risk of negative public health outcomes, such as drugged driving and drug-induced psychoses. Future work should reconsider the impact of medical marijuana laws on health outcomes in light of dramatic and ongoing shifts in both marijuana potency and the medical marijuana policy environment. PMID:24502887

Prevalence of medical marijuana use in California, 2012.

PubMed

Ryan-Ibarra, Suzanne; Induni, Marta; Ewing, Danielle

2015-03-01

The US Drug Enforcement Agency classifies marijuana as an illegal substance, yet in 22 states marijuana is legal for medicinal use. In 1996, California legalised the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes, but population-based data describing medical marijuana users in the state has not been available. Our aim was to examine the demographic differences between users and non-users of medical marijuana in California utilising population-based data. We used data from the California Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2012, an annual, random-digit-dial state-wide telephone survey that collects health data from a representative adult sample (n = 7525). Age-adjusted prevalence rates were estimated. Five percent of adults in California reported ever using medical marijuana, and most users believed that medical marijuana helped alleviate symptoms or treat a serious medical condition. Prevalence was similar when compared by gender, education and region. Prevalence of ever using medical marijuana was highest among white adults and younger adults ages 18-24 years, although use was reported by every racial/ethnic and age group examined in our study and ranged from 2% to 9%. Our study's results lend support to the idea that medical marijuana is used equally by many groups of people and is not exclusively used by any one specific group. As more states approve marijuana use for medical purposes, it is important to track medical marijuana use as a health-related behaviour and risk factor. © 2014 Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs.

Medical marijuana for digestive disorders: high time to prescribe?

PubMed

Gerich, Mark E; Isfort, Robert W; Brimhall, Bryan; Siegel, Corey A

2015-02-01

The use of recreational and medical marijuana is increasingly accepted by the general public in the United States. Along with growing interest in marijuana use has come an understanding of marijuana's effects on normal physiology and disease, primarily through elucidation of the human endocannabinoid system. Scientific inquiry into this system has indicated potential roles for marijuana in the modulation of gastrointestinal symptoms and disease. Some patients with gastrointestinal disorders already turn to marijuana for symptomatic relief, often without a clear understanding of the risks and benefits of marijuana for their condition. Unfortunately, that lack of understanding is shared by health-care providers. Marijuana's federal legal status as a Schedule I controlled substance has limited clinical investigation of its effects. There are also potential legal ramifications for physicians who provide recommendations for marijuana for their patients. Despite these constraints, as an increasing number of patients consider marijuana as a potential therapy for their digestive disorders, health-care providers will be asked to discuss the issues surrounding medical marijuana with their patients.

Marijuana: A Realistic Approach

PubMed Central

Chun, George

1971-01-01

Much of the current confusion concerning marijuana has been caused by a lack of definition of terms. Variations in drug effect that are related to the type and potency of cannabis preparation and route of administration need clarification. When domestic strength marijuana is smoked recreationally, the subjective effects include relaxation, mild euphoria and increased sensory awareness. The objective effects include tachycardia, reddening of the conjunctivae and a distorted sense of time. Undesirable effects such as panic reactions, amotivational behavior, and acute toxic psychosis occur infrequently and are reversible with proper therapy. Other effects which have been attributed to marijuana are unsubstantiated. The recent upsurge in use of marijuana involves persons of a different type than those who used it heretofore and has greatly increased the number of people familiar with the drug. The disparity between what many people know empirically and the information disseminated through official media has lessened the credibility of physicians with many of our younger citizens. When young people recognize misinformation about marijuana, they are no longer listening when the facts are presented about more dangerous drugs, and the abuse of these drugs must be our main concern. To be considered is the potential hazard to adolescent users who may concomitantly be exposed to a subculture of experimentation with stronger drugs at a time when the opinion of a peer group is a strong factor in their behavior. PMID:5551311

Characterizing marijuana concentrate users: A web-based survey.

PubMed

Daniulaityte, Raminta; Lamy, Francois R; Barratt, Monica; Nahhas, Ramzi W; Martins, Silvia S; Boyer, Edward W; Sheth, Amit; Carlson, Robert G

2017-09-01

The study seeks to characterize marijuana concentrate users, describe reasons and patterns of use, perceived risk, and identify predictors of daily/near daily use. An anonymous web-based survey was conducted (April-June 2016) with 673 US-based cannabis users recruited via the Bluelight.org web-forum and included questions about marijuana concentrate use, other drugs, and socio-demographics. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify characteristics associated with greater odds of lifetime and daily use of marijuana concentrates. About 66% of respondents reported marijuana concentrate use. The sample was 76% male, and 87% white. Marijuana concentrate use was viewed as riskier than flower cannabis. Greater odds of marijuana concentrate use was associated with living in states with "recreational" (AOR=4.91; p=0.001) or "medical, less restrictive" marijuana policies (AOR=1.87; p=0.014), being male (AOR=2.21, p=0.002), younger (AOR=0.95, p<0.001), number of other drugs used (AOR=1.23, p<0.001), daily herbal cannabis use (AOR=4.28, p<0.001), and lower perceived risk of cannabis use (AOR=0.96, p=0.043). About 13% of marijuana concentrate users reported daily/near daily use. Greater odds of daily concentrate use was associated with being male (AOR=9.29, p=0.033), using concentrates for therapeutic purposes (AOR=7.61, p=0.001), using vape pens for marijuana concentrate administration (AOR=4.58, p=0.007), and lower perceived risk of marijuana concentrate use (AOR=0.92, p=0.017). Marijuana concentrate use was more common among male, younger and more experienced users, and those living in states with more liberal marijuana policies. Characteristics of daily users, in particular patterns of therapeutic use and utilization of different vaporization devices, warrant further research with community-recruited samples. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years.

PubMed

Dos Santos, Rafael G; Osório, Flávia L; Crippa, José Alexandre S; Riba, Jordi; Zuardi, Antônio W; Hallak, Jaime E C

2016-06-01

To date, pharmacological treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and for drug dependence show limited efficacy, leaving a large number of patients suffering severe and persistent symptoms. Preliminary studies in animals and humans suggest that ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may have antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive properties. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of clinical trials published from 1990 until 2015, assessing these therapeutic properties. Electronic searches were performed using the PubMed, LILACS, and SciELO databases. Only clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Of these, 151 studies were identified, of which six met the established criteria. Reviewed studies suggest beneficial effects for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening diseases, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. All drugs were well tolerated. In conclusion, ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD may be useful pharmacological tools for the treatment of drug dependence, and anxiety and mood disorders, especially in treatment-resistant patients. These drugs may also be useful pharmacological tools to understand psychiatric disorders and to develop new therapeutic agents. However, all studies reviewed had small sample sizes, and half of them were open-label, proof-of-concept studies. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies with more patients are needed to replicate these preliminary findings.

Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years

PubMed Central

dos Santos, Rafael G.; Osório, Flávia L.; Crippa, José Alexandre S.; Riba, Jordi; Zuardi, Antônio W.; Hallak, Jaime E. C.

2016-01-01

To date, pharmacological treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and for drug dependence show limited efficacy, leaving a large number of patients suffering severe and persistent symptoms. Preliminary studies in animals and humans suggest that ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may have antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive properties. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of clinical trials published from 1990 until 2015, assessing these therapeutic properties. Electronic searches were performed using the PubMed, LILACS, and SciELO databases. Only clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Of these, 151 studies were identified, of which six met the established criteria. Reviewed studies suggest beneficial effects for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening diseases, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. All drugs were well tolerated. In conclusion, ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD may be useful pharmacological tools for the treatment of drug dependence, and anxiety and mood disorders, especially in treatment-resistant patients. These drugs may also be useful pharmacological tools to understand psychiatric disorders and to develop new therapeutic agents. However, all studies reviewed had small sample sizes, and half of them were open-label, proof-of-concept studies. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies with more patients are needed to replicate these preliminary findings. PMID:27354908

Marijuana and actual driving performance

DOT National Transportation Integrated Search

1993-11-01

This report concerns the effects of marijuana smoking on actual driving performance. It presents the results of one pilot and three actual driving studies. The pilot study's major purpose was to establish the THC dose current marijuana users smoke to...

Smoking Marijuana and the Lungs

MedlinePlus

... O P Y PATIENT EDUCATION | INFORMATION SERIES Smoking Marijuana and the Lungs Marijuana, also known as cannabis (can-a-bis) is the second most commonly smoked substance after tobacco. Despite marijuana’s legalization in many states, it may be harmful ...

Marijuana, the Endocannabinoid System and the Female Reproductive System

PubMed Central

Brents, Lisa K.

2016-01-01

Marijuana use among women is highly prevalent, but the societal conversation on marijuana rarely focuses on how marijuana affects female reproduction and endocrinology. This article reviews the current scientific literature regarding marijuana use and hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis regulation, ovarian hormone production, the menstrual cycle, and fertility. Evidence suggests that marijuana can reduce female fertility by disrupting hypothalamic release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), leading to reduced estrogen and progesterone production and anovulatory menstrual cycles. Tolerance to these effects has been shown in rhesus monkeys, but the effects of chronic marijuana use on human female reproduction are largely unknown. Marijuana-induced analgesia, drug reinforcement properties, tolerance, and dependence are influenced by ovarian hormones, with estrogen generally increasing and progesterone decreasing sensitivity to marijuana. Carefully controlled regulation of the Endocannabinoid System (ECS) is required for successful reproduction, and the exogenous cannabinoids in marijuana may disrupt the delicate balance of the ECS in the female reproductive system. PMID:27354844

Cigarette smoking among marijuana users in the United States.

PubMed

Richter, Kimber P; Kaur, Haroshena; Resnicow, Ken; Nazir, Niaman; Mosier, Michael C; Ahluwalia, Jasjit S

2004-06-01

The vast majority of drug users smoke cigarettes. Most use marijuana and no other illicit drug. We analyzed adult responses to the 1997 NHSDA (n = 16,661) to explore relationships between marijuana use and cigarette smoking. Multivariate analyses controlled for other illicit drug use and other potential covariates. Nearly three-quarters of current marijuana users (74%) smoked cigarettes. Compared to nonusers, the adjusted odds of being a smoker were 5.43 for current marijuana users, 3.58 for past year marijuana users, and 2.02 for former marijuana users. Odds for cigarette smoking among current poly-drug users, compared to nonusers, were 2.3 to 1. Level of cigarette smoking was directly associated with frequency of marijuana use. Nationwide, an estimated 7 million adults smoke both substances and are at increased risk for respiratory illnesses and mortality. Cigarette smoking is a major co-morbidity of marijuana use and smoking cessation should be addressed among marijuana users in addition to their other illicit drug involvement.

Marijuana, the Endocannabinoid System and the Female Reproductive System.

PubMed

Brents, Lisa K

2016-06-01

Marijuana use among women is highly prevalent, but the societal conversation on marijuana rarely focuses on how marijuana affects female reproduction and endocrinology. This article reviews the current scientific literature regarding marijuana use and hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis regulation, ovarian hormone production, the menstrual cycle, and fertility. Evidence suggests that marijuana can reduce female fertility by disrupting hypothalamic release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), leading to reduced estrogen and progesterone production and anovulatory menstrual cycles. Tolerance to these effects has been shown in rhesus monkeys, but the effects of chronic marijuana use on human female reproduction are largely unknown. Marijuana-induced analgesia, drug reinforcement properties, tolerance, and dependence are influenced by ovarian hormones, with estrogen generally increasing and progesterone decreasing sensitivity to marijuana. Carefully controlled regulation of the Endocannabinoid System (ECS) is required for successful reproduction, and the exogenous cannabinoids in marijuana may disrupt the delicate balance of the ECS in the female reproductive system.

Quantifying cannabis: A field study of marijuana quantity estimation.

PubMed

Prince, Mark A; Conner, Bradley T; Pearson, Matthew R

2018-06-01

The assessment of marijuana use quantity poses unique challenges. These challenges have limited research efforts on quantity assessments. However, quantity estimates are critical to detecting associations between marijuana use and outcomes. We examined accuracy of marijuana users' estimations of quantities of marijuana they prepared to ingest and predictors of both how much was prepared for a single dose and the degree of (in)accuracy of participants' estimates. We recruited a sample of 128 regular-to-heavy marijuana users for a field study wherein they prepared and estimated quantities of marijuana flower in a joint or a bowl as well as marijuana concentrate using a dab tool. The vast majority of participants overestimated the quantity of marijuana that they used in their preparations. We failed to find robust predictors of estimation accuracy. Self-reported quantity estimates are inaccurate, which has implications for studying the link between quantity and marijuana use outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Pharmacy Students' Knowledge and Attitudes Regarding Medical Marijuana.

PubMed

Moeller, Karen E; Woods, Barbara

2015-08-25

To determine pharmacy students' knowledge of and attitudes toward medical marijuana and to determine if pharmacy students need additional education on the topic. Pharmacy students were asked to complete a survey on medical marijuana that assessed their knowledge of, medical uses of, adverse effects with, and attitudes toward medical marijuana through 23 Likert-scale questions. Three hundred eleven students completed the survey. Fifty-eight percent of the students felt that medical marijuana should be legalized in all states. However, the majority of students did not feel comfortable answering consumers' questions regarding efficacy, safety, or drug interactions related to the substance. Accurate responses for diseases or conditions for permitted medical marijuana use was low, with only cancer (91%) and glaucoma (57%) identified by more than half the students. With an increasing number of states adopting medical marijuana use, pharmacy schools need to evaluate the adequacy of medical marijuana education in their curriculum.

Marijuana exposure and pulmonary alterations in primates.

PubMed

Fligiel, S E; Beals, T F; Tashkin, D P; Paule, M G; Scallet, A C; Ali, S F; Bailey, J R; Slikker, W

1991-11-01

As part of a large multidisciplinary study, we examined lungs from 24 periadolescent male rhesus monkeys that were sacrificed seven months after daily marijuana smoke inhalation of 12 months duration. Animals were divided into four exposure groups: A) high-dose (one marijuana cigarette 7 days/week), B) low-dose (one marijuana cigarette 2 days/week and sham smoke 5 days/week), C) placebo (one extracted marijuana cigarette 7 days/week), and D) sham (sham smoke 7 days/week). Lungs, removed intact, were formalin inflated, sectioned and examined. Several pathological alterations, including alveolitis, alveolar cell hyperplasia and granulomatous inflammation, were found with higher frequency in all cigarette-smoking groups. Other alterations, such as bronchiolitis, bronchiolar squamous metaplasia and interstitial fibrosis, were found most frequently in the marijuana-smoking groups. Alveolar cell hyperplasia with focal atypia was seen only in the marijuana-smoking animals. These changes represent mostly early alterations of small airways. Additional follow-up studies are needed to determine their long-term prognostic significance.

Repeated lysergic acid diethylamide in an animal model of depression: Normalisation of learning behaviour and hippocampal serotonin 5-HT2 signalling.

PubMed

Buchborn, Tobias; Schröder, Helmut; Höllt, Volker; Grecksch, Gisela

2014-06-01

A re-balance of postsynaptic serotonin (5-HT) receptor signalling, with an increase in 5-HT1A and a decrease in 5-HT2A signalling, is a final common pathway multiple antidepressants share. Given that the 5-HT1A/2A agonist lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), when repeatedly applied, selectively downregulates 5-HT2A, but not 5-HT1A receptors, one might expect LSD to similarly re-balance the postsynaptic 5-HT signalling. Challenging this idea, we use an animal model of depression specifically responding to repeated antidepressant treatment (olfactory bulbectomy), and test the antidepressant-like properties of repeated LSD treatment (0.13 mg/kg/d, 11 d). In line with former findings, we observe that bulbectomised rats show marked deficits in active avoidance learning. These deficits, similarly as we earlier noted with imipramine, are largely reversed by repeated LSD administration. Additionally, bulbectomised rats exhibit distinct anomalies of monoamine receptor signalling in hippocampus and/or frontal cortex; from these, only the hippocampal decrease in 5-HT2 related [(35)S]-GTP-gamma-S binding is normalised by LSD. Importantly, the sham-operated rats do not profit from LSD, and exhibit reduced hippocampal 5-HT2 signalling. As behavioural deficits after bulbectomy respond to agents classified as antidepressants only, we conclude that the effect of LSD in this model can be considered antidepressant-like, and discuss it in terms of a re-balance of hippocampal 5-HT2/5-HT1A signalling. © The Author(s) 2014.

Medical marijuana: time to contact your U.S. representative.

PubMed

James, J S

1998-04-03

Advocates for legalizing marijuana for medicinal use are encouraged to contact their U.S. representatives. The first congressional vote on medicinal use of marijuana, House Resolution 372 (the anti-medicinal-marijuana resolution), takes place on April 21. H. Res. 372 states that marijuana is a dangerous and addictive drug. Nine Democrats on the House Judiciary Committee strongly disagreed with the statement and supported State initiatives to legalize marijuana for medicinal purposes. The Marijuana Policy Project offers a script to use when contacting representatives. Contact information is provided.

Let's Be Blunt: Consumption Methods Matter Among Black Marijuana Smokers.

PubMed

Montgomery, LaTrice; Bagot, Kara

2016-05-01

Despite the high prevalence of blunt (i.e., hollowed-out cigars that are filled with marijuana) use among Black marijuana smokers, few studies have examined if and how blunt users differ from traditional joint users. The current study compared the prevalence and patterns of use for those who smoked blunts in the past month (i.e., blunt users) with those who used marijuana through other methods (i.e., other marijuana users). The sample included 935 Black past-month marijuana smokers participating in the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Among past-month marijuana smokers, 73.2% were blunt users and 26.8% were other marijuana users. Overall, blunt users initiated marijuana use at an earlier age (15.9 vs. 17.3 years, p < .01) and reported more days of marijuana use in the past month (16 vs. 8 days, p < .01) than did other marijuana users. There were also differences by gender. Among females, blunt users reported a higher odds of past-year marijuana abuse or dependence (23.8%) than other marijuana users (11.2%) (adjusted odds ratio = 1.23, 95% CI [1.12, 3.17], p < .01). However, blunt-using males reported similar odds of past-year marijuana abuse or dependence (approximately 25%) as other marijuana-using males. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions for blunt users as a subgroup of marijuana users, especially among Black females, who may be at increased risk for developing a marijuana use disorder as a result of blunt smoking.

Alcohol use potentiates marijuana problem severity in young adult women.

PubMed

Stein, Michael D; Caviness, Celeste M; Anderson, Bradley J

2014-01-01

Most young adult women who smoke marijuana also drink alcohol. Marijuana-related problems are associated with marijuana use frequency. We hypothesized that increased alcohol use frequency potentiates the association between frequency of marijuana use and marijuana-related problem severity. We recruited women aged 18 to 24 who smoked marijuana at least monthly and were not treatment seeking. Marijuana and alcohol use were measured using the timeline follow-back method. Problems associated with marijuana use were assessed using the Marijuana Problems Scale. Participants (n = 332) averaged 20.5 ± 1.8 years of age, were 66.7% non-Hispanic White, and reported using marijuana on 51.5 ± 30.6 and alcohol on 18.9 ± 16.8 of the 90 previous days. Controlling for education, ethnicity, years of marijuana use, and other drug use, frequency of marijuana use (b = .22; p < .01) and frequency of alcohol use (b = 0.13; p < .05) had significant, positive effects on marijuana problem severity. In a separate multivariate model, the linear by linear interaction of marijuana by alcohol use frequency was significant (b = 0.18; p < .01), consistent with the hypothesis. Concurrent alcohol use impacts the experience of negative consequences from marijuana use in a community sample of young women. Discussions of marijuana use in young adults should consider the possible potentiating effects of alcohol use. Copyright © 2014 Jacobs Institute of Women's Health. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Cue Reactivity in Young Marijuana Smokers

PubMed Central

Gray, Kevin M.; LaRowe, Steven D.; Upadhyaya, Himanshu P.

2008-01-01

Objective To develop and evaluate the feasibility of a cue reactivity paradigm for young marijuana smokers. Method A laboratory procedure was developed involving neutral- and marijuana-related imagery, video, and in vivo cues. Fifteen adolescents and young adults with cannabis use disorders completed the procedure. Continuous Skin Conductance (SC) and Heart Rate (HR) were measured throughout the procedure. Participants completed questionnaires regarding marijuana craving before, during and after cue presentations. Results Higher levels of craving and SC were observed during marijuana cue presentations. Conclusions The procedure appears to elicit cue reactivity among adolescents and young adults with cannabis use disorders and should be further evaluated and refined with a larger sample. Implications for future studies are discussed. PMID:19071985

Medical marijuana and the developing role of the pharmacist.

PubMed

Seamon, Matthew J; Fass, Jennifer A; Maniscalco-Feichtl, Maria; Abu-Shraie, Nada A

2007-05-15

The pharmacology, therapeutic uses, safety, drug-drug interactions, and drug-disease interactions of medical marijuana are reviewed, and the legal issues related to its use and the implications of medical marijuana for the pharmacist are presented. Marijuana contains more than 460 active chemicals and over 60 unique cannabinoids. The legal landscape surrounding marijuana is surprisingly complex and unsettled. In the United States, 11 states and several municipalities have legalized medical marijuana. Another state provides legislation that allows patients to claim a defense of medical necessity. Nevertheless, patients using medical marijuana may never interact with a pharmacist. Marijuana is a Schedule I controlled substance and its use is illegal under federal law. Marijuana has a number of purported therapeutic uses with a broad range of supporting evidence. There are five general indications for medical marijuana: (1) severe nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy or other causes, (2) weight loss associated with debilitating illnesses, including HIV infection and cancer, (3) spasticity secondary to neurologic diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, (4) pain syndromes, and (5) other uses, such as for glaucoma. Marijuana is associated with adverse psychiatric, cardiovascular, respiratory, and immunologic events. Moreover, marijuana may interact with a number of prescription drugs and concomitant disease states. Several states have legalized the use of marijuana for chronic and debilitating medication conditions. Pharmacists need to understand the complex legal framework surrounding this issue so that they can protect themselves and better serve their patients.

Marijuana use and associated motives in Colorado university students.

PubMed

Phillips, Kristina T; Lalonde, Trent L; Phillips, Michael M; Schneider, Maryia M

2017-12-01

Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug among college students, with heavy use leading to negative outcomes. Use of marijuana for medical and recreational purposes in select U.S. states has been controversial, with concerns surrounding increased prevalence rates and harm. The current exploratory study aimed to assess marijuana use in college students in Colorado, demographic differences in frequency of use, and motives for using. College students (N = 300; 61% female) were recruited through introductory psychology courses and completed a series of questionnaires and a marijuana urine screen. Almost three-fourths of the sample reported lifetime use of marijuana. Sixty-five percent used marijuana within the last year and 29% tested positive on the urine screen. Hurdle Poisson regression models with a subset of participants (n = 117) showed non-Greek and freshman status were associated with increased number of days participants used marijuana in the last month. Problem marijuana use was positively associated with a range of motives-of note-motives focused on coping, boredom, alcohol, and food. Prevalence rates of marijuana use were high in this sample of college students in a state with legal recreational marijuana use. Particular students (eg, students who use marijuana to cope) may be at higher risk for problem marijuana use. Developing effective, tailored interventions for university students is warranted. (Am J Addict 2017;26:830-837). © 2017 American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry.

Contextual risks linking parents’ adolescent marijuana use to offspring onset

PubMed Central

Kerr, David C. R.; Tiberio, Stacey S.; Capaldi, Deborah M.

2015-01-01

Objective We studied the extent to which parent marijuana use in adolescence is associated with marijuana use onset in offspring through contextual family and peer risks. Method Fathers assessed (n = 93) since childhood, their 146 offspring (n = 83 girls), and offspring's mothers (n = 85) participated in a longitudinal study. Using discrete-time survival analysis, fathers’ (prospectively measured) and mothers’ (retrospective) adolescent marijuana use was used to predict offspring marijuana use onset through age 19 years. Parental monitoring, child exposure to marijuana use, peer deviance, peer marijuana use, and perceptions of parent disapproval of child use were measured before or concurrent with onset. Results Parents’ adolescent marijuana use was significantly associated with less monitoring, offspring alcohol use, the peer behaviors, exposure to adult marijuana use, and perceptions of less parent disapproval. Male gender and the two peer behaviors were positively associated with children's marijuana use onset, controlling for their alcohol use. Parents’ adolescent marijuana use had a significant indirect effect on child onset through children's deviant peer affiliations and a composite contextual risk score. Conclusions Parents’ histories of marijuana use may contribute indirectly to children's marijuana use onset through their influence on the social environments children encounter; specifically, those characterized by more liberal use norms, exposure to marijuana use and deviant and marijuana-using peers, and less adult supervision. Given that alcohol use onset was controlled, findings suggest that the contextual factors identified here confer unique risk for child marijuana use onset. PMID:26166667

Political and medical views on medical marijuana and its future.

PubMed

Rubens, Muni

2014-01-01

The policies, laws, politics, public opinions, and scientific inferences of medical marijuana are rapidly changing as the debate on medical use of marijuana has always been political, rather than scientific. Federal law has barred the use of medical marijuana though 18 state governments and Washington, DC, support the medical use of marijuana. Unfortunately, not many studies exist on medical marijuana to back these laws and policies. The judiciary, on the other hand, has elicited a diverse response to medical marijuana through its rulings over several decades. Some rulings favored the federal government's opinion, and others supported the larger public view and many state governments with legalized medical marijuana. Public opinion on legalizing medical marijuana has always favored the use of medical marijuana. The movement of scientific knowledge of medical marijuana follows an erratic, discontinuous pathway. The future place of medical marijuana in U.S. society remains unknown. The three forces-scientific knowledge, social-political acceptance, and laws-play a role in the direction that medical marijuana takes in society. Overcoming political-social forces requires a concerted effort from the scientific community and political leaders. The results of scientific research must guide the decisions for laws and medical use of marijuana. This article aims to trace the political dilemma and contradictory views shared by federal and state governments and predict the future of medical marijuana by tracing the past history of medical marijuana with its bumpy pathway in the social-political arena.

Marijuana and tobacco: a major connection?

PubMed

Tullis, Laura Michelle; Dupont, Robert; Frost-Pineda, Kimberly; Gold, Mark S

2003-01-01

Smoking among teens and college students is a significant public health challenge. Tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol continue to be the most commonly abused drugs by teens and young adults. Educational efforts have resulted in increased awareness of the mortality and morbidity attributed to smoking, second-hand smoke, and prenatal exposure to tobacco. Short- and long-term consequences of marijuana use are well documented in the literature, but they have received less wide spread attention. Even less well known is the relationship between these substances. Does use of one lead to use of the other? Are there synergistic and/or antagonistic effects when these substances are used together? We need answers to these questions to understand the prevalence of use and the impact of these drugs on our nations youth and young adults. The gateway theory of drug use is often used to describe the progression from using alcohol or tobacco, to marijuana, and later use of other drugs like MDMA, cocaine, and heroin. While tobacco use does commonly precede marijuana use, we propose that marijuana may be a "gateway drug" to tobacco smoking. Our research with university students is suggesting that cigarette-smoking initiation often follows or coincides with marijuana.

The impact of marijuana use on memory in HIV-infected patients: a comprehensive review of the HIV and marijuana literatures

PubMed Central

Skalski, Linda M.; Towe, Sheri L.; Sikkema, Kathleen J.; Meade, Christina S.

2016-01-01

Background The most robust neurocognitive effect of marijuana use is memory impairment. Memory deficits are also high among persons living with HIV/AIDS, and marijuana is the most commonly used drug in this population. Yet research examining neurocognitive outcomes resulting from co-occurring marijuana and HIV is limited. Objective The primary objectives of this comprehensive review are to: (1) examine the literature on memory functioning in HIV-infected individuals; (2) examine the literature on memory functioning in marijuana users; (3) synthesize findings and propose a theoretical framework to guide future research. Method PubMed was searched for English publications 2000–2013. Twenty-two studies met inclusion criteria in the HIV literature, and 23 studies in the marijuana literature. Results Among HIV-infected individuals, memory deficits with medium to large effect sizes were observed. Marijuana users also demonstrated memory problems, but results were less consistent due to the diversity of samples. Conclusion A compensatory hypothesis, based on the cognitive aging literature, is proposed to provide a framework to explore the interaction between marijuana and HIV. There is some evidence that individuals infected with HIV recruit additional brain regions during memory tasks to compensate for HIV-related declines in neurocognitive functioning. Marijuana use causes impairment in similar brain systems, and thus it is hypothesized that the added neural strain of marijuana can exhaust neural resources, resulting in pronounced memory impairment. It will be important to test this hypothesis empirically, and future research priorities are discussed. PMID:27138170

Medicinal and recreational marijuana: what are the risks?

PubMed

Van Gerpen, Shawn; Vik, Tamara; Soundy, Timothy J

2015-01-01

With the recent legalization of recreational marijuana in Colorado, Washington, Alaska, the District of Columbia and legislation pending for both medical and recreational marijuana in several other states, it is important for the facts regarding its potential for serious mental health consequences to be known. Little has been said about the psychiatric risks of this substance, particularly in youth. Several studies have shown increased rates of depression, anxiety and schizophrenia among those who use marijuana on a regular basis. In addition, permanent loss of IQ and structural changes in the brain have been demonstrated with habitual use. Legalization of marijuana for recreational use can influence an adolescent's perception of this substance as "safe." In states that have legalized marijuana for medical purposes, there is the very real problem of "diversion." As many as 34 percent of 12th-graders who use marijuana in states with legalized marijuana had obtained it from a person who had received it through a prescription.

Pharmacy Students’ Knowledge and Attitudes Regarding Medical Marijuana

PubMed Central

Woods, Barbara

2015-01-01

Objective. To determine pharmacy students’ knowledge of and attitudes toward medical marijuana and to determine if pharmacy students need additional education on the topic. Methods. Pharmacy students were asked to complete a survey on medical marijuana that assessed their knowledge of, medical uses of, adverse effects with, and attitudes toward medical marijuana through 23 Likert-scale questions. Results. Three hundred eleven students completed the survey. Fifty-eight percent of the students felt that medical marijuana should be legalized in all states. However, the majority of students did not feel comfortable answering consumers’ questions regarding efficacy, safety, or drug interactions related to the substance. Accurate responses for diseases or conditions for permitted medical marijuana use was low, with only cancer (91%) and glaucoma (57%) identified by more than half the students. Conclusion. With an increasing number of states adopting medical marijuana use, pharmacy schools need to evaluate the adequacy of medical marijuana education in their curriculum. PMID:26430272

Medical marijuana for cancer.

PubMed

Kramer, Joan L

2015-03-01

Answer questions and earn CME/CNE Marijuana has been used for centuries, and interest in its medicinal properties has been increasing in recent years. Investigations into these medicinal properties has led to the development of cannabinoid pharmaceuticals such as dronabinol, nabilone, and nabiximols. Dronabinol is best studied in the treatment of nausea secondary to cancer chemotherapy and anorexia associated with weight loss in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome, and is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for those indications. Nabilone has been best studied for the treatment of nausea secondary to cancer chemotherapy. There are also limited studies of these drugs for other conditions. Nabiximols is only available in the United States through clinical trials, but is used in Canada and the United Kingdom for the treatment of spasticity secondary to multiple sclerosis and pain. Studies of marijuana have concentrated on nausea, appetite, and pain. This article will review the literature regarding the medical use of marijuana and these cannabinoid pharmaceuticals (with emphasis on indications relevant to oncology), as well as available information regarding adverse effects of marijuana use. © 2014 American Cancer Society.

Caring for Young Children Exposed to Marijuana.

PubMed

Ruiz, Natasha M; Shapiro, Susan E

This article reviews the research report, Marijuana Exposure Among Children Younger Than Six Years in the United States (), and, using a case study approach, applies the findings to advanced practice registered nurses. B. extracted data from the National Poison Data System showing an increasing trend in marijuana exposure in children, especially in states where marijuana has been legalized for either medicinal use or recreational use. Advanced practice registered nurses need to be comfortable recognizing and managing marijuana intoxication in the pediatric population, as well as educating parents in providing safe environments for their children.

Medicinal marijuana for epilepsy: a case series study.

PubMed

Ladino, Lady Diana; Hernández-Ronquillo, Lizbeth; Téllez-Zenteno, José Francisco

2014-11-01

To describe the social, clinical and use-patterns characteristics of medicinal marijuana use among patients with epilepsy (PWEs). Eighteen PWEs with prescriptions for medicinal marijuana from a Canadian adult-epilepsy clinic were included in this study. Eighteen patients had a prescription of medicinal marijuana from a total population of 800 PWEs in our center (2.2%). Mean age of patients was 30±7.4 (19-50) years. Twelve (67%) patients were males. Eleven (61%) patients had drug-resistant epilepsy. Eleven (61%) patients suffered a psychiatric comorbidity and reported the use of illicit substances or heavy alcohol or tobacco consumption. Only two (11%) patients were married; the rest of patients (89%) were single or divorced. The drug use pattern was similar among patients. All patients asked for marijuana permission in the epilepsy clinic. Most (83%) had a previous history of marijuana smoking, with a mean of 6.6±3 (1-15) years. The mean consumption dose was 2.05±1.8 (0.5-8) grams per day. Ten (56%) patients reported withdrawal seizure exacerbation when they stopped the marijuana. Only two patients (11%) reported side effects, and all patients found medicinal marijuana very helpful for seizure control and improvement of mood disorder. PWEs using medicinal marijuana have a common profile. They are usually young single men with drug-resistant epilepsy and psychiatric comorbidity. Most used marijuana before formal prescription and all believe the drug was effective on their seizure control. Because of the concurrent use of other antiseizure medications, it is complex to estimate the actual effect of marijuana.

Surveying Lactation Professionals Regarding Marijuana Use and Breastfeeding.

PubMed

Bergeria, Cecilia L; Heil, Sarah H

2015-09-01

Breastfeeding is associated with substantial benefits for both the child and mother. Most guidelines state that women who use illicit drugs should not breastfeed. Although this recommendation has traditionally included marijuana, this drug's changing legal status and the limited scientific research regarding marijuana's effect on breastfeeding and the nursing child may lead to varying recommendations made by lactation professionals to clients who use marijuana. Additionally, to our knowledge, there are no data estimating the prevalence of marijuana use among breastfeeding women, making it unclear how common it is. This study assessed recommendations around breastfeeding and marijuana use and estimated the prevalence of marijuana use among breastfeeding women. A convenience sample of lactation professionals who practice throughout New England and were attending the 2014 Vermont Lactation Consultant Association conference was offered the opportunity to complete a five-item survey. Of 120 conference attendees, 74 completed the survey. Forty-four percent reported their recommendations around breastfeeding and marijuana use depended on factors like the severity of maternal use. Another 41% reported recommending continued breastfeeding because the benefits outweigh the harms. The remaining 15% reported recommending that a woman should stop breastfeeding if she cannot stop using marijuana. Survey completers estimated that 15% (1,203/7,843) of their breastfeeding clients in the past year used marijuana. Lactation professionals vary widely in their recommendations to breastfeeding clients who use marijuana. The estimate of prevalence also suggests this is a relatively common issue. More research is needed to assess the generalizability of these findings.

Law Enforcement Efforts to Control Domestically Grown Marijuana.

DTIC Science & Technology

1984-05-25

mari- juana grown indoors , the involvement of large criminal organizations, and the patterns of domestic marijuana distribution. In response to a GAO...information is particularly important if the amount of marijuana grown indoors and the number of large-scale cultiva- tion and distribution organizations... marijuana indoors is becoming increasingly popular. A 1982 narcotics assessment by the Western States Information Network (WSIN)2 of marijuana

Implications of marijuana legalization for adolescent substance use.

PubMed

Hopfer, Christian

2014-01-01

Marijuana that is legally available for adults has multiple implications for adolescent substance use. One potential effect that legalization may have is an increase in adolescent use to due increased availability, greater social acceptance, and possibly lower prices. Legalization may also facilitate the introduction of new formulations of marijuana (edible, vaporized) and with potentially higher potencies. It is unknown what adolescent consumption patterns will be if marijuana is widely available and marketed in different forms, or what effects different patterns of adolescent use will have on cognition, the development of marijuana use disorders, school performance, and the development of psychotic illnesses. Also unclear is whether adolescent users will be experiencing higher levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) compared with previous generations of users due to higher potencies. Although previous studies of the effects of adolescent marijuana use provide some guidance for current policy and public health recommendations, many new studies will be needed that answer questions in the context of use within a legal adult environment. Claims that marijuana has medicinal benefits create additional challenges for adolescent prevention efforts, as they contrast with messages of its harmfulness. Prevention and treatment approaches will need to address perceptions of the safety of marijuana, claims of its medicinal use, and consider family-wide effects as older siblings and parents may increasingly openly consume and advocate for marijuana use. Guidance for primary care physicians will be needed regarded screening and counseling. Widespread legalization and acceptance of marijuana implies that as law enforcement approaches for marijuana control decline, public health, medical, and scientific efforts to understand and reduce negative consequences of adolescent marijuana use need to be substantially increased to levels commensurate with those efforts for tobacco and alcohol.

Marijuana Use in the Elderly: Implications and Considerations.

PubMed

Mahvan, Tracy D; Hilaire, Michelle L; Mann, Allison; Brown, Antoinette; Linn, Becky; Gardner, Taylor; Lai, Beryen

2017-06-01

This article reviews the literature on the use of marijuana in the elderly. Pharmacists play an important role in the management of medications including drug use of potentially illegal drugs, including marijuana. The use of both recreational and medical marijuana has grown exponentially in the general population, including in older adults. As of 2017, marijuana for medical use is legal in 26 states and the District of Columbia. PubMed and Internet search using the following terms: marijuana, cannabis, delta-9-tetrhydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, cannabinoid, elderly, geriatric, and pharmacology. Findings are based on data collected from older adults (65 years of age and older) through August 2016. Because of the lack of research and funding, reputable literature on the impact of marijuana on older adults is scarce. The available evidence suggests that elderly individuals should be cautious when consuming marijuana, especially those who have certain comorbid conditions. The geriatric population has a higher likelihood of having multiple comorbidities and is subject to polypharmacy. Marijuana use, medicinal or recreational, complicates the picture with additive central nervous system side effects. This article reviews the growing information on marijuana use and discusses issues to consider and cautions in usage that can apply to day-to-day clinical practice and geriatric care. The role of the pharmacist in educating patients, caregivers, and health care providers is expanding with the growing number of states that have legalized medical marijuana (26 states and the District of Columbia, as of 2017). Important education points including drug-drug interactions, drug-disease interactions, and signs and symptoms of acute overdose should be considered. With this review, pharmacists will be informed on recommendations on the use of marijuana in the older adult. Monitoring of therapy, as well as adverse effects, will be reviewed, including some legal issues and

Marijuana: A Study of State Policies & Penalties.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Peat, Marwick, Mitchell and Co., Columbia, MD.

This study is a comprehensive analysis of issues concerning marijuana that are of importance to state policy makers. It reviews the medical, legal, and historical dimensions of marijuana use and examines the range of policy approaches toward marijuana possession and use which state officials have considered. Attention is directed to the experience…

Marijuana in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

PubMed

Carter, G T; Rosen, B S

2001-01-01

Marijuana has been proposed as treatment for a widening spectrum of medical conditions. Marijuana is a substance with many properties that may be applicable to the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These include analgesia, muscle relaxation, bronchodilation, saliva reduction, appetite stimulation, and sleep induction. In addition, marijuana has now been shown to have strong antioxidative and neuroprotective effects, which may prolong neuronal cell survival. In areas where it is legal to do so, marijuana should be considered in the pharmacological management of ALS. Further investigation into the usefulness of marijuana in this setting is warranted.

Mind Over Matter: The Brain's Response to Marijuana

MedlinePlus

... Brain's Response to Marijuana The Brain's Response to Marijuana Print Hi, my name is Sara Bellum. Welcome ... issue, we'll investigate the fascinating facts about marijuana. You may have heard it called pot, weed, ...

Older marijuana users: Life stressors and perceived social support.

PubMed

Choi, Namkee G; DiNitto, Diana M; Marti, C Nathan

2016-12-01

Given increasing numbers of older-adult marijuana users, this study examined the association of marijuana use and marijuana use disorder with life stressors and perceived social support in the 50+ age group. Data came from the 2012-2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (N=14,715 respondents aged 50+). Life stressors were measured with 12 items related to interpersonal, legal, and financial problems and being a crime victim. Perceived social support was measured with the 12-item Interpersonal Support Evaluation List. Using principal component analysis (PCA), we identified four components of life stressors. Linear regression analyses was used to test associations of past-year marijuana use and use disorder with PCA scores of each component and perceived social support. Of the 50+ age group, 3.89% were past-year marijuana users and 0.68% had marijuana use disorder. Marijuana users, especially those with marijuana use disorder (17.54% of past-year users), had high rates of mental and other substance use disorders. Controlling for other potential risk factors for stress, including health status and mental and other substance use disorders, marijuana use and use disorder were still significantly associated with more life stressors and lower perceived social support, possibly from low levels of social integration. A substantial proportion of older-adult marijuana users need help with mental health and substance use problems. Further examination of older marijuana users' life stressors and social support networks may aid in developing more systematic intervention strategies to address needs and reduce marijuana use. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Interest in marijuana treatment programs among teenage smokers and nonsmokers.

PubMed

Sheer, Amy J; Gorelick, David A; Collins, Charles C; Schroeder, Jennifer R; Heishman, Stephen J; Leff, Michelle K; Moolchan, Eric T

2009-12-01

Little is known about adolescents' interest in marijuana treatment programs. This question was evaluated by telephone interview in a convenience sample of 575 adolescents responding to advertisements for tobacco research studies. Eighty-one percent of respondents endorsed the need for marijuana treatment programs for adolescents. These adolescents were younger and less likely to smoke tobacco, smoke marijuana, or use alcohol than those not endorsing such a need. Among the 192 marijuana smokers, the 58.8% who endorsed the need for marijuana treatment programs took their first puff of marijuana at a younger age than those who did not endorse the need. Those who were willing to participate in a marijuana treatment program were more likely African American and took their first marijuana puff at a younger age than those not interested in treatment. These findings suggest that most adolescent marijuana smokers endorse the need for and are willing to attend marijuana treatment programs.

Marijuana use patterns among patients with inflammatory bowel disease.

PubMed

Ravikoff Allegretti, Jessica; Courtwright, Andrew; Lucci, Matthew; Korzenik, Joshua R; Levine, Jonathan

2013-12-01

The prevalence and perceived effectiveness of marijuana use has not been well studied in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) despite increasing legal permission for its use in Crohn's disease. Health care providers have little guidance about the IBD symptoms that may improve with marijuana use. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, sociodemographic characteristics, and perceived benefits of marijuana use among patients with IBD. Prospective cohort survey study of marijuana use patterns in patients with IBD at an academic medical center. A total of 292 patients completed the survey (response rate = 94%); 12.3% of patients were active marijuana users, 39.0% were past users, and 48.6% were never users. Among current and past users, 16.4% of patients used marijuana for disease symptoms, the majority of whom felt that marijuana was "very helpful" for relief of abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea. On multivariate analysis, age and chronic abdominal pain were associated with current marijuana use (odds ratio [OR], 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89-0.97; P < 0.001 and OR, 3.5; 95% CI, 1.24-9.82; P = 0.02). Age and chronic abdominal pain were also multivariate predictors of medicinal use of marijuana (OR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.89-0.97; P < 0.001 and OR, 4.7; 95% CI, 1.8-12.2; P = 0.001). Half of the never users expressed an interest in using marijuana for abdominal pain, were it legally available. A significant number of patients with IBD currently use marijuana. Most patients find it very helpful for symptom control, including patients with ulcerative colitis, who are currently excluded from medical marijuana laws. Clinical trials are needed to determine marijuana's potential as an IBD therapy and to guide prescribing decisions.

[Pros and cons of legalizing marijuana].

PubMed

Mönckeberg B, Fernando

2014-04-01

There are already several countries that have accepted marijuana as a soft drug, separating it from more dangerous ones. Yarious therapeutic properties have even been attributed to its use. Others, however, think that its use should be prohibited due to the mental interference and behavioral changes produced either by its occasional use as well as the permanent mental damage linked to chronic marijuana use. In order to clarify this divergence of opinions, the scientific literature is reviewed. It is concluded that there is a serious risk, especially for teenagers, associated to chronic marijuana use due to the presence of more frequent psychotic and schizophrenic episodes, which can be permanent, while consumption during pregnancy results in brain damage to the fetus, similar to fetal alcohol syndrome. Scientific research also indicated that smoking marijuana produces an even more severe bronchial damage than tobacco, with risk of lung cancer. In conclusion, the notion that marijuana is a risk-free soft drug is a serious mistake, based on the available conclusive scientific research that shows the opposite.

Troubled times for Canada's medical marijuana program.

PubMed

Thaczuk, Derek

2003-04-01

Health Canada finally produces a good marijuana crop, but its medical marijuana program is in a state of upheaval as it faces internal dissent regarding a crucial aspect of its mandate, as well as fundamental challenges from the courts. Meanwhile, the Justice Minister said that the government will introduce legislation to decriminalize the possession of small amounts of marijuana.

Smoked marijuana effects on tobacco cigarette smoking behavior.

PubMed

Kelly, T H; Foltin, R W; Rose, A J; Fischman, M W; Brady, J V

1990-03-01

The effects of marijuana smoke exposure on several measures of tobacco cigarette smoking behavior were examined. Eight healthy adult male volunteers, who smoked both tobacco and marijuana cigarettes, participated in residential studies, lasting 10 to 15 days, designed to measure the effects of marijuana smoke exposure on a range of behavioral variables. Tobacco cigarettes were available throughout the day (9:00 A.M. until midnight). Each day was divided into a private period (9:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.), during which subjects were socially isolated, and a social period (5:00 P.M. to midnight), during which subjects could interact. Under blind conditions, subjects smoked placebo and active marijuana cigarettes (0%, 1.3%, 2.3%, or 2.7% delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol) four times daily (9:45 A.M., 1:30 P.M., 5:00 P.M. and 8:30 P.M.). Each subject was exposed to both placebo and one active dose over 2- to 5-consecutive-day intervals, and dose conditions (i.e., placebo or active) alternated throughout the study. Active marijuana smoking significantly decreased the number of daily tobacco smoking bouts, increased inter-bout intervals and decreased inter-puff intervals. Marijuana decreased the number of tobacco smoking bouts by delaying the initiation of tobacco cigarette smoking immediately after marijuana smoking, whereas decreases in inter-puff intervals were unrelated to the time of marijuana smoking. No consistent interactions between marijuana effects and social or private periods (i.e., time of day) were observed.

Psychological absorption. Affect investment in marijuana intoxication.

PubMed

Fabian, W D; Fishkin, S M

1991-01-01

Absorption (a trait capacity for total attentional involvement) was reported to increase during episodes of marijuana intoxication. Several subsets of the absorption scale items specifically characterized marijuana intoxication, and groups of users and nonusers showed differential affective involvement with these experiences. Additionally, within the drug-using group, a positive correlation between frequency of marijuana use and affective ratings of these experiences was found. The findings support the hypothesis that a specific type of alteration in consciousness that enhances capacity for total attentional involvement (absorption) characterizes marijuana intoxication, and that this enhancement may act as a reinforcer, possibly influencing future use.

Marijuana Is Far From "Harmless."

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

DuPont, Robert L.

1981-01-01

Citing harmful physiological effects of marijuana, the author asserts that it is the single most serious new threat to our nation's health. He urges parents and school personnel to learn about marijuana and take a strong stand against it. (Condensed from "PTA Today," May 1981, p3-5.) (Author/SJL)

Use of Marijuana and Other Substances Among Pregnant and Parenting Women With Substance Use Disorders: Changes in Washington State After Marijuana Legalization.

PubMed

Grant, Therese M; Graham, J Christopher; Carlini, Beatriz H; Ernst, Cara C; Brown, Natalie Novick

2018-01-01

In 2012, possession of marijuana for nonmedical use was legalized in Washington State. This study examined how legalization affected alcohol and drug use in a sample of pregnant and parenting women with substance use disorders. Study participants from nine counties in Washington State (N = 1,359) were questioned about their substance use after completing a 3-year case management intervention program. The sample was divided into two cohorts based on whether participants had completed the program before or after legalization. Most study participants reported complete abstinence from alcohol and nonprescription drugs at program exit. Among those who were still using substances, women who completed the intervention after marijuana legalization were significantly more likely to report marijuana use at program exit compared with women who completed the intervention before marijuana legalization. Across both cohorts (pre- and post-legalization), we found a positive association of exit marijuana use with alcohol, illegal methadone, other opioids, amphetamines, and cocaine use; even when we controlled for historical period, the association with some of these substances with marijuana use remained evident. Independent of marijuana use, we saw increased use during the post-legalization period of alcohol, illicit methadone, and other opioids. Marijuana use at exit from the Parent-Child Assistance Program (PCAP) increased significantly after marijuana legalization in the state. Women who were not abstinent from marijuana at program exit were likely to report use of other substances as well. Our study design demonstrates an association but does not allow us to conclude that marijuana use leads to other substance use among this sample of women with a history of polysubstance use.

Profiles of Patients Who Use Marijuana for Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

PubMed

Kerlin, Ann Marie; Long, Millie; Kappelman, Michael; Martin, Christopher; Sandler, Robert S

2018-06-01

Marijuana is legal in a number of states for indications that include inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), and patients are interested in its potential benefits. We aimed to describe the legal use of marijuana in individuals with IBD in the USA who participate within the CCFA Partners internet-based cohort. A total of 2357 participants who lived in states where prescription or recreational marijuana was legal, were offered the opportunity to complete a survey on marijuana use and IBD symptoms including perceived benefits of therapy. Bivariate statistics and logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with marijuana use. Surveys were completed by 1666 participants (71%) with only 214 (12.8%) indicating they had asked their medical doctor about its use and 73 actually using prescribed marijuana (4.4%). Within the respondent group (N = 1666), 234 participants lived where both medical and recreational marijuana is legal and 49 (20.9%) reported recreational marijuana use specifically for IBD. Users reported positive benefits (80.7%), but users also reported more depression, anxiety, pain interference, and lower social satisfaction than non-users. Those prescribed marijuana reported more active disease, and more use of steroids, narcotics, and zolpidem. Few IBD patients consulted their medical doctors about marijuana use or used prescription marijuana. Where recreational marijuana was available, usage rates were higher. Users reported benefits but also more IBD symptoms, depression, anxiety, and pain. Marijuana use may be higher in patients with IBD symptoms not well treated by conventional medical approaches.

Behavioral tolerance to lysergic acid diethylamide is associated with reduced serotonin-2A receptor signaling in rat cortex.

PubMed

Gresch, Paul J; Smith, Randy L; Barrett, Robert J; Sanders-Bush, Elaine

2005-09-01

Tolerance is defined as a decrease in responsiveness to a drug after repeated administration. Tolerance to the behavioral effects of hallucinogens occurs in humans and animals. In this study, we used drug discrimination to establish a behavioral model of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) tolerance and examined whether tolerance to the stimulus properties of LSD is related to altered serotonin receptor signaling. Rats were trained to discriminate 60 microg/kg LSD from saline in a two-lever drug discrimination paradigm. Two groups of animals were assigned to either chronic saline treatment or chronic LSD treatment. For chronic treatment, rats from each group were injected once per day with either 130 microg/kg LSD or saline for 5 days. Rats were tested for their ability to discriminate either saline or 60 microg/kg LSD, 24 h after the last chronic injection. Rats receiving chronic LSD showed a 44% reduction in LSD lever selection, while rats receiving chronic vehicle showed no change in percent choice on the LSD lever. In another group of rats receiving the identical chronic LSD treatment, LSD-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding, an index of G-protein coupling, was measured in the rat brain by autoradiography. After chronic LSD, a significant reduction in LSD-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding was observed in the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. Furthermore, chronic LSD produced a significant reduction in 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine-stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding in medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, which was blocked by MDL 100907, a selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist, but not SB206553, a 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, indicating a reduction in 5-HT2A receptor signaling. 125I-LSD binding to 5-HT2A receptors was reduced in cortical regions, demonstrating a reduction in 5-HT2A receptor density. Taken together, these results indicate that adaptive changes in LSD-stimulated serotonin receptor signaling may mediate tolerance

Unintentional Pediatric Exposures to Marijuana in Colorado, 2009-2015.

PubMed

Wang, George Sam; Le Lait, Marie-Claire; Deakyne, Sara J; Bronstein, Alvin C; Bajaj, Lalit; Roosevelt, Genie

2016-09-06

As of 2015, almost half of US states allow medical marijuana, and 4 states allow recreational marijuana. To our knowledge, the effect of recreational marijuana on the pediatric population has not been evaluated. To compare the incidence of pediatric marijuana exposures evaluated at a children's hospital and regional poison center (RPC) in Colorado before and after recreational marijuana legalization and to compare population rate trends of RPC cases for marijuana exposures with the rest of the United States. Retrospective cohort study of hospital admissions and RPC cases between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2015, at Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, a tertiary care children's hospital. Participants included patients 0 to 9 years of age evaluated at the hospital's emergency department, urgent care centers, or inpatient unit and RPC cases from Colorado for single-substance marijuana exposures. Marijuana. Marijuana exposure visits and RPC cases, marijuana source and type, clinical effects, scenarios, disposition, and length of stay. Eighty-one patients were evaluated at the children's hospital, and Colorado's RPC received 163 marijuana exposure cases between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2015, for children younger than 10 years of age. The median age of children's hospital visits was 2.4 years (IQR, 1.4-3.4); 25 were girls (40%) . The median age of RPC marijuana exposures was 2 years (IQR, 1.3-4.0), and 85 patients were girls (52%). The mean rate of marijuana-related visits to the children's hospital increased from 1.2 per 100 000 population 2 years prior to legalization to 2.3 per 100,000 population 2 years after legalization (P = .02). Known marijuana products involved in the exposure included 30 infused edibles (48%). Median length of stay was 11 hours (interquartile range [IQR], 6-19) and 26 hours (IQR, 19-38) for admitted patients. Annual RPC pediatric marijuana cases increased more than 5-fold from 2009 (9) to 2015 (47). Colorado had an

The Economic Geography of Medical Marijuana Dispensaries in California

PubMed Central

Morrison, Chris; Gruenewald, Paul J.; Freisthler, Bridget; Ponicki, William R.; Remer, Lillian G.

2014-01-01

Background The introduction of laws that permit the use of marijuana for medical purposes has led to the emergence of a medical marijuana industry in some US states. This study assessed the spatial distribution of medical marijuana dispensaries according to estimated marijuana demand, socioeconomic indicators, alcohol outlets and other socio-demographic factors. Method Telephone survey data from 5,940 residents of 39 California cities were used to estimate social and demographic correlates of marijuana demand. These individual-level estimates were then used to calculate aggregate marijuana demand (i.e. market potential) for 7,538 census block groups. Locations of actively operating marijuana dispensaries were then related to the measure of demand and the socio-demographic characteristics of census block groups using multilevel Bayesian conditional autoregressive logit models. Results Marijuana dispensaries were located in block groups with greater marijuana demand, higher rates of poverty, alcohol outlets, and in areas just outside city boundaries. For the sampled block groups, a 10% increase in demand within a block group was associated with 2.4% greater likelihood of having a dispensary, and a 10% increase in the city-wide demand was associated with a 6.7% greater likelihood of having a dispensary. Conclusion High demand for marijuana within individual block groups and within cities is related to the location of marijuana dispensaries at a block-group level. The relationship to low income, alcohol outlets and unincorporated areas indicates that dispensaries may open in areas that lack the resources to resist their establishment. PMID:24439710

Altered subjective reward valuation among female heavy marijuana users

PubMed Central

Hefner, Kathryn R.; Starr, Mark. J.

2016-01-01

Maladaptive decision-making is a cardinal feature of drug use, contributing to ongoing use, and reflecting alterations in how drug users assess uncertain reward value. Accumulating evidence indicates the consequences of heavy marijuana use are worse for female versus male animals and humans, but research assessing sex differences in reward-related decision-making among marijuana users remains scarce. We examined sex differences in the subjective valuation of certain and uncertain rewards among heavy marijuana users (52; 26 male and 26 female) and controls (52; 26 male and 26 female). We offered male and female heavy marijuana users and controls monetary rewards of certain and uncertain (probabilistic) values. We measured how preferences for uncertain rewards varied by the objective value of those rewards, moderators of reward uncertainty, marijuana use, and sex. Men were more sensitive to changes in the objective value of uncertain rewards than women. However, this effect of sex differed by marijuana group. Female heavy marijuana users were more sensitive to changes in uncertain reward value, particularly when the ‘stakes’ were high (i.e., greater difference between potential uncertain rewards), than female controls. Female heavy marijuana users’ sensitivity to changes in the value of high stakes uncertain rewards was comparable to male marijuana users and controls. In contrast, male marijuana users’ sensitivity to changes in the value of high stakes uncertain rewards did not differ from male controls. These results suggest sex differences in sensitivity to high risk rewards may be one pathway contributing to severer consequences of heavy marijuana use among women. PMID:27936816

Exploring Marijuana Advertising on Weedmaps, a Popular Online Directory.

PubMed

Bierut, Tatiana; Krauss, Melissa J; Sowles, Shaina J; Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A

2017-02-01

With an increase in the legalization of recreational marijuana across the USA, advertising for marijuana products is more widespread, especially on the Internet where such practices pose a regulatory challenge. In this study, we examined the content of marijuana advertising on Weedmaps, a popular website that markets marijuana retailers online. A total of 146 recreational marijuana retailers in Colorado and Washington were examined on Weedmaps. We studied the age verification practices made in retailers' own websites, the presence of health claims they made about marijuana on Weedmaps, and the characteristics of followers of Weedmaps on social media sites. Many retailers had no security measure to determine age (41 % in Colorado, 35 % in Washington). Approximately 61 % of retailers in Colorado and 44 % in Washington made health claims about the benefits of marijuana, including anxiety reduction, treatment of depression, insomnia, and pain/inflammation. Inferred demographic characteristics of followers of Weedmaps on Twitter and Instagram revealed that over 60 % were male and nearly 70 % or more were age 20-29 years old, yet some (15-18 %) were under the age of 20. Our findings indicate that marijuana retailers have a visible presence on the Internet. Potential customers might be enticed by retailers who tout health claims about marijuana use. It may also be appealing for a younger demographic to overlook age restrictions and engage with marijuana retailers via social media. As a whole, our findings can help to guide future policy making on the issue of marijuana-related advertising.

Exploring Marijuana Advertising on Weedmaps, a Popular Online Directory

PubMed Central

Bierut, Tatiana; Krauss, Melissa J.; Sowles, Shaina J.; Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A.

2016-01-01

With an increase in the legalization of recreational marijuana across the U.S., advertising for marijuana products is more widespread, especially on the Internet where such practices pose a regulatory challenge. In this study, we examined the content of marijuana advertising on Weedmaps, a popular website that markets marijuana retailers online. A total of 146 recreational marijuana retailers in Colorado and Washington were examined on Weedmaps. We studied the age verification practices made in retailers’ own websites, the presence of health claims they made about marijuana on Weedmaps, and the characteristics of followers of Weedmaps on social media sites. Many retailers had no security measure to determine age (41% in Colorado, 35% in Washington). Approximately 61% of retailers in Colorado and 44% in Washington made health claims about the benefits of marijuana, including anxiety reduction, treatment of depression, insomnia, and pain/inflammation. Inferred demographic characteristics of followers of Weedmaps on Twitter and Instagram revealed that over 60% were male and nearly 70% or more were age 20–29 years old, yet some (15%–18%) were under the age of 20. Our findings indicate that marijuana retailers have a visible presence on the Internet. Potential customers might be enticed by retailers who tout health claims about marijuana use. It may also be appealing for a younger demographic to overlook age restrictions and engage with marijuana retailers via social media. As a whole, our findings can help to guide future policy making on the issue of marijuana-related advertising. PMID:27534665

Marijuana use and mortality following orthopedic surgical procedures.

PubMed

Moon, Andrew S; Smith, Walter; Mullen, Sawyer; Ponce, Brent A; McGwin, Gerald; Shah, Ashish; Naranje, Sameer M

2018-03-20

The association between marijuana use and surgical procedures is a matter of increasing societal relevance that has not been well studied in the literature. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between marijuana use and in-hospital mortality, as well as to assess associated comorbidities in patients undergoing commonly billed orthopedic surgeries. The National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database from 2010 to 2014 was used to determine the odds ratios for the associations between marijuana use and in-hospital mortality, heart failure (HF), stroke, and cardiac disease (CD) in patients undergoing five common orthopedic procedures: hip (THA), knee (TKA), and shoulder arthroplasty (TSA), spinal fusion, and traumatic femur fracture fixation. Of 9,561,963 patients who underwent one of the five selected procedures in the four-year period, 26,416 (0.28%) were identified with a diagnosis of marijuana use disorder. In hip and knee arthroplasty patients, marijuana use was associated with decreased odds of mortality compared to no marijuana use (p<0.0001), and increased odds of HF (p = 0.018), stroke (p = 0.0068), and CD (p = 0.0123). Traumatic femur fixation patients had the highest prevalence of marijuana use (0.70%), which was associated with decreased odds of mortality (p = 0.0483), HF (p = 0.0076), and CD (p = 0.0003). For spinal fusions, marijuana use was associated with increased odds of stroke (p<0.0001) and CD (p<0.0001). Marijuana use in patients undergoing shoulder arthroplasty was associated with decreased odds of mortality (p<0.001) and stroke (p<0.001). In this study, marijuana use was associated with decreased mortality in patients undergoing THA, TKA, TSA and traumatic femur fixation, although the significance of these findings remains unclear. More research is needed to provide insight into these associations in a growing surgical population.

The Teen Marijuana Check-Up: An In-School Protocol for Eliciting Voluntary Self-Assessment of Marijuana Use

PubMed Central

Swan, Megan; Schwartz, Sam; Berg, Belinda; Walker, Denise; Stephens, Robert; Roffman, Roger

2008-01-01

Given the prevalence of regular marijuana use among adolescents and associated risks for adverse consequences to functioning, effective interventions are needed that are tailored for this population. To date, most such counseling approaches have relied on non-voluntary participation by adolescent marijuana smokers and the outcomes have been only modestly successful. The Teen Marijuana Check-Up is a brief motivational enhancement intervention publicized as a non-pressured and confidential opportunity for the teen marijuana smoker to “take stock” of his/her use. The intervention is designed for in-school implementation and intended to elicit the teen's voluntary participation. This paper highlights the manner in which adolescents are recruited, key intervention elements, the nature of the counseling style utilized, and clinical challenges. The outcomes of two trials with this intervention are briefly discussed. PMID:19122796

The Genetic Structure of Marijuana and Hemp.

PubMed

Sawler, Jason; Stout, Jake M; Gardner, Kyle M; Hudson, Darryl; Vidmar, John; Butler, Laura; Page, Jonathan E; Myles, Sean

2015-01-01

Despite its cultivation as a source of food, fibre and medicine, and its global status as the most used illicit drug, the genus Cannabis has an inconclusive taxonomic organization and evolutionary history. Drug types of Cannabis (marijuana), which contain high amounts of the psychoactive cannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are used for medical purposes and as a recreational drug. Hemp types are grown for the production of seed and fibre, and contain low amounts of THC. Two species or gene pools (C. sativa and C. indica) are widely used in describing the pedigree or appearance of cultivated Cannabis plants. Using 14,031 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped in 81 marijuana and 43 hemp samples, we show that marijuana and hemp are significantly differentiated at a genome-wide level, demonstrating that the distinction between these populations is not limited to genes underlying THC production. We find a moderate correlation between the genetic structure of marijuana strains and their reported C. sativa and C. indica ancestry and show that marijuana strain names often do not reflect a meaningful genetic identity. We also provide evidence that hemp is genetically more similar to C. indica type marijuana than to C. sativa strains.

Microaggressions and marijuana use among college students.

PubMed

Pro, George; Sahker, Ethan; Marzell, Miesha

2017-03-09

This study examines the association between exposure to microaggressions and marijuana use, using original survey data from a sample of racial/ethnic minority college students (n = 332) from a large Division I university in the United States. Nearly all of our sample (96%) reported at least one experience with microaggressions in the past 6 months, while 33% reported using marijuana regularly. We modeled regular use of marijuana using multiple logistic regression, with consideration of sex, age, race/ethnicity, and microaggression scale scores as covariates. Age, sex, the microinvalidations subscale score, and the full microaggression scale score were significantly associated with marijuana use in our full models (p < .01; p = .01; p = .02; p = .03, respectively). With each additional experience of microaggression, the odds of regular marijuana use increase. Academic communities may consider the primary prevention of discriminatory behavior when addressing student substance use.

Marijuana use and depression among adults: Testing for causal associations.

PubMed

Harder, Valerie S; Morral, Andrew R; Arkes, Jeremy

2006-10-01

To determine whether marijuana use predicts later development of depression after accounting for differences between users and non-users of marijuana. An ongoing longitudinal survey of 12 686 men and women beginning in 1979. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth of 1979, a nationally representative sample from the United States. A total of 8759 adults (age range 29-37 years) interviewed in 1994 had complete data on past-year marijuana use and current depression. Self-reported past-year marijuana use was tested as an independent predictor of later adult depression using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression questionnaire. Individual's propensity to use marijuana was calculated using over 50 baseline covariates. Before adjusting for group differences, the odds of current depression among past-year marijuana users is 1.4 times higher (95% CI: 1.1, 1.9) than the odds of depression among the non-using comparison group. After adjustment, the odds of current depression among past-year marijuana users is only 1.1 times higher than the comparison group (95% CI: 0.8, 1.7). Similarly, adjustment eliminates significant associations between marijuana use and depression in four additional analyses: heavy marijuana use as the risk factor, stratifying by either gender or age, and using a 4-year lag-time between marijuana use and depression. After adjusting for differences in baseline risk factors of marijuana use and depression, past-year marijuana use does not significantly predict later development of depression. These findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for understanding possible causal effects of marijuana use on depression.

Chronic Offenders: A Life-Course Analysis of Marijuana Users

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ragan, Daniel T.; Beaver, Kevin M.

2010-01-01

Marijuana is the most widely used illegal drug, and the use of marijuana has been linked to a wide array of maladaptive outcomes. As a result, there is great interest in identifying the factors that are associated with the use of marijuana and with desistance from marijuana. The current study employed a life-course framework to examine the factors…

Marijuana Legalization: Impact on Physicians and Public Health.

PubMed

Wilkinson, Samuel T; Yarnell, Stephanie; Radhakrishnan, Rajiv; Ball, Samuel A; D'Souza, Deepak Cyril

2016-01-01

Marijuana is becoming legal in an increasing number of states for both medical and recreational use. Considerable controversy exists regarding the public health impact of these changes. The evidence for the legitimate medical use of marijuana or cannabinoids is limited to a few indications, notably HIV/AIDS cachexia, nausea/vomiting related to chemotherapy, neuropathic pain, and spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Although cannabinoids show therapeutic promise in other areas, robust clinical evidence is still lacking. The relationship between legalization and prevalence is still unknown. Although states where marijuana use is legal have higher rates of use than nonlegal states, these higher rates were generally found even prior to legalization. As states continue to proceed with legalization for both medical and recreational use, certain public health issues have become increasingly relevant, including the effects of acute marijuana intoxication on driving abilities, unintentional ingestion of marijuana products by children, the relationship between marijuana and opioid use, and whether there will be an increase in health problems related to marijuana use, such as dependence/addiction, psychosis, and pulmonary disorders. In light of this rapidly shifting legal landscape, more research is urgently needed to better understand the impact of legalization on public health.

Marijuana use trajectories and academic outcomes among college students.

PubMed

Suerken, Cynthia K; Reboussin, Beth A; Egan, Kathleen L; Sutfin, Erin L; Wagoner, Kimberly G; Spangler, John; Wolfson, Mark

2016-05-01

Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug by college students. Prior studies have established an association between marijuana use and poor academic performance in college, but research on the frequency of marijuana use over the entire college career is limited. The study objective was to examine the association of marijuana use trajectories on academic outcomes, including senior year enrollment, plans to graduate on time, and GPA. Data were collected from a cohort of 3146 students from 11 colleges in North Carolina and Virginia at six time points across the college career. Group-based trajectory models were used to characterize longitudinal marijuana use patterns during college. Associations between marijuana trajectory groups and academic outcomes were modeled using random-effects linear and logistic regressions. Five marijuana trajectory groups were identified: non-users (69.0%), infrequent users (16.6%), decreasing users (4.7%), increasing users (5.8%), and frequent users (3.9%). Decreasing users and frequent users were more likely to drop out of college and plan to delay graduation when compared to non-users. All marijuana user groups reported lower GPAs, on average, than non-users. These results identify marijuana use patterns that put students at risk for poor academic performance in college. Students who use marijuana frequently at the beginning of the college career are especially at risk for lower academic achievement than non-users, suggesting that early intervention is critical. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Marijuana Use Trajectories and Academic Outcomes among College Students

PubMed Central

Suerken, Cynthia K.; Reboussin, Beth A.; Egan, Kathleen L.; Sutfin, Erin L.; Wagoner, Kimberly G.; Spangler, John; Wolfson, Mark

2016-01-01

Background Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug by college students. Prior studies have established an association between marijuana use and poor academic performance in college, but research on the frequency of marijuana use over the entire college career is limited. The study objective was to examine the association of marijuana use trajectories on academic outcomes, including senior year enrollment, plans to graduate on time, and GPA. Methods Data were collected from a cohort of 3,146 students from 11 colleges in North Carolina and Virginia at six time points across the college career. Group-based trajectory models were used to characterize longitudinal marijuana use patterns during college. Associations between marijuana trajectory groups and academic outcomes were modeled using random-effects linear and logistic regressions. Results Five marijuana trajectory groups were identified: non-users (69.0%), infrequent users (16.6%), decreasing users (4.7%), increasing users (5.8%), and frequent users (3.9%). Decreasing users and frequent users were more likely to drop out of college and plan to delay graduation when compared to non-users. All marijuana user groups reported lower GPAs, on average, than non-users. Conclusion These results identify marijuana use patterns that put students at risk for poor academic performance in college. Students who use marijuana frequently at the beginning of the college career are especially at risk for lower academic achievement than non-users, suggesting that early intervention is critical. PMID:27020322

Medical marijuana laws and adolescent use of marijuana and other substances: Alcohol, cigarettes, prescription drugs, and other illicit drugs.

PubMed

Cerdá, Magdalena; Sarvet, Aaron L; Wall, Melanie; Feng, Tianshu; Keyes, Katherine M; Galea, Sandro; Hasin, Deborah S

2018-02-01

Historical shifts have taken place in the last twenty years in marijuana policy. The impact of medical marijuana laws (MML) on use of substances other than marijuana is not well understood. We examined the relationship between state MML and use of marijuana, cigarettes, illicit drugs, nonmedical use of prescription opioids, amphetamines, and tranquilizers, as well as binge drinking. Pre-post MML difference-in-difference analyses were performed on a nationally representative sample of adolescents in 48 contiguous U.S. states. Participants were 1,179,372U.S. 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in the national Monitoring the Future annual surveys conducted in 1991-2015. Measurements were any self-reported past-30-day use of marijuana, cigarettes, non-medical use of opioids, amphetamines and tranquilizers, other illicit substances, and any past-two-week binge drinking (5+ drinks per occasion). Among 8th graders, the prevalence of marijuana, binge drinking, cigarette use, non-medical use of opioids, amphetamines and tranquilizers, and any non-marijuana illicit drug use decreased after MML enactment (0.2-2.4% decrease; p-values:<0.0001-0.0293). Among 10th graders, the prevalence of substance use did not change after MML enactment (p-values: 0.177-0.938). Among 12th graders, non-medical prescription opioid and cigarette use increased after MML enactment (0.9-2.7% increase; p-values: <0.0001-0.0026). MML enactment is associated with decreases in marijuana and other drugs in early adolescence in those states. Mechanisms that explain the increase in non-medical prescription opioid and cigarette use among 12th graders following MML enactment deserve further study. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Differences in reporting of perceived acute effects of alcohol use, marijuana use, and simultaneous alcohol and marijuana use.

PubMed

Lee, Christine M; Cadigan, Jennifer M; Patrick, Megan E

2017-11-01

Although there are serious negative harms associated with simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use, little is known about the self-reported acute effects of SAM use and how they may be similar to or different than effects experienced when using alcohol or marijuana only. The current study examines the perceived acute effects of SAM use, compared to using alcohol or marijuana only, as well as demographic and substance use predictors of overall SAM effects. Participants were a community sample of young adults ages 18-23 participating in a longitudinal study on social role transitions and substance use during young adulthood. Young adults who reported SAM use at least once in their lifetime were selected for the present analyses (N=315; mean age=21.42; 58% female) and reported the effects they experienced from typical alcohol use, marijuana use, and SAM use. There were significant differences in the extent to which young adults perceived the effects depending on the substances used. Most effects (i.e., clumsy, confused, dizzy, difficulty concentrating) were rated strongest when engaging in SAM use, compared to typical alcohol or marijuana use alone. Feeling high and feeling marijuana effects were rated strongest when engaging in marijuana use alone compared to SAM use, but feeling drunk was greater during SAM use compared to alcohol use alone. Greater alcohol use and increased time spent high during typical SAM use were associated with greater overall SAM effects. When young adults engage in SAM use they report experiencing greater negative physiological and cognitive effects. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Altered subjective reward valuation among female heavy marijuana users.

PubMed

Hefner, Kathryn R; Starr, Mark J

2017-02-01

Maladaptive decision-making is a cardinal feature of drug use, contributing to ongoing use, and reflecting alterations in how drug users assess uncertain reward value. Accumulating evidence indicates the consequences of heavy marijuana use are worse for female versus male animals and humans, but research assessing sex differences in reward-related decision-making among marijuana users remains scarce. We examined sex differences in the subjective valuation of certain and uncertain rewards among heavy marijuana users (52; 26 male and 26 female) and controls (52; 26 male and 26 female). We offered male and female heavy marijuana users and controls monetary rewards of certain and uncertain (probabilistic) values. We measured how preferences for uncertain rewards varied by the objective value of those rewards, moderators of reward uncertainty, Marijuana Group and Sex. Men were more sensitive to changes in the objective value of uncertain rewards than women. However, this effect of Sex differed by Marijuana Group. Female heavy marijuana users were more sensitive to changes in uncertain reward value, particularly when the "stakes" were high (i.e., greater difference between potential uncertain rewards), than female controls. Female heavy marijuana users' sensitivity to changes in the value of high stakes uncertain rewards was comparable to male marijuana users and controls. In contrast, male marijuana users' sensitivity to changes in the value of high stakes uncertain rewards did not differ from male controls. These results suggest sex differences in sensitivity to high risk rewards may be one pathway contributing to severer consequences of heavy marijuana use among women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).

Further Validation of a Marijuana Purchase Task

PubMed Central

Aston, Elizabeth R.; Metrik, Jane; MacKillop, James

2015-01-01

Background A valid measure of the relative economic value of marijuana is needed to characterize individual variation in the drug’s reinforcing value and inform evolving national marijuana policy. Relative drug value (demand) can be measured via purchase tasks, and demand for alcohol and cigarettes has been associated with craving, dependence, and treatment response. This study examined marijuana demand with a marijuana purchase task (MPT). Methods The 22-item self-report MPT was administered to 99 frequent marijuana users (37.4% female, 71.5% marijuana use days, 15.2% cannabis dependent). Results Pearson correlations indicated a negative relationship between intensity (free consumption) and age of initiation of regular use (r=−0.34, p<0.001), and positive associations with use days (r=0.26, p<0.05) and subjective craving (r=0.43, p<0.001). Omax (maximum expenditure) was positively associated with use days (r=0.29, p<0.01) and subjective craving (r=0.27, p<0.01). Income was not associated with demand. An exponential demand model provided an excellent fit to the data across users (R2=0.99). Group comparisons based on presence or absence of DSM-IV cannabis dependence symptoms revealed that users with any dependence symptoms showed significantly higher intensity of demand and more inelastic demand, reflecting greater insensitivity to price increases. Conclusions These results provide support for construct validity of the MPT, indicating its sensitivity to marijuana demand as a function of increasing cost, and its ability to differentiate between users with and without dependence symptoms. The MPT may denote abuse liability and is a valuable addition to the behavioral economic literature. Potential applications to marijuana pricing and tax policy are discussed. PMID:26002377

Marijuana experiences, voting behaviors and early perspectives regarding marijuana legalization among college students from two states

PubMed Central

Moreno, Megan A; Whitehill, Jennifer M; Quach, Vincent; Midamba, Nikita; Manskopf, Inga

2016-01-01

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to understand college students’ 1) views and experiences regarding marijuana, 2) voting behaviors, and 3) early perceptions of the impact of legislation. PARTICIPANTS College students from Washington and Wisconsin were interviewed between May–September 2013 METHODS Participants completed phone interviews assessing marijuana attitudes, intentions, behaviors, voting behaviors or intentions, and perceptions of the impact of legislation. RESULTS A total of 283 participants completed the interview (83.7% retention rate): 56.8% were female, 57.2% were from Wisconsin, and 74.6% were Caucasian. Almost half of Washington participants (46.3%) indicated that they voted for marijuana legalization. Participants most commonly responded that the legislation did not change their attitudes towards marijuana, though some participants discussed perceived safety of the product because legislation passed. CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate similarities in views and experiences among college students from states affected and unaffected by legalization; legalization may increase perceptions of safety. PMID:26182234

Perceived Harm, Addictiveness, and Social Acceptability of Tobacco Products and Marijuana Among Young Adults: Marijuana, Hookah, and Electronic Cigarettes Win

PubMed Central

Berg, Carla J.; Stratton, Erin; Schauer, Gillian L.; Lewis, Michael; Wang, Yanwen; Windle, Michael; Kegler, Michelle

2015-01-01

Background There has been an increase in non-daily smoking, alternative tobacco product and marijuana use among young adults in recent years. Objectives This study examined perceptions of health risks, addictiveness, and social acceptability of cigarettes, cigar products, smokeless tobacco, hookah, electronic cigarettes, and marijuana among young adults and correlates of such perceptions. Methods In Spring 2013, 10,000 students at two universities in the Southeastern United States were recruited to complete an online survey (2,002 respondents), assessing personal, parental, and peer use of each product; and perceptions of health risks, addictiveness, and social acceptability of each of these products. Results Marijuana was the most commonly used product in the past month (19.2%), with hookah being the second most commonly used (16.4%). The least commonly used were smokeless tobacco products (2.6%) and electronic cigarettes (4.5%). There were high rates of concurrent product use, particularly among electronic cigarette users. The most positively perceived was marijuana, with hookah and electronic cigarettes being second. While tobacco use and related social factors, related positively, influenced perceptions of marijuana, marijuana use and related social factors were not associated with perceptions of any tobacco product. Conclusions/Importance Marketing efforts to promote electronic cigarettes and hookah to be safe and socially acceptable seem to be effective, while policy changes seem to be altering perceptions of marijuana and related social norms. Research is needed to document the health risks and addictive nature of emerging tobacco products and marijuana and evaluate efforts to communicate such risks to youth. PMID:25268294

Perceived harm, addictiveness, and social acceptability of tobacco products and marijuana among young adults: marijuana, hookah, and electronic cigarettes win.

PubMed

Berg, Carla J; Stratton, Erin; Schauer, Gillian L; Lewis, Michael; Wang, Yanwen; Windle, Michael; Kegler, Michelle

2015-01-01

There has been an increase in non-daily smoking, alternative tobacco product and marijuana use among young adults in recent years. This study examined perceptions of health risks, addictiveness, and social acceptability of cigarettes, cigar products, smokeless tobacco, hookah, electronic cigarettes, and marijuana among young adults and correlates of such perceptions. In Spring 2013, 10,000 students at two universities in the Southeastern United States were recruited to complete an online survey (2,002 respondents), assessing personal, parental, and peer use of each product; and perceptions of health risks, addictiveness, and social acceptability of each of these products. Marijuana was the most commonly used product in the past month (19.2%), with hookah being the second most commonly used (16.4%). The least commonly used were smokeless tobacco products (2.6%) and electronic cigarettes (4.5%). There were high rates of concurrent product use, particularly among electronic cigarette users. The most positively perceived was marijuana, with hookah and electronic cigarettes being second. While tobacco use and related social factors, related positively, influenced perceptions of marijuana, marijuana use and related social factors were not associated with perceptions of any tobacco product. Conclusions/Importance: Marketing efforts to promote electronic cigarettes and hookah to be safe and socially acceptable seem to be effective, while policy changes seem to be altering perceptions of marijuana and related social norms. Research is needed to document the health risks and addictive nature of emerging tobacco products and marijuana and evaluate efforts to communicate such risks to youth.

Antecedents and outcomes of marijuana use initiation during adolescence.

PubMed

Ellickson, Phyllis L; Tucker, Joan S; Klein, David J; Saner, Hilary

2004-11-01

This study identified similarities and differences in risk factors for marijuana use initiation from grades 7 to 8, grades 8 to 9, and grades 9 to 10, and examined differences between earlier initiates, later initiates, and nonusers on various problem behaviors at grade 10. Longitudinal data were used to examine predictors and outcomes associated with marijuana initiation from grade 7 (N = 1,955) to grade 10 (N = 909). Participants completed yearly surveys to assess problem behaviors, social influences, and marijuana-related attitudes and behavior. Earlier initiates were more likely than later initiates to exhibit problem-related marijuana use, hard drug use, polydrug use, poor grades, and low academic intentions at grade 10. Across ages, initiation was predicted by smoking, frequency of marijuana offers, and poor grades. Results provided some evidence for a shift from familial to peer influence on marijuana initiation with increasing age. Marijuana-related beliefs were relatively weak predictors of initiation at all ages after controlling for pro-marijuana social influences and engagement in other types of substance use and delinquent behavior. Results emphasize the importance of early intervention and identify a wide range of potentially modifiable risk factors that may be targeted.

Early onset marijuana use is associated with learning inefficiencies.

PubMed

Schuster, Randi Melissa; Hoeppner, Susanne S; Evins, A Eden; Gilman, Jodi M

2016-05-01

Verbal memory difficulties are the most widely reported and persistent cognitive deficit associated with early onset marijuana use. Yet, it is not known what memory stages are most impaired in those with early marijuana use. Forty-eight young adults, aged 18-25, who used marijuana at least once per week and 48 matched nonusing controls (CON) completed the California Verbal Learning Test, Second Edition (CVLT-II). Marijuana users were stratified by age of initial use: early onset users (EMJ), who started using marijuana at or before age 16 (n = 27), and late onset marijuana user group (LMJ), who started using marijuana after age 16 (n = 21). Outcome variables included trial immediate recall, total learning, clustering strategies (semantic clustering, serial clustering, ratio of semantic to serial clustering, and total number of strategies used), delayed recall, and percent retention. Learning improved with repetition, with no group effect on the learning slope. EMJ learned fewer words overall than LMJ or CON. There was no difference between LMJ and CON in total number of words learned. Reduced overall learning mediated the effect on reduced delayed recall among EMJ, but not CON or LMJ. Learning improved with greater use of semantic versus serial encoding, but this did not vary between groups. EMJ was not related to delayed recall after adjusting for encoding. Young adults reporting early onset marijuana use had learning weaknesses, which accounted for the association between early onset marijuana use and delayed recall. No amnestic effect of marijuana use was observed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).

Early Onset Marijuana Use Is Associated with Learning Inefficiencies

PubMed Central

Schuster, Randi Melissa; Hoeppner, Susanne S.; Evins, A. Eden; Gilman, Jodi M.

2016-01-01

Objective Verbal memory difficulties are the most widely reported and persistent cognitive deficit associated with early-onset marijuana use. Yet, it is not known what memory stages are most impaired in those with early marijuana use. Method Forty-eight young adults, aged 18–25, who used marijuana at least once per week and 48 matched non-using controls (CON) completed the California Verbal Learning Test, Second Edition (CVLT-II). Marijuana users were stratified by age of initial use: ‘early onset’ users (EMJ), who started using marijuana at or before age 16 (n = 27), and ‘late onset’ marijuana user group (LMJ), who started using marijuana after age 16 (n = 21). Outcome variables included trial immediate recall, total learning, clustering strategies (semantic clustering, serial clustering, ratio of semantic to serial clustering, and total number of strategies used), delayed recall, and percent retention. Results Learning improved with repetition, with no group effect on the learning slope. EMJ learned fewer words overall than LMJ or CON. There was no difference between LMJ and CON in total number of words learned. Reduced overall learning mediated the effect on reduced delayed recall among EMJ, but not CON or LMJ. Learning improved with greater use of semantic versus serial encoding, but this did not vary between groups. EMJ was not related to delayed recall after adjusting for encoding. Conclusions Young adults reporting early onset marijuana use had learning weaknesses, which accounted for the association between early onset marijuana use and delayed recall. No amnestic effect of marijuana use was observed. PMID:26986749

The current status of medical marijuana in the United States.

PubMed

McKenna, Gerald J

2014-04-01

Medical marijuana is currently a controversial issue in medicine. There are strong pro and con opinions but relatively little scientific data on which to base medical decisions. The unfortunate scheduling of marijuana in class I has limited research and only serves to fuel the controversy. This article will review the history of laws to regulate drugs in the United States in the 20th century to provide context for the current status of medical marijuana. It will include the rationale for opposing medical marijuana laws and the problem of the Schedule I inclusion of marijuana as well as other drugs. It will examine the problems associated with smoking raw marijuana and review other routes of administration. Finally, it examines the inadvisability of medicine's promotion of smoked marijuana.

Latent factor structure of a behavioral economic marijuana demand curve.

PubMed

Aston, Elizabeth R; Farris, Samantha G; MacKillop, James; Metrik, Jane

2017-08-01

Drug demand, or relative value, can be assessed via analysis of behavioral economic purchase task performance. Five demand indices are typically obtained from drug purchase tasks. The goal of this research was to determine whether metrics of marijuana reinforcement from a marijuana purchase task (MPT) exhibit a latent factor structure that efficiently characterizes marijuana demand. Participants were regular marijuana users (n = 99; 37.4% female, 71.5% marijuana use days [5 days/week], 15.2% cannabis dependent) who completed study assessments, including the MPT, during a baseline session. Principal component analysis was used to examine the latent structure underlying MPT indices. Concurrent validity was assessed via examination of relationships between latent factors and marijuana use, past quit attempts, and marijuana expectancies. A two-factor solution was confirmed as the best fitting structure, accounting for 88.5% of the overall variance. Factor 1 (65.8% variance) reflected "Persistence," indicating sensitivity to escalating marijuana price, which comprised four MPT indices (elasticity, O max , P max , and breakpoint). Factor 2 (22.7% variance) reflected "Amplitude," indicating the amount consumed at unrestricted price (intensity). Persistence factor scores were associated with fewer past marijuana quit attempts and lower expectancies of negative use outcomes. Amplitude factor scores were associated with more frequent use, dependence symptoms, craving severity, and positive marijuana outcome expectancies. Consistent with research on alcohol and cigarette purchase tasks, the MPT can be characterized with a latent two-factor structure. Thus, demand for marijuana appears to encompass distinct dimensions of price sensitivity and volumetric consumption, with differential relations to other aspects of marijuana motivation.

The Genetic Structure of Marijuana and Hemp

PubMed Central

Sawler, Jason; Stout, Jake M.; Gardner, Kyle M.; Hudson, Darryl; Vidmar, John; Butler, Laura; Page, Jonathan E.; Myles, Sean

2015-01-01

Despite its cultivation as a source of food, fibre and medicine, and its global status as the most used illicit drug, the genus Cannabis has an inconclusive taxonomic organization and evolutionary history. Drug types of Cannabis (marijuana), which contain high amounts of the psychoactive cannabinoid Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are used for medical purposes and as a recreational drug. Hemp types are grown for the production of seed and fibre, and contain low amounts of THC. Two species or gene pools (C. sativa and C. indica) are widely used in describing the pedigree or appearance of cultivated Cannabis plants. Using 14,031 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped in 81 marijuana and 43 hemp samples, we show that marijuana and hemp are significantly differentiated at a genome-wide level, demonstrating that the distinction between these populations is not limited to genes underlying THC production. We find a moderate correlation between the genetic structure of marijuana strains and their reported C. sativa and C. indica ancestry and show that marijuana strain names often do not reflect a meaningful genetic identity. We also provide evidence that hemp is genetically more similar to C. indica type marijuana than to C. sativa strains. PMID:26308334

Use and diversion of medical marijuana among adults admitted to inpatient psychiatry.

PubMed

Nussbaum, Abraham M; Thurstone, Christian; McGarry, Laurel; Walker, Brendan; Sabel, Allison L

2015-03-01

Marijuana use is associated with anxiety, depressive, psychotic, neurocognitive, and substance use disorders. Many US states are legalizing marijuana for medical uses. To determine the prevalence of medical marijuana use and diversion among psychiatric inpatients in Colorado. Some 623 participants (54.6% male) responded to an anonymous 15-item discharge survey that assessed age, gender, marijuana use, possession of a medical marijuana card, diversion of medical marijuana, perceived substance use problems, and effects of marijuana use. Univariate statistics were used to characterize participants and their responses. Chi-square tests assessed factors associated with medical marijuana registration. Of the total number of respondents, 282 (47.6%) reported using marijuana in the last 12 months and 60 (15.1%) reported having a marijuana card. In comparison to survey respondents who denied having a medical marijuana card, those respondents with a medical marijuana card were more likely to have initiated use before the age of 25, to be male, to have used marijuana in the last 12 months, and to have used at least 20 days in the past month. 133 (24.1%) respondents reported that someone with a medical marijuana card had shared or sold medical marijuana to them; 24 (41.4%) of respondents with a medical marijuana card reported ever having shared or sold their medical marijuana. Medical marijuana use is much more prevalent among adults hospitalized with a psychiatric emergency than in the general population; diversion is common. Further studies which correlate amount, dose, duration, and strain of use with particular psychiatric disorders are needed.

Synthetic Pot: Not Your Grandfather's Marijuana.

PubMed

Ford, Benjamin M; Tai, Sherrica; Fantegrossi, William E; Prather, Paul L

2017-03-01

In the early 2000s in Europe and shortly thereafter in the USA, it was reported that 'legal' forms of marijuana were being sold under the name K2 and/or Spice. Active ingredients in K2/Spice products were determined to be synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs), producing psychotropic actions via CB 1 cannabinoid receptors, similar to those of Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC), the primary active constituent in marijuana. Often abused by adolescents and military personnel to elude detection in drug tests due to their lack of structural similarity to Δ 9 -THC, SCBs are falsely marketed as safe marijuana substitutes. Instead, SCBs are a highly structural diverse group of compounds, easily synthesized, which produce very dangerous adverse effects occurring by, as of yet, unknown mechanisms. Therefore, available evidence indicates that K2/Spice products are clearly not safe marijuana alternatives. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The effects of chronic marijuana use on circadian entrainment.

PubMed

Whitehurst, Lauren N; Fogler, Kethera; Hall, Kate; Hartmann, Matthew; Dyche, Jeff

2015-05-01

Animal literature suggests a connection between marijuana use and altered circadian rhythms. However, the effect has not yet been demonstrated in humans. The present study examined the effect of chronic marijuana use on human circadian function. Participants consisted of current users who reported smoking marijuana daily for at least a year and non-marijuana user controls. Participants took a neurocognitive assessment, wore actigraphs and maintained sleep diaries for three weeks. While no significant cognitive changes were found between groups, data revealed that chronic marijuana use may act as an additional zeitgeber and lead to increased entrainment in human users.

Policy Reform with Marijuana Use: Weighing Risks and Benefits.

PubMed

Nkemdirim Okere, Arinze

2018-03-01

With the current legalization of medical marijuana and the possibility of recreational use being permitted in some states, the health care benefits associated with the use of marijuana is questionable. States that are on the path of legalizing marijuana, should recognize that as there are perceived positive benefits, there are also many evidence-based negative health consequences which may result in negative economic and societal consequences. As more data on health outcomes regarding the use of marijuana continue to emerge, policies directed toward legalizing marijuana, whether medical or recreational, should consider protecting the society from both harm and societal cost.

Relations Between Anxiety Sensitivity, Distress Tolerance, and Fear Reactivity to Bodily Sensations to Coping and Conformity Marijuana Use Motives Among Young Adult Marijuana Users

PubMed Central

Zvolensky, Michael J.; Marshall, Erin C.; Johnson, Kirsten; Hogan, Julianna; Bernstein, Amit; Bonn-Miller, Marcel O.

2011-01-01

The present investigation examines anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and fear reactivity to bodily sensations in relation to Coping and Conformity marijuana use motives among a sample of young adult marijuana users (n = 135; 46.7% women; Mage = 20.45, SD = 5.0). After controlling for current marijuana use frequency (past 30 days), daily cigarette smoking rate, average volume of alcohol used over the past year, negative affectivity, and other marijuana use motives, anxiety sensitivity was significantly and uniquely associated with Coping and Conformity motives for marijuana use. Distress tolerance evidenced significant and unique incremental relations to Coping motives, whereas fear reactivity to bodily sensations was unrelated to any marijuana use motive. These results provide novel information related to the role of emotional sensitivity and tolerance factors as they pertain to specific types of motives for marijuana use among young adults. PMID:19186932

Marijuana Legalization: Impact on Physicians and Public Health

PubMed Central

Wilkinson, Samuel T.; Yarnell, Stephanie; Radhakrishnan, Rajiv; Ball, Samuel A.; D'Souza, Deepak Cyril

2016-01-01

Marijuana is becoming legal in an increasing number of states for both medical and recreational use. Considerable controversy exists regarding the public health impact of these changes. The evidence for the legitimate medical use of marijuana or cannabinoids is limited to a few indications, notably HIV/AIDS cachexia, nausea/vomiting related to chemotherapy, neuropathic pain, and spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Although cannabinoids show therapeutic promise in other areas, robust clinical evidence is still lacking. The relationship between legalization and prevalence is still unknown. Although states where marijuana use is legal have higher rates of use than nonlegal states, these higher rates were generally found even prior to legalization. As states continue to proceed with legalization for both medical and recreational use, certain public health issues have become increasingly relevant, including the effects of acute marijuana intoxication on driving abilities, unintentional ingestion of marijuana products by children, the relationship between marijuana and opioid use, and whether there will be an increase in health problems related to marijuana use, such as dependence/addiction, psychosis, and pulmonary disorders. In light of this rapidly shifting legal landscape, more research is urgently needed to better understand the impact of legalization on public health. PMID:26515984

Parent and Grandparent Marijuana Use and Child Substance Use and Norms

PubMed Central

Bailey, Jennifer A.; Hill, Karl G.; Guttmannova, Katarina; Epstein, Marina; Abbott, Robert D.; Steeger, Christine M.; Skinner, Martie L.

2016-01-01

Purpose Using prospective longitudinal data from 3 generations, this study seeks to test whether and how parent and grandparent marijuana use (current and prior) predicts an increased likelihood of child cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use. Methods Using multilevel modeling of prospective data spanning 3 generations (N = 306 families, children ages 6-22), this study tested associations between grandparent (G1) and parent (G2) marijuana use and child (G3) past-year cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use. Analyses tested whether G3 substance-related norms mediated these associations. Current G1 and G2 marijuana use was examined, as was G2 high school and early adult use and G1 marijuana use when G2 parents were in early adolescence. Controls included G2 age at G3 birth, G2 education and depression, and G3 gender. Results G2 current marijuana use predicted a higher likelihood of G3 alcohol and marijuana use, but was not related to the probability of G3 cigarette use. G3's perceptions of their parents' norms and G2 current marijuana use both contributed independently to the likelihood of G3 alcohol and marijuana use when included in the same model. G3 children's own norms and their perceptions of friends' norms mediated the link between G2 current marijuana use and G3 alcohol and marijuana use. Conclusions Results are discussed in light of the growing trend toward marijuana legalization. To the extent that parent marijuana use increases under legalization, we can expect more youth to use alcohol and marijuana and to have norms that favor substance use. PMID:27265424

A latent class analysis of poly-marijuana use among young adults.

PubMed

Krauss, Melissa J; Rajbhandari, Biva; Sowles, Shaina J; Spitznagel, Edward L; Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia

2017-12-01

With more states legalizing marijuana use, the marijuana industry has grown, introducing a variety of marijuana products. Our study explores the use of multiple marijuana products (poly-marijuana use) and the characteristics associated with this behavior. Past-month marijuana users aged 18-34years were surveyed online via an existing online panel (n=2444). Participants answered questions about past-month use of three types of marijuana (plant-based, concentrates, edibles), marijuana use patterns, and driving after use. Latent class analysis was used to identify subgroups of marijuana users. Four classes of marijuana users were identified: Light plant users, who used only plant-based products infrequently and were unlikely to drive after use (32%); Heavy plant users, who used mainly plant-based products frequently, multiple times per day, and were likely to drive after use (37%); Plant and concentrates users, who used plant-based products heavily and concentrates at least infrequently, used multiple times per day, and were likely to drive after use (20%); Light plant and edibles users, who used both products infrequently and were unlikely to drive after use (10%). Those in legal marijuana states were more likely to belong to the poly-marijuana groups. Our findings reflect the increase in popularity of new marijuana products in legal states and suggest that heavy user groups, including concentrates users, are associated with driving after use. As various forms of marijuana use increases, monitoring and surveillance of the use of multiple types of marijuana will be important for determining potential varying impacts on physiological and social consequences. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessing the Relationship between Marijuana Availability and Marijuana Use: A Legal and Sociological Comparison between the United States and the Netherlands

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Yacoubian, George S., Jr.

2007-01-01

The United States and the Netherlands have antithetical marijuana control policies. The United States' laws criminalize the possession of even small amounts of marijuana, while the Netherlands have maintained, over the past several decades, two relatively liberal marijuana policies implemented during the 1970s and 1980s. According to the…

The impact of marijuana policies on youth: clinical, research, and legal update.

PubMed

Ammerman, Seth; Ryan, Sheryl; Adelman, William P

2015-03-01

This technical report updates the 2004 American Academy of Pediatrics technical report on the legalization of marijuana. Current epidemiology of marijuana use is presented, as are definitions and biology of marijuana compounds, side effects of marijuana use, and effects of use on adolescent brain development. Issues concerning medical marijuana specifically are also addressed. Concerning legalization of marijuana, 4 different approaches in the United States are discussed: legalization of marijuana solely for medical purposes, decriminalization of recreational use of marijuana, legalization of recreational use of marijuana, and criminal prosecution of recreational (and medical) use of marijuana. These approaches are compared, and the latest available data are presented to aid in forming public policy. The effects on youth of criminal penalties for marijuana use and possession are also addressed, as are the effects or potential effects of the other 3 policy approaches on adolescent marijuana use. Recommendations are included in the accompanying policy statement. Copyright © 2015 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Measuring Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana Use Among Young Adults.

PubMed

Pedersen, Eric R; Hummer, Justin F; Rinker, Dipali Venkataraman; Traylor, Zach K; Neighbors, Clayton

2016-05-01

Marijuana use can result in a variety of negative consequences, yet it remains popular among young adults and the general public at large. Combined with the growing empirical support for the benefits of medicinal marijuana as well as the steady increase in popular opinion regarding its legalization, it is of growing importance to identify strategies that may mitigate the harms related to marijuana use, reduce consumption levels, and limit resulting negative consequences among young adults who use marijuana. The purpose of this study was to develop and conduct initial psychometric analyses on a new scale, which we named the Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana (PBSM) scale. A sample of undergraduate college students who reported past-6-month marijuana use (n = 210) responded to the initial pool of PBSM items and completed measures of marijuana use, consequences from marijuana use, alcohol use, and protective behavioral strategies for alcohol. Results from an iterative principal component analyses process yielded a single-factor structure with 39 items. The PBSM mean composite score negatively associated with marijuana use and consequences, with the strongest correlations evident for pastmonth users. The PBSM also significantly positively correlated with alcohol protective strategies. Protective behavioral strategies for marijuana appear to be a measurable construct that are related to marijuana frequency and consequences, and thus may be a useful component of intervention and prevention programs with young adults. More work testing the PBSM items with larger and more diverse samples of young adults is encouraged.

Analysis of the medical use of marijuana and its societal implications.

PubMed

Taylor, H G

1998-01-01

To review the pharmacology, therapeutics, adverse effects, and societal implications of the medical use of marijuana. MEDLINE and manual searches of English-language marijuana literature, supplemented with interviews of scientists currently conducting cannabinoid research. Search terms included pain OR palliative care AND cannabis or ALL marijuana; cachexia OR appetite OR appetite stimulants; muscle spasticity OR spasm; immune system and cannabis; nausea and vomiting and cancer and cannabis. MEDLINE search terms: cannabis OR marijuana smoking OR marijuana abuse; all glaucoma; multiple sclerosis AND cannabis OR marijuana smoking OR marijuana abuse. Studies on pharmacology, risks, and medical potential of marijuana. Not applicable. The most prominent effects of marijuana are mediated by receptors in the brain. Acute intoxication is characterized by euphoria, loss of short-term memory, stimulation of the senses, and impaired linear thinking. Depersonalization and panic attacks are adverse effects. Increased heart rate and reddened conjunctivae are common physical effects. Chronic, high doses may cause subtle impairment of cognitive abilities that are appear to be long-term, but of unknown duration. Marijuana may be a risk factor for individuals with underlying mental illness. It causes dependence, but compared with cocaine, alcohol, heroin, and nicotine, marijuana has little addictive power and produces only mild withdrawal symptoms. Marijuana shows clinical promise for glaucoma, nausea and vomiting, analgesia, spasticity, multiple sclerosis, and AIDS wasting syndrome. As a recreational drug, marijuana poses dangers, particularly to social and emotional development during adolescence and young adulthood. As a medical drug, marijuana should be available for patients who do not adequately respond to currently available therapies.

Effects of Marijuana Use on Impulsivity and Hostility in Daily Life

PubMed Central

Ansell, Emily B.; Laws, Holly B.; Roche, Michael J.; Sinha, Rajita

2015-01-01

BACKGROUND Marijuana use is increasingly prevalent among young adults. While research has found adverse effects associated with marijuana use within experimentally controlled laboratory settings, it is unclear how recreational marijuana use affects day-to-day experiences in users. The present study sought to examine the effects of marijuana use on within-person changes in impulsivity and interpersonal hostility in daily life using smartphone administered assessments. METHODS Forty-three participants with no substance dependence reported on their alcohol consumption, tobacco use, recreational marijuana use, impulsivity, and interpersonal hostility over the course of 14 days. Responses were analyzed using multilevel modeling. RESULTS Marijuana use was associated with increased impulsivity on the same day and the following day relative to days when marijuana was not used, independent of alcohol use. Marijuana was also associated with increased hostile behaviors and perceptions of hostility in others on the same day when compared to days when marijuana was not used. These effects were independent of frequency of marijuana use or alcohol use. There were no significant effects of alcohol consumption on impulsivity or interpersonal hostility. CONCLUSIONS Marijuana use is associated with changes in impulse control and hostility in daily life. This may be one route by which deleterious effects of marijuana are observed for mental health and psychosocial functioning. Given the increasing prevalence of recreational marijuana use and the potential legalization in some states, further research on the potential consequences of marijuana use in young adults’ day-to-day life is warranted. PMID:25595054

Marijuana Use at School and Achievement-Linked Behaviors

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Finn, Kristin V.

2012-01-01

Marijuana remains one of the most frequently used drugs among adolescents and usage has increased in recent years. In addition to general use, many high school students use marijuana during the school day. The present study focused on achievement-linked correlates of in-school marijuana use by comparing non-users, general users, and school users…

Assessing the Effects of Medical Marijuana Laws on Marijuana Use: The Devil is in the Details

PubMed Central

Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Powell, David; Heaton, Paul; Sevigny, Eric L.

2014-01-01

This paper sheds light on previous inconsistencies identified in the literature regarding the relationship between medical marijuana laws (MMLs) and recreational marijuana use by closely examining the importance of policy dimensions (registration requirements, home cultivation, dispensaries) and the timing of when particular policy dimensions are enacted. Using data from our own legal analysis of state MMLs, we evaluate which features are associated with adult and youth recreational and heavy use by linking these policy variables to data from the Treatment Episodes Data System (TEDS) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97). We employ differences-in-differences techniques, controlling for state and year fixed effects, allowing us to exploit within-state policy changes. We find that while simple dichotomous indicators of MML laws are not positively associated with marijuana use or abuse, such measures hide the positive influence legal dispensaries have on adult and youth use, particularly heavy use. Sensitivity analyses that help address issues of policy endogeneity and actual implementation of dispensaries support our main conclusion that not all MML laws are the same. Dimensions of these policies, in particular legal protection of dispensaries, can lead to greater recreational marijuana use and abuse among adults and those under the legal age of 21 relative to medical marijuana laws without this supply source. PMID:25558490

Medical Marijuana Legalization and Co-use in Adult Cigarette Smokers.

PubMed

Wang, Julie B; Cataldo, Janine K

2016-03-01

We examined effects of long-term medical marijuana legalization on cigarette co-use in a sample of adults. We conducted secondary analysis using data from the 2014 US Tobacco Attitudes and Beliefs Survey, which consisted of cigarette smokers, aged ≥ 45 years (N = 506). Participants were categorized by their state residence, where medical marijuana was (1) illegal, (2) legalized < 10 years, and (3) legalized ≥ 10 years. The Web-based survey assessed participants' marijuana use, beliefs and attitudes on marijuana, and nicotine dependence using Fagerstrom Tolerance for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and Hooked on Nicotine Checklist (HONC) scores. In cigarette smokers aged ≥ 45 years, long-term legalization of medical marijuana was associated with stable positive increases in marijuana use prevalence (ever in a lifetime) (p = .005) and frequency (number of days in past 30 days) (unadjusted p = .005; adjusted p = .08). Those who reported marijuana co-use had greater FTND and HONC scores after adjusting for covariates (p = .05). These preliminary findings warrant further examination of the potential impact of long-term legalization of medical marijuana on greater cigarette and marijuana co-use in adults and higher nicotine dependence among co-users at the population level.

Tobacco and Marijuana Initiation Among African American and White Young Adults

PubMed Central

Kennedy, Sara M.; Patel, Roshni P.; Cheh, Paul; Hsia, Jason; Rolle, Italia V.

2016-01-01

Introduction African American youth use marijuana at similar rates and tobacco at lower rates compared with white youth; however, in adulthood, tobacco use is similar. Tobacco and marijuana use are closely associated; differing initiation patterns may contribute to observed racial differences in tobacco prevalence by age. Therefore, it is important to assess tobacco and marijuana initiation patterns by race. Methods Data were obtained from 56,555 adults aged 18–25 who completed the 2005–2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. The analysis was restricted to those who reported ever use of marijuana and combustible tobacco (cigarettes and/or cigars). Three mutually exclusive categories of initiation patterns were evaluated: use of marijuana before tobacco; marijuana and tobacco at the same age; and tobacco before marijuana. Multivariable regression models were used to assess changes over time and compare these outcomes by race while controlling for sociodemographics, risk perceptions, and current substance use. Results In 2005, 26.6% of African American and 14.3% of white young adults used marijuana before tobacco, compared with 41.5% of African American and 24.0% of white young adults in 2012 (P < .001). Overall, African American young adults had greater odds of using marijuana before tobacco (AOR = 1.79; 95% CI: 1.67, 1.91) compared with whites. Conclusion African American young adults were more likely than whites to use marijuana before tobacco and both groups were increasingly likely to use marijuana before tobacco over time. A greater understanding of how marijuana initiation interacts with tobacco initiation could inform more effective tobacco and marijuana use prevention efforts. Implications Among ever users of combustible tobacco and marijuana, greater proportions of African American young adults used marijuana before tobacco or at the same age than their white counterparts. Moreover, both African Americans and whites were more likely to use

College student marijuana involvement: Perceptions, use, and consequences across 11 college campuses.

PubMed

Pearson, Matthew R; Liese, Bruce S; Dvorak, Robert D

2017-03-01

Marijuana is currently the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, and with the movement toward legalization of recreational marijuana, the country faces numerous issues regarding policy, prevention, and treatment of marijuana use. The present study examines the prevalence of marijuana use and consequences and compares users and non-users on a wide range of other marijuana-related constructs among college students across 11 universities. Participants included 8141 college students recruited from the psychology department participant pools of 11 universities throughout the US, including four major regions of the US (West, South, Midwest, Northeast) and states with varying policies regarding the legality of marijuana use. We observed marijuana use rates similar to representative samples of young adults and college students (i.e., 53.3% lifetime marijuana users, 26.2% past month marijuana users). About 1 in 10 past month marijuana users experienced no consequences from their use, whereas nearly 1 in 10 experienced 19 or more consequences. Lifetime marijuana users had more positive perceptions of marijuana compared to non-users on a wide-range of marijuana-related constructs. We report descriptive statistics on a wide range of marijuana-related variables. We hope that these data provide a useful baseline prior to increased legalization of recreational marijuana use. Multi-site studies like this one are needed to study the risky and protective factors for problematic marijuana use. These findings can inform interventions and public policy. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

College Student Marijuana Involvement: Perceptions, Use, and Consequences across 11 College Campuses

PubMed Central

Pearson, Matthew R; Liese, Bruce S; Dvorak, Robert D

2016-01-01

Background Marijuana is currently the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, and with the movement toward legalization of recreational marijuana, the country faces numerous issues regarding policy, prevention, and treatment of marijuana use. The present study examines the prevalence of marijuana use and consequences and compare users and non-users on a wide range of other marijuana-related constructs among college students across 11 universities. Method Participants included 8,141 college students recruited from the psychology department participant pools of 11 universities throughout the US, including four major regions of the US (West, South, Midwest, Northeast) and states with varying policies regarding the legality of marijuana use. Results We observed marijuana use rates similar to representative samples of young adults and college students (i.e., 53.3% lifetime marijuana users, 26.2% past month marijuana users). About 1 in 10 past month marijuana users experienced no consequences from their use, whereas nearly 1 in 10 experienced 19 or more consequences. Lifetime marijuana users had more positive perceptions of marijuana compared to non-users on a wide-range of marijuana-related constructs. Conclusions We report descriptive statistics on a wide range of marijuana-related variables. We hope that these data provide a useful baseline prior to increased legalization of recreational marijuana use. Multi-site studies like this one are needed to study the risky and protective factors for problematic marijuana use. These findings can inform interventions and public policy. PMID:27894029

The Use of Medical Marijuana in Cancer.

PubMed

Birdsall, Shauna M; Birdsall, Timothy C; Tims, Lucas A

2016-07-01

The use of medical marijuana in cancer care presents a dilemma for both patients and physicians. The scientific evidence is evolving, yet much of the known information is still insufficient to adequately inform patients as to risks and benefits. In addition, evidence-based dosing and administration information on medical marijuana is lacking. Medical marijuana is now legal, on some level, in 24 states plus the District of Columbia, yet is not legal on the federal level. This review addresses the current state of the research, including potential indications, risks and adverse effects, preliminary data on anticancer effects, as well as legal and quality issues. A summary of the clinical trials underway on medical marijuana in the oncology setting is discussed.

Bayesian inference for the distribution of grams of marijuana in a joint.

PubMed

Ridgeway, Greg; Kilmer, Beau

2016-08-01

The average amount of marijuana in a joint is unknown, yet this figure is a critical quantity for creating credible measures of marijuana consumption. It is essential for projecting tax revenues post-legalization, estimating the size of illicit marijuana markets, and learning about how much marijuana users are consuming in order to understand health and behavioral consequences. Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring data collected between 2000 and 2010 contain relevant information on 10,628 marijuana transactions, joints and loose marijuana purchases, including the city in which the purchase occurred and the price paid for the marijuana. Using the Brown-Silverman drug pricing model to link marijuana price and weight, we are able to infer the distribution of grams of marijuana in a joint and provide a Bayesian posterior distribution for the mean weight of marijuana in a joint. We estimate that the mean weight of marijuana in a joint is 0.32g (95% Bayesian posterior interval: 0.30-0.35). Our estimate of the mean weight of marijuana in a joint is lower than figures commonly used to make estimates of marijuana consumption. These estimates can be incorporated into drug policy discussions to produce better understanding about illicit marijuana markets, the size of potential legalized marijuana markets, and health and behavior outcomes. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Marijuana Promotion Online: an Investigation of Dispensary Practices.

PubMed

Cavazos-Rehg, Patricia A; Krauss, Melissa J; Cahn, Elizabeth; Lee, Kiriam Escobar; Ferguson, Erin; Rajbhandari, Biva; Sowles, Shaina J; Floyd, Glennon M; Berg, Carla; Bierut, Laura J

2018-04-09

Marijuana product advertising will become more common, as the use of medical and/or recreational marijuana becomes increasingly legal in the USA. In this study, we investigate the marketing tactics being used on marijuana dispensary websites in the USA that could influence substance use behaviors. One hundred dispensary websites were randomly selected from 10 states that allowed the legal use of medical or recreational marijuana and had at least 10 operational dispensaries. Three dispensaries were excluded due to non-functioning websites, leaving a sample of 97 dispensaries. Content analysis was conducted on these dispensaries' websites, with the primary areas of focus including website age verification, marijuana effects, warnings, and promotional tactics. Among the 97 dispensaries, 75% did not include age verification. Roughly 30% offered online ordering and 21% offered delivery services. Sixty-seven percent made health claims pertaining to medical conditions that could be treated by their marijuana products, with moderate or conclusive evidence to support their claims. Less than half of the dispensaries (45%) advised consumers of possible side effects, and only 18% included warnings about contraindications. Nearly half (44%) offered reduced prices or coupons, 19% offered "buy one get one free" offers, and 16% provided giveaways or free samples. Our findings indicate that marijuana dispensary websites are easily accessible to youth. In addition, only a small amount of the websites advised consumers about possible side effects or contraindications. This study suggests the need for surveillance of marijuana commercialization and online advertising especially in the context of state policy reforms.

Personality Correlates of Undergraduate Marijuana Use.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Hogan, Robert; And Others

The objective of this study was to investigate the personological factors underlying marijuana use in the college population. Under anonymous conditions, 148 students at two universities completed the California Psychological Inventory and a biographical questionnaire concerning drug usage. Four conclusions were reached: (1) marijuana use at two…

Momentary positive and negative affect preceding marijuana use events in youth.

PubMed

Shrier, Lydia A; Ross, Craig S; Blood, Emily A

2014-09-01

ABSTRACT. among young people. This study examined how positive and negative affect differ before marijuana use compared with other times. Forty medical outpatients ages 15-24 years who used marijuana recreationally at least twice a week (M = 18.7 years; 58% female) reported momentary positive affect, negative affect, companionship, perceived ease of obtaining marijuana, and marijuana use several times a day for 2 weeks on a handheld computer. Mean momentary positive affect and negative affect scores in the 24 hours leading up to a marijuana use event (n = 294) were compared with affect scores in times further from subsequent use. Generalized estimating equation models considered as potential moderators perceived ease of obtaining marijuana and being with friends. Positive affect did not differ in the 24 hours before marijuana use compared with times further before use. Negative affect was significantly higher before marijuana use compared with other times. Being with friends and perceived easy marijuana availability did not moderate the associations. The association between negative affect and subsequent marijuana use was attenuated when negative affect was examined only for the moment just before use, suggesting that use may follow a period of increased negative affect. The findings support an affect regulation model for marijuana use among frequently using youth. Specifically, these youth may use marijuana to manage increased negative affect.

Differences in behavioral health disorders and unmet treatment needs between medical marijuana users and recreational marijuana users: Results from a national adult sample.

PubMed

Park, Ji-Yeun; Wu, Li-Tzy

2017-11-01

Available data suggest that medical marijuana users may have more mental health problems than recreational marijuana users. There is limited information about differences in behavioral health disorders and unmet treatment needs between medical and recreational marijuana users. We compared past-year prevalence of behavioral health disorders and unmet treatment needs across three marijuana subgroups (recreational use only, medical use only, and both). Sex-stratified logistic regression was performed to determine their associations with marijuana use status. We analyzed data from adults (≥18 years) who used marijuana in the past year (N=15,440) from 2013 to 2014 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health. Among 15,440 past-year marijuana users, 90.2% used recreational marijuana only, 6.2% used medical marijuana only, and 3.6% used both. Both users had the highest prevalence of behavioral health disorders and unmet treatment needs overall, with no significant sex differences. In the sex-specific logistic regression analysis, medical only users and both users showed somewhat different patterns of associations (reference group=recreational only users). Medical only users had decreased odds of alcohol or drug use disorders, and unmet need for alcohol or drug treatment among males and females. Additionally, female medical only users had decreased odds of opioid use disorder. Both users had increased odds of major depressive episode, hallucinogen use disorder, and unmet need for mental health services among males, and cocaine use disorder among females. Different approaches tailored to individuals' sex and motives for marijuana use is needed for the prevention and treatment of behavioral health problems. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cannabinoids in oral fluid following passive exposure to marijuana smoke.

PubMed

Moore, Christine; Coulter, Cynthia; Uges, Donald; Tuyay, James; van der Linde, Susanne; van Leeuwen, Arthur; Garnier, Margaux; Orbita, Jonathan

2011-10-10

The concentration of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its main metabolite 11-nor-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH) as well as cannabinol (CBN), and cannabidiol (CBD) were measured in oral fluid following realistic exposure to marijuana in a Dutch coffee-shop. Ten healthy subjects, who were not marijuana smokers, volunteered to spend 3h in two different coffee shops in Groningen, The Netherlands. Subjects gave two oral fluid specimens at each time point: before entering the store, after 20 min, 40 min, 1h, 2h, and 3h of exposure. The specimens were collected outside the shop. Volunteers left the shop completely after 3h and also provided specimens approximately 12-22 h after beginning the exposure. The oral fluid specimens were subjected to immunoassay screening; confirmation for THC, cannabinol and cannabidiol using GC/MS; and THC-COOH using two-dimensional GC-GC/MS. THC was detectable in all oral fluid specimens taken 3h after exposure to smoke from recreationally used marijuana. In 50% of the volunteers, the concentration at the 3h time-point exceeded 4 ng/mL of THC, which is the current recommended cut-off concentration for immunoassay screening; the concentration of THC in 70% of the oral fluid specimens exceeded 2 ng/mL, currently proposed as the confirmatory cut-off concentration. THC-COOH was not detected in any specimens from passively exposed individuals. Therefore it is recommended that in order to avoid false positive oral fluid results assigned to marijuana use, by analyzing for only THC, the metabolite THC-COOH should also be monitored. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Loose regulation of medical marijuana programs associated with higher rates of adult marijuana use but not cannabis use disorder.

PubMed

Williams, Arthur Robin; Santaella-Tenorio, Julian; Mauro, Christine M; Levin, Frances R; Martins, Silvia S

2017-11-01

Most US states have passed medical marijuana laws (MMLs), with great variation in program regulation impacting enrollment rates. We aimed to compare changes in rates of marijuana use, heavy use and cannabis use disorder across age groups while accounting for whether states enacted medicalized (highly regulated) or non-medical mml programs. Difference-in-differences estimates with time-varying state-level MML coded by program type (medicalized versus non-medical). Multi-level linear regression models adjusted for state-level random effects and covariates as well as historical trends in use. Nation-wide cross-sectional survey data from the US National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) restricted use data portal aggregated at the state level. Participants comprised 2004-13 NSDUH respondents (n ~ 67 500/year); age groups 12-17, 18-25 and 26+ years. States had implemented eight medicalized and 15 non-medical MML programs. Primary outcome measures included (1) active (past-month) marijuana use; (2) heavy use (> 300 days/year); and (3) cannabis use disorder diagnosis, based on DSM-IV criteria. Covariates included program type, age group and state-level characteristics throughout the study period. Adults 26+ years of age living in states with non-medical MML programs increased past-month marijuana use 1.46% (from 4.13 to 6.59%, P = 0.01), skewing towards greater heavy marijuana by 2.36% (from 14.94 to 17.30, P = 0.09) after MMLs were enacted. However, no associated increase in the prevalence of cannabis use disorder was found during the study period. Our findings do not show increases in prevalence of marijuana use among adults in states with medicalized MML programs. Additionally, there were no increases in adolescent or young adult marijuana outcomes following MML passage, irrespective of program type. Non-medical marijuana laws enacted in US states are associated with increased marijuana use, but only among adults aged 26+ years. Researchers and

Impulsivity, Attention, Memory, and Decision-Making among Adolescent Marijuana Users

PubMed Central

Dougherty, Donald M.; Mathias, Charles W.; Dawes, Michael A.; Furr, R. Michael; Charles, Nora E.; Liguori, Anthony; Shannon, Erin E.; Acheson, Ashley

2012-01-01

Rationale Marijuana is a popular drug of abuse among adolescents, and they may be uniquely vulnerable to resulting cognitive and behavioral impairments. Previous studies have found impairments among adolescent marijuana users. However, the majority of this research has examined measures individually rather than multiple domains in a single cohesive analysis. This study used a logistic regression model that combines performance on a range of tasks to identify which measures were most altered among adolescent marijuana users. Objectives The purpose of this research was to determine unique associations between adolescent marijuana user and performances on multiple cognitive and behavioral domains (attention, memory, decision-making, and impulsivity) in 14- to 17-year-olds while simultaneously controlling for performances across the measures to determine which measures most strongly distinguish marijuana users from non-users. Methods Marijuana-using adolescents (n=45) and controls (n=48) were tested. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to test for: (a) differences between marijuana users and non-users on each measure, (b) associations between marijuana use and each measure after controlling for the other measures, and (c) the degree to which (a) and (b) together elucidated differences among marijuana users and non-users. Results Of all the cognitive and behavioral domains tested, impaired short-term recall memory and consequence sensitivity impulsivity were associated with marijuana use after controlling for performances across all measures. Conclusions This study extends previous findings by identifying cognitive and behavioral impairments most strongly associated with adolescent marijuana users. These specific deficits are potential targets of intervention for this at-risk population. PMID:23138434

Impulsivity, attention, memory, and decision-making among adolescent marijuana users.

PubMed

Dougherty, Donald M; Mathias, Charles W; Dawes, Michael A; Furr, R Michael; Charles, Nora E; Liguori, Anthony; Shannon, Erin E; Acheson, Ashley

2013-03-01

Marijuana is a popular drug of abuse among adolescents, and they may be uniquely vulnerable to resulting cognitive and behavioral impairments. Previous studies have found impairments among adolescent marijuana users. However, the majority of this research has examined measures individually rather than multiple domains in a single cohesive analysis. This study used a logistic regression model that combines performance on a range of tasks to identify which measures were most altered among adolescent marijuana users. The purpose of this research was to determine unique associations between adolescent marijuana use and performances on multiple cognitive and behavioral domains (attention, memory, decision-making, and impulsivity) in 14- to 17-year-olds while simultaneously controlling for performances across the measures to determine which measures most strongly distinguish marijuana users from nonusers. Marijuana-using adolescents (n = 45) and controls (n = 48) were tested. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to test for: (1) differences between marijuana users and nonusers on each measure, (2) associations between marijuana use and each measure after controlling for the other measures, and (3) the degree to which (1) and (2) together elucidated differences among marijuana users and nonusers. Of all the cognitive and behavioral domains tested, impaired short-term recall memory and consequence sensitivity impulsivity were associated with marijuana use after controlling for performances across all measures. This study extends previous findings by identifying cognitive and behavioral impairments most strongly associated with adolescent marijuana users. These specific deficits are potential targets of intervention for this at-risk population.

Measuring Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana Use Among Young Adults

PubMed Central

Pedersen, Eric R.; Hummer, Justin F.; Rinker, Dipali Venkataraman; Traylor, Zach K.; Neighbors, Clayton

2016-01-01

Objective: Marijuana use can result in a variety of negative consequences, yet it remains popular among young adults and the general public at large. Combined with the growing empirical support for the benefits of medicinal marijuana as well as the steady increase in popular opinion regarding its legalization, it is of growing importance to identify strategies that may mitigate the harms related to marijuana use, reduce consumption levels, and limit resulting negative consequences among young adults who use marijuana. The purpose of this study was to develop and conduct initial psychometric analyses on a new scale, which we named the Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana (PBSM) scale. Method: A sample of undergraduate college students who reported past-6-month marijuana use (n = 210) responded to the initial pool of PBSM items and completed measures of marijuana use, consequences from marijuana use, alcohol use, and protective behavioral strategies for alcohol. Results: Results from an iterative principal component analyses process yielded a single-factor structure with 39 items. The PBSM mean composite score negatively associated with marijuana use and consequences, with the strongest correlations evident for past-month users. The PBSM also significantly positively correlated with alcohol protective strategies. Conclusions: Protective behavioral strategies for marijuana appear to be a measurable construct that are related to marijuana frequency and consequences, and thus may be a useful component of intervention and prevention programs with young adults. More work testing the PBSM items with larger and more diverse samples of young adults is encouraged. PMID:27172576

Marijuana’s Acute Effects on Cognitive Bias for Affective and Marijuana Cues

PubMed Central

Metrik, Jane; Aston, Elizabeth R.; Kahler, Christopher W.; Rohsenow, Damaris J.; McGeary, John E.; Knopik, Valerie S.

2015-01-01

Marijuana produces acute increases in positive subjective effects and decreased reactivity to negative affective stimuli, though may also acutely induce anxiety. Implicit attentional and evaluative processes may explicate marijuana’s ability to acutely increase positive and negative emotions. This within-subjects study examined whether smoked marijuana with 2.7–3.0 % delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), relative to placebo, acutely changed attentional processing of rewarding and negative affective stimuli as well as marijuana-specific stimuli. On two separate days, regular marijuana users (N=89) smoked placebo or active THC cigarette and completed subjective ratings of mood, intoxication, urge to smoke marijuana, and two experimental tasks: Pleasantness Rating (response latency and perceived pleasantness of affective and marijuana-related stimuli) and Emotional Stroop (attentional bias to affective stimuli). On the Pleasantness Rating task, active marijuana increased response latency to negatively-valenced and marijuana-related (vs. neutral) visual stimuli, beyond a general slowing of response. Active marijuana also increased pleasantness ratings of marijuana images, although to a lesser extent than placebo due to reduced marijuana urge after smoking. Overall, active marijuana did not acutely change processing of positive emotional stimuli. There was no evidence of attentional bias to affective word stimuli on the Emotional Stroop task with the exception of attentional bias to positive word stimuli in the subgroup of marijuana users with cannabis dependence. Marijuana may increase allocation of attentional resources towards marijuana-specific and negatively-valenced visual stimuli without altering processing of positively-valenced stimuli. Marijuana-specific cues may be more attractive with higher levels of marijuana craving and less wanted with low craving levels. PMID:26167716

La Marihuana: Informacion para los Adolescentes. Revisada (Marijuana: Facts for Teens. Revised).

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

National Inst. on Drug Abuse (DHHS/PHS), Rockville, MD.

Using a question and answer format, this booklet is designed to inform teens about the dangers of marijuana usage. Inset facts about marijuana and teen perspectives compliment the following topics: (1) What is marijuana? (2) How is marijuana used? (3) How long does marijuana stay in the user's body? (4) How many teens smoke marijuana? (5) Why do…

Medical Marijuana in the Workplace

PubMed Central

Targino, Marcelo C.; Fanciullo, Gilbert J.; Martin, Douglas W.; Hartenbaum, Natalie P.; White, Jeremy M.; Franklin, Phillip

2015-01-01

Although possession and use of marijuana is prohibited by federal law, legalization in four states (Alaska, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington) and allowance for palliation and therapy in 19 others may reposition the drug away from the fringes of society. This evolving legal environment, and growing scientific evidence of its effectiveness for select health conditions, requires assessment of the safety and appropriateness of marijuana within the American workforce. Although studies have suggested that marijuana may be used with reasonable safety in some controlled environments, there are potential consequences to its use that necessitate employer scrutiny and concern. Several drug characteristics must be considered, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, or THC) concentration, route of administration, dose and frequency, and pharmacokinetics, as well as the risks inherent to particular workplace environments. PMID:25951421

Momentary Positive and Negative Affect Preceding Marijuana Use Events in Youth

PubMed Central

Shrier, Lydia A; Ross, Craig S; Blood, Emily A

2014-01-01

Objective: Desire to self-regulate affect, including to maintain or enhance positive affect and to reduce negative affect, may be a primary motivation for marijuana use among young people. This study examined how positive and negative affect differ before marijuana use compared with other times. Method: Forty medical outpatients ages 15–24 years who used marijuana recreationally at least twice a week (M = 18.7 years; 58% female) reported momentary positive affect, negative affect, companionship, perceived ease of obtaining marijuana, and marijuana use several times a day for 2 weeks on a handheld computer. Mean momentary positive affect and negative affect scores in the 24 hours leading up to a marijuana use event (n = 294) were compared with affect scores in times further from subsequent use. Generalized estimating equation models considered as potential moderators perceived ease of obtaining marijuana and being with friends. Results: Positive affect did not differ in the 24 hours before marijuana use compared with times further before use. Negative affect was significantly higher before marijuana use compared with other times. Being with friends and perceived easy marijuana availability did not moderate the associations. The association between negative affect and subsequent marijuana use was attenuated when negative affect was examined only for the moment just before use, suggesting that use may follow a period of increased negative affect. Conclusions: The findings support an affect regulation model for marijuana use among frequently using youth. Specifically, these youth may use marijuana to manage increased negative affect. PMID:25208196

Committee Opinion No. 637: Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation.

PubMed

2015-07-01

Cannabis sativa (marijuana) is the illicit drug most commonly used during pregnancy. The self-reported prevalence of marijuana use during pregnancy ranges from 2% to 5% in most studies. A growing number of states are legalizing marijuana for medicinal or recreational purposes, and its use by pregnant women could increase even further as a result. Because of concerns regarding impaired neurodevelopment, as well as maternal and fetal exposure to the adverse effects of smoking, women who are pregnant or contemplating pregnancy should be encouraged to discontinue marijuana use. Obstetrician-gynecologists should be discouraged from prescribing or suggesting the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes during preconception, pregnancy, and lactation. Pregnant women or women contemplating pregnancy should be encouraged to discontinue use of marijuana for medicinal purposes in favor of an alternative therapy for which there are better pregnancy-specific safety data. There are insufficient data to evaluate the effects of marijuana use on infants during lactation and breastfeeding, and in the absence of such data, marijuana use is discouraged.

Committee Opinion No. 722: Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation.

PubMed

2017-10-01

Cannabis sativa (marijuana) is the illicit drug most commonly used during pregnancy. The self-reported prevalence of marijuana use during pregnancy ranges from 2% to 5% in most studies. A growing number of states are legalizing marijuana for medicinal or recreational purposes, and its use by pregnant women could increase even further as a result. Because of concerns regarding impaired neurodevelopment, as well as maternal and fetal exposure to the adverse effects of smoking, women who are pregnant or contemplating pregnancy should be encouraged to discontinue marijuana use. Obstetrician-gynecologists should be discouraged from prescribing or suggesting the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes during preconception, pregnancy, and lactation. Pregnant women or women contemplating pregnancy should be encouraged to discontinue use of marijuana for medicinal purposes in favor of an alternative therapy for which there are better pregnancy-specific safety data. There are insufficient data to evaluate the effects of marijuana use on infants during lactation and breastfeeding, and in the absence of such data, marijuana use is discouraged.

Synthetic Marijuana Induced Acute Nonischemic Left Ventricular Dysfunction.

PubMed

Elsheshtawy, Moustafa; Sriganesh, Priatharsini; Virparia, Vasudev; Patel, Falgun; Khanna, Ashok

2016-01-01

Synthetic marijuana is an uptrending designer drug currently widely spread in the US. We report a case of acute deterioration of nonischemic left ventricular dysfunction after exposure to synthetic marijuana. This case illustrates the importance of history taking in cardiac patients and identifies a negative cardiovascular effect of synthetic marijuana known as K2, not yet well detected by urine toxicology screening tools.

Marijuana use and serum testosterone concentrations among U.S. males.

PubMed

Thistle, J E; Graubard, B I; Braunlin, M; Vesper, H; Trabert, B; Cook, M B; McGlynn, K A

2017-07-01

Marijuana has been reported to have several effects on the male reproductive system. Marijuana has previously been linked to reduced adult testosterone, however, a study in Denmark reported increased testosterone concentrations among marijuana users. This study was performed to estimate the effect of marijuana use on testosterone in U.S. males. Data on serum testosterone, marijuana use, and covariates for 1577 men from the 2011-2012 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed. Information on marijuana use was collected by a self-administered computer-assisted questionnaire. Serum testosterone was determined using isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The effects of marijuana use on serum testosterone concentrations were examined by frequency, duration, and recency of use. Adjusted means and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of serum testosterone across levels of marijuana use were estimated using multiple linear regression weighted by the survey weights. The majority (66.2%) of the weighted study population reported ever using marijuana with 26.6% reporting current marijuana use. There was no difference in serum testosterone between ever users (adjusted mean = 3.69 ng/mL, 95% CI: 3.46, 3.93) and never users (adjusted mean = 3.70 ng/mL, 95% CI: 3.45, 3.98) upon multivariable analysis. However, serum testosterone was inversely associated with time since last regular use of marijuana (p-value for trend = 0.02). When restricted to men aged 18-29 years, this relationship strengthened (p-value for trend <0.01), and serum testosterone was also inversely associated with time since last use (p-value for trend <0.01), indicating that recency of use, and not duration or frequency, had the strongest relationship with testosterone levels. Serum testosterone concentrations were higher in men with more recent marijuana use. Studies are needed to determine the extent to which circulating testosterone concentrations

Sex and Grade Level Differences in Marijuana Use among Youth

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

King, Keith A.; Vidourek, Rebecca A.; Hoffman, Ashlee R.

2012-01-01

A total of 54,361 students in seventh through twelfth grades completed a survey examining the impact of perceived harm of marijuana use, ease of access in obtaining marijuana, and perceived parent/peer disapproval of marijuana use on youth involvement in annual and recent marijuana use. Results indicated that 1 in 6 (16%) students used marijuana…

Medical Marijuana Legalization and Co-use in Adult Cigarette Smokers

PubMed Central

Wang, Julie B.; Cataldo, Janine K.

2016-01-01

Objectives We examined effects of long-term medical marijuana legalization on cigarette co-use in a sample of adults. Methods We conducted secondary analysis using data from the 2014 US Tobacco Attitudes and Beliefs Survey, which consisted of cigarette smokers, aged ≥ 45 years (N = 506). Participants were categorized by their state residence, where medical marijuana was (1) illegal, (2) legalized < 10 years, and (3) legalized ≥ 10 years. The Web-based survey assessed participants’ marijuana use, beliefs and attitudes on marijuana, and nicotine dependence using Fagerstrom Tolerance for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and Hooked on Nicotine Checklist (HONC) scores. Results In cigarette smokers aged ≥ 45 years, long-term legalization of medical marijuana was associated with stable positive increases in marijuana use prevalence (ever in a lifetime) (p = .005) and frequency (number of days in past 30 days) (unadjusted p = .005; adjusted p = .08). Those who reported marijuana co-use had greater FTND and HONC scores after adjusting for covariates (p = .05). Conclusions These preliminary findings warrant further examination of the potential impact of long-term legalization of medical marijuana on greater cigarette and marijuana co-use in adults and higher nicotine dependence among co-users at the population level. PMID:26931752

Examining the debate on the use of medical marijuana.

PubMed

DuPont, R L

1999-01-01

The opium poppy and the coca leaf offer useful perspectives on the current controversies over medical marijuana. In both cases, purified synthetic analogues of biologically active components of ancient folk remedies have become medical mainstays without undermining efforts to reduce nonmedical drug use. A decade ago, a campaign strove to legalize heroin for the compassionate treatment of pain in terminally ill patients. Like the current campaign to legalize medical marijuana, many well-meaning people supported this effort. The campaign for medical heroin was stopped by science when double-blind studies showed that heroin offered no benefits over the standard opioid analgesics in the treatment of severe cancer pain. Scientific medicine requires purified chemicals in carefully controlled doses without contaminating toxic substances. That a doctor would one day write a prescription for leaves to be burned is unimaginable. The Controlled Substances Act and international treaties limit the use of abused drugs or medicines. In contrast to smoked marijuana, specific chemicals in marijuana or, more likely, synthetic analogues, may prove to be of benefit to some patients with specific illnesses. Most opponents of medical use of smoked marijuana are not hostile to the medical use of purified synthetic analogues or even synthetic tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which has been available in the United States for prescription by any licensed doctor since 1985. In contrast, most supporters of smoked marijuana are hostile to the use of purified chemicals from marijuana, insisting that only smoked marijuana leaves be used as "medicine," revealing clearly that their motivation is not scientific medicine but the back door legalization of marijuana.

Tobacco and Marijuana Initiation Among African American and White Young Adults.

PubMed

Kennedy, Sara M; Patel, Roshni P; Cheh, Paul; Hsia, Jason; Rolle, Italia V

2016-04-01

African American youth use marijuana at similar rates and tobacco at lower rates compared with white youth; however, in adulthood, tobacco use is similar. Tobacco and marijuana use are closely associated; differing initiation patterns may contribute to observed racial differences in tobacco prevalence by age. Therefore, it is important to assess tobacco and marijuana initiation patterns by race. Data were obtained from 56,555 adults aged 18-25 who completed the 2005-2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. The analysis was restricted to those who reported ever use of marijuana and combustible tobacco (cigarettes and/or cigars). Three mutually exclusive categories of initiation patterns were evaluated: use of marijuana before tobacco; marijuana and tobacco at the same age; and tobacco before marijuana. Multivariable regression models were used to assess changes over time and compare these outcomes by race while controlling for sociodemographics, risk perceptions, and current substance use. In 2005, 26.6% of African American and 14.3% of white young adults used marijuana before tobacco, compared with 41.5% of African American and 24.0% of white young adults in 2012 (P < .001). Overall, African American young adults had greater odds of using marijuana before tobacco (AOR = 1.79; 95% CI: 1.67, 1.91) compared with whites. African American young adults were more likely than whites to use marijuana before tobacco and both groups were increasingly likely to use marijuana before tobacco over time. A greater understanding of how marijuana initiation interacts with tobacco initiation could inform more effective tobacco and marijuana use prevention efforts. Among ever users of combustible tobacco and marijuana, greater proportions of African American young adults used marijuana before tobacco or at the same age than their white counterparts. Moreover, both African Americans and whites were more likely to use marijuana before tobacco in 2012 compared with 2005. Tobacco

Marijuana Use among Students and Peers.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Griffin, Brenda S.; Griffin, Charles T.

1978-01-01

A casual path model based on Sutherland's theory was developed and applied to student marijuana use as a specific delinquent act. Two types of differential association were suggested to explain the genesis of marijuana use for the individual. The data tended to lend support to the causal path model. (Author/LPG)

Impacts of Changing Marijuana Policies on Alcohol Use in the United States

PubMed Central

Guttmannova, Katarina; Lee, Christine M.; Kilmer, Jason R.; Fleming, Charles B.; Rhew, Isaac C.; Kosterman, Rick; Larimer, Mary E.

2015-01-01

Background Marijuana policies are rapidly evolving. In the United States, recreational use of marijuana is now legal in four states and medical marijuana is legal in 23 states. Research evaluating such policies has focused primarily on how policies affect issues of price, access to, use, and consequences of marijuana. Due to potential spillover effects, researchers also need to examine how marijuana policies may impact use and consequences of alcohol. Methods The current paper is a critical review of articles evaluating alcohol outcomes associated with marijuana decriminalization, medical marijuana legalization, and non-medical or recreational marijuana legalization. We identified articles and reports through (1) online searches of EBSCO host database including Academic search premier, Econlit, Legal collection, Medline, Psych articles, and PsycINFO, as well as PubMed and Google Scholar databases; (2) review of additional articles cited in papers identified through electronic searches; and (3) targeted searches of state and local government records regarding marijuana law implementation. We reviewed studies with respect to their data sources and sample characteristics, methodology, and the margin of alcohol and marijuana use, timing of policy change, and the aspects of laws examined. Results The extant literature provides some evidence for both substitution (i.e., more liberal marijuana policies related to less alcohol use as marijuana becomes a substitute) and complementary (i.e., more liberal marijuana policies related to increases in both marijuana and alcohol use) relationships in the context of liberalization of marijuana policies in the United States. Conclusions Impact of more liberal marijuana policies on alcohol use is complex, and likely depends on specific aspects of policy implementation, including how long the policy has been in place. Further, evaluation of marijuana policy effects on alcohol use may be sensitive to the age group studied and the

Anxious arousal and anhedonic depression symptoms and the frequency of current marijuana use: testing the mediating role of marijuana-use coping motives among active users.

PubMed

Johnson, Kirsten A; Bonn-Miller, Marcel O; Leyro, Teresa M; Zvolensky, Michael J

2009-07-01

The present investigation examined anxious arousal and anhedonic depression symptoms in relation to frequency of past-30-day marijuana use, as well as the role of marijuana-use coping motives in terms of mediating this relation. The present sample included current young adult marijuana users (N = 154; 48.1% female; mean [SD] age = 20.75 [5.97] years) who were recruited via study flyers and printed advertisements in local newspapers placed throughout the Burlington, VT, community. After controlling for daily cigarette smoking rate, alcohol consumption, and gender, anxious arousal symptoms, but not anhedonic depression symptoms, were significantly and uniquely associated with the frequency of marijuana use. In addition, coping motives for marijuana use mediated the relation between anxious arousal symptoms and the frequency of current marijuana use. These results provide novel information related to the explanatory role of marijuana-use coping motives in the relation between anxious arousal symptoms and the frequency of marijuana use among young adult active users. Clinical implications for the current findings are discussed.

Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain

PubMed Central

Filbey, Francesca M.; Aslan, Sina; Calhoun, Vince D.; Spence, Jeffrey S.; Damaraju, Eswar; Caprihan, Arvind; Segall, Judith

2014-01-01

Questions surrounding the effects of chronic marijuana use on brain structure continue to increase. To date, however, findings remain inconclusive. In this comprehensive study that aimed to characterize brain alterations associated with chronic marijuana use, we measured gray matter (GM) volume via structural MRI across the whole brain by using voxel-based morphology, synchrony among abnormal GM regions during resting state via functional connectivity MRI, and white matter integrity (i.e., structural connectivity) between the abnormal GM regions via diffusion tensor imaging in 48 marijuana users and 62 age- and sex-matched nonusing controls. The results showed that compared with controls, marijuana users had significantly less bilateral orbitofrontal gyri volume, higher functional connectivity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) network, and higher structural connectivity in tracts that innervate the OFC (forceps minor) as measured by fractional anisotropy (FA). Increased OFC functional connectivity in marijuana users was associated with earlier age of onset. Lastly, a quadratic trend was observed suggesting that the FA of the forceps minor tract initially increased following regular marijuana use but decreased with protracted regular use. This pattern may indicate differential effects of initial and chronic marijuana use that may reflect complex neuroadaptive processes in response to marijuana use. Despite the observed age of onset effects, longitudinal studies are needed to determine causality of these effects. PMID:25385625

An epidemiologic review of marijuana and cancer: an update

PubMed Central

Huang, Yu-Hui Jenny; Zhang, Zuo-Feng; Tashkin, Donald P.; Feng, Bingjian; Straif, Kurt; Hashibe, Mia

2014-01-01

Marijuana use is legal in two states and additional states are considering legalization. Approximately 18 million Americans are current marijuana users. There is currently no consensus on whether marijuana use is associated with cancer risk. Our objective is to review the epidemiologic studies on this possible association. We identified 34 epidemiologic studies on upper aerodigestive tract cancers (n=11), lung cancer (n=6), testicular cancer (n=3), childhood cancers (n=6), all cancers (n=1), anal cancer (n=1), penile cancer (n=1), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (n=2), malignant primary gliomas(n=1), bladder cancer (n=1), and Kaposi's sarcoma (n=1). Studies on head and neck cancer reported increased and decreased risks, possibly because there is no association, or because risks differ by HPV status or geographic differences. The lung cancer studies largely appear not to support an association with marijuana use, possibly because of the smaller amounts of marijuana regularly smoked compared to tobacco. Three testicular cancer case-control studies reported increased risks with marijuana use (summary odds ratios 1.56 (95%CI=1.09-2.23) for higher frequency; 1.50 (95%=1.08-2.09) for ≥10 years). For other cancer sites, there is still insufficient data to make any conclusions. Considering that marijuana use may change due to legalization, well-designed studies on marijuana use and cancer are warranted. PMID:25587109

5-Hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)2A receptors in rat anterior cingulate cortex mediate the discriminative stimulus properties of d-lysergic acid diethylamide.

PubMed

Gresch, Paul J; Barrett, Robert J; Sanders-Bush, Elaine; Smith, Randy L

2007-02-01

d-Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), an indoleamine hallucinogen, produces profound alterations in mood, thought, and perception in humans. The brain site(s) that mediates the effects of LSD is currently unknown. In this study, we combine the drug discrimination paradigm with intracerebral microinjections to investigate the anatomical localization of the discriminative stimulus of LSD in rats. Based on our previous findings, we targeted the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to test its involvement in mediating the discriminative stimulus properties of LSD. Rats were trained to discriminate systemically administered LSD (0.085 mg/kg s.c.) from saline. Following acquisition of the discrimination, bilateral cannulae were implanted into the ACC (AP, +1.2 mm; ML, +/-1.0 mm; DV, -2.0 mm relative to bregma). Rats were tested for their ability to discriminate varying doses of locally infused LSD (0.1875, 0.375, and 0.75 microg/side) or artificial cerebrospinal fluid (n = 3-7). LSD locally infused into ACC dose-dependently substituted for systemically administered LSD, with 0.75 microg/side LSD substituting completely (89% correct). Systemic administration of the selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) (5-HT)(2A) receptor antagonist R-(+)-alpha-(2,3-dimethoxyphenyl)-1-[2-(4-fluorophenylethyl)]-4-piperidine-methanol (M100907; 0.4 mg/kg) blocked the discriminative cue of LSD (0.375 microg/side) infused into ACC (from 68 to 16% drug lever responding). Furthermore, M100907 (0.5 microg/microl/side) locally infused into ACC completely blocked the stimulus effects of systemic LSD (0.04 mg/kg; from 80 to 12% on the LSD lever). Taken together, these data indicate that 5-HT(2A) receptors in the ACC are a primary target mediating the discriminative stimulus properties of LSD.

Physicians-in-training are not prepared to prescribe medical marijuana.

PubMed

Evanoff, Anastasia B; Quan, Tiffany; Dufault, Carolyn; Awad, Michael; Bierut, Laura Jean

2017-11-01

While medical marijuana use is legal in more than half of U.S. states, evidence is limited about the preparation of physicians-in-training to prescribe medical marijuana. We asked whether current medical school and graduate medical educational training prepare physicians to prescribe medical marijuana. We conducted a national survey of U.S. medical school curriculum deans, a similar survey of residents and fellows at Washington University in St. Louis, and a query of the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) Curriculum Inventory database for keywords associated with medical marijuana. Surveys were obtained from 101 curriculum deans, and 258 residents and fellows. 145 schools were included in the curriculum search. The majority of deans (66.7%) reported that their graduates were not at all prepared to prescribe medical marijuana, and 25.0% reported that their graduates were not at all prepared to answer questions about medical marijuana. The vast majority of residents and fellows (89.5%) felt not at all prepared to prescribe medical marijuana, while 35.3% felt not at all prepared to answer questions, and 84.9% reported receiving no education in medical school or residency on medical marijuana. Finally, only 9% of medical school curriculums document in the AAMC Curriculum Inventory database content on medical marijuana. Our study highlights a fundamental mismatch between the state-level legalization of medical marijuana and the lack of preparation of physicians-in-training to prescribe it. With even more states on the cusp of legalizing medical marijuana, physician training should adapt to encompass this new reality of medical practice. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Molecular genetic responses to lysergic acid diethylamide include transcriptional activation of MAP kinase phosphatase-1, C/EBP-beta and ILAD-1, a novel gene with homology to arrestins.

PubMed

Nichols, Charles D; Sanders-Bush, Elaine

2004-08-01

We recently demonstrated that the potent hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) dynamically influences the expression of a small collection of genes within the mammalian prefrontal cortex. Towards generating a greater understanding of the molecular genetic effects of hallucinogens and how they may relate to alterations in behavior, we have identified and characterized expression patterns of a new collection of three genes increased in expression by acute LSD administration. These genes were identified through additional screens of Affymetrix DNA microarrays and examined in experiments to assess dose-response, time course and the receptor mediating the expression changes. The first induced gene, C/EBP-beta, is a transcription factor. The second gene, MKP-1, suggests that LSD activates the MAP (mitogen activated protein) kinase pathway. The third gene, ILAD-1, demonstrates sequence similarity to the arrestins. The increase in expression of each gene was partially mediated through LSD interactions at 5-HT2A (serotonin) receptors. There is evidence of alternative splicing at the ILAD-1 locus. Furthermore, data suggests that various splice isoforms of ILAD-1 respond differently at the transcriptional level to LSD. The genes thus far found to be responsive to LSD are beginning to give a more complete picture of the complex intracellular events initiated by hallucinogens.

Medical and recreational marijuana: commentary and review of the literature.

PubMed

Wilkinson, Samuel T

2013-01-01

Recent years have seen substantial shifts in cultural attitudes towards marijuana for medical and recreational use. Potential problems with the approval, production, dispensation, route of administration, and negative health effects of medical and recreational marijuana are reviewed. Medical marijuana should be subject to the same rigorous approval process as other medications prescribed by physicians. Legalizing recreational marijuana may have negative public health effects.

Characteristics of Child Maltreatment and Adolescent Marijuana Use: A Prospective Study.

PubMed

Dubowitz, Howard; Thompson, Richard; Arria, Amelia M; English, Diana; Metzger, Richard; Kotch, Jonathan B

2016-02-01

There has been increasing acceptance of marijuana use in the United States in recent years, and rates among adolescents have risen. At the same time, marijuana use during adolescence has been linked to an array of health and social problems. Maltreated children are at risk for marijuana use, but the relationships among characteristics of maltreatment and marijuana use are unclear. In this article, we examine how the type and the extent of maltreatment are related to the level of adolescent marijuana use. Data analyses were conducted on a subsample of maltreated adolescents (n = 702) from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect project. Approximately half the sample had used marijuana, and maltreatment was associated with its use. Multivariate regression models showed that being male, extensive maltreatment, and peer marijuana use were associated with heavy use of marijuana. These findings suggest the importance of comprehensively assessing children's maltreatment experiences and their peers' drug use to help prevent or address possible marijuana use in these high-risk adolescents. © The Author(s) 2015.

Characteristics of Child Maltreatment and Adolescent Marijuana Use: A Prospective Study

PubMed Central

Dubowitz, Howard; Thompson, Richard; Arria, Amelia M.; English, Diana; Metzger, Richard; Kotch, Jonathan B.

2015-01-01

There has been increasing acceptance of marijuana use in the US in recent years, and rates among adolescents have risen. At the same time, marijuana use during adolescence has been linked to an array of health and social problems. Maltreated children are at risk for marijuana use, but the relationships among characteristics of maltreatment and marijuana use are unclear. In this paper we examine how the type and the extent of maltreatment are related to the level of adolescent marijuana use. Data analyses were conducted on a subsample of maltreated adolescents (n = 702) from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) project. Approximately half the sample had used marijuana, and maltreatment was associated with its use. Multivariate regression models showed that being male, extensive maltreatment, and peer marijuana use were associated with Heavy Use of marijuana. These findings suggest the importance of comprehensively assessing children’s maltreatment experiences and their peers’ drug use to help prevent or address possible marijuana use in these high-risk adolescents. PMID:26715532

Estrogenic effects of marijuana smoke condensate and cannabinoid compounds

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Lee, Soo Yeun; Sungkyunkwan University, 300 Cheoncheon-dong, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746; Oh, Seung Min

Chronic exposure to marijuana produces adverse effects on the endocrine and reproductive systems in humans; however, the experimental evidence for this presented thus far has not been without controversy. In this study, the estrogenic effect of marijuana smoke condensate (MSC) was evaluated using in vitro bioassays, viz., the cell proliferation assay, the reporter gene assay, and the ER competitive binding assay. The results of these assays were compared with those of three major cannabinoids, i.e., THC, CBD, and CBN. The estrogenic effect of MSC was further confirmed by the immature female rat uterotrophic assay. MSC stimulated the estrogenicity related tomore » the ER-mediated pathway, while neither THC, CBD, nor CBN did. Moreover, treatment with 10 and 25 mg/kg MSC induced significant uterine response, and 10 mg/kg MSC resulted in an obvious change in the uterine epithelial cell appearance. MSC also enhanced the IGFBP-1 gene expression in a dose-dependent manner. To identify the constituents of MSC responsible for its estrogenicity, the MSC fractionated samples were examined using another cell proliferation assay, and the estrogenic active fraction was analyzed using GC-MS. In the organic acid fraction that showed the strongest estrogenic activity among the seven fractions of MSC, phenols were identified. Our results suggest that marijuana abuse is considered an endocrine-disrupting factor. Furthermore, these results suggest that the phenolic compounds contained in MSC play a role in its estrogenic effect.« less

Gateway to Curiosity: Medical Marijuana Ads and Intention and Use during Middle School

PubMed Central

D’Amico, Elizabeth J.; Miles, Jeremy N.V.; Tucker, Joan S.

2015-01-01

Over the past several years, medical marijuana has received increased attention in the media, and marijuana use has increased across the United States. Studies suggest that as marijuana has become more accessible and adults have become more tolerant regarding marijuana use, adolescents perceive marijuana as more beneficial and are more likely to use if they are living in an environment that is more tolerant of marijuana use. One factor that may influence adolescents’ perceptions about marijuana and marijuana use is their exposure to advertising of this product. We surveyed 6th–8th grade youth in 2010 and 2011 in 16 middle schools in southern California (n= 8214; 50% male; 52% Hispanic; mean age = 13) and assessed exposure to advertising for medical marijuana, marijuana intentions and marijuana use. Cross-lagged regressions showed a reciprocal association of advertising exposure with marijuana use and intentions during middle school. Greater initial medical marijuana advertising exposure was significantly associated with a higher probability of marijuana use and stronger intentions to use one year later, and initial marijuana use and stronger intentions to use were associated with greater medical marijuana advertising exposure one year later. Prevention programs need to better explain medical marijuana to youth, providing information on the context for proper medical use of this drug and the potential harms from use during this developmental period. Furthermore, as this is a new frontier, it is important to consider regulating medical marijuana advertisements, as is currently done for alcohol and tobacco products. PMID:26030167

Gateway to curiosity: Medical marijuana ads and intention and use during middle school.

PubMed

D'Amico, Elizabeth J; Miles, Jeremy N V; Tucker, Joan S

2015-09-01

Over the past several years, medical marijuana has received increased attention in the media, and marijuana use has increased across the United States. Studies suggest that as marijuana has become more accessible and adults have become more tolerant regarding marijuana use, adolescents perceive marijuana as more beneficial and are more likely to use if they are living in an environment that is more tolerant of marijuana use. One factor that may influence adolescents' perceptions about marijuana and marijuana use is their exposure to advertising of this product. We surveyed sixth- to eighth-grade youth in 2010 and 2011 in 16 middle schools in Southern California (n = 8,214; 50% male; 52% Hispanic; mean age = 13 years) and assessed exposure to advertising for medical marijuana, marijuana intentions, and marijuana use. Cross-lagged regressions showed a reciprocal association of advertising exposure with marijuana use and intentions during middle school. Greater initial medical marijuana advertising exposure was significantly associated with a higher probability of marijuana use and stronger intentions to use 1 year later, and initial marijuana use and stronger intentions to use were associated with greater medical marijuana advertising exposure 1 year later. Prevention programs need to better explain medical marijuana to youth, providing information on the context for proper medical use of this drug and the potential harms from use during this developmental period. Furthermore, as this is a new frontier, it is important to consider regulating medical marijuana advertisements, as is currently done for alcohol and tobacco products. (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).

METABOLIC EFFECTS OF MARIJUANA USE AMONG BLACKS

PubMed Central

Racine, C.; Vincent, M.; Rogers, A.; Donat, M.; Ojike, N. I.; Necola, O.; Yousef, E.; Masters-Israilov, A.; Jean-Louis, G.; McFarlane, S. I.

2015-01-01

Background Increased legalization of marijuana has resulted in renewed interest in its effects on body weight and cardiometabolic risk. Conflicting data exist regarding marijuana effects on body weight, waist circumference as well as lipid profiles, blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, there is a dearth of data available on this effect in the black population. Objective To assess the metabolic profile and cardiovascular risk factors as well as body weight and waist circumference among urban black marijuana users. Methods A cross sectional study design involving 100 patients seen in a Family Practice clinic at University hospital of Brooklyn, NY, USA, over a period of 3 months from January 2014 to March 2014. Participants were administered a questionnaire regarding marijuana use, and other associated behaviors. Socio-demographic, laboratory, and clinical data were collected. We report measures of central tendencies, and dispersion for continuous variables and the frequency of distribution for categorical variables. Results Of the 100 patients surveyed, 57% were females. The mean (±SEM) age of the entire cohort was 46.3 years±1.5; range, 19–78 years. The mean body mass index (BMI) was 29.6 kg/m2±0.73; SBP=128.0 mmHg±1.69; DBP=76.1 mmHg±1.17. Current marijuana users had the lowest waist circumference compared to former or never users respectively (32.9±0.66 vs. 35.9±0.88 vs. 33.4±0.74), p<0.01. Diastolic blood pressure in mmHg was significantly higher among former marijuana users compared to current or never users, (80.0±2.1 vs. 73.3±2.3 vs. 73.4±1.6), p<0.01. Current marijuana users showed a tendency (not statistically significant) towards lower total cholesterol, Triglycerides (TG), High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, body mass index (BMI) and systolic blood pressure, compared to former users or never users. Conclusion Current marijuana use is associated with significantly lower waist

It Depends on When You Ask: Motives for Using Marijuana Assessed Before versus After a Marijuana Use Event

PubMed Central

Shrier, Lydia A.; Scherer, Emily Blood

2014-01-01

Marijuana use motives are typically evaluated retrospectively using measures that summarize or generalize across episodes of use, which may compromise validity. Using Ecological Momentary Assessment data, we examined the main reason for a specific marijuana use event measured both prospectively and retrospectively. We then determined reason types, event characteristics, and user characteristics that predicted change in reason. Thirty-six medical outpatients age 15 to 24 years who used marijuana two times a week or more used a handheld computer to select their main reason for use from the five categories of the Marijuana Motives Measure (Simons, Correia, & Carey, 1998) just before and after each time they used marijuana over two weeks (n = 263 events with before/after reason). Reasons were examined individually and according to dimensions identified in motivational models of substance use (positive/negative, internal/external). Reason assessed before use changed to a different reason after use for 20% of events: 10% of events for pleasure; 21%, to cope; 35%, to be more social; 55%, to expand my mind; and 100%, to conform. In the multivariable model, external and expansion reasons each predicted change in reason for use (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.001, respectively). Youth were also more likely to change their reason if older (p = 0.04), if male (p = 0.02), and with weekend use (p = 0.002). Retrospective assessments of event-specific motives for marijuana use may be unreliable and therefore invalid for a substantial minority of events, particularly if use is for external or expansion reasons. PMID:25123342

Effects of marijuana smoking on the lung.

PubMed

Tashkin, Donald P

2013-06-01

Regular smoking of marijuana by itself causes visible and microscopic injury to the large airways that is consistently associated with an increased likelihood of symptoms of chronic bronchitis that subside after cessation of use. On the other hand, habitual use of marijuana alone does not appear to lead to significant abnormalities in lung function when assessed either cross-sectionally or longitudinally, except for possible increases in lung volumes and modest increases in airway resistance of unclear clinical significance. Therefore, no clear link to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease has been established. Although marijuana smoke contains a number of carcinogens and cocarcinogens, findings from a limited number of well-designed epidemiological studies do not suggest an increased risk for the development of either lung or upper airway cancer from light or moderate use, although evidence is mixed concerning possible carcinogenic risks of heavy, long-term use. Although regular marijuana smoking leads to bronchial epithelial ciliary loss and impairs the microbicidal function of alveolar macrophages, evidence is inconclusive regarding possible associated risks for lower respiratory tract infection. Several case reports have implicated marijuana smoking as an etiologic factor in pneumothorax/pneumomediastinum and bullous lung disease, although evidence of a possible causal link from epidemiologic studies is lacking. In summary, the accumulated weight of evidence implies far lower risks for pulmonary complications of even regular heavy use of marijuana compared with the grave pulmonary consequences of tobacco.

A case of butane hash oil (marijuana wax)-induced psychosis.

PubMed

Keller, Corey J; Chen, Evan C; Brodsky, Kimberly; Yoon, Jong H

2016-01-01

Marijuana is one of the most widely used controlled substances in the United States. Despite extensive research on smoked marijuana, little is known regarding the potential psychotropic effects of marijuana "wax," a high-potency form of marijuana that is gaining in popularity. The authors present a case of "Mr. B," a 34-year-old veteran who presented with profound psychosis in the setting of recent initiation of heavy, daily marijuana wax use. He exhibited incoherent speech and odd behaviors and appeared to be in a dream-like state with perseverating thoughts about his combat experience. His condition persisted despite treatment with risperidone 4 mg twice a day (BID), but improved dramatically on day 8 of hospitalization with the return of baseline mental function. Following discharge, Mr. B discontinued all marijuana use and did not exhibit the return of any psychotic symptoms. This study highlights the need for future research regarding the potential medical and psychiatric effects of new, high-potency forms of marijuana. Could cannabis have a dose-dependent impact on psychosis? What other potential psychiatric effects could emerge heretofore unseen in lower potency formulations? Given the recent legalization of marijuana, these questions merit timely exploration.

A virtue analysis of recreational marijuana use.

PubMed

Sullivan, Ezra; Austriaco, Nicanor

2016-05-01

Several empirical studies suggest that recreational marijuana is popularly perceived as an essentially harmless rite of passage that ends as young people settle into their careers and their adult intimate relationships. Is this perception accurate? To answer this question, we evaluate the morality of recreational marijuana use from a virtue perspective guided by the theological synthesis of St. Thomas Aquinas. Since the medical data reveals that recreational marijuana use is detrimental to the well-being of the user, we conclude that it is a vicious activity, an instance of the vice of intoxication, and as such would be morally illicit. In contrast to its medical use, the recreational use of marijuana cannot be justified for at least three reasons. First, as scientists have amply documented, it harms the organic functioning of the human body. Second, it impedes our ability to reason and in so doing does harm to us. Finally, it has lasting detrimental effects on the user and his neighbor, even when it occurs in a casual setting. Intoxication is always contrary to the integral good of the person. Thus, the use of marijuana is never warranted even for good, non-medical reasons.

Practical Aspects of Discussing Marijuana in a New Era.

PubMed

Lenoue, Sean R; Wongngamnit, Narin; Thurstone, Christian

2016-11-01

The use of marijuana for the treatment of medical conditions is a highly controversial topic. Misconceptions by both patients and providers concerning the safety of and evidence-based indications for marijuana can complicate treatment planning and outcomes. Maintaining skills such as motivational interviewing, providing evidence-based informed consent, and increasing access to care remain top priorities for providing quality patient care. The goal of this article is to offer guidance to clinical providers who are adapting to the changing realities of medical marijuana and legalized recreational marijuana.

Synthetic Pot: Not Your Grandfather’s Marijuana

PubMed Central

Ford, Benjamin M.; Tai, Sherrica; Fantegrossi, William E.

2017-01-01

In the early 2000’s in Europe and shortly thereafter in the USA, it was reported that “legal” forms of marijuana were being sold under the name K2 and/or Spice. Active ingredients in K2/Spice products were determined to be synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs), producing psychotropic actions via CB1 cannabinoid receptors, similar to those of Δ9-THC, the primary active constituent in marijuana. Often abused by adolescents and military personnel to elude detection in drug tests due to their lack of structural similarity to Δ9-THC, SCBs are falsely marketed as safe marijuana substitutes. Instead, SCBs are a highly structural diverse group of compounds, easily synthesized, which produce very dangerous adverse effects occurring by, as of yet, unknown mechanisms. Therefore, available evidence indicates that K2/Spice products are clearly not safe marijuana alternatives. PMID:28162792

Marijuana Effects on Human Forgetting Functions

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lane, Scott D.; Cherek, Don R.; Lieving, Lori M.; Tcheremissine, Oleg V.

2005-01-01

It has long been known that acute marijuana administration impairs working memory (e.g., the discrimination of stimuli separated by a delay). The determination of which of the individual components of memory are altered by marijuana is an unresolved problem. Previous human studies did not use test protocols that allowed for the determination of…

Comparison of outcome expectancies for synthetic cannabinoids and botanical marijuana.

PubMed

Lauritsen, Kirstin J; Rosenberg, Harold

2016-07-01

Although initially developed for medical purposes, synthetic cannabinoids have also been consumed for recreational purposes. To evaluate whether agreement with positive and negative outcome expectancies differed for synthetic cannabinoids versus botanical marijuana, and assess reported reasons for using synthetic cannabinoids. Using a web-based recruitment and data collection procedure, 186 adults who had used both synthetic cannabinoids and botanical marijuana and 181 adults who had used botanical marijuana but not synthetic cannabinoids, completed measures of outcome expectancies and other relevant questionnaires. A significant interaction revealed that participants who had used both synthetic cannabinoids and botanical marijuana indicated lower agreement with positive expectancies for synthetic cannabinoids, and higher agreement with positive expectancies for botanical marijuana, than did those participants who used only botanical marijuana. There was no interaction between type of drug and use history on agreement with negative expectancies, and participants agreed more strongly with negative outcome expectancies for synthetic cannabinoids than for botanical marijuana whether they had used one or both types of these drugs. The most frequently provided reasons for using synthetic cannabinoids included availability, perceived legality, cost, curiosity, and social interaction. Given growing public acceptance of recreational and medical marijuana, coupled with negative perceptions and increasing regulation of synthetic cannabinoid compounds, botanical marijuana is likely to remain more available and more popular than synthetic cannabinoids.

Evidence for Connections between Prosecutor-Reported Marijuana Case Dispositions and Community Youth Marijuana-Related Attitudes and Behaviors

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Terry-McElrath, Yvonne M.; McBride, Duane C.; Chriqui, Jamie F.; O'Malley, Patrick M.; VanderWaal, Curtis J.; Chaloupka, Frank J.; Johnston, Lloyd D.

2009-01-01

This article examines relationships between local drug policy (as represented by prosecutor-reported case outcomes for first-offender juvenile marijuana possession cases) and youth self-reported marijuana use, perceived risk, and disapproval. Interviews with prosecutors and surveys of 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-grade students in the United States were…

Attitudes, perceptions, and use of marijuana in youth with multiple sclerosis.

PubMed

Brenton, J Nicholas; Schreiner, Teri; Karoscik, Krystle; Richter, Meg; Ferrante, Samantha; Waldman, Amy; Banwell, Brenda

2018-02-01

Studies have shown a negative impact on cognition and brain volume in marijuana-using adult multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and healthy adolescents. Given that onset of MS during childhood and adolescence negatively impacts brain growth and the normal maturation of neuronal networks, the addition of marijuana exposure in these youth may be even more harmful. Determine attitudes toward and prevalence of recreational marijuana use in MS youth. We surveyed 52 consecutive pediatric-onset MS patients from three pediatric MS centers in the United States. Participants answered a structured questionnaire to capture attitudes toward marijuana and personal use habits, if present. Nearly half reported use of marijuana, with the majority beginning to use in mid-to-late adolescence. The most popular reasons for using marijuana were relaxation (72%), improvement of medical problems (64%), and stress reduction (52%). Over half (64%) of marijuana users perceived it to have negative effects on memory and focus. Cost and access were not barriers to use, despite all respondents being less than age 21. Youth with MS endorse recreational marijuana as safe, and many use marijuana frequently despite appreciating a negative impact on memory. More detailed understanding of the long-term impact of marijuana use in youth with MS is needed.

Medical marijuana: the state of the research.

PubMed

Mirken, B

1996-10-18

Recent raids on buyers' clubs in San Francisco have focused attention on medicinal uses of marijuana. The Clinton administration's policy is that there is no scientific evidence that smoked marijuana is useful in treating pain and nausea in AIDS and cancer patients. However, mainstream medical literature has supported the use of cannabis in managing symptoms of diseases such as glaucoma and multiple sclerosis. Well designed, controlled studies of marijuana are needed to determine the effective medical uses of the drug and break the political stalemate on this issue.

Marijuana, phytocannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system, and male fertility.

PubMed

du Plessis, Stefan S; Agarwal, Ashok; Syriac, Arun

2015-11-01

Marijuana has the highest consumption rate among all of the illicit drugs used in the USA, and its popularity as both a recreational and medicinal drug is increasing especially among men of reproductive age. Male factor infertility is on the increase, and the exposure to the cannabinoid compounds released by marijuana could be a contributing cause. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is deeply involved in the complex regulation of male reproduction through the endogenous release of endocannabinoids and binding to cannabinoid receptors. Disturbing the delicate balance of the ECS due to marijuana use can negatively impact reproductive potential. Various in vivo and in vitro studies have reported on the empirical role that marijuana plays in disrupting the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis, spermatogenesis, and sperm function such as motility, capacitation, and the acrosome reaction. In this review, we highlight the latest evidence regarding the effect of marijuana use on male fertility and also provide a detailed insight into the ECS and its significance in the male reproductive system.

Marijuana-Impaired Driving - A Report to Congress

DOT National Transportation Integrated Search

2017-07-01

This report was prepared in accordance with Section 4008 (Marijuana-Impaired Driving) of the Fixing Americas Surface Transportation Act (FAST Act), Pub. L. 114-94. The report summarizes what is known about marijuana use and driving. The report des...

Advantages of analyzing postmortem brain samples in routine forensic drug screening-Case series of three non-natural deaths tested positive for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

PubMed

Mardal, Marie; Johansen, Sys Stybe; Thomsen, Ragnar; Linnet, Kristian

2017-09-01

Three case reports are presented, including autopsy findings and toxicological screening results, which were tested positive for the potent hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). LSD and its main metabolites were quantified in brain tissue and femoral blood, and furthermore hematoma and urine when available. LSD, its main metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (oxo-HO-LSD), and iso-LSD were quantified in biological samples according to a previously published procedure involving liquid-liquid extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). LSD was measured in the brain tissue of all presented cases at a concentration level from 0.34-10.8μg/kg. The concentration level in the target organ was higher than in peripheral blood. Additional psychoactive compounds were quantified in blood and brain tissue, though all below toxic concentration levels. The cause of death in case 1 was collision-induced brain injury, while it was drowning in case 2 and 3 and thus not drug intoxication. However, the toxicological findings could help explain the decedent's inability to cope with brain injury or drowning incidents. The presented findings could help establish reference concentrations in brain samples and assist in interpretation of results from forensic drug screening in brain tissue. This is to the author's knowledge the first report of LSD, iso-LSD, and oxo-HO-LSD measured in brain tissue samples. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Facts on Marijuana. Clearinghouse Fact Sheet.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Brick, John

Marijuana or Cannabis is a weed which grows in many different parts of the world. The plant may be altered into different forms to allow various forms of ingestion. Although marijuana's psychoactive properties have been known for almost 5,000 years, the plant first attracted public attention in the United States during the first half of this…

How Is Marijuana Vaping Portrayed on YouTube? Content, Features, Popularity and Retransmission of Vaping Marijuana YouTube Videos.

PubMed

Yang, Qinghua; Sangalang, Angeline; Rooney, Molly; Maloney, Erin; Emery, Sherry; Cappella, Joseph N

2018-01-01

The purpose of the study is to investigate how vaping marijuana, a novel but emerging risky health behavior, is portrayed on YouTube, and how the content and features of these YouTube videos influence their popularity and retransmission. A content analysis of vaping marijuana YouTube videos published between July 2014 to June 2015 (n = 214) was conducted. Video genre, valence, promotional and warning arguments, emotional appeals, message sensation value, presence of misinformation and misleading information, and user-generated statistics, including number of views, comments, shares, likes and dislikes, were coded. The results showed that these videos were predominantly pro-marijuana-vaping, with the most frequent videos being user-sharing. The genre and message features influenced the popularity, evaluations, and retransmission of vaping marijuana YouTube videos. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Medical Marijuana Use among Adolescents in Substance Abuse Treatment

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Salomonsen-Sautel, Stacy; Sakai, Joseph T.; Thurstone, Christian; Corley, Robin; Hopfer, Christian

2012-01-01

Objective: To assess the prevalence and frequency of medical marijuana diversion and use among adolescents in substance abuse treatment and to identify factors related to their medical marijuana use. Method: This study calculated the prevalence and frequency of diverted medical marijuana use among adolescents (n = 164), ages 14-18 years (mean age…

Blurred boundaries: the therapeutics and politics of medical marijuana.

PubMed

Bostwick, J Michael

2012-02-01

For 5 millennia, Cannabis sativa has been used throughout the world medically, recreationally, and spiritually. From the mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed it for a plethora of indications, until the federal government started imposing restrictions on its use, culminating in 1970 with the US Congress classifying it as a Schedule I substance, illegal, and without medical value. Simultaneous with this prohibition, marijuana became the United States' most widely used illicit recreational drug, a substance generally regarded as pleasurable and relaxing without the addictive dangers of opioids or stimulants. Meanwhile, cannabis never lost its cachet in alternative medicine circles, going mainstream in 1995 when California became the first of 16 states to date to legalize its medical use, despite the federal ban. Little about cannabis is straightforward. Its main active ingredient, δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, was not isolated until 1964, and not until the 1990s were the far-reaching modulatory activities of the endocannabinoid system in the human body appreciated. This system's elucidation raises the possibility of many promising pharmaceutical applications, even as draconian federal restrictions that hamstring research show no signs of softening. Recreational use continues unabated, despite growing evidence of marijuana's addictive potential, particularly in the young, and its propensity for inducing and exacerbating psychotic illness in the susceptible. Public approval drives medical marijuana legalization efforts without the scientific data normally required to justify a new medication's introduction. This article explores each of these controversies, with the intent of educating physicians to decide for themselves whether marijuana is panacea, scourge, or both. PubMed searches were conducted using the following keywords: medical marijuana, medical cannabis, endocannabinoid system, CB1 receptors, CB2 receptors, THC, cannabidiol, nabilone

Blurred Boundaries: The Therapeutics and Politics of Medical Marijuana

PubMed Central

Bostwick, J. Michael

2012-01-01

For 5 millennia, Cannabis sativa has been used throughout the world medically, recreationally, and spiritually. From the mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed it for a plethora of indications, until the federal government started imposing restrictions on its use, culminating in 1970 with the US Congress classifying it as a Schedule I substance, illegal, and without medical value. Simultaneous with this prohibition, marijuana became the United States' most widely used illicit recreational drug, a substance generally regarded as pleasurable and relaxing without the addictive dangers of opioids or stimulants. Meanwhile, cannabis never lost its cachet in alternative medicine circles, going mainstream in 1995 when California became the first of 16 states to date to legalize its medical use, despite the federal ban. Little about cannabis is straightforward. Its main active ingredient, δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, was not isolated until 1964, and not until the 1990s were the far-reaching modulatory activities of the endocannabinoid system in the human body appreciated. This system's elucidation raises the possibility of many promising pharmaceutical applications, even as draconian federal restrictions that hamstring research show no signs of softening. Recreational use continues unabated, despite growing evidence of marijuana's addictive potential, particularly in the young, and its propensity for inducing and exacerbating psychotic illness in the susceptible. Public approval drives medical marijuana legalization efforts without the scientific data normally required to justify a new medication's introduction. This article explores each of these controversies, with the intent of educating physicians to decide for themselves whether marijuana is panacea, scourge, or both. PubMed searches were conducted using the following keywords: medical marijuana, medical cannabis, endocannabinoid system, CB1 receptors, CB2 receptors, THC, cannabidiol, nabilone

Marijuana and Pregnancy

MedlinePlus

... marijuana in pregnancy have been reported in some studies. It is believed that these children might have more problems with attention, impulsive behavior, short term memory, academic performance and difficulty at ...

Marijuana Revisited.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Archer, James, Jr.; Lopata, Ann

1979-01-01

This review examines recent research on psychological effects of marijuana. The article contains material on potency, research problems, use patterns in the United States, and expectancy, as well as a review of research on acute effects, including psychosis, toxic delirium, acute anxiety, and brain damage. (Author)

Development and evaluation of the Marijuana Reduction Strategies Self-Efficacy Scale.

PubMed

Davis, Alan K; Osborn, Lawrence A; Leith, Jaclyn; Rosenberg, Harold; Ashrafioun, Lisham; Hawley, Anna; Bannon, Erin E; Jesse, Samantha; Kraus, Shane; Kryszak, Elizabeth; Cross, Nicole; Carhart, Victoria; Baik, Kyoung-deok

2014-06-01

To evaluate several psychometric properties of a questionnaire designed to assess college students' self-efficacy to employ 21 cognitive-behavioral strategies intended to reduce the amount and/or frequency with which they consume marijuana, we recruited 273 marijuana-using students to rate their confidence that they could employ each of the strategies. Examination of frequency counts for each item, principal components analysis, internal consistency reliability, and mean interitem correlation supported retaining all 21 items in a single scale. In support of criterion validity, marijuana use-reduction self-efficacy scores were significantly positively correlated with cross-situational confidence to abstain from marijuana, and significantly negatively correlated with quantity and frequency of marijuana use and marijuana-related problems. In addition, compared with respondents whose use of marijuana either increased or remained stable, self-efficacy was significantly higher among those who had decreased their use of marijuana over the past year. This relatively short and easily administered questionnaire could be used to identify college students who have low self-efficacy to employ specific marijuana reduction strategies and as an outcome measure to evaluate educational and skill-training interventions.

Youth marijuana use: state of the science for the practicing clinician.

PubMed

Hadland, Scott E; Harris, Sion K

2014-08-01

Despite widespread marijuana use among adolescents, accurate information on known health effects is poorly disseminated to clinicians and their patients. Amidst rapidly evolving drug policy in the United States and elsewhere, it is imperative that providers understand the short-term and long-term consequences of marijuana use. Research on regular marijuana use highlights a unique susceptibility of the developing adolescent brain to adverse neurocognitive and psychiatric outcomes. Although studies have not firmly established causality, onset of regular marijuana use in adolescence is associated with later decline in cognitive function, as well as with adult onset of psychosis and anxiety. Educational and employment outcomes may be poorer among regular marijuana-using adolescents. A number of other adverse respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine and gastrointestinal associations with regular marijuana use have also been established. Good screening tools and promising brief intervention and behavioral treatment programs are available to clinicians, who are in a position to identify problematic marijuana use among adolescents. A common misperception among youth is that marijuana use is without harm. However, adolescent marijuana use may have measurable, durable, and potentially irreversible effects on later cognitive function and mental health.

Youth Marijuana Use: State of the Science for the Practicing Clinician

PubMed Central

Hadland, Scott E.; Harris, Sion K.

2014-01-01

Purpose of review Despite widespread marijuana use among adolescents, accurate information on known health effects is poorly disseminated to clinicians and their patients. Amidst rapidly evolving drug policy in the United States and elsewhere, it is imperative that providers understand the short- and long-term consequences of marijuana use. Recent findings Research on regular marijuana use highlights a unique susceptibility of the developing adolescent brain to adverse neurocognitive and psychiatric outcomes. Although studies have not firmly established causality, onset of regular marijuana use in adolescence is associated with later decline in cognitive function, as well as with adult onset of psychosis and anxiety. Educational and employment outcomes may be poorer among regular marijuana-using adolescents. A number of other adverse respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine and gastrointestinal associations with regular marijuana use have also been established. Good screening tools and promising brief intervention and behavioral treatment programs are available to clinicians, who are in a position to identify problematic marijuana use among adolescents and refer for services. Summary A common misperception among youth is that marijuana use is without harm. However, adolescent marijuana use may have measurable, durable and potentially irreversible effects on later cognitive function and mental health. PMID:24914878

Public Health Effects of Medical Marijuana Legalization in Colorado.

PubMed

Davis, Jonathan M; Mendelson, Bruce; Berkes, Jay J; Suleta, Katie; Corsi, Karen F; Booth, Robert E

2016-03-01

The public health consequences of the legalization of marijuana, whether for medical or recreational purposes, are little understood. Despite this, numerous states are considering medical or recreational legalization. In the context of abrupt changes in marijuana policy in 2009 in Colorado, the authors sought to investigate corresponding changes in marijuana-related public health indicators. This observational, ecologic study used an interrupted time-series analysis to identify changes in public health indicators potentially related to broad policy changes that occurred in 2009. This was records-based research from the state of Colorado and Denver metropolitan area. Data were collected to examine frequency and trends of marijuana-related outcomes in hospital discharges and poison center calls between time periods before and after 2009 and adjusted for population. Analyses were conducted in 2014. Hospital discharges coded as marijuana-dependent increased 1% per month (95% CI=0.8, 1.1, p<0.001) from 2007 to 2013. A change in trend was detected in poison center calls mentioning marijuana (p<0.01). After 2009, poison center calls increased 0.8% per month (95% CI=0.2, 1.4, p<0.01). Poison center calls also increased 56% (95% CI=49%, 63%, p<0.001) in the period following the policy change. Further, there was one hospital discharge coded as dependent for every 3,159 (95% CI=2465, 3853, p<0.001) medical marijuana registrant applications. The abrupt nature of these changes suggests public health effects related to broad policy changes associated with marijuana. This report may be used to assist in policy decisions regarding the short-term public health effects of marijuana legalization. Copyright © 2016 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Current Marijuana Use by Industry and Occupation - Colorado, 2014-2015.

PubMed

Smith, Roberta; Hall, Katelyn E; Etkind, Paul; Van Dyke, Mike

2018-04-13

The effects of marijuana use on workplace safety are of concern for public health and workplace safety professionals. Twenty-nine states and the District of Columbia have enacted laws legalizing marijuana at the state level for recreational and/or medical purposes. Employers and safety professionals in states where marijuana use is legal have expressed concerns about potential increases in occupational injuries, such as on-the-job motor vehicle crashes, related to employee impairment. Data published in 2017 by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) showed that more than one in eight adult state residents aged ≥18 years currently used marijuana in 2014 (13.6%) and 2015 (13.4%) (1). To examine current marijuana use by working adults and the industries and occupations in which they are employed, CDPHE analyzed data from the state's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) regarding current marijuana use (at least 1 day during the preceding 30 days) among 10,169 persons who responded to the current marijuana use question. During 2014 and 2015, 14.6% of these 10,169 Colorado workers reported current marijuana use, with the highest reported prevalence among workers in the Accommodation and Food Services industry (30.1%) and Food Preparation and Serving (32.2%) occupations. Understanding the industries and occupations of adults with reported marijuana use can help direct and maximize impact of public health messaging and potential safety interventions for adults.

State medical marijuana laws: understanding the laws and their limitations.

PubMed

Pacula, Rosalie Liccardo; Chriqui, Jamie F; Reichmann, Deborah A; Terry-McElrath, Yvonne M

2002-01-01

Significant attention has been given to the debate regarding allowances for medical marijuana use since the 1996 California and Arizona ballot initiatives. State medical marijuana allowances, however, have existed since the mid-1970s. Much of the current debate stems from confusion about the various ways states approach the issue. In this paper, we present original legal research on current state medical marijuana laws identifying four different ways states statutorily enable the medical use of marijuana. We discuss the tension these approaches have with federal law as well as their implications regarding real access for patients. In addition, we present information on how a small number of states are trying to deal with the issue of access within the context of their medical marijuana laws, and discuss the implication of various supply approaches on the enforcement of other state marijuana laws.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a partial agonist of D2 dopaminergic receptors and it potentiates dopamine-mediated prolactin secretion in lactotrophs in vitro.

PubMed

Giacomelli, S; Palmery, M; Romanelli, L; Cheng, C Y; Silvestrini, B

1998-01-01

The hallucinogenic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have mainly been attributed to the interaction of this drug with the serotoninergic system, but it seems more likely that they are the result of the complex interactions of the drug with both the serotoninergic and dopaminergic systems. The aim of the present study was to investigate the functional actions of LSD at dopaminergic receptors using prolactin secretion by primary cultures of rat pituitary cells as a model. LSD produced a dose-dependent inhibition of prolactin secretion in vitro with an IC50 at 1.7x10(-9) M. This action was antagonized by spiperone but not by SKF83566 or cyproheptadine, which indicates that LSD has a specific effect on D2 dopaminergic receptors. The maximum inhibition of prolactin secretion achieved by LSD was lower than that by dopamine (60% versus 80%). Moreover, the fact that LSD at 10(-8)-10(-6) M antagonized the inhibitory effect of dopamine (10(-7) M) and bromocriptine (10(-11) M) suggests that LSD acts as a partial agonist at D2 receptors on lactotrophs in vitro. Interestingly, LSD at 10(-13)-10(-10) M, the concentrations which are 10-1000-fold lower than those required to induce direct inhibition on pituitary prolactin secretion, potentiated the dopamine (10(-10)-2.5x10(-9) M)-mediated prolactin secretion by pituitary cells in vitro. These results suggest that LSD not only interacts with dopaminergic receptors but also has a unique capacity for modulating dopaminergic transmission. These findings may offer new insights into the hallucinogenic effect of LSD.

Factors associated with early marijuana initiation in a criminal justice population.

PubMed

Savage, Rebekah J; King, Vinetra L; Clark, C Brendan; Cropsey, Karen L

2017-01-01

Initiation of marijuana during adolescence is associated with negative outcomes and is more common among those with criminal justice involvement. We sought to determine demographics, psychosocial factors, mental health factors, and criminal outcomes associated with earlier age at first marijuana use in a criminal justice population. Data from structured, in-person interviews of adults in a criminal corrections program were analyzed. Participants (689 men and women ages 19 and older) were recruited for a larger smoking cessation trial (2009-2013) as a volunteer sample by flyers at a community corrections site. 516 had smoked both nicotine and marijuana and were included in the analysis. We determined associations between self-reported age at first marijuana use and sex, race, income, educational attainment, history of abuse, family problems, psychiatric problems, criminal record, and age of nicotine and alcohol initiation. Of 516 participants, 68% were men, and 64.5% were Black. No participants were of Hispanic ethnicity. Average age of marijuana initiation was 15.1years (SD 3.7years). After linear regression, earlier age at marijuana initiation was associated with male sex and more criminal offenses (person/violent and court). Race and psychiatric problems were not associated with earlier marijuana initiation. Earlier adolescent marijuana initiation is associated with more criminal offenses in a criminal justice population. Men initiate marijuana earlier than women. Adolescents at high risk of justice involvement may benefit from delayed initiation of marijuana, specifically men. Additional studies should examine prevention strategies for adolescent marijuana use that target those at highest risk. Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Use of Protective Behavioral Strategies among Young Adult Veteran Marijuana Users.

PubMed

Pedersen, Eric R; Villarosa-Hurlocker, Margo C; Prince, Mark A

2018-01-01

Young adult veterans are at risk for problematic marijuana use and associated consequences, which is partially due to their high rates of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and problematic substance use. Veterans tend to endorse more severe and chronic mental health symptoms compared to their civilian counterparts and they identify marijuana use as a method to cope with their symptoms. Given the prevalence of marijuana use among veterans in the community and in clinical settings, it is important to explore the factors that may help minimize harm associated with use for those that choose to use the drug. The present study sought to examine the impact of protective behavioral strategies on the relationship between mental health symptoms and marijuana use and consequences in a sample of 180 young adult veteran marijuana users. Participants were recruited via social media advertisements and completed measures of marijuana use and consequences, protective behavioral strategies, and PTSD and depression symptoms. Findings indicated that more frequent use of protective behavioral strategies was associated with less marijuana use and consequences. Participants who screened positive for PTSD or depression reported more marijuana consequences than did those not positive on these screeners. Regression analyses revealed protective strategies moderated the relationship between PTSD and marijuana consequences such that young veterans who endorsed more PTSD symptoms and infrequent use of protective strategies reported the most marijuana consequences. No moderating effects were found for the relationship between depression and marijuana consequences. Findings have clinical implications for working with young veterans.

Community-level policy responses to state marijuana legalization in Washington State.

PubMed

Dilley, Julia A; Hitchcock, Laura; McGroder, Nancy; Greto, Lindsey A; Richardson, Susan M

2017-04-01

Washington State (WA) legalized a recreational marijuana market - including growing, processing and retail sales - through voter initiative 502 in November 2012. Legalized recreational marijuana retail sales began in July 2014. In response to state legalization of recreational marijuana, some cities and counties within the state have passed local ordinances that either further regulated marijuana markets, or banned them completely. The purpose of this study is to describe local-level marijuana regulations on recreational retail sales within the context of a state that had legalized a recreational marijuana market. Marijuana-related ordinances were collected from all 142 cities in the state with more than 3000 residents and from all 39 counties. Policies that were in place as of June 30, 2016 - two years after the state's recreational market opening - to regulate recreational marijuana retail sales within communities were systematically coded. A total of 125 cities and 30 counties had passed local ordinances to address recreational marijuana retail sales. Multiple communities implemented retail market bans, including some temporary bans (moratoria) while studying whether to pursue other policy options. As of June 30, 2016, 30% of the state population lived in places that had temporarily or permanently banned retail sales. Communities most frequently enacted zoning policies explicitly regulating where marijuana businesses could be established. Other policies included in ordinances placed limits on business hours and distance requirements (buffers) between marijuana businesses and youth-related land use types or other sensitive areas. State legalization does not necessarily result in uniform community environments that regulate recreational marijuana markets. Local ordinances vary among communities within Washington following statewide legalization. Further study is needed to describe how such local policies affect variation in public health and social outcomes

Community-level policy responses to state marijuana legalization in Washington State

PubMed Central

Dilley, Julia A.; Hitchcock, Laura; McGroder, Nancy; Greto, Lindsey A.; Richardson, Susan M.

2017-01-01

Background Washington State (WA) legalized a recreational marijuana market -- including growing, processing and retail sales -- through voter initiative 502 in November 2012. Legalized recreational marijuana retail sales began in July 2014. In response to state legalization of recreational marijuana, some cities and counties within the state have passed local ordinances that either further regulated marijuana markets, or banned them completely. The purpose of this study is to describe local-level marijuana regulations on recreational retail sales within the context of a state that had legalized a recreational marijuana market. Methods Marijuana-related ordinances were collected from all 142 cities in the state with more than 3,000 residents and from all 39 counties. Policies that were in place as of June 30, 2016 - two years after the state’s recreational market opening - to regulate recreational marijuana retail sales within communities were systematically coded. Results A total of 125 cities and 30 counties had passed local ordinances to address recreational marijuana retail sales. Multiple communities implemented retail market bans, including some temporary bans (moratoria) while studying whether to pursue other policy options. As of June 30, 2016, 30% of the state population lived in places that had temporarily or permanently banned retail sales. Communities most frequently enacted zoning policies explicitly regulating where marijuana businesses could be established. Other policies included in ordinances placed limits on business hours and distance requirements (buffers) between marijuana businesses and youth-related land use types or other sensitive areas. Conclusions State legalization does not necessarily result in uniform community environments that regulate recreational marijuana markets. Local ordinances vary among communities within Washington following statewide legalization. Further study is needed to describe how such local policies affect variation

The association between regular marijuana use and adult mental health outcomes.

PubMed

Guttmannova, Katarina; Kosterman, Rick; White, Helene R; Bailey, Jennifer A; Lee, Jungeun Olivia; Epstein, Marina; Jones, Tiffany M; Hawkins, J David

2017-10-01

The present study is a prospective examination of the relationship between regular marijuana use from adolescence through young adulthood and mental health outcomes at age 33. Data came from a gender-balanced, ethnically diverse longitudinal panel of 808 participants from Seattle, Washington. Outcomes included symptom counts for six mental health disorders. Regular marijuana use was tracked during adolescence and young adulthood. Regression analyses controlled for demographics and early environment, behaviors, and individual risk factors. Nonusers of marijuana reported fewer symptoms of alcohol use disorder, nicotine dependence, and generalized anxiety disorder than any category of marijuana users. More persistent regular marijuana use in young adulthood was positively related to more symptoms of cannabis use disorder, alcohol use disorder, and nicotine dependence at age 33. Findings highlight the importance of avoiding regular marijuana use, especially chronic use in young adulthood. Comprehensive prevention and intervention efforts focusing on marijuana and other substance use might be particularly important in the context of recent legalization of recreational marijuana use in Washington and other U.S. states. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Working Memory and Impulsivity Predict Marijuana-Related Problems Among Frequent Users