Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

How to boil and disinfect water to kill most disease-causing microorganisms during emergency situations where regular water service has been interrupted and local authorities recommend using only bottled water, boiled water, or disinfected water.

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS OF EMERGING CONCERN: RESULTS OF A U.S. NATIONWIDE OCCURRENCE STUDY

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because some epidemiologic studies have shown that some DBPs are associated with cancer or adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations and other studies have shown that certain DBPs cause similar he...

Genotoxicity of Disinfection By-products: Comparison to Carcinogenicity

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) can be formed when water is disinfected by various agents such as chlorine, ozone, or chloramines. Among the >600 DBPs identified in drinking water, 11 are regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and another ~70 DBPs that occur at s...

Enhancement effects of ultrasound on secondary wastewater effluent disinfection by sodium hypochlorite and disinfection by-products analysis.

PubMed

Zhou, Xiaoqin; Zhao, Junyuan; Li, Zifu; Song, Jianing; Li, Xueying; Yang, Xin; Wang, Dongling

2016-03-01

Since fecal coliforms was introduced as a standard indicator of pollutants in effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants in China in 2003, chlorine had been widely used in many wastewater treatment plants. However, concerns about the disinfection by-products (DBPs) of chlorine have been increasing. One of the effective way to reduce the production of DBPs is to reduce the effective chlorine dosage by improving the utilization rate of disinfectant. Ultrasound (US) is proved to be effective in wastewater treatment for its multiple chemical and physical effects produced by cavitation, which could favor the disinfection process accordingly. For the purpose of improving disinfection efficiency with the help of US, following points are addressed in the current study: (1) investigate the enhancement effects of US on the disinfection efficiency of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) for real secondary effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants; (2) evaluate the possibility of using US specific energy consumption (kJ/L) as an parameter for disinfection efficiency evaluation; and (3) quantify the reduction in chlorine-DBPs through US application. Results demonstrated that sonication could reduce two-thirds (US pretreatment) or one-third (simultaneous US and NaClO disinfection) of the required concentrations of NaClO (available chlorine) for 4 log reduction of fecal coliforms, which could meet the Class 1A (fecal coliforms less than 1000 CFU/L) discharge standard of China. In addition, US pretreatment with NaClO disinfection performed better enhancement in disinfection efficiency compared with simultaneous US and NaClO disinfection. Furthermore, analysis on DBPs showed that US application as pretreatment could obviously reduce the contents of trichloromethane (TCM) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) by more than 85% and 50%, respectively, compared with NaClO disinfection alone for the same disinfection efficiency. Meanwhile, the experimental results also showed that the

Possible monitoring requirements for the disinfectants and disinfection by-products (D/DBP) regulations

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

1993-01-01

The monitoring requirements presented in the report were developed by EPA before a negotiated Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products (D/DBP) rule was considered. The framework described herein may be substantially changed as a result of the negotiated rulemaking process. The document is useful to consider in developing various monitoring options during the negotiated rulemaking process.

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT FORMATION AND CONTROL BY OZONATION AND BIOTREATMENT

EPA Science Inventory

There is increasing interest in using ozone in water treatment because it is a strong disinfectant and is able to oxidize the precursors of some disinfection by-products (DBPs). However, ozonation itself produces DBPs, like aldehydes and ketones, and increases the concentration ...

Integrated Disinfection By-Products Mixtures Research: Concentration by Reverse Osmosis Membrane Techniques of Disinfection By-Products from Water Disinfected by Chlorination and Ozonation/Postchlorination

EPA Science Inventory

To conduct the health-effect studies described in subsequent articles in this series, concentrated aqueous mixtures of disinfection by-products were required for the two water treatment trains described in the preceding article (Miltner et al., 2008). To accomplish this, the fini...

DEVELOPMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF EXPOSURE TO DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN ANIMAL MODELS

EPA Science Inventory

Developmental consequences of exposure to disinfection by-products in animal models
Sid Hunter, Michael Narotsky, James Andrews
Reproductive Toxicology Division, NHEERL, ORD, US EPA, RTP, NC, 27711

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed by the reaction of disinf...

Determination of several common disinfection by-products in frozen foods.

PubMed

Cardador, Maria Jose; Gallego, Mercedes

2018-01-01

Disinfected water and/or disinfectants are commonly used by the freezing industry in such processes as sanitising, washing, blanching, cooling and transporting the final product. For this reason, disinfection by-products (DBPs) can be expected in frozen foods. This study focused on the presence of DBPs in a wide variety of frozen vegetables, meats and fish. For this purpose, the 14 halogenated DBPs more prevalent in disinfected water were selected (four trihalomethanes, seven haloacetic acids, two haloacetonitriles and trichloronitromethane). Up to seven DBPs were found in vegetables, whereas only four DBPs were present in meats and fish, and at lower concentrations, since their contact with disinfected water is lower than in frozen vegetables. It is important to emphasise that trichloronitromethane (the most abundant nitrogenous DBP in disinfected water) was found for the first time in foods. Finally, it was concluded that the freezing process can keep the compounds stable longer than other preservation processes (viz. sanitising, canning) and, therefore, frozen foods present higher DBP concentrations than other food categories (minimally processed vegetables, or canned vegetables and meats).

Simultaneous control of microorganisms and disinfection by-products by sequential chlorination.

PubMed

Chen, Chao; Zhang, Xiao-Jian; He, Wen-Jie; Han, Hong-Da

2007-04-01

To introduce a new sequential chlorination disinfection process in which short-term free chlorine and chloramine are sequentially added. Pilot tests of this sequential chlorination were carried out in a drinking water plant. The sequential chlorination disinfection process had the same or better efficiency on microbe (including virus) inactivation compared with the free chlorine disinfection process. There seemed to be some synergetic disinfection effect between free chlorine and monochloramine because they attacked different targets. The sequential chlorination disinfection process resulted in 35.7%-77.0% TTHM formation and 36.6%-54.8% THAA5 formation less than the free chlorination process. The poorer the water quality was, the more advantage the sequential chlorination disinfection had over the free chlorination. This process takes advantages of free chlorine's quick inactivation of microorganisms and chloramine's low disinfection by-product (DBP) yield and long-term residual effect, allowing simultaneous control of microbes and DBPs in an effective and economic way.

Technologies and costs for control of disinfection by-products: Executive summary

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

1992-11-01

The document characterizes the feasibility of treatment for disinfection by-products control and estimates the costs for treatment alternatives that can then be used by utilities to meet national regulations. Treatment criteria are developed through the use of a water treatment simulation model for parameters critical to disinfection by-products control.

Genotoxicity of the disinfection by-products resulting from peracetic acid- or hypochlorite-disinfected sewage wastewater.

PubMed

Crebelli, R; Conti, L; Monarca, S; Feretti, D; Zerbini, I; Zani, C; Veschetti, E; Cutilli, D; Ottaviani, M

2005-03-01

Wastewater disinfection is routinely carried out to prevent the spread of human pathogens present in wastewater effluents. To this aim, chemical and physical treatments are applied to the effluents before their emission in water bodies. In this study, the influence of two widely used disinfectants, peracetic acid (PAA) and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), on the formation of mutagenic by-products was investigated. Wastewater samples were collected before and after disinfection, in winter and in summer, at a pilot plant installed in a municipal wastewater-treatment plant. Samples were adsorbed using silica C18 cartridges and the concentrates were tested for mutagenicity in the Salmonella typhimurium reversion test with strains TA98 and TA100. Non-concentrated water samples were tested with two plant genotoxicity assays (the Allium cepa root anaphase aberration test and the Tradescantia/micronucleus test). Mutagenicity assays in bacteria and in Tradescantia showed borderline mutagenicity in some of the wastewater samples, independent of the disinfection procedure applied. Negative results were obtained in the A. cepa anaphase aberration test. These results indicate that, in the conditions applied, wastewater disinfection with PAA and NaClO does not lead to the formation of significant amounts of genotoxic by-products.

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT CONTROL THROUGH BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection by-product (DBP) control through biofiltration is defined as the removal of DBP precursor mateterial (PM) by bacteria attached to the filte nedia. The PM consists of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and is utilized by the filter bacteria as a substrate for cell mainten...

MAMMALIAN CELL CYTOTOXICITY AND GENOTOXICITY OF NEW DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water continues to protect the public health against acute disease. Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed by the reaction of a disinfectant with naturally occurring organic matter. Many DBPs are genotoxic and are implicated as huma...

THE UPTAKE OF WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS INTO FOODS DURING HOME PROCESSING

EPA Science Inventory

A variety of organic compounds in tap water are produced as a result of disinfection process. Use of chlorine-containing chemicals for disinfection produces many disinfection by-products (DBPs) including trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles and haloacetic acid. Ozonation with secon...

Disinfection aboard cruise liners and naval units: formation of disinfection by-products using chlorine dioxide in different qualities of drinking water.

PubMed

Ufermann, Petra; Petersen, Hauke; Exner, Martin

2011-12-01

The world-wide deployment of cruise liners and naval units has caused an increased need for the disinfection of drinking water. The main cause for this is the unknown quality of drinking water in foreign harbours--besides the formation of bio-films due to the climatically disadvantageous conditions in the operational area. Water conduits on board are currently disinfected with calcium hypochlorite in case of microbiological contamination. Chemical and physical analyses after disinfection with calcium hypochlorite have shown that organic by-products consisting of trihalomethanes develop in considerable amounts during disinfection. Furthermore, the method is susceptible to handling errors and thus often leads to insufficient disinfection results. Hitherto, the use of other disinfection methods allowed by government regulations, especially chlorine dioxide, is not widely spread. Unlike disinfection with calcium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide does not lead to the formation of trihalomethanes. Typical disinfection by-products (DBP) are the anions chlorite and chlorate, which are formed in oxidative processes. The formation conditions of these anions have not yet been elucidated. For this reason, the probability of the generation of inorganic by-products after disinfection with chlorine dioxide has been determined, and their occurrence in drinking water on board has been examined with respect to a possible correlation between water quality and the formation of chlorate and chlorite. Therefore, a chromatographic method was developed and validated in order to determine the periodical development of chlorate and chlorite from chorine dioxide in purified water at different pH-values as well as in actual drinking water samples from water conduits on board. The formation of the by-products chlorite and chlorate after disinfection with chlorine dioxide is influenced neither by pH-value nor by chemical properties of the disinfected water. Considering the examined conditions

Nanodetection of the disinfection by-products on GC-MS techniques

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Ristoiu, Dumitru; Haydee, Melinda; Ristoiu, Tania

2009-01-01

Exposures to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in residential drinking water occur through multiple routes and vary across the population because of differences in the amount and ways people use water. Municipal water in the Romania is disinfected, with chlorine being the most common disinfectant agent. Disinfection of water, in additional to having the benefit of destroying microbes that can transmit diseases, has the drawback of producing a series of compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). Chlorination produces many compounds containing chlorine and/or bromine, some of which have been shown to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or teratogenic in animal studies. The most abundant class of DBPs that result from chlorination of drinking water are trihalomethanes (THMs) - chloroform (CHCl3), dichlorobromomethane (CHCl2Br), dibromochloromethane (CHBr2Cl) and bromoform (CHBr3). The most predominant THM species was CHCl3 and it highest concentration was 85•106 ng/m3. The others THMs compounds concentration were lower, between 65•104 ng/m3 and 12•106 ng/m3. THMs compounds were analyzed on gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometer detector (GC-MS) and head space technique (HS) was used for all analysis.

Innovative method for prioritizing emerging disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water on the basis of their potential impact on public health.

PubMed

Hebert, Armelle; Forestier, Delphine; Lenes, Dorothée; Benanou, David; Jacob, Severine; Arfi, Catherine; Lambolez, Lucie; Levi, Yves

2010-05-01

Providing microbiologically safe drinking water is a major public health issue. However, chemical disinfection can produce unintended health hazards involving disinfection by-products (DBPs). In an attempt to clarify the potential public health concerns associated with emerging disinfection by-products (EDBPs), this study was intended to help to identify those suspected of posing potential related health effects. In view of the ever-growing list of EDBPs in drinking water and the lack of consensus about them, we have developed an innovative prioritization method that would allow us to address this issue. We first set up an exhaustive database including all the current published data relating to EDBPs in drinking water (toxicity, occurrence, epidemiology and international or local guidelines/regulations). We then developed a ranking method intended to prioritize the EDBPs. This method, which was based on a calculation matrix with different coefficients, was applied to the data regarding their potential contribution to the health risk assessment process. This procedure allowed us to identify and rank three different groups of EDBPs: Group I, consisting of the most critical EDBPs with regard to their potential health effects, has moderate occurrence but the highest toxicity. Group II has moderate to elevated occurrence and is associated with relevant toxicity, and Group III has very low occurrence and unknown or little toxicity. The EDBPs identified as posing the greatest potential risk using this method were as follows: NDMA and other nitrosamines, MX and other halofuranones, chlorate, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol, hydrazine, and two unregulated halomethanes, dichloromethane and tetrachloromethane. Our approach allowed us to define the EDBPs that it is most important to monitor in order to assess population exposure and related public health issues, and thus to improve drinking water treatment and distribution. It is also

IDENTIFICATION OF CHLORINE DIOXIDE AND CHLORAMINE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concern over the potential adverse health effects of trihalomethanes (THMs) and other chlorinated by-products in chlorinated drinking water, alternative disinfection methods are being explored. Chlorine dioxide and chloramine are two popular alternative disinfectants, with...

MULTISPECTRAL IDENTIFICATION OF CHLORINE DIOXIDE DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This paper discusses the identification of organic disinfection by-products (DBPs) at a pilot plant in Evansville, Indiana, that uses chlorine dioxide as a primary disinfectant. nconventional multispectral identification techniques (gas chromatography combined with high and low r...

OCCURRENCE AND TOXICITY OF IODINATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

Analysis of 40 conventional and emerging disinfection by-products in fresh-cut produce wash water by modified EPA methods.

PubMed

Lee, Wan-Ning; Huang, Ching-Hua; Zhu, Guangxuan

2018-08-01

Chlorine sanitizers used in washing fresh and fresh-cut produce can lead to generation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) that are harmful to human health. Monitoring of DBPs is necessary to protect food safety but comprehensive analytical methods have been lacking. This study has optimized three U.S. Environmental Protection Agency methods for drinking water DBPs to improve their performance for produce wash water. The method development encompasses 40 conventional and emerging DBPs. Good recoveries (60-130%) were achieved for most DBPs in deionized water and in lettuce, strawberry and cabbage wash water. The method detection limits are in the range of 0.06-0.58 μg/L for most DBPs and 10-24 ng/L for nitrosamines in produce wash water. Preliminary results revealed the formation of many DBPs when produce is washed with chlorine. The optimized analytical methods by this study effectively reduce matrix interference and can serve as useful tools for future research on food DBPs. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Disinfection by-products in drinking water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Craun, G.F.

Many organic contaminants have been identified in drinking water, some of which are introduced during treatment. Whereas chlorination of drinking water prevents the transmission of infectious diseases, free chlorine can react with precursors in water, such as humic and fulvic acids, to produce halogenated and oxidized by-products. Many disinfection by-products have been detected, including haloketones, haloaldehydes, haloacids, haloacetonitrile, cyanogen chloride, chlorophenols, chloropicrin, and chlorinated hydroxyfuranones (i.e., MX and E-MX). A survey of 35 water facilities showed that trihalomethanes were the largest class of by-products (median 39 {mu}g/{ell}) and haloacetic acids the next most significant (median 19 {mu}g/{ell}). Cyanogen chloride wasmore » preferentially produced in chloraminated water supplies, and formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were identified as by-products of ozonation.« less

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concerns over trihalomethanes (THMs) and other halogenated by-products that can be formed during chlorination of drinking water, alternative disinfectants are being explored. Several drinking water treatment plants in the United States have altered their treatment methods...

CHARACTERIZING TOXICOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concerns over trihalomethanes (THMs) and other halogenated by-products that can be formed during chlorination of drinking water, alternative disinfectants are being explored. Several drinking water treatment plants in the United States have altered their treatment methods...

Solar photolysis of soluble microbial products as precursors of disinfection by-products in surface water.

PubMed

Wu, Jie; Ye, Jian; Peng, Huanlong; Wu, Meirou; Shi, Weiwei; Liang, Yongmei; Liu, Wei

2018-06-01

In the Pearl River Delta area, the upstream municipal wastewater is commonly discharged into rivers which are a pivotal source of downstream drinking water. Solar irradiation transforms some of the dissolved organic matter discharged from the wastewater, also affecting the formation of disinfection by-products in subsequent drinking water treatment plants. The effect of simulated solar radiation on soluble microbial products extracted from activated sludge was documented in laboratory experiments. Irradiation was found to degrade macromolecules in the effluent, yielding smaller, more reactive intermediate species which reacted with chlorine or chloramine to form higher levels of noxious disinfection by-products. The soluble microbial products were found to be more active in formation of disinfection by-products regard than naturally-occurring organic matter. The results show that solar irradiation induced the formation of more trihalomethane (THMs), chloral hydrate (CH) and trichloronitromethane (TCNM), causing greater health risks for downstream drinking water. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Carcinogenicity of Disinfection By-products and Research Needs

EPA Science Inventory

A review by S.D. Richardson et al. (Mutat. Res. 636:178, 2007) presents the first analysis of the 30-year literature on the genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and occurrence of 87 disinfection by-products (DBPs) identified in drinking water. Of these, 11 are regulated by the U.S. EP...

CHLORINE DIOXIDE CHEMISTRY, REACTIONS, AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

This chapter contains two main sections-the first section describes the chemistry and reactions of chlorine dioxide, and the second describes the disinfection by-products (DBPs) of chlorine dioxide and their control. A short section on Research Needs completes this chapter. The...

RESEARCH PLAN FOR MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This research plan was developed to describe research needed to support EPA's development of drinking water regulations concerning disinfectants, disinfection by-products (DBPs) and microbial pathogens, focusing on key scientific and technical information needed. The research pl...

RESEARCH PLAN FOR MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This research plan was developed to describe research needed to support EPAs development of drinking water regulations concerning disinfectants, disinfection by-products (DBPs) and microbial pathogens, focusing on key scientific and technical information needed. The research plan...

Removal of estrogens through water disinfection processes and formation of by-products.

PubMed

Pereira, Renata Oliveira; Postigo, Cristina; de Alda, Miren López; Daniel, Luiz Antonio; Barceló, Damià

2011-02-01

Estrogens constitute a recognized group of environmental emerging contaminants which have been proven to induce estrogenic effects in aquatic organisms exposed to them. Low removal efficiency in wastewater treatment plants results in the presence of this type of contaminants in surface waters and also even in finished drinking water. This manuscript reviews the environmental occurrence of natural (estrone, estradiol and estriol) and synthetic (ethynyl estradiol) estrogens in different water matrices (waste, surface, ground and drinking water), and their removal mainly via chemical oxidative processes. Oxidative treatments have been observed to be very efficient in eliminating estrogens present in water; however, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are generated during the process. Characterization of these DBPs is essential to assess the risk that drinking water may potentially pose to human health since these DBPs may also have endocrine disrupting properties. This manuscript reviews the DBPs generated during oxidative processes identified so far in the literature and the estrogenicity generated by the characterized DBPs and/or by the applied disinfection technology. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Toxicology of household cleaning products and disinfectants.

PubMed

Kore, A M; Kiesche-Nesselrodt, A

1990-03-01

Hundreds of different household cleaning products are available in homes, presenting potential hazards to pets. These products are complex mixtures of chemicals that vary widely in their toxic potential. Prevention of toxicoses in companion animals follows the same guidelines as those recommended for children: Keep cleaning products out of the reach of pets, do not leave open containers or solutions of cleaning products unattended where animals may get into them, make sure containers of cleaning products are tightly sealed and properly labeled, and dispose of any cleaning solutions promptly after use. If a companion animal has ingested or spilled a cleaning product or disinfectant on itself, it is very important to assess the potential hazard to the animal promptly. Many products contain warnings regarding the corrosive or irritation potential of the product and instructions on the label for preliminary action in the case of accidental oral, dermal, or ocular exposures in humans. These instructions can generally be followed initially until further information on the product can be obtained, although the recommendations on some product labels may be outdated. In general, the clinical management for toxicoses caused by cleaning products and disinfectants involves the prevention of further contact with the concentrated product through either dilution or bathing; emergency stabilization of the patient if clinical signs are present; instituting specific therapies, if available; and use of general supportive care.

CONTROL OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINANTS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPS): COST AND PERFORMANCE

EPA Science Inventory

The USEPA is in the process of developing a sophisticated regulatory strategy in an attempt to balance the complex trade-offs in risks associated with controlling disinfectants and disinfection by-products (D/DBPs) in drinking water. EPA first attempted to control DBPs in 1974, w...

ORD RESEARCH PLAN FOR MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This research plan was developed to describe research needed to support EPAs development of drinking water regulations concerning disinfectants, disinfection by-products (DBPs) and microbial pathogens, focusing on key scientific and technical information needed. ...

IDENTIFICATION OF NEW DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concern over the potential adverse health effects of trihalomethanes (THMs) and other chlorinated by-products in chlorinated drinking water, alternative disinfectants are being explored. Ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine are popular alternatives, as they produce low...

Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review.

PubMed

Carter, Rhys A A; Joll, Cynthia A

2017-08-01

Disinfection of water for human use is essential to protect against microbial disease; however, disinfection also leads to formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of health concern. From a chemical perspective, swimming pools are a complex matrix, with continual addition of a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals via filling waters, disinfectant addition, pharmaceuticals and personal care products and human body excretions. Natural organic matter, trace amounts of DBPs and chlorine or chloramines may be introduced by the filling water, which is commonly disinfected distributed drinking water. Chlorine and/or bromine is continually introduced via the addition of chemical disinfectants to the pool. Human body excretions (sweat, urine and saliva) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (sunscreens, cosmetics, hair products and lotions) are introduced by swimmers. High addition of disinfectant leads to a high formation of DBPs from reaction of some of the chemicals with the disinfectant. Swimming pool air is also of concern as volatile DBPs partition into the air above the pool. The presence of bromine leads to the formation of a wide range of bromo- and bromo/chloro-DBPs, and Br-DBPs are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. This is particularly important for seawater-filled pools or pools using a bromine-based disinfectant. This review summarises chemical contaminants and DBPs in swimming pool waters, as well as in the air above pools. Factors that have been found to affect DBP formation in pools are discussed. The impact of the swimming pool environment on human health is reviewed. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Thermodynamic properties of an emerging chemical disinfectant, peracetic acid.

PubMed

Zhang, Chiqian; Brown, Pamela J B; Hu, Zhiqiang

2018-04-15

Peracetic acid (PAA or CH 3 COOOH) is an emerging disinfectant with a low potential to form carcinogenic disinfection by-products (DBPs). Basic thermodynamic properties of PAA are, however, absent or inconsistently reported in the literature. This review aimed to summarize important thermodynamic properties of PAA, including standard Gibbs energy of formation and oxidation-reduction (redox) potential. The standard Gibbs energies of formation of CH 3 COOOH (aq) , CH 3 COOOH (g) , CH 3 COOOH (l) , and CH 3 COOO (aq) - are -299.41kJ·mol -1 , -283.02kJ·mol -1 , -276.10kJ·mol -1 , and -252.60kJ·mol -1 , respectively. The standard redox potentials of PAA are 1.748V and 1.005V vs. standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) at pH 0 and pH 14, respectively. Under biochemical standard state conditions (pH 7, 25°C, 101,325Pa), PAA has a redox potential of 1.385V vs. SHE, higher than many disinfectants. Finally, the environmental implications of the thermodynamic properties of PAA were systematically discussed. Those properties can be used to predict the physicochemical and biological behavior of aquatic systems exposed to PAA. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

OCCURRENCE AND TOXICITY OF IODO-ACID DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo...

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo- prope...

The Integrated Disinfection By-Product Mixtures Project (“4-Lab Study”): An Overview

EPA Science Inventory

The intended result of chemical disinfection of drinking water is reduction of microbial contamination and a concomitant decrease in waterborne disease. The formation of a myriad of disinfection by-products (DBPs) is an unintended consequence. DBPs are present in water as high...

OCCURRENCE OF A NEW GENERATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

A survey of disinfection by-product (DBP) occurrence in the United States was conducted at 12 drinking water treatment plants. In addition to currently regulated DBPs, more than 50 DBPs that rated a high priority for potential toxicity were studied. These priority DBPs included...

INCREASED APOPTOSIS IN ORGANOGENESIS-STAGED MOUSE EMBRYOS INDUCED BY DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Increased apoptosis in organogenesis-staged mouse embryos induced by disinfection by-products. Sid Hunter1,2, Ellen Rogers1 and Keith Ward2, 1 Developmental Biology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology Division, NHEERL, US EPA, RTP, NC; 2 Curriculum in Toxicology, UNC Chapel Hill, Cha...

DETERMINATION OF NEWLY IDENTIFIED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWDSC) is investigating the occurrence of 39 newly identified disinfection by-products (DBPs)-which were not included in the Information Collection Rule (ICR)-in drinking waters. Halomethanes (HMs), haloacetonitriles (HANs),...

Occurrence assessment for disinfectants and disinfection by-products (phase 6A) in public drinking water. Final report

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

The EPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water is developing national primary drinking water regulations for disinfectant and disinfection by-product contaminants. Thirteen contaminants are being considered to be regulated under Phase 6. These contaminants, referred to as Phase 6a, are the subject of the report. The information is important for setting the Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for a contaminant. The exposure information also is used to estimate the baseline health impact assessment of current levels and for evaluation of the health benefits of the regulatory alternatives.

A Toxicological Perspective on Disinfection ByProducts

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection of water is essential for reduction of microbes harmful to human health and chemical disinfection is considered one of the major public health triumphs of the 20th Century. An unintended consequence of disinfection with oxidizing chemicals is formation of disinfectio...

[Degradation Kinetics and Formation of Disinfection By-products During Linuron Chlorination in Drinking Water].

PubMed

Ling, Xiao; Hu, Chen-yan; Cheng, Ming; Gu, Jian

2015-05-01

Chlorination degradation of linuron was studied using the common disinfectant sodium hypochlorite, the effects of chlorine dosage, pH value, bromine ion concentrationand temperature were systematically investigated, and the formation characteristics of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during the chlorination reaction was analyzed. The results showed that the chlorination degradation kinetics of linuron by sodium hypochlorite could be well described by the second-order kinetic model. Moreover, pH values had a great impact on the degradation reaction, and the rate constant reached the maximum level at pH 7, and the base elementary reaction rate constants of HOCl and OCl- with linuron were 4.84 x 10(2) L · (mol · h)(-1) and 3.80 x 10(2) L · (mol · h)(-1), respectively. The reaction rate decreased with the addition of bromide ion and increased with increasing temperature. Furthermore, many kinds of disinfection by- products were produced during the chlorination degradation of linuron, including CF, DCAN, TCNM and halogen acetone. Under conditions of different solution pH and different bromide ion concentrations, there would be significant difference in the types and concentrations of disinfection by-products.

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

APPROACHING THE TOXICITY OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER AS A MIXTURE PROBLEM

EPA Science Inventory

Abstract
Assessment of human health risk from exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water is of concern because of the wide spread exposure of persons who use disinfected water. Taken as a body of literature, epidemiologic studies on chlorinated drinking ...

Halogenated fatty amides - A brand new class of disinfection by-products.

PubMed

Kosyakov, Dmitry S; Ul'yanovskii, Nikolay V; Popov, Mark S; Latkin, Tomas B; Lebedev, Albert T

2017-12-15

An array of similar halogenated nitrogen-containing compounds with elemental composition C n H 2n NO 2 X, C n H 2n-2 NO 2 X and C n H 2n-1 NOX 2 (X = Cl, Br; n = 16, 18, 22) was detected in drinking water with high performance liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) method. Compounds of this type were never mentioned among disinfection by-products. Tandem mass spectrometry allowed referring them to halohydrines or dihalogenated fatty amides, the products of conjugated electrophilic addition of halogens to the double bonds of unsaturated fatty amides. The proposed structures were confirmed by conducting aqueous chlorination with standard solution of oleamide. These compounds may be considered as a brand new class of disinfection by products, while their toxicities require special study. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A MULTIPLE-PURPOSE DESIGN APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF RISKS FROM COMPLEX MIXTURES OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection has effectively eliminated much of the morbidity and mortality associated with waterborne infectious diseases in the United States. Various disinfection processes, however, produce certain types and amounts of disinfection by-products (DBPs), including...

DOES MICRO LC/MS OFFER ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL LC/MS IN IDENTIFYING DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Lower maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of disinfection by-products were set for drinking water municipalities by the Stage 1 DBP Rule in November, 1998. With these new regulations, additional water treatment plants are expected to choose alternative disinfectants to chlorine. Al...

CONTROL OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINANTS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER: COST AND PERFORMANCE

EPA Science Inventory

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) is in the process of developing a sophisticated regulatory strategy in an attempt to balance the risks associated with disinfectants and disinfection by-products (D/DBP) in drinking water. A major aspect of this strategy is the...

Disinfection by-products in baby lettuce irrigated with electrolysed water.

PubMed

López-Gálvez, Francisco; Andújar, Silvia; Marín, Alicia; Tudela, Juan A; Allende, Ana; Gil, María I

2018-06-01

Irrigation water disinfection reduces the microbial load but it might lead to the formation and accumulation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in the crop. If DBPs are present in the irrigation water, they can accumulate in the crop, particularly after the regrowth, and be affected by the postharvest handling such as washing and storage. To evaluate the potential accumulation of DBPs, baby lettuce was grown using irrigation water treated with electrolysed water (EW) in a commercial greenhouse over three consecutive harvests and regrowths. The impact of postharvest practices such as washing and storage on DBP content was also assessed. Use of EW caused the accumulation of chlorates in irrigation water (0.02-0.14 mg L -1 ), and in the fresh produce (0.05-0.10 mg kg -1 ). On the other hand, the disinfection treatment had minor impact regarding the presence of trihalomethanes (THMs) in water (0.3-8.7 μg L -1 max), and in baby lettuce (0.3-2.9 μg kg -1 max). Disinfection of irrigation water with EW caused the accumulation of chlorates in the crop reaching levels higher than the current maximum residual limit established in the EU legislation for leafy greens. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Do You Know What's in Your Drinking Water? Uncovering New Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

Slide presentation on drinking water disinfection by-products. There is no abstract for this product. If further information is requested, please refer to the bibliographic citation and contact the person listed under Contact field.

Carcinogenicity of by-products of disinfection in mouse and rat liver

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Herren-Freund, S.L.; Pereira, M.A.

1986-11-01

By-products of disinfection were tested for initiating and/or promoting activity in rat liver by using the rat liver foci bioassay. The assay uses an increased incidence of ..gamma..-glutamyltranspeptidase-positive foci (GGT foci) as an indicator of carcinogenicity. The by-products of disinfection, including chloramine, halogenated humic acids, halogenated ethanes, halogenated acetonitriles, halogenated methanes, halogenated ethylene, and N-Cl piperidine, did not initiate GGT foci, which would indicate that they are not capable of initiating carcinogenesis. Chloroform and halogenated benzenes were tested in this assay for their ability to promote the occurrence of GGT foci and tumors initiated by diethylnitrosamine (DENA). Chloroform either hadmore » no effect or inhibited the occurrence of GGT foci when administered subsequent to a single dose of DENA. However, when the chloroform was administered in drinking water concurrently with weekly doses of DENA, it enhanced the formation of liver tumors. Of 20 halogenated benzenes tested, only 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene and hexachlorobenzene promoted the occurrence of DENA-initiated GGT foci. Thus in rat liver, the tested by-products of drinking water disinfection did not demonstrate tumor-initiating activity, although a few appeared to possess tumor-promoting activity. Chloroform was also tested for tumor-promoting activity in 15-days-old Swiss mice initiated with ethylnitrosourea (ENU). ENU at 5 and 20 ..mu..g/g caused a dose-dependent increase in liver tumors. In male mice, chloroform inhibited both spontaneous and ENU-induced liver tumors. When administered in the drinking water, chloroform inhibited, whereas phenobarbital promoted, hepatocarcinogenesis in mice.« less

ORD'S FOUR LAB STUDY: TOXICOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF COMPLEX MIXTURES OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfectants used in the production of drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic material in the source water to produce disinfection by-products (DBPs). Humans are exposed daily to a complex mixture of DBPs via oral, dermal, and inhalation routes. To ...

SURVEY OF HALONITROMETHANES AND IODOMETHANES: DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This project involves the study of two classes of chemicals, halonitromethanes and iodomethanes, which have been found to be drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs). Both have been predicted to have toxicity. In toxicity screening tests, bromonitromethanes have been shown ...

Disinfection of syringes contaminated with hepatitis C virus by rinsing with household products.

PubMed

Binka, Mawuena; Paintsil, Elijah; Patel, Amisha; Lindenbach, Brett D; Heimer, Robert

2015-01-01

Background.  Hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission among people who inject drugs (PWID) is associated with the sharing of injection paraphernalia. People who inject drugs often "disinfect" used syringes with household products when new syringes are unavailable. We assessed the effectiveness of these products in disinfecting HCV-contaminated syringes. Methods.  A genotype-2a reporter virus assay was used to assess HCV infectivity in syringes postrinsing. Hepatitis C virus-contaminated 1 mL insulin syringes with fixed needles and 1 mL tuberculin syringes with detachable needles were rinsed with water, Clorox bleach, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, isopropanol, Lysol, or Dawn Ultra at different concentrations. Syringes were either immediately tested for viable virus or stored at 4°C, 22°C, and 37°C for up to 21 days before viral infectivity was determined. Results.  Most products tested reduced HCV infectivity to undetectable levels in insulin syringes. Bleach eliminated HCV infectivity in both syringes. Other disinfectants produced virus recovery ranging from high (5% ethanol, 77% ± 12% HCV-positive syringes) to low (1:800 Dawn Ultra, 7% ± 7% positive syringes) in tuberculin syringes. Conclusions.  Household disinfectants tested were more effective in fixed-needle syringes (low residual volume) than in syringes with detachable needles (high residual volume). Bleach was the most effective disinfectant after 1 rinse, whereas other diluted household products required multiple rinses to eliminate HCV. Rinsing with water, 5% ethanol (as in beer), and 20% ethanol (as in fortified wine) was ineffective and should be avoided. Our data suggest that rinsing of syringes with household disinfectants may be an effective tool in preventing HCV transmission in PWID when done properly.

DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS: WHAT IS KNOWN

EPA Science Inventory

Chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine are currently the major disinfectants being used to disinfect drinking water. Although the alternative disinfectants (ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine) are increasing in popularity in the United States, chlorine is still us...

Seasonal evaluation of disinfection by-products throughout two full-scale drinking water treatment plants.

PubMed

Zhong, Xin; Cui, Chongwei; Yu, Shuili

2017-07-01

Carbonyl compounds can occur alpha-hydrogens or beta-diketones substitution reactions with disinfectants contributed to halogenated by-products formation. The objective of this research was to study the occurrence and fate of carbonyl compounds as ozonation by-products at two full-scale drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) using different disinfectants for one year. The quality of the raw water used in both plants was varied according to the season. The higher carbonyl compounds concentrations were found in raw water in spring. Up to 15 (as the sum of both DWTPs) of the 24 carbonyl compounds selected for this work were found after disinfection. The dominant carbonyl compounds were formaldehyde, glyoxal, methyl-glyoxal, fumaric, benzoic, protocatechuic and 3-hydroxybenzoic acid at both DWTPs. In the following steps in each treatment plant, the concentration patterns of these carbonyl compounds differed depending on the type of disinfectant applied. Benzaldehyde was the only aromatic aldehyde detected after oxidation with ozone in spring. As compared with DWTP 1, five new carbonyl compounds were formed (crotonaldehyde, benzaldehyde, formic, oxalic and malonic acid) disinfection by ozone, and the levels of the carbonyl compounds increased. In addition, pre-ozonation (PO) and main ozonation (OZ) increased the levels of carbonyl compounds, however coagulation/flocculation (CF), sand filtration (SF) and granular activated carbon filtration (GAC) decreased the levels of carbonyl compounds. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

DETERMINATION OF NEW CARBONYL-CONTAINING DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Only a subset of all disinfection by-products were targeted for an intense occurrence study during the Information Collection Rule. Among 50 additional compounds selected for study because of their potential for significant toxicity, a group of carbonyl-containing compounds is be...

SOLID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION FOR TRACE LEVEL ANALYSIS OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

This presentation focuses on the development of a solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-gas chromatography (GC)/ion trap mass spectrometry (MS) method for the analysis of semivolatile disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water in the low ug/L range. These DBPs were selected ...

Integrated Disinfection By-Products Mixtures Research: Disinfection of Drinking Waters by Chlorination and Ozonation/Postchlorination Treatment Scenarios

EPA Science Inventory

This article describes disinfection of the same source water by two commonly used disinfection treatment scenarios for purposes of subsequent concentration, chemical analysis, and toxicological evaluation. Accompanying articles in this issue of the Journal of Toxicology and Envir...

The role of phytoplankton as pre-cursors for disinfection by-product formation upon chlorination.

PubMed

Tomlinson, Adam; Drikas, Mary; Brookes, Justin D

2016-10-01

Water quality remains one of the greatest concerns with regards to human health. Advances in science and technology have resulted in highly efficient water treatment plants, significantly reducing diseases related to waterborne pathogenic microorganisms. While disinfection is critical to mitigate pathogen risk to humans, the reactions between the disinfectant and dissolved organic compounds can lead to the formation of chemical contaminants called disinfection by-products (DBPs). DBPs have been related to numerous health issues including birth defects and cancer. The formation of disinfection by-products occurs due to the reaction of oxidants and natural organic matter. DBP precursors are derived from anthropogenic sources including pharmaceuticals and chemical waste, the breakdown of vegetation from external catchment sources (allochthonous) and internally derived sources including phytoplankton (autochthonous). Current literature focuses on the contribution of allochthonous sources towards the formation of DBPs, however, the recalcitrant nature of hydrophilic phytoplankton derived organic matter indicates that autochthonous derived organic carbon can significantly contribute to total DBP concentrations. The contribution of phytoplankton to the formation of DBPs is also influenced by cellular exudation rates, chemical composition, environmental conditions and the physical and chemical conditions of the solution upon disinfection. Formation of DBPs is further influenced by the presence of cyanobacteria phyla due to their notoriety for forming dense blooms. Management of DBP formation can potentially be improved by reducing cyanobacteria as well as DBP precursors derived from other phytoplankton. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Neutralization efficiency of alcohol based products used for rapid hand disinfection

PubMed

Chojecka, Agnieszka; Tarka, Patryk; Kierzkowska, Anna; Nitsch-Osuch, Aneta; Kanecki, Krzysztof

Alcohols are the most commonly used active substances in preparations for quick hand disinfection. They should be bactericidal in very short contact time. PN-EN 13727 + A2: 2015-12 standard, for testing hygienic and surgical handrub disinfection preparations, provides mandatory test conditions of disinfectants in contact times with the range of 30 s to 60 s (hygienic handrub disinfection) and 60 s to 5 min (surgical handrub disinfection). A short contact times for hand hygiene products require a short time of neutralization process. For contact times less than or equal to 10 minutes, the estimated neutralization time is 10 s ± 1 s. Neutralization is a process that abolishes the action of disinfectants. Correct application of this process allows for proper use of disinfectants in practice and its biocidal effect. Objectives. Verification of the effectiveness of 10-second neutralization time of alcohol based preparations for hygienic handrub disinfection Neutralization of two products with different ethanol content (89% and 70%) for hygienic handrub disinfection according to PN-EN 13727 + A2: 2015-12 was investigated. The effectiveness of the neutralizer was assessed by determining toxicity of neutralizer, activity of residual effects of the tested products and their derivatives produced during neutralization (10 s) for test organisms (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538; Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442; Enterococcus hirae ATCC 10541; Escherichia coli K12 NCTC 10538) The 10-second neutralization time was sufficient to eliminate the residual activity of products for hygienic handrub disinfection with differentiated ethanol concentration. The neutralizer used did not show toxicity to bacteria and did not produce toxic products with tested preparations after neutralization Conclusions. The use of 10-second neutralization time allows in a precise way designate the contact times for hygienic handrub disinfection products

Determining Exposure Factors of Anti-Fogging, Dye, Disinfectant, Repellent, and Preservative Products in Korea.

PubMed

Lee, Daeyeop; Kim, Joo-Hyon; Kim, Taksoo; Yoon, Hyojung; Jo, Areum; Lee, Byeongwoo; Lim, Hyunwoo; Kim, Pilje; Seo, Jungkwan

2018-01-30

Reliable exposure factors are essential to determine health risks posed by chemicals in consumer products. We analyzed five risk-concerned product categories (anti-fogging, dye, disinfectant, repellent, and preservative products) for 13 products (three car anti-fogging products, a lens anti-fogging product, two car dye products, two drain disinfectants, an air conditioner disinfectant, a chlorine-based disinfectant, a fabric repellent, an insect repellent for food, and a wood preservative) considered to be of high risk in order to determine exposure factors via web surveys and estimation of amount of product. Among the 3000 participants (1482 (49%) men) aged ≥19 years, drain disinfectants were used most frequently (38.2%); the rate of usage of the other products ranged between 1.1-24.0%. The usage rates for the consumer products differed by sex, age, income, and education. Some consumer products such as car and lens anti-fogging products, chlorine-based disinfectants, fabric repellents, and drain disinfectants were regularly used more than once a month, while car dye products, air conditioner disinfectants, insect repellents for food, and wood preservatives were not regularly used owing to the specific product purposes and seasonal needs. Our results could be used for managing or controlling chemical substances in consumer products and conducting accurate exposure assessments.

Electrochemical alternatives for drinking water disinfection.

PubMed

Martínez-Huitle, Carlos A; Brillas, Enric

2008-01-01

Chlorination is the most common method worldwide for the disinfection of drinking water. However, the identification of potentially toxic products from this method has encouraged the development of alternative disinfection technologies. Among them, electrochemical disinfection has emerged as one of the more feasible alternatives to chlorination. This article reviews electrochemical systems that can contribute to drinking water disinfection and underscores the efficiency of recently developed diamond films in chlorine-free electrochemical systems.

The Next Generation of Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water has been rightly hailed as a public health triumph of the 20th century. Millions of people worldwide receive quality drinking water every day from their public water systems. However, chemical disinfection has also produced an unintended health ...

EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES OF DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

This article provides a review of the epidemiologic evidence for human health effects that may be associated with the disinfection of drinking water. An epidemiologic study attempts to link human health effects with exposure to a specific agent (e.g., DBCM), agents (e.g., THMs or...

Use of biological assay systems to assess the relative carcinogenic hazards of disinfection by-products.

PubMed Central

Bull, R J; Robinson, M; Meier, J R; Stober, J

1982-01-01

Other workers have clearly shown that most, if not all, drinking water in the U.S. contains chemicals that possess mutagenic and/or carcinogenic activity by using bacterial and in vitro methods. In the present work, increased numbers of tumors were observed with samples of organic material isolated from 5 U.S. cities administered as tumor initiators in mouse skin initiation/promotion studies. Only in one case was the result significantly different from control. In studies designed to test whether disinfection practice contributes significantly to the tumor initiating activity found in drinking water mixed results have been obtained. In one experiment, water disinfected by chlorination, ozonation or combined chlorine resulted in a significantly greater number of papillomas when compared to nondisinfected water. In two subsequent experiments, where water was obtained from the Ohio River at different times of the year, no evidence of increased initiating activity was observed with any disinfectant. Analysis of water obtained at the comparable times of the year for total organic halogen, and trihalomethane formation revealed a substantial variation in the formation of these products. Considering the problems such variability poses for estimating risks associated with disinfection by-products, a model system which makes use of commercially obtained humic acid as a substrate for chlorination was investigated using the Ames test. Humic and fulvic acids obtained from two surface waters as well as the commercially obtained humic acid were without activity in TA 1535, TA 1537, TA 1538, TA 98 or TA 100 strains of S. typhimurium. Following treatment with a 0.8 molar ratio of chlorine (based on carbon) significant mutagenic activity was observed with all humic and fulvic acid samples. Comparisons of the specific mutagenic activity of the chlorinated products suggests that the commercial material might provide a useful model for studying health hazards associated with

IDENTIFICATION OF NEW DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS FORMED IN THE PRESENCE OF BROMIDE

EPA Science Inventory

Using a combination of mass spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy, disinfection by-products (DBPs) were identified in ozonated drinking water containing elevated bromide levels, and in ozonated water treated with secondary chlorine or chloramine. Only one brominated by-product-d...

Reduction of disinfection by-product precursors in reservoir water by coagulation and ultrafiltration.

PubMed

Wang, Feng; Gao, Baoyu; Ma, Defang; Yue, Qinyan; Li, Ruihua; Wang, Qianwen

2016-11-01

In this study, reservoir water intended for drinking water supply was treated by (i) ultrafiltration (UF) (ii) coagulation (CW) (iii) coagulation combined with ultrafiltration (CW-UF). To probe the influences of three treatment processes on disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors in source water, the changes of dissolved organic matter (DOM) amounts and physicochemical properties, and disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation characteristics during chlorine disinfection were investigated. Both carbonaceous DBP (C-DBP) and nitrogenous DBP (N-DBP) formation and speciation were analyzed. The influence of chlorine dose, contact time on DBP formation and speciation were also studied to optimize the disinfection conditions to minimize the DBP formation. Compared with UF and CW alone, CW-UF improved the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal from about 20 % to 59 %. The three-dimensional excitation and emission matrix (3DEEM) fluorescence spectroscopy analysis showed that CW-UF had high removal efficiency in microbial products (Region IV), fulvic acid-like (Region III) and humic acid-like (Region V). The total C-DBP was determined by the formation of trihalomethanes and trichloromethane was the most abundant species (40 %). The most abundant N-DBP species was dichloroacetonitrile (32.5 %), followed by trichloroactetonitrile. CW-UF effectively reduced the risk of DBPs in drinking water supply by reducing 30.8 % and 16.9 % DBPs formation potential compared with UF and CW alone. Increasing contact time improved the yields of both C-DBPs and N-DBPs. Chlorine dosage had slight influence on DBP yield in this study.

MUTAGENICITY IN SALMONELLA AND DNA DAMAGE IN THE CHO/COMET ASSAY INDUCED BY NITROHALOMETHANES, A NOVEL CLASS OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Mutagenicity in Salmonella and DNA Damage in the CHO/Comet Assay Induced by Nitrohalomethanes, a Novel Class of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products.

Halomethanes are a class of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) whose genotoxicity has been studied extensi...

The impact of iodinated X-ray contrast agents on formation and toxicity of disinfection by-products in drinking water.

PubMed

Jeong, Clara H; Machek, Edward J; Shakeri, Morteza; Duirk, Stephen E; Ternes, Thomas A; Richardson, Susan D; Wagner, Elizabeth D; Plewa, Michael J

2017-08-01

The presence of iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) in source waters is of high concern to public health because of their potential to generate highly toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). The objective of this study was to determine the impact of ICM in source waters and the type of disinfectant on the overall toxicity of DBP mixtures and to determine which ICM and reaction conditions give rise to toxic by-products. Source waters collected from Akron, OH were treated with five different ICMs, including iopamidol, iopromide, iohexol, diatrizoate and iomeprol, with or without chlorine or chloramine disinfection. The reaction product mixtures were concentrated with XAD resins and the mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the reaction mixture concentrates was measured. Water containing iopamidol generated an enhanced level of mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity after disinfection. While chlorine disinfection with iopamidol resulted in the highest cytotoxicity overall, the relative iopamidol-mediated increase in toxicity was greater when chloramine was used as the disinfectant compared with chlorine. Four other ICMs (iopromide, iohexol, diatrizoate, and iomeprol) expressed some cytotoxicity over the control without any disinfection, and induced higher cytotoxicity when chlorinated. Only iohexol enhanced genotoxicity compared to the chlorinated source water. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Disinfection of Syringes Contaminated With Hepatitis C Virus by Rinsing With Household Products

PubMed Central

Binka, Mawuena; Paintsil, Elijah; Patel, Amisha; Lindenbach, Brett D.; Heimer, Robert

2015-01-01

Background. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission among people who inject drugs (PWID) is associated with the sharing of injection paraphernalia. People who inject drugs often “disinfect” used syringes with household products when new syringes are unavailable. We assessed the effectiveness of these products in disinfecting HCV-contaminated syringes. Methods. A genotype-2a reporter virus assay was used to assess HCV infectivity in syringes postrinsing. Hepatitis C virus-contaminated 1 mL insulin syringes with fixed needles and 1 mL tuberculin syringes with detachable needles were rinsed with water, Clorox bleach, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, isopropanol, Lysol, or Dawn Ultra at different concentrations. Syringes were either immediately tested for viable virus or stored at 4°C, 22°C, and 37°C for up to 21 days before viral infectivity was determined. Results. Most products tested reduced HCV infectivity to undetectable levels in insulin syringes. Bleach eliminated HCV infectivity in both syringes. Other disinfectants produced virus recovery ranging from high (5% ethanol, 77% ± 12% HCV-positive syringes) to low (1:800 Dawn Ultra, 7% ± 7% positive syringes) in tuberculin syringes. Conclusions. Household disinfectants tested were more effective in fixed-needle syringes (low residual volume) than in syringes with detachable needles (high residual volume). Bleach was the most effective disinfectant after 1 rinse, whereas other diluted household products required multiple rinses to eliminate HCV. Rinsing with water, 5% ethanol (as in beer), and 20% ethanol (as in fortified wine) was ineffective and should be avoided. Our data suggest that rinsing of syringes with household disinfectants may be an effective tool in preventing HCV transmission in PWID when done properly. PMID:26034767

INVESTIGATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER USING SOLID-PHASE EXTRACTION AND GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROMETRY

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) result from the interaction of natural organic matter and bromide with chemical disinfectants, such as chlorine, added to drinking water to inactivate disease-producing microorganisms. These DBPs are monitored and regulated because of their possibl...

MASS SPECTROMETRY OF DRINKING WATER CONTAMINANTS: DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS AND THE US EPA CONTAMINANT CANDIDATE LIST COMPOUNDS

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are the thousands of compounds created during the disinfection of drinking water. These compounds can create potential health risks, challenge drinking water treatment technology, and pose difficulties in their analysis. Research in the use of ga...

OXIDATIVE DNA DAMAGE FROM POTASSIUM BROMATE EXPOSURE IN LONG-EVANS RATS IS NOT ENHANCED BY A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Public drinking water treated with chemical disinfectants contains a complex mixture of disinfection by-products (DBPs) for which the relative toxicity of the mixtures needs to be characterized to accurately assess risk. Potassium bromate (KBrO3) is a by-product from ozonation of...

THE TOXICOLOGY OF COMPLEX MIXTURES OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Chemical disinfection of water is a major public health advance that has decreased dramatically water-borne disease. Chemical disinfectants react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in water to produce a wide variety of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). DBP num...

NEUROTOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF TWO DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS, BROMODICHLOROMETHANE AND DIBROMOACETONITRILE, IN RATS.

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act requires that the U.S. EPA consider noncancer endpoints for the assessment of adverse human health effects of disinfection by-products (DBPs). As an extension of our studies in which we demonstrated neurotoxicity at relatively low levels of dibromo- an...

THE ROLE OF GC/MS AND LC/MS IN THE DISCOVERY OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) has played a pivotal role in the discovery of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. DBPs are formed when disinfectants, such as chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramine, react with natural organic matter in the ...

THE ROLE OF GC-MS AND LC-MS IN THE DISCOVERY OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has played a pivotal role in the discovery of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. DBPs are formed when disinfectants, such as chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide or chloramine, react with natural organic matter in the wate...

Mammalian Cell Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of the Haloacetic Acids, A Major Class of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

The haloacetic acids (HAAs) are disinfection by-products (DBPs) that are formed during the disinfection of drinking water, wastewaters and recreational pool waters. Currently, five HAAs [bromoacetic acid (BAA), dibromoacetic acid (DBAA), chloroacetic acid (CAA), dichloroacetic ac...

[Survey of synthetic disinfectants in grapefruit seed extract and its compounded products].

PubMed

Sugimoto, Naoki; Tada, Atsuko; Kuroyanagi, Masanori; Yoneda, Yuko; Yun, Young Sook; Kunugi, Akira; Sato, Kyoko; Yamazaki, Takeshi; Tanamoto, Ken-Ichi

2008-02-01

Grapefruit seed extract (GSE), derived from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi MCAF.), is listed as a natural food additive in Japan. Products containing GSE are used as disinfectants made from only natural sources, especially after Japanese researchers found that GSE prevents the growth of norovirus. On the other hand, recent overseas studies indicated that synthetic disinfectants, such as benzalkonium and benzethonium chlorides, were present in some commercial GSE products. To confirm the quality of commercial GSE products available in Japanese markets, we carried out comprehensive research to identify the major constituents of commercial GSE products which are used as food additives (13 products from 6 manufacturers), dietary supplements (5 products from 4 manufacturers), cosmetic materials (16 products from 10 manufacturers) and disinfectant or deodorant sprays (7 products from 7 manufacturers). By means of NMR and LC/MS analysis, synthetic disinfectants such as benzethonium or benzalkonium salts were detected in most of the commercial GSE products.

OXIDATIVE DNA DAMAGE AND REPAIR IN RATS TREATED WITH POTASSIUM BROMATE AND A MIXTUE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Oxidative DNA Damage and Repair in Rats Treated with Potassium Bromate and a Mixture of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products

Public drinking water treated with chemical disint'ectants contains a complex mixture of disinfection by-products (D BPs). There is a need for m...

Biodiesel from wastewater: lipid production in high rate algal pond receiving disinfected effluent.

PubMed

Assemany, Paula Peixoto; Calijuri, Maria Lucia; do Couto, Eduardo de Aguiar; Santiago, Aníbal Fonseca; Dos Reis, Alberto José Delgado

2015-01-01

The production of different species of microalgae in consortium with other micro-organisms from wastewaters may represent an alternative process, to reduce the costs, for obtaining biofuels. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of pre-ultraviolet disinfection (UV) in the production of lipids from biomass produced in high rate ponds. Two high rate algal ponds were evaluated: a pond that received domestic sewage without disinfection and the other receiving domestic sewage previously disinfected by UV radiation (uvHRAP). The UV disinfection did not lead to significant differences in fatty acid profile and total lipid productivities, although it increased algal biomass concentration and productivity as well as lipid content. Moreover, the overall biomass concentrations and productivities decreased with the UV disinfection, mostly as a consequence of a loss in bacterial load. We thus conclude that uvHRAP disinfection may represent a potential strategy to promote the cleaner and safer growth of algal biomass when cultivated in consortium with other micro-organisms. Mainly regarding the use of wastewater as culture medium, together with a cheaper production of lipids for biodiesel, pre-disinfection may represent an advance since extraction costs could be significantly trimmed due to the increase in lipid content.

Minimizing the Risk of Disease Transmission in Emergency Settings: Novel In Situ Physico-Chemical Disinfection of Pathogen-Laden Hospital Wastewaters.

PubMed

Sozzi, Emanuele; Fabre, Kerline; Fesselet, Jean-François; Ebdon, James E; Taylor, Huw

2015-01-01

The operation of a health care facility, such as a cholera or Ebola treatment center in an emergency setting, results in the production of pathogen-laden wastewaters that may potentially lead to onward transmission of the disease. The research presented here evaluated the design and operation of a novel treatment system, successfully used by Médecins Sans Frontières in Haiti to disinfect CTC wastewaters in situ, eliminating the need for road haulage and disposal of the waste to a poorly-managed hazardous waste facility, thereby providing an effective barrier to disease transmission through a novel but simple sanitary intervention. The physico-chemical protocols eventually successfully treated over 600 m3 of wastewater, achieving coagulation/flocculation and disinfection by exposure to high pH (Protocol A) and low pH (Protocol B) environments, using thermotolerant coliforms as a disinfection efficacy index. In Protocol A, the addition of hydrated lime resulted in wastewater disinfection and coagulation/flocculation of suspended solids. In Protocol B, disinfection was achieved by the addition of hydrochloric acid, followed by pH neutralization and coagulation/flocculation of suspended solids using aluminum sulfate. Removal rates achieved were: COD >99%; suspended solids >90%; turbidity >90% and thermotolerant coliforms >99.9%. The proposed approach is the first known successful attempt to disinfect wastewater in a disease outbreak setting without resorting to the alternative, untested, approach of 'super chlorination' which, it has been suggested, may not consistently achieve adequate disinfection. A basic analysis of costs demonstrated a significant saving in reagent costs compared with the less reliable approach of super-chlorination. The proposed approach to in situ sanitation in cholera treatment centers and other disease outbreak settings represents a timely response to a UN call for onsite disinfection of wastewaters generated in such emergencies, and the

Minimizing the Risk of Disease Transmission in Emergency Settings: Novel In Situ Physico-Chemical Disinfection of Pathogen-Laden Hospital Wastewaters

PubMed Central

Sozzi, Emanuele; Fabre, Kerline; Fesselet, Jean-François; Ebdon, James E.; Taylor, Huw

2015-01-01

The operation of a health care facility, such as a cholera or Ebola treatment center in an emergency setting, results in the production of pathogen-laden wastewaters that may potentially lead to onward transmission of the disease. The research presented here evaluated the design and operation of a novel treatment system, successfully used by Médecins Sans Frontières in Haiti to disinfect CTC wastewaters in situ, eliminating the need for road haulage and disposal of the waste to a poorly-managed hazardous waste facility, thereby providing an effective barrier to disease transmission through a novel but simple sanitary intervention. The physico-chemical protocols eventually successfully treated over 600 m3 of wastewater, achieving coagulation/flocculation and disinfection by exposure to high pH (Protocol A) and low pH (Protocol B) environments, using thermotolerant coliforms as a disinfection efficacy index. In Protocol A, the addition of hydrated lime resulted in wastewater disinfection and coagulation/flocculation of suspended solids. In Protocol B, disinfection was achieved by the addition of hydrochloric acid, followed by pH neutralization and coagulation/flocculation of suspended solids using aluminum sulfate. Removal rates achieved were: COD >99%; suspended solids >90%; turbidity >90% and thermotolerant coliforms >99.9%. The proposed approach is the first known successful attempt to disinfect wastewater in a disease outbreak setting without resorting to the alternative, untested, approach of ‘super chlorination’ which, it has been suggested, may not consistently achieve adequate disinfection. A basic analysis of costs demonstrated a significant saving in reagent costs compared with the less reliable approach of super-chlorination. The proposed approach to in situ sanitation in cholera treatment centers and other disease outbreak settings represents a timely response to a UN call for onsite disinfection of wastewaters generated in such emergencies, and the

Genotoxic Effects in Swimmers Exposed to Disinfection By-products in Indoor Swimming Pool

EPA Science Inventory

BACKGROUND: Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water has been associated with cancer risk, and a recent study found an increased bladder cancer risk among subjects attending swimming pools. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether swimming in pools is associated with ...

IDENTIFICATION OF PROTEINS INVOLVED IN TESTICULAR TOXICITY INDUCED BY HALOACID BY-PRODUCTS OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION

EPA Science Inventory

Dibromoacetic acid (DBA), a prevalent disinfection by-product in drinking water, perturbs spermiogenesis in adult rats suggesting that Sertoli-germ cell communication is compromised. When isolated seminiferous tubules from rats exposed to DBA in vivo were cultured, quantitative a...

Formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in 10 chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water supply systems.

PubMed

Liew, Deborah; Linge, Kathryn L; Joll, Cynthia A

2016-09-01

The presence of nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) in drinking water supplies is a public health concern, particularly since some N-DBPs have been reported to be more toxic than the regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. In this paper, a comprehensive evaluation of the presence of N-DBPs in 10 drinking water supply systems in Western Australia is presented. A suite of 28 N-DBPs, including N-nitrosamines, haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloacetamides (HAAms) and halonitromethanes (HNMs), were measured and evaluated for relationships with bulk parameters in the waters before disinfection. A number of N-DBPs were frequently detected in disinfected waters, although at generally low concentrations (<10 ng/L for N-nitrosamines and <10 μg/L for other N-DBPs) and below health guideline values where they exist. While there were no clear relationships between N-DBP formation and organic nitrogen in the pre-disinfection water, N-DBP concentrations were significantly correlated with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonia, and these, in addition to high bromide in one of the waters, led to elevated concentrations of brominated HANs (26.6 μg/L of dibromoacetonitrile). There were significant differences in the occurrence of all classes of N-DBPs between chlorinated and chloraminated waters, except for HNMs, which were detected at relatively low concentrations in both water types. Trends observed in one large distribution system suggest that N-DBPs can continue to form or degrade within distribution systems, and redosing of disinfectant may cause further by-product formation.

Characterization of Cleaning and Disinfecting Tasks and Product Use Among Hospital Occupations

PubMed Central

Saito, Rena; Virji, M. Abbas; Henneberger, Paul K.; Humann, Michael J.; LeBouf, Ryan F.; Stanton, Marcia L.; Liang, Xiaoming; Stefaniak, Aleksandr B.

2016-01-01

Background Healthcare workers have an elevated prevalence of asthma and related symptoms associated with the use of cleaning/disinfecting products. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize cleaning/disinfecting tasks and products used among hospital occupations. Methods Workers from 14 occupations at five hospitals were monitored for 216 shifts, and work tasks and products used were recorded at five-minute intervals. The major chemical constituents of each product were identified from safety data sheets. Results Cleaning and disinfecting tasks were performed with a high frequency at least once per shift in many occupations. Medical equipment preparers, housekeepers, floor strippers/waxers, and endoscopy technicians spent on average 108–177 min/shift performing cleaning/disinfecting tasks. Many occupations used products containing amines and quaternary ammonium compounds for > 100 min/shift. Conclusions This analysis demonstrates that many occupations besides housekeeping incur exposures to cleaning/disinfecting products, albeit for different durations and using products containing different chemicals. PMID:25351791

Bioanalytical and chemical assessment of the disinfection by-product formation potential: role of organic matter.

PubMed

Farré, Maria José; Day, Sophie; Neale, Peta A; Stalter, Daniel; Tang, Janet Y M; Escher, Beate I

2013-09-15

Disinfection by-products (DBP) formed from natural organic matter and disinfectants like chlorine and chloramine may cause adverse health effects. Here, we evaluate how the quantity and quality of natural organic matter and other precursors influence the formation of DBPs during chlorination and chloramination using a comprehensive approach including chemical analysis of regulated and emerging DBPs, total organic halogen quantification, organic matter characterisation and bioanalytical tools. In vitro bioassays allow us to assess the hazard potential of DBPs early in the chain of cellular events, when the DBPs react with their molecular target(s) and activate stress response and defence mechanisms. Given the reactive properties of known DBPs, a suite of bioassays targeting reactive modes of toxic action including genotoxicity and sensitive early warning endpoints such as protein damage and oxidative stress were evaluated in addition to cytotoxicity. Coagulated surface water was collected from three different drinking water treatment plants, along with reverse osmosis permeate from a desalination plant, and DBP formation potential was assessed after chlorination and chloramination. While effects were low or below the limit of detection before disinfection, the observed effects and DBP levels increased after disinfection and were generally higher after chlorination than after chloramination, indicating that chlorination forms higher concentrations of DBPs or more potent DBPs in the studied waters. Bacterial cytotoxicity, assessed using the bioluminescence inhibition assay, and induction of the oxidative stress response were the most sensitive endpoints, followed by genotoxicity. Source waters with higher dissolved organic carbon levels induced increased DBP formation and caused greater effects in the endpoints related to DNA damage repair, glutathione conjugation/protein damage and the Nrf2 oxidative stress response pathway after disinfection. Fractionation studies

Removal of precursors and disinfection by-products (DBPs) by membrane filtration from water; a review.

PubMed

Zazouli, Mohammad Ali; Kalankesh, Laleh R

2017-01-01

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) have heterogeneous structures which are suspected carcinogens as a result of reactions between NOMs (Natural Organic Matter) and oxidants/disinfectants such as chlorine. Because of variability in DBPs characteristics, eliminate completely from drinking water by single technique is impossible. The current article reviews removal of the precursors and DBPs by different membrane filtration methods such as Microfiltration (MF), Ultrafiltration (UF), Nanofiltration (NF) and Reverse Osmosis (RO) techniques. Also, we provide an overview of existing and potentially Membrane filtration techniques, highlight their strengths and drawbacks. MF membranes are a suitable alternative to remove suspended solids and colloidal materials. However, NOMs fractions are effectively removed by negatively charged UF membrane. RO can remove both organic and inorganic DBPs and precursors simultaneously. NF can be used to remove compounds from macromolecular size to multivalent ions.

METABOLIC FATE OF HALOGENATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN VIVO, AND RELATION TO BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

EPA Science Inventory

Objectives/Hypotheses: Halogenated by-products of drinking water disinfection are of concern because of uncertainty over their health effects, particularly an increased risk of kidney and bladder cancer and widespread consumption. Due to their abundance relative to other h...

IDENTIFICATION OF CHLORINE DIOXIDE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS FORMED AT HIGH BROMIDE LEVELS

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concern over the potential adverse health effects of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids, and other chlorinated by-products in chlorinated drinking water, alternative disinfection methods are being explored. Chlorine dioxide is a popular alternative, with over 500 dri...

A NATIONWIDE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT OCCURRENCE STUDY - IDENTIFICATION OF NEW AND TOXICOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT COMPOUNDS WITH MASS SPECTROMETRY

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants, such as chlorine, react with natural organic matter and bromide present in the water. Chloroform was the first DBP identified in drinking water (in 1974), and was subsequently shown (along with other t...

ANIMAL MODELS FOR STUDYING MISCARRIAGE: ILLUSTRATION WITH STUDY OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Animal models for studying miscarriage: Illustration with study of drinking water disinfection by-products
Authors & affiliations:
Narotsky1, M.G. and S. Bielmeier Laffan2.
1Reproductive Toxicology Division, NHEERL, ORD, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tri...

HALONITROMETHANE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS: CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND MAMMALIAN CELL CYTOTOXICITY AND GENOTOXICITY

EPA Science Inventory

Halonitromethanes are drinking water disinfection by-products that have recently received a high priority for health effects research from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Our purpose was to identify and synthesize where necessary the mixed halonitromethanes and to deter...

Use of household bleach for emergency disinfection of drinking water.

PubMed

Elmaksoud, Sherif Abd; Patel, Nikita; Maxwell, Sherri L; Sifuentes, Laura Y; Gerba, Charles P

2014-05-01

Household bleach is typically used as a disinfectant for water in times of emergencies and by those engaging in recreational activities such as camping or rafting. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend a concentration of free chlorine of 1 mg/L for 30 minutes, or about 0.75 mL (1/8 teaspoon) of household bleach per gallon of water. The goal of the study described in this article was to assess two household bleach products to kill waterborne bacteria and viruses using the test procedures in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Guide Standard and Protocol for Testing Microbiological Purifiers. Bleach was found to meet these requirements in waters of low turbidity and organic matter. While the test bacterium was reduced by six logs in high turbid and organic-laden waters, the test viruses were reduced only by one-half to one log. In such waters greater chlorine doses or contact times are needed to achieve greater reduction of viruses.

Human cell toxicogenomic analysis of bromoacetic acid: a regulated drinking water disinfection by-product.

PubMed

Muellner, Mark G; Attene-Ramos, Matias S; Hudson, Matthew E; Wagner, Elizabeth D; Plewa, Michael J

2010-04-01

The disinfection of drinking water is a major achievement in protecting the public health. However, current disinfection methods also generate disinfection by-products (DBPs). Many DBPs are cytotoxic, genotoxic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic and represent an important class of environmentally hazardous chemicals that may carry long-term human health implications. The objective of this research was to integrate in vitro toxicology with focused toxicogenomic analysis of the regulated DBP, bromoacetic acid (BAA) and to evaluate modulation of gene expression involved in DNA damage/repair and toxic responses, with nontransformed human cells. We generated transcriptome profiles for 168 genes with 30 min and 4 hr exposure times that did not induce acute cytotoxicity. Using qRT-PCR gene arrays, the levels of 25 transcripts were modulated to a statistically significant degree in response to a 30 min treatment with BAA (16 transcripts upregulated and nine downregulated). The largest changes were observed for RAD9A and BRCA1. The majority of the altered transcript profiles are genes involved in DNA repair, especially the repair of double strand DNA breaks, and in cell cycle regulation. With 4 hr of treatment the expression of 28 genes was modulated (12 upregulated and 16 downregulated); the largest fold changes were in HMOX1 and FMO1. This work represents the first nontransformed human cell toxicogenomic study with a regulated drinking water disinfection by-product. These data implicate double strand DNA breaks as a feature of BAA exposure. Future toxicogenomic studies of DBPs will further strengthen our limited knowledge in this growing area of drinking water research. Copyright 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The Next Generation of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water has been rightly hailed as a public health triumph of the 20th century. Millions of people worldwide receive quality drinking water every day from their public water systems. However, chemical disinfection has also produced an unintended healt...

IDENTIFICATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN SWIMMING POOL WATER

EPA Science Inventory

In order to kill harmful pathogens, swimming pool water is treated with a disinfectant, such as chlorine or ozone. One of the most commonly used disinfectants is stabilized chlorine (typically trichloro-S-triazinetrione). Trichloro-S-triazinetrione reacts in water to form one m...

Disinfection By-Products: Formation and Occurrence in Drinking Water

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water has been rightly hailed as a public health triumph of the twentieth century. Millions of people worldwide receive quality drinking water every day from their public water systems. However, chemical disinfection has also produced an unintended he...

THE EFFECTS OF COMBINED OZONATION AND FILTRATION ON DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT FORMATION. (R830908)

EPA Science Inventory

The effects of combined ozonation and membrane filtration on the removal of the natural organic matter (NOM) and the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) were investigated. Ozonation/filtration resulted in a reduction of up to 50% in the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) ...

MUTAGENICITY IN SALMONELLA OF HALONITROMETHANES: A RECENTLY RECOGNIZED CLASS OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Halonitromethanes (HNMs) are a recently identified class of disinfection by-products in drinking water. They include chloronitromethane (CHN), dichloronitromethane (DCNM), trichloronitromethane (TCNM), bromonitromethane (BNM), dibromonitromethane (DBNM), tribromonitromethane (TBN...

Socioeconomic status and exposure to disinfection by-products in drinking water in Spain.

PubMed

Castaño-Vinyals, Gemma; Cantor, Kenneth P; Villanueva, Cristina M; Tardon, Adonina; Garcia-Closas, Reina; Serra, Consol; Carrato, Alfredo; Malats, Núria; Rothman, Nathaniel; Silverman, Debra; Kogevinas, Manolis

2011-03-16

Disinfection by-products in drinking water are chemical contaminants that have been associated with cancer and other adverse effects. Exposure occurs from consumption of tap water, inhalation and dermal absorption. We determined the relationship between socioeconomic status and exposure to disinfection by-products in 1271 controls from a multicentric bladder cancer case-control study in Spain. Information on lifetime drinking water sources, swimming pool attendance, showering-bathing practices, and socioeconomic status (education, income) was collected through personal interviews. The most highly educated subjects consumed less tap water (57%) and more bottled water (33%) than illiterate subjects (69% and 17% respectively, p-value = 0.003). These differences became wider in recent time periods. The time spent bathing or showering was positively correlated with attained educational level (p < 0.001). Swimming pool attendance was more frequent among highly educated subjects compared to the illiterate (odds ratio = 3.4; 95% confidence interval 1.6-7.3). The most highly educated subjects were less exposed to chlorination by-products through ingestion but more exposed through dermal contact and inhalation in pools and showers/baths. Health risk perceptions and economic capacity may affect patterns of water consumption that can result in differences in exposure to water contaminants.

IDENTIFICATION OF NEW DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS FROM OZONE, CHLORINE DIOXIDE, CHLORAMINE, AND CHLORINE

EPA Science Inventory

Due to concern over the potential adverse health effects of trihalomethanes (THMs) and other chlorinated by-products in chlorinated drinking water, alternative disinfection methods are being explored. Ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine are currently popular alternatives to ...

IODO-ACID DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER: DOES LC/ESI-MS/MS OFFER AN ADVANTAGE OVER GC/NCI-MS?

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

Mutagenic activity of disinfection by-products

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Cognet, L.; Courtois, Y.; Mallevialle, J.

1986-11-01

Data on raw water quality, disinfection treatment practices, and the resulting mutagenic properties of the treated water were compiled from pilot- and full-scale treatment experiments to evaluate that parameter which might produce variability in the results of a mutagenic study. Analysis of the data and comparison of treatment practices indicated that the measured mutagenic activity is strongly related to the characteristics of the organic matter in the raw water, the methodology used to sample and detect mutagens, the scale of the study both in terms of treatment flow and period of study, and the point at which and the conditionsmore » under which oxidants are added during treatment. Conclusions regarding disinfection systems in full-scale water treatment plants include the following: When raw water is pretreated and high concentrations of organics are present in the raw water, both ozonation and chlorination increased mutagenic activity. However, no significant difference in mutagenicity was found between the two oxidants. Both in the case of a nitrified groundwater and a clarified surface water, the mutagenic activity of the water after ozonation was related to its mutagenic activity before ozonation. With ozonation, mutagenic activity decreased after granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration. Thus, when GAC filtration follows ozone disinfection, early addition of oxidants may not be deleterious to the finished water quality. When chlorine or chlorine dioxide is added after GAC filtration, chlorine dioxide was found to produce a less mutagenic water than chlorine. Although these conclusions suggest means of controlling mutagenic activity during treatment, it must be stressed that the measurement of mutagenicity is a presumptive index of contamination level.« less

Comparison of formation of disinfection by-products by chlorination and ozonation of wastewater effluents and their toxicity to Daphnia magna.

PubMed

Park, Keun-Young; Choi, Su-Young; Lee, Seung-Hoon; Kweon, Ji-Hyang; Song, Ji-Hyeon

2016-08-01

This study compared the two most frequently used disinfectants (i.e., chlorine and ozone) to understand their efficiency in wastewater effluents and the ecotoxicity of disinfection by-products created during chlorination and ozonation. Four trihalomethanes (THMs) and nine haloacetic acids (HAAs) were measured from a chlorine-disinfected sample and two aldehydes (i.e., formaldehydes and acetaldehydes) were analyzed after ozonation. Chlorination was effective for total coliform removal with Ct value in the range of 30-60 mg-min/L. Over 1.6 mg/L of ozone dose and 0.5 min of the contact time presented sufficient disinfection efficiency. The concentration of THMs increased with longer contact time (24 h), but that of HAAs showed little change with contact time. The measured concentration of formaldehyde at the ozone dose of 1.6 mg/L and the contact time of 9 min showed the greatest value in this study, approximately 330 μg L(-1), from which the corresponding ecotoxicity was determined using an indicator species, Daphnia magna. The ecotoxicity results were consistent with the toxicological features judged by occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Both the disinfection efficiency as well as the DBP formation potential should therefore be considered to avoid harmful impacts on aquatic environments when a disinfection method is used for wastewater effluents. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A comparison of disinfection by-products formation during sequential or simultaneous disinfection of surface waters with chlorine dioxide and chlor(am)ine.

PubMed

Shi, Yanwei; Ling, Wencui; Qiang, Zhimin

2013-01-01

The effect of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) oxidation on the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during sequential (ClO2 pre-oxidation for 30 min) and simultaneous disinfection processes with free chlorine (FC) or monochloramine (MCA) was investigated. The formation of DBPs from synthetic humic acid (HA) water and three natural surface waters containing low bromide levels (11-27 microg/L) was comparatively examined in the FC-based (single FC, sequential ClO2-FC, and simultaneous ClO2/FC) and MCA-based (single MCA, ClO2-MCA, and ClO2/MCA) disinfection processes. The results showed that much more DBPs were formed from the synthetic HA water than from the three natural surface waters with comparative levels of dissolved organic carbon. In the FC-based processes, ClO2 oxidation could reduce trihalomethanes (THMs) by 27-35% and haloacetic acids (HAAs) by 14-22% in the three natural surface waters, but increased THMs by 19% and HAAs by 31% in the synthetic HA water after an FC contact time of 48 h. In the MCA-based processes, similar trends were observed although DBPs were produced at a much lower level. There was an insignificant difference in DBPs formation between the sequential and simultaneous processes. The presence of a high level of bromide (320 microg/L) remarkably promoted the DBPs formation in the FC-based processes. Therefore, the simultaneous disinfection process of ClO2/MCA is recommended particularly for waters with a high bromide level.

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS OF HEALTH CONCERN IN DRINKING WATER: RESULTS OF A NATIONWIDE OCCURRENCE STUDY

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because some epidemiologic studies have shown that some DBPs are associated with cancer or adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations, and other studies have shown that certain DBPs cause similar h...

Effect of iodine disinfection products on higher plants

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Janik, D.; Macler, B.; Macelroy, R. D.; Thorstenson, Y.; Sauer, R.

1989-01-01

Iodine is used to disinfect potable water on United States spacecraft. Iodinated potable water will likely be used to grow plants in space. Little is known about the effects of iodine disinfection products on plants. Seeds of select higher plants were germinated in water iodinated using the Shuttle Microbial Check Valve, and water to which measured amounts of iodine was added. Percent germination was decreased in seeds of most species germinated in iodinated water. Beans were most affected. Germination rates, determined from germination half-times, were decreased for beans germinated in iodinated water, and water to which iodide was added. Development was retarded and rootlets were conspicuously absent in bean and several other plant species germinated in iodinated water. Iodide alone did not elicit these responses. Clearly iodine disinfection products can affect higher plants. These effects must be carefully considered for plant experimentation and cultivation in space, and in design and testing of closed environmental life support systems.

Reproductive and developmental effects of disinfection by-products in drinking water.

PubMed Central

Reif, J S; Hatch, M C; Bracken, M; Holmes, L B; Schwetz, B A; Singer, P C

1996-01-01

Recent epidemiologic studies have reported associations between the consumption of chlorinated drinking water and reproductive and developmental effects. Here we review the available epidemiologic data, assess the hazard potential posed by exposure to disinfection by-products, identify critical data gaps, and offer recommendations for further research. The epidemiologic evidence supporting associations between exposure to water disinfection by-products (DBPs) and adverse pregnancy outcomes is sparse, and positive findings should be interpreted cautiously. The methods used during the early stages of research in this area have been diverse. Variability in exposure assessment and endpoints makes it difficult to synthesize or combine the available data. Exposure misclassification and unmeasured confounding may have lead to bias in risk estimation. Future studies of reproductive outcome and exposure to chlorinated water should use improved methods for exposure assessment to 1) assure selection of appropriate exposure markers, 2) assess seasonal and annual fluctuations in DBPs, 3) assess variability within the distribution system, and 4) assess exposure through multiple routes such as bathing and showering, as well as consumption. Population-based studies should be conducted to evaluate male and female fertility, conception delay, growth retardation, and specific birth defects. The reproductive and developmental effects of exposure to DBPs could be efficiently explored in ongoing investigations by incorporating valid exposure markers and relevant questionnaire information. Future studies should make use of naturally occurring variability in the concentrations of DBPs and may incorporate biomarkers of exposure and effect in their design. Epidemiologic investigations should be conducted in parallel with laboratory-based and animal studies in a coordinated, multidisciplinary approach. PMID:8930546

Chemical disinfection of human rotaviruses: efficacy of commercially-available products in suspension tests.

PubMed Central

Springthorpe, V. S.; Grenier, J. L.; Lloyd-Evans, N.; Sattar, S. A.

1986-01-01

Suspension tests were conducted on 69 commercial and 7 non-commercial disinfectant formulations to determine which classes of chemicals were most active against human rotavirus (HRV). Virus samples, in the presence of varying levels of organic matter, were exposed to the disinfectants for 1 min. The levels of remaining infectious virus were determined by plaque assay. Products were rated by their ability to reduce the levels of infectious virus by more than 3 log10 in the presence or absence of tryptose phosphate broth (peptides and inorganic salts) or fecal matter. Of the commercially-available products tested, only 25% were rated as highly and 7% as moderately effective. The remaining 68% were either effective only in the absence of any additional organic matter (48%) or were completely ineffective (20%). The majority (64%) of the moderately and highly effective products were further examined for their ability to inactivate greater than 6 log10 of infectious HRV in the presence of fecal matter or tryptose phosphate broth. With one exception, all these products were still effective. Products potentially suitable as topical antiseptics, hard surface disinfectants and instrument soaks were identified. The results emphasize the care that should be exercised in the selection of disinfectants for the control and prevention of rotaviral infections. PMID:3016081

Use of Normal Human Colon Cells to Assess Toxicities of Unregulated Disinfection By-products and Mixtures

EPA Science Inventory

The discovery of chlorination and chloramination by-products other than the regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids has created a need for short-term in vitro assays to address toxicities that might be associated with human exposure. Approximately 600 disinfection by-produ...

Evidence of arsenic release promoted by disinfection by-products within drinking-water distribution systems.

PubMed

Andra, Syam S; Makris, Konstantinos C; Botsaris, George; Charisiadis, Pantelis; Kalyvas, Harris; Costa, Costas N

2014-02-15

Changes in disinfectant type could trigger a cascade of reactions releasing pipe-anchored metals/metalloids into finished water. However, the effect of pre-formed disinfection by-products on the release of sorbed contaminants (arsenic-As in particular) from drinking water distribution system pipe scales remains unexplored. A bench-scale study using a factorial experimental design was performed to evaluate the independent and interaction effects of trihalomethanes (TTHM) and haloacetic acids (HAA) on arsenic (As) release from either scales-only or scale-biofilm conglomerates (SBC) both anchored on asbestos/cement pipe coupons. A model biofilm (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) was allowed to grow on select pipe coupons prior experimentation. Either TTHM or HAA individual dosing did not promote As release from either scales only or SBC, detecting <6 μg AsL(-1) in finished water. In the case of scales-only coupons, the combination of the highest spike level of TTHM and HAA significantly (p<0.001) increased dissolved and total As concentrations to levels up to 16 and 95 μg L(-1), respectively. Similar treatments in the presence of biofilm (SBC) resulted in significant (p<0.001) increase in dissolved and total recoverable As up to 20 and 47 μg L(-1), respectively, exceeding the regulatory As limit. Whether or not, our laboratory-based results truly represent mechanisms operating in disinfected finished water in pipe networks remains to be investigated in the field. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of the water disinfection by-product dichloroacetonitrile-induced biochemical, oxidative, histopathological, and mitochondrial functional alterations: Subacute oral toxicity in rats.

PubMed

Dong, Ying; Li, Fang; Shen, Haijun; Lu, Rongzhu; Yin, Siqi; Yang, Qi; Li, Zhuangfa; Wang, Suhua

2018-03-01

Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), an emerging nitrogenous disinfection by-product, is more genotoxic and cytotoxic than the currently regulated carbonaceous disinfection by-products such as haloacetic acids. Few mechanistic studies have been conducted on the hepatic and renal toxicities of DCAN. This study examined the clinical biochemical, hematological, histopathological, oxidative, and mitochondrial functional alterations to evaluate the systematic toxicity after subacute oral exposure of 11 or 44 mg/kg/day in rats for 28 days. Body and spleen weights were lower, and organ-to-body weight ratios of the liver and kidney were higher in rats administered 44-mg/kg DCAN than in controls. The activities of serum alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase, and concentrations of blood serum urea nitrogen and retinol-binding protein were increased in rats administered 44-mg/kg DCAN compared with those of controls, thereby indicating hepatic and renal damage in this group. This was confirmed by histopathological alterations, including hepatic sinus dilation, extensive hemorrhage, vacuolar degeneration in the liver and glomerulus hemorrhage, and renal tubular swelling, in DCAN-exposed rats. Exposure to 44-mg/kg DCAN induced hepatic oxidative damage shown by the significant increase in malonaldehyde levels, a poisonous product of lipid peroxidation. Exposure to 44-mg/kg DCAN significantly increased hepatic glutathione content and mitochondrial bioenergy as noted by the elevation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c oxidase activity, which might be attributed to compensatory pathophysiologic responses to DCAN-induced hepatic mitochondrial damage.

Inactivation of an enterovirus by airborne disinfectants

PubMed Central

2013-01-01

Background The activity of airborne disinfectants on bacteria, fungi and spores has been reported. However, the issue of the virucidal effect of disinfectants spread by fogging has not been studied thoroughly. Methods A procedure has been developed to determine the virucidal activity of peracetic acid-based airborne disinfectants on a resistant non-enveloped virus poliovirus type 1. This virus was laid on a stainless carrier. The products were spread into the room by hot fogging at 55°C for 30 minutes at a concentration of 7.5 mL.m-3. Poliovirus inoculum, supplemented with 5%, heat inactivated non fat dry organic milk, were applied into the middle of the stainless steel disc and were dried under the air flow of a class II biological safety cabinet at room temperature. The Viral preparations were recovered by using flocked swabs and were titered on Vero cells using the classical Spearman-Kärber CPE reading method, the results were expressed as TCID50.ml-1. Results The infectious titer of dried poliovirus inocula was kept at 105 TCID50.mL-1 up to 150 minutes at room temperature. Dried inocula exposed to airborne peracetic acid containing disinfectants were recovered at 60 and 120 minutes post-exposition and suspended in culture medium again. The cytotoxicity of disinfectant containing medium was eliminated through gel filtration columns. A 4 log reduction of infectious titer of dried poliovirus inocula exposed to peracetic-based airborne disinfectant was obtained. Conclusion This study demonstrates that the virucidal activity of airborne disinfectants can be tested on dried poliovirus. PMID:23587047

CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO DIBROMOACETIC ACID, A WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT, DIMINISHES PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLES IN THE RABBIT

EPA Science Inventory

Exposure to dibromoacetic acid (DBA), a commonly occurring water disinfection by-product, has detrimental effects on spermatogenesis and fertility in rats and rabbits. Despite indications of important reproductive consequences of DBA exposure in males, reproductive sequelae follo...

Enhanced coagulation with powdered activated carbon or MIEX secondary treatment: a comparison of disinfection by-product formation and precursor removal.

PubMed

Watson, Kalinda; Farré, Maria José; Knight, Nicole

2015-01-01

The removal of both organic and inorganic disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors prior to disinfection is important in mitigating DBP formation, with halide removal being particularly important in salinity-impacted water sources. A matrix of waters of variable alkalinity, halide concentration and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration were treated with enhanced coagulation (EC) followed by anion exchange (MIEX resin) or powdered activated carbon (PAC) and the subsequent disinfection by-product formation potentials (DBP-FPs) assessed and compared to DBP-FPs for untreated samples. Halide and DOC removal were also monitored for both treatment processes. Bromide and iodide adsorption by MIEX treatment ranged from 0 to 53% and 4-78%, respectively. As expected, EC and PAC treatments did not remove halides. DOC removal by EC/PAC was 70 ± 10%, while EC/MIEX enabled a DOC removal of 66 ± 12%. Despite the halide removals achieved by MIEX, increases in brominated disinfection by-product (Br-DBP) formation were observed relative to untreated samples, when favourable Br:DOC ratios were created by the treatment. However, the increases in formation were less than what was observed for the EC/PAC treated waters, which caused large increases in Br-DBP formation when high Br-DBP-forming water quality conditions occurred. The formation potential of fully chlorinated DBPs decreased after treatment in all cases.

Simultaneous determination of 14 disinfection by-products in meat products using microwave-assisted extraction and static headspace coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

PubMed

Cardador, Maria Jose; Gallego, Mercedes

2017-08-04

This paper described the first analytical method to simultaneously determine 14 disinfection by-products (DBPs) in meat products using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and static headspace (SHS) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The DBPs included were 4 trihalomethanes, 7 haloacetic acids, 2 haloacetonitriles and trichloronitromethane, which are commonly formed as a consequence of the disinfection process of water. The combination of the MAE and SHS techniques allows meat samples to be analysed in two sequential steps into the same HS vial in spite of the sample's complexity. Detection limits were obtained within the range of 0.06-0.70ng/g, and the average relative standard deviation was 7.4%. Recoveries throughout the whole process were between 86 and 95%. The SHS-GC-MS method was applied to determine DBPs in meat products with different industrial processing which could be contaminated through contact with disinfectants and/or treated water employed in the factory either for washing or for the cooking of meat. Up to 5 DBPs were found at ng/g levels in about 36% of the samples analysed, cooked ham being the most contaminated meat product because of the brine solutions employed in its manufacturing process. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Emerging nitrogenous disinfection byproducts: Transformation of the antidiabetic drug metformin during chlorine disinfection of water.

PubMed

Armbruster, Dominic; Happel, Oliver; Scheurer, Marco; Harms, Klaus; Schmidt, Torsten C; Brauch, Heinz-Jürgen

2015-08-01

As an environmental contaminant of anthropogenic origin metformin is present in the high ng/L- up to the low μg/L-range in most surface waters. Residues of metformin may lead to the formation of disinfection by-products during chlorine disinfection, when these waters are used for drinking water production. Investigations on the underlying chemical processes occurring during treatment of metformin with sodium hypochlorite in aqueous medium led to the discovery of two hitherto unknown transformation products. Both substances were isolated and characterized by HPLC-DAD, GC-MS, HPLC-ESI-TOF, (1)H-NMR and single-crystal X-ray structure determination. The immediate major chlorination product is a cyclic dehydro-1,2,4-triazole-derivate of intense yellow color (Y; C4H6ClN5). It is a solid chlorimine of limited stability. Rapid formation was observed between 10 °C and 30 °C, as well as between pH 3 and pH 11, in both ultrapure and tap water, even at trace quantities of reactants (ng/L-range for metformin, mg/L-range for free chlorine). While Y is degraded within a few hours to days in the presence of light, elevated temperature, organic solvents and matrix constituents within tap water, a secondary degradation product was discovered, which is stable and colorless (C; C4H6ClN3). This chloroorganic nitrile has a low photolysis rate in ambient day light, while being resistant to heat and not readily degraded in the presence of organic solvents or in the tap water matrix. In addition, the formation of ammonia, dimethylamine and N,N-dimethylguanidine was verified by cation exchange chromatography. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Genotoxic and clastogenic effects of monohaloacetic acid drinking water disinfection by-products in primary human lymphocytes.

PubMed

Escobar-Hoyos, Luisa F; Hoyos-Giraldo, Luz Stella; Londoño-Velasco, Elizabeth; Reyes-Carvajal, Ingrid; Saavedra-Trujillo, Diana; Carvajal-Varona, Silvio; Sánchez-Gómez, Adalberto; Wagner, Elizabeth D; Plewa, Michael J

2013-06-15

The haloacetic acids (HAAs) are the second-most prevalent class of drinking water disinfection by-products formed by chemical disinfectants. Previous studies have determined DNA damage and repair of HAA-induced lesions in mammalian and human cell lines; however, little is known of the genomic DNA and chromosome damage induced by these compounds in primary human cells. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genotoxic and clastogenic effects of the monoHAA disinfection by-products in primary human lymphocytes. All monoHAAs were genotoxic in primary human lymphocytes, the rank order of genotoxicity and cytotoxicity was IAA > BAA > CAA. After 6 h of repair time, only 50% of the DNA damage (maximum decrease in DNA damage) was repaired compared to the control. This demonstrates that primary human lymphocytes are less efficient in repairing the induced damage by monoHAAs than previous studies with mammalian cell lines. In addition, the monoHAAs induced an increase in the chromosome aberration frequency as a measurement of the clastogenic effect of these compounds. These results coupled with genomic technologies in primary human cells and other mammalian non-cancerous cell lines may lead to the identification of biomarkers that may be employed in feedback loops to aid water chemists and engineers in the overall goal of producing safer drinking water. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessing the Toxicities of Regulated and Unregulated Disinfection By-products in Normal Human Colon Cells.

EPA Science Inventory

The presence of over six hundred disinfection by-products (DBPs) and less than half of the total organic halides present in finished water has created a need for short-term in vitro assays to address toxicities that might be associated with human exposure. . We are using a normal...

CONDUCTING A RISK ASSESSMENT OF MIXTURES OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPS) FOR DRINKING WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

The risk assessment of disinfection by-product (DBP) mixtures in drinking water is an important issue in environmental health. To generate improved assessments of DBP mixture health risk, EPA scientists have explored a number of novel approaches to generating realistic, central ...

EFFECTS OF 20 WEEK EXPOSURES IN FEMALE SPRAGUE-DAWLEY (S-D) RATS TO DIBROMOACETIC ACID, A DRINKING WATER DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCT

EPA Science Inventory

Effects of 20 week exposures in female Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats to the drinking water disinfection by-product dibromoacetic acid. A S Murr and J M Goldman, Endocrinol. Br., RTD, NHEERL, ORD, US EPA, Res. Tri. Pk, NC. Sponsor: Audrey Cummings

The drinking water disinfect...

EFFECTS OF 20 WEEK EXPOSURES IN FEMALE SPRAGUE-DAWLEY (S-D) RATS TO THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID

EPA Science Inventory

Effects of 20 week exposures in female Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats to the drinking water disinfection by-product dibromoacetic acid. A S Murr and J M Goldman, Endocrinol. Br., RTD, NHEERL, ORD, US EPA, Res. Tri. Pk, NC. Sponsor: Audrey Cummings

The drinking water disinfect...

Analysis of potential trade-offs in regulation of disinfection by-products

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Cromwell, J.E.; Zhang, X.; Regli, S.

1992-11-01

Executive Order 12291 requires the preparation of a Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA) on all new major federal regulations. The goal of an RIA is to develop and organize information on benefits, costs, and economic impacts so as to clarify trade-offs among alternative regulatory options. This paper outlines explicit methodology for assessing the technical potential for risk-risk tradeoffs. The strategies used to cope with complexities and uncertainties in developing the Disinfection By-Products Regulatory Analysis Model are explained. Results are presented and discussed in light of uncertainties, and in light of the analytical requirements for regulatory impact analysis.

What's in The Pool? A Comprehensive Identification Of Disinfection By-Products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water

EPA Science Inventory

Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity. We performed a compreh...

Changes in Markers of Genotoxicity in Relation to Exposure to Disinfection By-Products in Swimming Pools

EPA Science Inventory

Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) has been associated with cancer risk, but the mechanisms of action are poorly understood. A recent study found increased bladder cancer risk among subjects attending swimming pools, where uptake of DBPs, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) c...

Disinfection By-Products and Drinking Water Treatment

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water has been rightly hailed as a public health triumph of the 20th century. Before its widespread use, millions of people died from waterborne diseases. Now, people in developed nations receive quality drinking water every day from their public wa...

Genotoxicity of drinking water treated with different disinfectants and effects of disinfection conditions detected by umu-test.

PubMed

Nie, Xuebiao; Liu, Wenjun; Zhang, Liping; Liu, Qing

2017-06-01

The genotoxicity of drinking water treated with 6 disinfection methods and the effects of disinfection conditions were investigated using the umu-test. The pretreatment procedure of samples for the umu-test was optimized for drinking water analysis. The results of the umu-test were in good correlation with those of the Ames-test. The genotoxicity and production of haloacetic acids (HAAs) were the highest for chlorinated samples. UV+chloramination is the safest disinfection method from the aspects of genotoxicity, HAA production and inactivation effects. For chloramination, the effects of the mass ratio of Cl 2 to N of chloramine on genotoxicity were also studied. The changes of genotoxicity were different from those of HAA production, which implied that HAA production cannot represent the genotoxic potential of water. The genotoxicity per chlorine decay of chlorination and chloramination had similar trends, indicating that the reaction of organic matters and chlorine made a great contribution to the genotoxicity. The results of this study are of engineering significance for optimizing the operation of waterworks. Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier B.V.

New chlorinated amphetamine-type-stimulants disinfection-by-products formed during drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Huerta-Fontela, Maria; Pineda, Oriol; Ventura, Francesc; Galceran, Maria Teresa

2012-06-15

Previous studies have demonstrated high removal rates of amphetamine-type-stimulants (ATSs) through conventional drinking water treatments; however the behaviour of these compounds through disinfection steps and their transformation into disinfection-by-products (DBPs) is still unknown. In this work, for the first time, the reactivity of some ATSs such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) with chlorine has been investigated under simulated and real drinking water treatment conditions in order to evaluate their ability to give rise to transformation products. Two new DBPs from these illicit drugs have been found. A common chlorinated-by-product (3-chlorobenzo)-1,3-dioxole, was identified for both MDA and MDEA while for MDMA, 3-chlorocatechol was found. The presence of these DBPs in water samples collected through drinking water treatment was studied in order to evaluate their formation under real conditions. Both compounds were generated through treatment from raw river water samples containing ATSs at concentration levels ranging from 1 to 15 ng/L for MDA and from 2.3 to 78 ng/L for MDMA. One of them, (3-chlorobenzo)-1,3-dioxole, found after the first chlorination step, was eliminated after ozone and GAC treatment while the MDMA DBP mainly generated after the postchlorination step, showed to be recalcitrant and it was found in final treated waters at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 5.8 ng/L. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

TOXICITY-BASED IDENTIFICATION OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS USING LC/MS AND LC/MS/MS

EPA Science Inventory

The goal of this research is to use a bio-assay directed approach to focus identification work on the most toxicologically important disinfection by-products. To this end, drinking water is being collected from full-scale treatment plants that use chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxi...

TOXICITY-BASED IDENTIFICATION OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS USING ESI-MS AND ESI-MS/MS

EPA Science Inventory

The goal of this research is to use a bio-assay directed approach to focus identification work on the most toxicologically important disinfection by-products. To this end, drinking water is being collected from full-scale treatment plants that use chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxi...

9 CFR 96.9 - Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. 96.9 Section 96.9 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... STATES § 96.9 Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. Foreign animal...

9 CFR 96.9 - Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. 96.9 Section 96.9 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... STATES § 96.9 Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. Foreign animal...

9 CFR 96.9 - Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. 96.9 Section 96.9 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... STATES § 96.9 Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. Foreign animal...

TREATMENT OF LONG-EVANS RATS WITH A DEFINED MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IMPACTS INTESTINAL MICROBIAL METABOLISM.

EPA Science Inventory

Water treatment results in the production of numerous halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs), and has been associated with human colorectal cancer. Because the intestinal microbiota can bioactivate promutagens and procarcinogens, several studies have been done to examine the...

Candida auris: Disinfectants and Implications for Infection Control.

PubMed

Ku, Tsun S N; Walraven, Carla J; Lee, Samuel A

2018-01-01

Candida auris is a rapidly emerging pathogen and is able to cause severe infections with high mortality rates. It is frequently misidentified in most clinical laboratories, thus requiring more specialized identification techniques. Furthermore, several clinical isolates have been found to be multidrug resistant and there is evidence of nosocomial transmission in outbreak fashion. Appropriate infection control measures will play a major role in controlling the management and spread of this pathogen. Unfortunately, there are very few data available on the effectiveness of disinfectants against C. auris . Chlorine-based products appear to be the most effective for environmental surface disinfection. Other disinfectants, although less effective than chlorine-based products, may have a role as adjunctive disinfectants. A cleaning protocol will also need to be established as the use of disinfectants alone may not be sufficient for maximal decontamination of patient care areas. Furthermore, there are fewer data on the effectiveness of antiseptics against C. auris for patient decolonization and hand hygiene for healthcare personnel. Chlorhexidine gluconate has shown some efficacy in in vitro studies but there are reports of patients with persistent colonization despite twice daily body washes with this disinfectant. Hand hygiene using soap and water, with or without chlorhexidine gluconate, may require the subsequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizer for maximal disinfection. Further studies will be needed to validate the currently studied disinfectants for use in real-world settings.

GESTATIONAL AND LACTATIONAL EFFECTS IN RATS OF SODIUM, SULFATE, AND CONCENTRATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Epidemiological and animal toxicity studies have raised concerns regarding possible adverse health effects of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water (DW). Because many DBPs are unidentified, we sought to evaluate DW concentrates. In preparation for a multigenerational ...

Gestational and lactational effects in rats of sodium, sulfate, and concentrated disinfection by-products in drinking water

EPA Science Inventory

Epidemiological and animal toxicity studies have raised concerns regarding possible adverse health effects of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water (DW). Because many DBPs are unidentified, we sought to evaluate DW concentrates. In preparation for a multigenerational ...

DISRUPTION IN RAT ESTROUS CYCLICITY BY THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID: RELATIONSHIP TO A SUPPRESSION ON ESTRADIOL METABOLISM?

EPA Science Inventory

Disruption in Rat Estrous Cyclicity by the Drinking Water Disinfectant By-Product Dibromoacetic Acid: Relationship to A Suppression on Estradiol Metabolism?

Ashley S. Murr and Jerome M. Goldman, Endocrinology Branch, Reproductive Toxicology Division National Health and En...

What’s in the Pool? A Comprehensive Identification of Disinfection By-Products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water

EPA Science Inventory

Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in pool water and related those DBPs to the mutagenicity of pool wate...

ASSESSING EXPOSURE IN EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES TO DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER: REPORT FROM AN INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP

EPA Science Inventory

The inability to accurately assess exposure has been one of the major shortcomings of epidemiologic studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. A number of contributing factors include: (1) limited information on the identity, occurrence, toxicity and pharmacok...

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS OF HEALTH CONCERN IN DRINKING WATER: RESULTS OF A U.S. NATIONWIDE OCCURRENCE STUDY

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because some epidemiologic studies have shown that some DBPs are associated with cancer or adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations, and other studies have shown that certain DBPs cause similar h...

Reproductive toxicity of a mixture of regulated drinking-water disinfection by-products in a multigenerational rat bioassay

EPA Science Inventory

BACKGROUND:Trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloaretic acids (HAAs) are regulated disinfection by-products (DBPs); their joint reproductive toxicity in drinking water is unknown.OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate a drinking water mixture of the four regulated THMs and five regulated HAAs ...

Significance of pH on the Cytotoxic Potential of the Water Disinfection By-Product Iodoacetic Acid

EPA Science Inventory

Significance of pH on the Cytotoxic Potential of the Water Disinfection By-Product Iodoacetic Acid Vicki Richardson1, Susan D. Richardson2, Mary Moyer3, Jane Ellen Simmons1, and Anthony DeAngelo1, 1U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2University of...

Exposure estimates to disinfection by-products of chlorinated drinking water.

PubMed

Weisel, C P; Kim, H; Haltmeier, P; Klotz, J B

1999-02-01

Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) of drinking water is multiroute and occurs in households serviced by municipal water treatment facilities that disinfect the water as a necessary step to halt the spread of waterborne infectious diseases. Biomarkers of the two most abundant groups of DBPs of chlorination, exhaled breath levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) and urinary levels of two haloacetic acids, were compared to exposure estimates calculated from in-home tap water concentrations and responses to a questionnaire related to water usage. Background THM breath concentrations were uniformly low. Strong relationships were identified between the THM breath concentrations collected after a shower and both the THM water concentration and the THM exposure from a shower, after adjusting for the postshower delay time in collecting the breath sample. Urinary haloacetic acid excretion rates were not correlated to water concentrations. Urinary trichloroacetic acid excretion rates were correlated with ingestion exposure, and that correlation was stronger in a subset of individuals who consumed beverages primarily within their home where the concentration measurements were made. No correlation was observed between an average 48-hr exposure estimate and the urinary dichloroacetic acid excretion rate, presumably because of its short biological half-life. Valid biomarkers were identified for DBP exposures, but the time between the exposure and sample collection should be considered to account for different metabolic rates among the DBPs. Further, using water concentration as an exposure estimate can introduce misclassification of exposure for DBPs whose primary route is ingestion due to the great variability in the amount of water ingested across a population.

Hospital disinfection: efficacy and safety issues.

PubMed

Dettenkofer, Markus; Block, Colin

2005-08-01

To review recent publications relevant to hospital disinfection (and cleaning) including the reprocessing of medical instruments. The key question as to whether the use of disinfectants on environmental surfaces rather than cleaning with detergents only reduces nosocomial infection rates still awaits conclusive studies. New disinfectants, mainly peroxygen compounds, show good sporicidal properties and will probably replace more problematical substances such as chlorine-releasing agents. The safe reprocessing of medical devices requires a well-coordinated approach, starting with proper cleaning. New methods and substances show promising activity for preventing the transmission of prions. Different aspects of virus inactivation have been studied, and the transmissibility, e.g. of norovirus, shows the need for sound data on how different disinfectant classes perform. Biofilms or other forms of surface-adherent organisms pose an extraordinary challenge to decontamination. Although resistance to biocides is generally not judged to be as critical as antibiotic resistance, scientific data support the need for proper use, i.e. the avoidance of widespread application, especially in low concentrations and in consumer products. Chemical disinfection of heat-sensitive instruments and targeted disinfection of environmental surfaces are established components of hospital infection control. To avoid danger to staff, patients and the environment, prudent use as well as established safety precautions are required. New technologies and products should be evaluated with sound methods. As emerging resistant pathogens will challenge healthcare facilities in the future even more than at present, there is a need for well-designed studies addressing the role of disinfection in hospital infection control.

Developmental toxicity of mixtures: the water disinfection by-products dichloro-, dibromo- and bromochloro acetic acid in rat embryo culture

EPA Science Inventory

The chlorination of drinking water results in production of numerous disinfection by-products (DBPs). One of the important classes of DBPs is the haloacetic acids. We have previously shown that the haloacetic acids (HAs), dichloro (DCA), dibromo (DBA) and bromochloro (BCA) acetic...

THE CARCINOGENIC RESPONSE TO A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBP) WAS LESS THAN ADDITIVE

EPA Science Inventory

THE CARCINOGENIC RESPONSE TO A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY -PRODUCTS (DBP) W AS LESS THAN ADDITIVE.

Current default risk assessments for chemical mixtures assume additivity of carcinogenic effects but this may under or over represent the actual biological res...

RENAL CARCINOGENICITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBP) IN EKER RATS

EPA Science Inventory

RENAL CARCINOGENICITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND A MIXTURE OF DRINKING / WATER DISINFECTION BY -PRODUCTS (DBP) IN EKER RATS.

Eker rats develop hereditary renal cell carcinoma secondary to a germline mutation in the tuberous sclerosis 2 tumor suppressor gene, and are highly suscepti...

APPLICATION OF SOLID PHASE MICROEXTRACTION GC/MS TO THE CHARACTERIZATION OF HYDROPHILIC DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN WATER

EPA Science Inventory

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has given high priority to research aimed at developing methods to extract hydrophilic disinfection by-products (DBPs) from drinking water. Public water supplies are treated with a variety of chemicals aimed at reducing or eliminating inf...

Comparison of inclined plate sedimentation and dissolved air flotation for the minimisation of subsequent nitrogenous disinfection by-product formation.

PubMed

Chu, Wen-Hai; Gao, Nai-Yun; Templeton, Michael R; Yin, Da-Qiang

2011-04-01

The formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), including both nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) and carbonaceous disinfection by-products (C-DBPs), was investigated upon chlorination of water samples following two treatment processes: (i) coagulation-inclined plate sedimentation (IPS)-filtration and (ii) coagulation-dissolved air flotation (DAF)-filtration. The removal of algae, dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV(254) by coagulation-DAF-filtration was superior to coagulation-IPS-filtration. On average, 53%, 53% and 31% of DOC, DON and UV(254) were removed by coagulation-DAF-filtration process, which were higher than 47%, 31% and 27% of that by coagulation-IPS-filtration process. Additionally, coagulation-IPS-filtration performed less well at removing the low molecular weight organics than coagulation-DAF-filtration process. The concentrations of chloroform, dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) formed during chlorination after coagulation-DAF-filtration reached their maximum values of 13, 1.5 and 4.7μgL(-1), respectively, and were lower than those after coagulation-IPS-filtration with the maximum detected levels of 17, 2.9 and 6.3μgL(-1). However, the trichloronitromethane (TCNM) concentration after the two processes was similar, suggesting that DON may have less of a contribution to TCNM formation than DCAcAm and DCAN. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effect of drinking water disinfection by-products in human peripheral blood lymphocytes and sperm.

PubMed

Ali, Aftab; Kurzawa-Zegota, Malgorzata; Najafzadeh, Mojgan; Gopalan, Rajendran C; Plewa, Michael J; Anderson, Diana

2014-12-01

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are generated by the chemical disinfection of water and may pose hazards to public health. Two major classes of DBPs are found in finished drinking water: haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs). HAAs are formed following disinfection with chlorine, which reacts with iodide and bromide in the water. Previously the HAAs were shown to be cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic. To determine the effect of HAAs in human somatic and germ cells and whether oxidative stress is involved in genotoxic action. In the present study both somatic and germ cells have been examined as peripheral blood lymphocytes and sperm. The effects of three HAA compounds: iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoacetic acid (BAA) and chloroacetic acid (CAA) were investigated. After determining appropriate concentration responses, oxygen radical involvement with the antioxidants, butylated hydroxanisole (BHA) and the enzyme catalase, were investigated in the single cell gel electrophoresis (Comet) assay under alkaline conditions, >pH 13 and the micronucleus assay. In the Comet assay, BHA and catalase were able to reduce DNA damage in each cell type compared to HAA alone. In the micronucleus assay, micronuclei (MNi) were found in peripheral lymphocytes exposed to all three HAAs and catalase and BHA were in general, able to reduce MNi induction, suggesting oxygen radicals play a role in both assays. These observations are of concern to public health since both human somatic and germ cells show similar genotoxic responses. Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Products identified at an alternative disinfection pilot plant.

PubMed Central

Lykins, B W; Koffskey, W

1986-01-01

Many drinking water utilities have recently changed or are seriously considering changing their disinfection practice from chlorine to some alternative treatment process. However, most of these utilities are changing their disinfectants without evaluating chemical impacts. Therefore, a research cooperative agreement was developed with Jefferson Parish, LA, to evaluate four parallel streams treated with four different disinfectants (chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone.) These streams, along with a fifth parallel stream, which was not treated with a disinfectant (control), were passed through both sand and granular activated carbon (GAC). Ozonation reduced the total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic halide (TOX) concentration by 0.3 mg/L and 10 micrograms/L, respectively. The average concentration of TOC for the other disinfectants was comparable to that associated with the nondisinfected stream (3.3 mg/L). The average instantaneous TOX concentration for chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and chlorine disinfection after 30 min contact time increased by 60, 92, and 238 micrograms/L, respectively, from a nondisinfected concentration of 25 micrograms/L. The volatile organics most affected by disinfection (chlorination) were the trihalomethanes. No significant change in concentration was noted after disinfection for the other volatile organics evaluated, such as 1,2-dichlorethane, dichloromethane, trichloroethylene, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, and carbon tetrachloride. Ozonation produced an average concentration reduction of 11 to 84% for most of the nonvolatiles evaluated. Conversely, a concentration increase of 43 to 100% was noted, after chlorination, for some of the nonvolatile organics. PMID:3816717

Products identified at an alternative disinfection pilot plant

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Lykins, B.W. Jr.; Koffskey, W.

1986-11-01

Many drinking water utilities have recently changed or are seriously considering changing their disinfection practice from chlorine to some alternative treatment process. However, most of these utilities are changing their disinfectants without evaluating chemical impacts. Therefore, a research cooperative agreement was developed with Jefferson Parish, LA, to evaluate four parallel streams treated with four different disinfectants (chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone.) These streams, along with a fifth parallel stream, which was not treated with a disinfectant (control), were passed through both sand and granular activated carbon (GAC). Ozonation reduced the total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic halide (TOX)more » concentration by 0.3 mg/L and 10 micrograms/L, respectively. The average concentration of TOC for the other disinfectants was comparable to that associated with the nondisinfected stream (3.3 mg/L). The average instantaneous TOX concentration for chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and chlorine disinfection after 30 min contact time increased by 60, 92, and 238 micrograms/L, respectively, from a nondisinfected concentration of 25 micrograms/L. The volatile organics most affected by disinfection (chlorination) were the trihalomethanes. No significant change in concentration was noted after disinfection for the other volatile organics evaluated, such as 1,2-dichlorethane, dichloromethane, trichloroethylene, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, and carbon tetrachloride. Ozonation produced an average concentration reduction of 11 to 84% for most of the nonvolatiles evaluated. Conversely, a concentration increase of 43 to 100% was noted, after chlorination, for some of the nonvolatile organics.« less

Candida auris: Disinfectants and Implications for Infection Control

PubMed Central

Ku, Tsun S. N.; Walraven, Carla J.; Lee, Samuel A.

2018-01-01

Candida auris is a rapidly emerging pathogen and is able to cause severe infections with high mortality rates. It is frequently misidentified in most clinical laboratories, thus requiring more specialized identification techniques. Furthermore, several clinical isolates have been found to be multidrug resistant and there is evidence of nosocomial transmission in outbreak fashion. Appropriate infection control measures will play a major role in controlling the management and spread of this pathogen. Unfortunately, there are very few data available on the effectiveness of disinfectants against C. auris. Chlorine-based products appear to be the most effective for environmental surface disinfection. Other disinfectants, although less effective than chlorine-based products, may have a role as adjunctive disinfectants. A cleaning protocol will also need to be established as the use of disinfectants alone may not be sufficient for maximal decontamination of patient care areas. Furthermore, there are fewer data on the effectiveness of antiseptics against C. auris for patient decolonization and hand hygiene for healthcare personnel. Chlorhexidine gluconate has shown some efficacy in in vitro studies but there are reports of patients with persistent colonization despite twice daily body washes with this disinfectant. Hand hygiene using soap and water, with or without chlorhexidine gluconate, may require the subsequent use of alcohol-based hand sanitizer for maximal disinfection. Further studies will be needed to validate the currently studied disinfectants for use in real-world settings. PMID:29706945

Prediction of the developmental toxicity hazard potential of halogenated drinking water disinfection by-products tested by the in vitro hydra assay

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Fu, L.J.; Johnson, E.M.; Newman, L.M.

A series of seven randomly selected potential halogenated water disinfection by-products were evaluated in vitro by the hydra assay to determine their developmental toxicity hazard potential. For six of the chemicals tested by this assay (dibromoacetonitrile; trichloroacetonitrile; 2-chlorophenol; 2,4,6-trichlorophenol; trichloroacetic acid; dichloroacetone) it was predicted that they would be generally equally toxic to both adult and embryonic mammals when studied by means of standard developmental toxicity teratology tests. However, the potential water disinfection by-product chloroacetic acid (CA) was determined to be over eight times more toxic to the embryonic developmental portion of the assay than it was to the adults.more » Because of this potential selectivity, CA is a high-priority item for developmental toxicity tests in pregnant mammals to confirm or refute its apparent unique developmental hazard potential and/or to establish a NOAEL by the route of most likely human exposure.« less

Origin of low-molecular mass aldehydes as disinfection by-products in beverages.

PubMed

Serrano, María; Gallego, Mercedes; Silva, Manuel

2017-09-01

A novel, simple and automatic method based on static headspace-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been developed to determine 10 low-molecular mass aldehydes that can be found in beverages, coming from the treated water used in their production. These aldehydes are the most frequently found in treated water as water disinfection by-products, so they can be used as indicators of the addition of treated water to beverages. The study covered a large number of fruit juices and soft drinks. The presence of the whole array of analytes is related to the contact with treated water during beverage production, mainly by the addition of treated water as ingredient. In particular, propionaldehyde, valeraldehyde and benzaldehyde can be used as indicators of the addition of treated water in these kinds of beverages. Among the ten aldehydes, only formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are naturally present in all kinds of fruit, and their concentrations are related to stage of the ripening of the fruit.

Nano-silver in drinking water and drinking water sources: stability and influences on disinfection by-product formation.

PubMed

Tugulea, A-M; Bérubé, D; Giddings, M; Lemieux, F; Hnatiw, J; Priem, J; Avramescu, M-L

2014-10-01

Nano-silver is increasingly used in consumer products from washing machines and refrigerators to devices marketed for the disinfection of drinking water or recreational water. The nano-silver in these products may be released, ending up in surface water bodies which may be used as drinking water sources. Little information is available about the stability of the nano-silver in sources of drinking water, its fate during drinking water disinfection processes, and its interaction with disinfection agents and disinfection by-products (DBPs). This study aims to investigate the stability of nano-silver in drinking water sources and in the finished drinking water when chlorine and chloramines are used for disinfection and to observe changes in the composition of DBPs formed when nano-silver is present in the source water. A dispersion of nano-silver particles (10 nm; PVP-coated) was used to spike untreated Ottawa River water, treated Ottawa River water, organic-free water, and a groundwater at concentrations of 5 mg/L. The diluted dispersions were kept under stirred and non-stirred conditions for up to 9 months and analyzed weekly using UV absorption to assess the stability of the nano-silver particles. In a separate experiment, Ottawa River water containing nano-silver particles (at 0.1 and 1 mg/L concentration, respectively) was disinfected by adding sodium hypochlorite (a chlorinating agent) in sufficient amounts to maintain a free chlorine residual of approximately 0.4 mg/L after 24 h. The disinfected drinking water was then quenched with ascorbic acid and analyzed for 34 neutral DBPs (trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles, haloacetaldehydes, 1,1 dichloro-2-propanone, 1,1,1 trichloro-2-propanone, chloropicrin, and cyanogen chloride). The results were compared to the profile of DBPs obtained under the same conditions in the absence of nano-silver and in the presence of an equivalent concentration of Ag(+) ions (as AgNO3). The stability of the nano-silver dispersions in

Exposure estimates to disinfection by-products of chlorinated drinking water.

PubMed Central

Weisel, C P; Kim, H; Haltmeier, P; Klotz, J B

1999-01-01

Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) of drinking water is multiroute and occurs in households serviced by municipal water treatment facilities that disinfect the water as a necessary step to halt the spread of waterborne infectious diseases. Biomarkers of the two most abundant groups of DBPs of chlorination, exhaled breath levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) and urinary levels of two haloacetic acids, were compared to exposure estimates calculated from in-home tap water concentrations and responses to a questionnaire related to water usage. Background THM breath concentrations were uniformly low. Strong relationships were identified between the THM breath concentrations collected after a shower and both the THM water concentration and the THM exposure from a shower, after adjusting for the postshower delay time in collecting the breath sample. Urinary haloacetic acid excretion rates were not correlated to water concentrations. Urinary trichloroacetic acid excretion rates were correlated with ingestion exposure, and that correlation was stronger in a subset of individuals who consumed beverages primarily within their home where the concentration measurements were made. No correlation was observed between an average 48-hr exposure estimate and the urinary dichloroacetic acid excretion rate, presumably because of its short biological half-life. Valid biomarkers were identified for DBP exposures, but the time between the exposure and sample collection should be considered to account for different metabolic rates among the DBPs. Further, using water concentration as an exposure estimate can introduce misclassification of exposure for DBPs whose primary route is ingestion due to the great variability in the amount of water ingested across a population. Images Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 PMID:9924004

MUTAGENICITY AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN SURFACE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTED WITH PERACETIC ACID

EPA Science Inventory

The aims of this research were to study the influence of peracetic acid (PAA) on the formation of mutagens in surface waters used for human consumption and to assess its potential application for the disinfection of drinking water. The results obtained using PAA were compared to ...

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water and predictive models for their occurrence: a review.

PubMed

Sadiq, Rehan; Rodriguez, Manuel J

2004-04-05

Disinfection for drinking water reduces the risk of pathogenic infection but may pose chemical threat to human health due to disinfection residues and their by-products (DBPs) when the organic and inorganic precursors are present in water. More than 250 DBPs have been identified, but the behavioural profile of only approximately 20 DBPs are adequately known. In the last 2 decades, many modelling attempts have been made to predict the occurrence of DBPs in drinking water. Models have been developed based on data generated in laboratory-scaled and field-scaled investigations. The objective of this paper is to review DBPs predictive models, identify their advantages and limitations, and examine their potential applications as decision-making tools for water treatment analysis, epidemiological studies and regulatory concerns. The paper concludes with a discussion about the future research needs in this area.

Disinfectant susceptibility of different Salmonella serotypes isolated from chicken and egg production chains.

PubMed

Long, M; Lai, H; Deng, W; Zhou, K; Li, B; Liu, S; Fan, L; Wang, H; Zou, L

2016-09-01

The study aimed to serotype the Salmonella isolates recovered from chicken and egg production chains, and to investigate the disinfectant resistance phenotypes and genotypes of these isolates. The Salmonella isolates were serotyped, and the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of disinfectants were determined. Results showed that the Salmonella isolates recovered from both chains were diverse, and the serotypes in each part of the production chain and between the two production chains were significantly different. In the chicken production chain, 19 different serotypes were recovered, while only five serotypes were found in the egg production chain. The isolates showed a high susceptibility to didecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) but a low susceptibility to benzalkonium chloride (BC), benzalkonium bromide (BAB) and chlorhexidine (CHX). Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium were more resistant to BC and BAB. The qacEΔ1 and qacF resistance genes were detected in 26·7 and 7·7% of the isolates respectively. The qacEΔ1 gene was frequently found in Salmonella Derby and Salm. Enteritidis (P < 0·05). Our findings indicated that Salmonella was commonly present in both chains, and could serve as a critical vector in spreading disinfectant resistance associated with different serotypes. This study first demonstrated disinfectant resistance phenotypes and genotypes of serotyped Salmonella. The study highlights the need for monitoring the disinfectant resistance varied in different Salmonella serotypes. © 2016 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

Biological efficacy and toxic effect of emergency water disinfection process based on advanced oxidation technology.

PubMed

Tian, Yiping; Yuan, Xiaoli; Xu, Shujing; Li, Rihong; Zhou, Xinying; Zhang, Zhitao

2015-12-01

An innovative and removable water treatment system consisted of strong electric field discharge and hydrodynamic cavitation based on advanced oxidation technologies was developed for reactive free radicals producing and waterborne pathogens eliminating in the present study. The biological efficacy and toxic effects of this advanced oxidation system were evaluated during water disinfection treatments. Bench tests were carried out with synthetic microbial-contaminated water, as well as source water in rainy season from a reservoir of Dalian city (Liaoning Province, China). Results showed that high inactivation efficiency of Escherichia coli (>5 log) could be obtained for synthetic contaminated water at a low concentration (0.5-0.7 mg L(-1)) of total oxidants in 3-10 s. The numbers of wild total bacteria (108 × 10(3) CFU mL(-1)) and total coliforms (260 × 10(2) MPN 100 mL(-1)) in source water greatly reduced to 50 and 0 CFU mL(-1) respectively after treated by the advanced oxidation system, which meet the microbiological standards of drinking water, and especially that the inactivation efficiency of total coliforms could reach 100%. Meanwhile, source water qualities were greatly improved during the disinfection processes. The values of UV254 in particular were significantly reduced (60-80%) by reactive free radicals. Moreover, the concentrations of possible disinfection by-products (formaldehyde and bromide) in treated water were lower than detection limits, indicating that there was no harmful effect on water after the treatments. These investigations are helpful for the ecotoxicological studies of advanced oxidation system in the treatments of chemical polluted water or waste water. The findings of this work suggest that the developed water treatment system is ideal in the acute phases of emergencies, which also could offer additional advantages over a wide range of applications in water pollution control.

The study of interrelationship between raw water quality parameters, chlorine demand and the formation of disinfection by-products

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Abdullah, Md. Pauzi; Yee, Lim Fang; Ata, Sadia; Abdullah, Abass; Ishak, Basar; Abidin, Khairul Nidzham Zainal

Disinfection is the most crucial process in the treatment of drinking water supply and is the final barrier against bacteriological impurities in drinking water. Chlorine is the primary disinfectant used in the drinking water treatment process throughout Malaysia. However, the occurrence of various disinfection by-products such as trihalomethanes (THM) and haloacetic acids created a major issue on the potential health hazards which may pose adverse health effects in both human and animals. To simulate real water treatment conditions and to represent the conditions inherent in a tropical country, this study was performed at an urbanized water treatment plant with a daily production of about 549,000 m 3 of treated water. The purpose of this work is to examine the relationship between the water quality parameters in the raw water with chlorine demand and the formation of disinfection by-products. This study also investigated the possibility of the statistical model applications for the prediction of chlorine demand and the THM formation. Two models were developed to estimate the chlorine demand and the THM formation. For the statistical evaluation, correlation and simple linear regression analysis were conducted using SPSS. The results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the estimation of goodness-of-fit of the dependent variables of the models to the normal distribution showed that all the dependent variables followed the normal distribution at significance level of 0.05. Good linear correlations were observed between the independent parameters and formation of THM and the chlorine demand. This study also revealed that ammonia and the specific ultraviolet absorbent (SUVA) were the function of chlorine consumption in the treatment process. Chlorine dosage and SUVA increase the yield of THM. Chlorine demand and THM formation was moderately sensitive, but significant to the pH. The level of significance ( α) for the statistical tests and the inclusion of a variable in the

Technologies and costs for control of disinfection by-products

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

1992-12-01

The purpose of the document is to characterize the feasibility of treatment for DBP control and to estimate costs for treatment alternatives that can then be used by utilities to meet national regulations. Treatment criteria were developed through the use of a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) simulation model for parameters critical to disinfection and DBP control.

DEVELOPMENT OF A NOVEL METHOD FOR ANALYSIS OF TRANSCRIPTIONAL CHANGES IN TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM FROM URINARY BLADDERS OF RATS EXPOSED TO DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

Development of a Novel Method for Analysis of Transcriptional Changes in Transitional Epithelium from Urinary Bladders of Rats Exposed to Drinking Water Disinfection By- products.

Epidemiologic studies in human populations that drink chemically disinfected drinking wa...

EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVALUATION OF THE POTENTIAL ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EXPOSURE TO DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBP) AND SEMEN QUALITY

EPA Science Inventory

Epidemiologic Evaluation of the Potential Association between Exposure to Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products and Semen Quality
*Morris, R; +Olshan, A; +Lansdell, L; *Jeffay, S; *Strader, L; *Klinefelter, G; *Perreault, S.

* U.S. EPA/ORD/NHEERL/RTD/GEEBB, Research ...

The healthy men study: an evaluation of exposure to disinfection by-products in tap water and sperm quality

EPA Science Inventory

BACKGROUND: Chlorination of drinking water generates disinfection by-products (DBPs), which have been shown to disrupt spermatogenesis in rodents at high doses, suggesting that DBPs could pose a reproductive risk to men. In this study we assessed DBP exposure and testicular toxic...

Combining Mass Spectrometry and Toxicology for a Multi-Country European Epidemiologic Study on Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products.

EPA Science Inventory

The HiWATE (Health Impacts of long-term exposure to disinfection by-products in drinking WATEr) project is the first systematic analysis that combines the epidemiology on adverse pregnancy outcomes with analytical chemistry and analytical biology in the European Union. This study...

Combining Mass Spectrometry and Toxicology for a Multi-Country European Epidemiologic Study on Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

The HiWATE (Health Impacts of long-term exposure to disinfection by-products in drinking WATEr) project is the first systematic analysis that combines the epidemiology on adverse pregnancy outcomes with analytical chemistry and analytical biology in the European Union. This study...

Drinking Water Disinfection By-products, Genetic Polymorphisms, and Birth Outcomes in a European Mother-Child Cohort Study.

PubMed

Kogevinas, Manolis; Bustamante, Mariona; Gracia-Lavedán, Esther; Ballester, Ferran; Cordier, Sylvaine; Costet, Nathalie; Espinosa, Ana; Grazuleviciene, Regina; Danileviciute, Asta; Ibarluzea, Jesus; Karadanelli, Maria; Krasner, Stuart; Patelarou, Evridiki; Stephanou, Euripides; Tardón, Adonina; Toledano, Mireille B; Wright, John; Villanueva, Cristina M; Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark

2016-11-01

We examined the association between exposure during pregnancy to trihalomethanes, the most common water disinfection by-products, and birth outcomes in a European cohort study (Health Impacts of Long-Term Exposure to Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water). We took into account exposure through different water uses, measures of water toxicity, and genetic susceptibility. We enrolled 14,005 mothers (2002-2010) and their children from France, Greece, Lithuania, Spain, and the UK. Information on lifestyle- and water-related activities was recorded. We ascertained residential concentrations of trihalomethanes through regulatory records and ad hoc sampling campaigns and estimated route-specific trihalomethane uptake by trimester and for whole pregnancy. We examined single nucleotide polymorphisms and copy number variants in disinfection by-product metabolizing genes in nested case-control studies. Average levels of trihalomethanes ranged from around 10 μg/L to above the regulatory limits in the EU of 100 μg/L between centers. There was no association between birth weight and total trihalomethane exposure during pregnancy (β = 2.2 g in birth weight per 10 μg/L of trihalomethane, 95% confidence interval = 3.3, 7.6). Birth weight was not associated with exposure through different routes or with specific trihalomethane species. Exposure to trihalomethanes was not associated with low birth weight (odds ratio [OR] per 10 μg/L = 1.02, 95% confidence interval = 0.95, 1.10), small-for-gestational age (OR = 0.99, 0.94, 1.03) and preterm births (OR = 0.98, 0.9, 1.05). We found no gene-environment interactions for mother or child polymorphisms in relation to preterm birth or small-for-gestational age. In this large European study, we found no association between birth outcomes and trihalomethane exposures during pregnancy in the total population or in potentially genetically susceptible subgroups. (See video abstract at http://links.lww.com/EDE/B104.).

9 CFR 71.11 - Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications. 71.11 Section 71.11 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE INTERSTATE TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

9 CFR 71.11 - Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications. 71.11 Section 71.11 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE INTERSTATE TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

9 CFR 71.11 - Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications. 71.11 Section 71.11 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE INTERSTATE TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

9 CFR 71.11 - Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Cresylic disinfectant as permitted disinfectant; specifications. 71.11 Section 71.11 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE INTERSTATE TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

Disinfection of gloves: feasible, but pay attention to the disinfectant/glove combination.

PubMed

Scheithauer, S; Häfner, H; Seef, R; Seef, S; Hilgers, R D; Lemmen, S

2016-11-01

Compliance with hand hygiene is complicated by indications for hand disinfection in rapid succession during the care of one patient. In such situations, disinfection of gloves could facilitate better workflow and optimize compliance rates. We analysed the efficacy of disinfecting gloves by comparing an individual effect of five different hand disinfectant solutions in combination with three different glove types. The investigation was performed in accordance with DIN EN 1500:2013. For all combinations, ten analyses were performed, including (1) right/left-hand examination disinfection efficacy after the first and fifth contamination with E. coli K12 NCTC 10538, (2) recovery rates after contamination, (3) reduction efficacy, (4) fingertip immersion culture, and (5) check for tightness. Disinfection of the ungloved hands was taken as an additional benchmark. The disinfection efficacy for all disinfectant/glove combinations was better with rather than without gloves. For eight combinations, the disinfection efficacy was always >5.0 log 10 . There were significant differences within the gloves (P=0.0021) and within the disinfectant product (P=0.0023), respectively. In detail, Nitril Blue Eco-Plus performed significantly better than Vasco Braun (P=0.0017) and Latex Med Comfort (P=0.0493). Descoderm showed a significantly worse performance than Promanum pure (P=0.043). In the check for tightness, only the Vasco Braun gloves showed no leaks in all samples. There were relevant qualitative differences pertaining to the comfort of disinfecting gloves. The disinfection efficacy for the different disinfectant/glove combinations was greater than for the ungloved hands. However, various disinfectant/glove combinations produce relevant differences as regards disinfection efficacy. Copyright © 2016 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Medical effects of iodine disinfection products in spacecraft water

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Sauer, Richard L.; Janik, Daniel S.; Thorstenson, Yvonne R.

1987-01-01

Various iodination products (IDPs), including iodinated and iodine-induced new compounds, will be present in the iodine-disinfected water that is expected to be used by crews on the NASA Space Station and on long duration missions. The metabolic intermediaries created by such a process may be more important to crew health than the parent IDPs, and reclamation and recycling may be expected to produce additional products. These medical effects may be expressed in crews as hypersensitivity, allergic, acute toxic, and chronic toxic reactions, as well as modifications of immune system response.

CHLORINATED VS. CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER: TOXICITY-BASED IDENTIFICATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS USING ESI-MS AND ESI-MS/MS

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because some epidemiologic studies have shown that some DBPs are associated with cancer or adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations, and other studies have shown that certain DBPs cause similar h...

Recent advances in drinking water disinfection: successes and challenges.

PubMed

Ngwenya, Nonhlanhla; Ncube, Esper J; Parsons, James

2013-01-01

Drinking water is the most important single source of human exposure to gastroenteric diseases, mainly as a result of the ingestion of microbial contaminated water. Waterborne microbial agents that pose a health risk to humans include enteropathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Therefore, properly assessing whether these hazardous agents enter drinking water supplies, and if they do, whether they are disinfected adequately, are undoubtedly aspects critical to protecting public health. As new pathogens emerge, monitoring for relevant indicator microorganisms (e.g., process microbial indicators, fecal indicators, and index and model organisms) is crucial to ensuring drinking water safety. Another crucially important step to maintaining public health is implementing Water Safety Plans (WSPs), as is recommended by the current WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Good WSPs include creating health-based targets that aim to reduce microbial risks and adverse health effects to which a population is exposed through drinking water. The use of disinfectants to inactivate microbial pathogens in drinking water has played a central role in reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and is considered to be among the most successful interventions for preserving and promoting public health. Chlorine-based disinfectants are the most commonly used disinfectants and are cheap and easy to use. Free chlorine is an effective disinfectant for bacteria and viruses; however, it is not always effective against C. parvum and G. lamblia. Another limitation of using chlorination is that it produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which pose potential health risks of their own. Currently, most drinking water regulations aggressively address DBP problems in public water distribution systems. The DBPs of most concern include the trihalomethanes (THMs), the haloacetic acids (HAAs), bromate, and chlorite. However, in the latest edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality

Mutagenic activity associated with by-products of drinking water disinfection by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone and UV-irradiation.

PubMed Central

Zoeteman, B C; Hrubec, J; de Greef, E; Kool, H J

1982-01-01

A retrospective epidemiological study in The Netherlands showed a statistical association between chlorination by-products in drinking water and cancer of the esophagus and stomach for males. A pilot-plant study with alternative disinfectants was carried out with stored water of the Rivers Rhine and Meuse. It was demonstrated that the increase of direct acting mutagens after treatment with chlorine dioxide is similar to the effect of chlorination. Ozonation of Rhine water reduced the mutagenic activity for Salmonella typhimurium TA 98 both with and without metabolic activation. UV alone hardly affects the mutagenicity of the stored river water for S. typh. TA 98. In all studies, practically no mutagenic activity for S. typh. TA 100 was found. Although remarkable changes in the concentration of individual organic compounds are reported, the identity of the mutagens detected is yet unclear. Compounds of possible interest due to their removal by ozonation are 1,3,3-trimethyloxindole, dicyclopentadiene and several alkylquinolines. Compounds which might be responsible for the increased mutagenicity after chlorination are two brominated acetonitriles and tri(2-chlorethyl) phosphate. Furthermore, the concentration procedure with adsorption on XAD resin and the subsequent elution step may have affected the results. It is proposed to focus further research more on the less volatile by-products of disinfection than on the trihalomethanes. PMID:7151762

THE COMBINED CARCINOGENIC RISK FOR EXPOSURE TO MIXTURES OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS MAY BE LESS THAN ADDITIVE

EPA Science Inventory

The Combined Carcinogenic Risk for Exposure to Mixtures of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products May be Less Than Additive

Risk assessment methods for chemical mixtures in drinking water are not well defined. Current default risk assessments for chemical mixtures assume...

THE OCCURRENCE OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS OF HEALTH CONCERN IN DRINKING WATER: RESULTS OF A NATIONWIDE DBP OCCURRENCE STUDY

EPA Science Inventory

The motivation for this Nationwide Disinfection By-product (DBP) Occurrence Study was two-fold: First, more than 500 DBPs have been reported in the literature, yet there is almost no quantitative occurrence information for most. As a result, there is significant uncertainty ove...

Assessment of reproductive effects on complex mixtures of disinfection by-products in a multigenerational rat bioassay of drinking water concentrates

EPA Science Inventory

To address concerns raised by epidemiology studies, we conducted a multigenerational reproductive toxicity study in rats using a “whole” mixture of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs). Raw water was concentrated ~130 fold, chlorinated, and provided as drinking water to...

Predictive model for disinfection by-product in Alexandria drinking water, northern west of Egypt.

PubMed

Abdullah, Ali M; Hussona, Salah El-dien

2013-10-01

Chlorine has been utilized in the early stages of water treatment processes as disinfectant. Disinfection for drinking water reduces the risk of pathogenic infection but may pose a chemical threat to human health due to disinfection residues and their by-products (DBP) when the organic and inorganic precursors are present in water. In the last two decades, many modeling attempts have been made to predict the occurrence of DBP in drinking water. Models have been developed based on data generated in laboratory-scale and field-scale investigations. The objective of this paper is to develop a predictive model for DBP formation in the Alexandria governorate located at the northern west of Egypt based on field-scale investigations as well as laboratory-controlled experimentations. The present study showed that the correlation coefficient between trihalomethanes (THM) predicted and THM measured was R (2)=0.88 and the minimum deviation percentage between THM predicted and THM measured was 0.8 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 89.3 %, and the average deviation was 17.8 %, while the correlation coefficient between dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) predicted and DCAA measured was R (2)=0.98 and the minimum deviation percentage between DCAA predicted and DCAA measured was 1.3 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 47.2 %, and the average deviation was 16.6 %. In addition, the correlation coefficient between trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) predicted and TCAA measured was R (2)=0.98 and the minimum deviation percentage between TCAA predicted and TCAA measured was 4.9 %, the maximum deviation percentage was 43.0 %, and the average deviation was 16.0 %.

Associations Between Disinfection By-Product Exposures and Craniofacial Birth Defects.

PubMed

Kaufman, John A; Wright, J Michael; Evans, Amanda; Rivera-Núñez, Zorimar; Meyer, Amy; Narotsky, Michael G

2018-02-01

The aim of this study was to examine associations between craniofacial birth defects (CFDs) and disinfection by-product (DBP) exposures, including the sum of four trihalomethanes (THM4) and five haloacetic acids (HAA5) (ie, DBP9). We calculated first trimester adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for different DBPs in a matched case-control study of 366 CFD cases in Massachusetts towns with complete 1999 to 2004 THM and HAA data. We detected elevated aORs for cleft palate with DBP9 (highest quintile aOR = 3.52; 95% CI: 1.07, 11.60), HAA5, trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), and dichloroacetic acid. We detected elevated aORs for eye defects with TCAA and chloroform. This is the first epidemiological study of DBPs to examine eye and ear defects, as well as HAAs and CFDs. The associations for cleft palate and eye defects highlight the importance of examining specific defects and DBPs beyond THM4.

[Study on effect of 3 types of drinking water emergent disinfection models in flood/waterlog areas].

PubMed

Ban, Haiqun; Li, Jin; Li, Xinwu; Zhang, Liubo

2010-09-01

To establish 3 drinking water emergent disinfection processing models, separated medicate dispensing, specific duty medicate dispensing, and centralized filtering, in flood/waterlog areas, and compare the effects of these 3 models on the drinking water disinfection processing. From October to December, 2008, 18 villages were selected as the trial field in Yanglinwei town, Xiantao city, Hubei province, which were divided into three groups, separated medicate dispensing, specific duty medicate dispensing, and centralized filtering. Every 2 weeks, drinking water source water, yielding water of emergency central filtrate water equipment (ECFWE) and container water in the kitchen were sampled and microbe indices of the water sample, standard plate-count bacteria, total coliforms, thermotolerant coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli were measured. The microbe pollution of the water of these 3 water source groups are heavy, all failed. The eliminating rate of the standard plate-count bacteria of the drinking water emergent centralized processing equipment is 99.95%; those of the separate medicate dispensing, specific duty medicate dispensing and centralized filtering are 81.93%, 99.67%, and 98.28%, respectively. The passing rates of the microbe indice of the resident contained water are 13.33%, 70.00%, and 43.33%, respectively. The difference has statistical significance. The drinking water disinfection effects of the centralized filtering model and of the specific duty medicate dispensing model are better than that of the separated medicate dispensing model in the flood/waterlog areas.

Cumulative toxicity of an environmentally relevant mixture of nine regulated disinfection by-products in a multigenerational rat reproductive bioassay

EPA Science Inventory

CUMULATIVE TOXICITY OF AN ENVIRONMENTALLY RELEVANT MIXTURE OF NINE REGULATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN A MULTIGENERATIONAL RAT REPRODUCTIVE BIOASSAY J E Simmons, GR. Klinefelter, JM Goldman, AB DeAngelo, DS Best, A McDonald, LF Strader, AS Murr, JD Suarez, MH George, ES Hunte...

Monohaloacetic acid drinking water disinfection by-products inhibit follicle growth and steroidogenesis in mouse ovarian antral follicles in vitro.

PubMed

Jeong, Clara H; Gao, Liying; Dettro, Tyler; Wagner, Elizabeth D; Ricke, William A; Plewa, Michael J; Flaws, Jodi A

2016-07-01

Water disinfection greatly reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases, but the reaction between disinfectants and natural organic matter in water leads to the formation of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs). DBPs have been shown to be toxic, but their effects on the ovary are not well defined. This study tested the hypothesis that monohalogenated DBPs (chloroacetic acid, CAA; bromoacetic acid, BAA; iodoacetic acid, IAA) inhibit antral follicle growth and steroidogenesis in mouse ovarian follicles. Antral follicles were isolated and cultured with either vehicle or DBPs (0.25-1.00mM of CAA; 2-15μM of BAA or IAA) for 48 and 96h. Follicle growth was measured every 24h and the media were analyzed for estradiol levels at 96h. Exposure to DBPs significantly inhibited antral follicle growth and reduced estradiol levels compared to controls. These data demonstrate that DBP exposure caused ovarian toxicity in vitro. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Monohaloacetic acid drinking water disinfection by-products inhibit follicle growth and steroidogenesis in mouse ovarian antral follicles in vitro

PubMed Central

Jeong, Clara H.; Gao, Liying; Dettro, Tyler; Wagner, Elizabeth D.; Ricke, William A.; Plewa, Michael J.; Flaws, Jodi A.

2016-01-01

Water disinfection greatly reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases, but the reaction between disinfectants and natural organic matter in water leads to the formation of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs). DBPs have been shown to be toxic, but their effects on the ovary are not well defined. This study tested the hypothesis that monohalogenated DBPs (chloroacetic acid, CAA; bromoacetic acid, BAA; iodoacetic acid, IAA) inhibit antral follicle growth and steroidogenesis in mouse ovarian follicles. Antral follicles were isolated and cultured with either vehicle or DBPs (0.25–1.00 mM of CAA; 2–15 µM of BAA or IAA) for 48 and 96 h. Follicle growth was measured every 24 h and the media were analyzed for estradiol levels at 96 h. Exposure to DBPs significantly inhibited antral follicle growth and reduced estradiol levels compared to controls. These data demonstrate that DBP exposure caused ovarian toxicity in vitro. PMID:27151372

CHANGES IN THE CECAL MICROBIAL METABOLISM OF RATS INDUCED BY INDIVIDUAL AND A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

ABSTRACT

Water treatment results in the production of numerous halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), and has been associated with human colorectal cancer. Because the intestinal microbiota can bioactivate xenobiotics, several studies have been done to examine the eff...

Water disinfection: microbes versus molecules - an introduction of issues

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Fowle, J.R. III, Kopfler, F.C.

If the chemicals used to rid drinking water of disease-causing microbes are themselves potentially harmful, is drinking water safe. What trade-offs are acceptable with respect to microbial versus chemical water quality. This conference deals with current thinking about these topics. The subjects discussed reflect the evolution of thinking, both scientifically and socially, about how best to supply the public with safe, pure potable water. The goal of this paper is to introduce the issues associated with disinfectants and disinfectant by-products in water. This will be done by presenting a historical overview of the use of chemical disinfectants to purify drinkingmore » water and the subsequent awareness of potential health concerns. Historically, the major health issue associated with water has been the demonstrated role that water has played in spreading infectious disease. Waterborne infectious agents remain in the environment, and new ones emerge through evolution of humans and microorganisms and because of changing exposure patterns.« less

Drinking water disinfection by-products and time to pregnancy.

PubMed

MacLehose, Richard F; Savitz, David A; Herring, Amy H; Hartmann, Katherine E; Singer, Philip C; Weinberg, Howard S

2008-05-01

Laboratory evidence suggests tap water disinfection by-products (DBPs) could have an effect very early in pregnancy, typically before clinical detectability. Undetected early losses would be expected to increase the reported number of cycles to clinical pregnancy. We investigated the association between specific DBPs (trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, brominated-trihalomethanes, brominated-haloacetic acids, total organic halides, and bromodichloromethane) and time to pregnancy among women who enrolled in a study of drinking water and reproductive outcomes. We quantified exposure to DBPs through concentrations in tap water, quantity ingested through drinking, quantity inhaled or absorbed while showering or bathing, and total integrated exposure. The effect of DBPs on time to pregnancy was estimated using a discrete time hazard model. Overall, we found no evidence of an increased time to pregnancy among women who were exposed to higher levels of DBPs. A modestly decreased time to pregnancy (ie, increased fecundability) was seen among those exposed to the highest level of ingested DBPs, but not for tap water concentration, the amount absorbed while showering or bathing, or the integrated exposure. Our findings extend those of a recently published study suggesting a lack of association between DBPs and pregnancy loss.

Evaluation of associations between lifetime exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and bladder cancer in dogs.

PubMed

Backer, Lorraine C; Coss, Angela M; Wolkin, Amy F; Flanders, W Dana; Reif, John S

2008-06-01

To assess the risk of bladder cancer in dogs from exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and determine whether dogs could serve as sentinels for human bladder cancer associated with such exposures. Case-control study. 100 dogs with cancer of the urinary bladder and 100 control dogs. Case and control dogs were frequency-matched by age (within 2 years) and sex. Owners of dogs enrolled provided verbal informed consent and were interviewed by telephone. The telephone questionnaire included a complete residence history for each dog. Each dog's total exposure history to trihalomethanes was reconstructed from its residence history and corresponding drinking water utility company data. No association was detected between increasing years of exposure to chlorinated drinking water and risk of bladder cancer. Dogs with bladder cancer were exposed to higher total trihalomethanes concentrations than control dogs; however, the difference was not significant. Although humans and their dogs live in the same household, the activity patterns of dogs may lead to lower exposures to household tap water. Thus, although exposure to disinfection by-products in tap water may be a risk factor for human bladder cancer, this may not be true for canine bladder cancer at the concentrations at which dogs are exposed.

9 CFR 96.9 - Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. 96.9 Section 96.9 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EXPORTATION AND IMPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

9 CFR 96.9 - Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Casings admitted on disinfection; sealing; transfer and disinfection. 96.9 Section 96.9 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EXPORTATION AND IMPORTATION OF ANIMALS (INCLUDING POULTRY) AND...

Effects of thermal treatment on halogenated disinfection by-products in drinking water.

PubMed

Wu, W W; Benjamin, M M; Korshin, G V

2001-10-01

The influence of heating or boiling on the formation and behavior of disinfection by-products (DBPs) was investigated in DBP-spiked reagent water, municipal tap water, and synthetic water containing chlorinated aquatic humic substances. Thermal cleavage of larger halogenated species leads to both formation of smaller chlorinated molecules (including THMs and HAAs) and dechlorination of organics. In parallel with their formation from larger molecules, THMs can be volatilized, and this latter process dominates the change in their concentration when water is boiled. HAAs are not volatile, but they can be destroyed by chemical reactions at elevated temperatures, with the net effect being loss of trihalogenated HAAs and either formation or loss of less chlorinated HAAs. Although other identifiable DBPs can be generated at slightly elevated temperatures, in most cases their concentrations decline dramatically when the solution is heated.

Assessment of air and water contamination by disinfection by-products at 41 indoor swimming pools.

PubMed

Tardif, Robert; Catto, Cyril; Haddad, Sami; Simard, Sabrina; Rodriguez, Manuel

2016-07-01

This study was aimed at assessing the profiles (occurrence and speciation) of disinfection by-product (DBP) contamination in air and water of a group of 41 public indoor swimming pools in Québec (Canada). The contaminants measured in the water included the traditional DBPs [i.e., four trihalomethanes (THMs), six haloacetic acids (HAAs)] but also several emergent DBPs [i.e., halonitriles, halonitromethanes, haloketones and nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)]. Those measured in the air comprised THMs and chloramines (CAMs). Overall, extremely variable DBP levels were found from one pool to another (both quantitatively and in terms of speciation). For instance, in water, among the four THMs, chloroform was usually the most abundant compound (37.9±25.7µg/L). Nevertheless, the sum of the three other brominated THMs represented more than 25% of total THMs at almost half the facilities visited (19 cases). In 13 of them, the levels of brominated THMs (66±24.2µg/L) even greatly outweighed the levels of chloroform (15.2±6.31µg/L). Much higher levels of HAAs (294.8±157.6µg/L) were observed, with a consistent preponderance of brominated HAAs in the swimming pools with more brominated THMs. NDMA levels which were measured in a subset of 8 pools ranged between 2.8ng/L and 105ng/L. With respect to air, chloroform was still the most abundant THM globally (119.4±74.2µg/m(3)) but significant levels of brominated THMs were also observed in various cases, particularly in the previously evoked group of 13 swimming pools with preponderant levels of brominated THMs in water. CAM levels (0.23±0.15mg/m(3)) varied highly, ranging from not detected to 0.56mg/m(3). Overall, the levels were generally relatively high compared to current guidelines or reference values from several countries, and they point to a relatively atypical presence of brominated compounds, and to significant levels of emergent DBPs for which health risk is less documented. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights

Evaluation of Commonly Used Products for Disinfecting Clipper Blades in Veterinary Practices: A Pilot Study.

PubMed

Ley, Benjamin; Silverman, Edward; Peery, Kara; Dominguez, Delfina

2016-01-01

Nosocomial infections are a concern of growing interest in veterinary medicine. Clipper blades have been confirmed as fomites for numerous potential pathogens and, as such, may be associated with wound and surgical site infections. The goal of this study was to evaluate the disinfectant capabilities of several commonly used clipper blade cleaning products. Seventy sterile clipper blades were inoculated with strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli , and Staphylococcus aureus . Blades were then subjected to one of seven treatment groups for disinfecting. Quantitative cultures of remaining bacteria were performed. All blades in the control group showed large amounts of bacterial recovery. Culture results showed no recovery in blades soaked in alcohol or chlorhexidine or those sprayed with an ethanol/o-phenylphenol product, while moderate recovery was seen with all other treatments. These results show that persistent contamination of clipper blades can occur with the use of several commonly used disinfectant products. Further research is necessary to evaluate fungicidal capabilities as well as the effect of disinfection on clipper blade maintenance.

PROBING REACTIVITY OF DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER FOR DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT FORMATION USING XAD-8 RESIN ADSORPTION AND ULTRAFILTRATION FRACTIONATION. (R828045)

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection by-product (DBP) reactivity (yield and speciation upon reaction with chlorine) of dissolved organic matter (DOM) isolated from two surface waters was investigated. The source waters, each having significantly different specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA

Evaluating Evidence for Association of Human Bladder Cancer with Drinking-Water Chlorination Disinfection By-Products.

PubMed

Hrudey, Steve E; Backer, Lorraine C; Humpage, Andrew R; Krasner, Stuart W; Michaud, Dominique S; Moore, Lee E; Singer, Philip C; Stanford, Benjamin D

2015-01-01

Exposure to chlorination disinfection by-products (CxDBPs) is prevalent in populations using chlorination-based methods to disinfect public water supplies. Multifaceted research has been directed for decades to identify, characterize, and understand the toxicology of these compounds, control and minimize their formation, and conduct epidemiologic studies related to exposure. Urinary bladder cancer has been the health risk most consistently associated with CxDBPs in epidemiologic studies. An international workshop was held to (1) discuss the qualitative strengths and limitations that inform the association between bladder cancer and CxDBPs in the context of possible causation, (2) identify knowledge gaps for this topic in relation to chlorine/chloramine-based disinfection practice(s) in the United States, and (3) assess the evidence for informing risk management. Epidemiological evidence linking exposures to CxDBPs in drinking water to human bladder cancer risk provides insight into causality. However, because of imprecise, inaccurate, or incomplete estimation of CxDBPs levels in epidemiologic studies, translation from hazard identification directly to risk management and regulatory policy for CxDBPs can be challenging. Quantitative risk estimates derived from toxicological risk assessment for CxDBPs currently cannot be reconciled with those from epidemiologic studies, notwithstanding the complexities involved, making regulatory interpretation difficult. Evidence presented here has both strengths and limitations that require additional studies to resolve and improve the understanding of exposure response relationships. Replication of epidemiologic findings in independent populations with further elaboration of exposure assessment is needed to strengthen the knowledge base needed to better inform effective regulatory approaches.

Evaluating Evidence for Association of Human Bladder Cancer with Drinking-Water Chlorination Disinfection By-Products

PubMed Central

Hrudey, Steve E.; Backer, Lorraine C.; Humpage, Andrew R.; Krasner, Stuart W.; Michaud, Dominique S.; Moore, Lee E.; Singer, Philip C.; Stanford, Benjamin D.

2015-01-01

Exposure to chlorination disinfection by-products (CxDBPs) is prevalent in populations using chlorination-based methods to disinfect public water supplies. Multifaceted research has been directed for decades to identify, characterize, and understand the toxicology of these compounds, control and minimize their formation, and conduct epidemiologic studies related to exposure. Urinary bladder cancer has been the health risk most consistently associated with CxDBPs in epidemiologic studies. An international workshop was held to (1) discuss the qualitative strengths and limitations that inform the association between bladder cancer and CxDBPs in the context of possible causation, (2) identify knowledge gaps for this topic in relation to chlorine/chloramine-based disinfection practice(s) in the United States, and (3) assess the evidence for informing risk management. Epidemiological evidence linking exposures to CxDBPs in drinking water to human bladder cancer risk provides insight into causality. However, because of imprecise, inaccurate, or incomplete estimation of CxDBPs levels in epidemiologic studies, translation from hazard identification directly to risk management and regulatory policy for CxDBPs can be challenging. Quantitative risk estimates derived from toxicological risk assessment for CxDBPs currently cannot be reconciled with those from epidemiologic studies, notwithstanding the complexities involved, making regulatory interpretation difficult. Evidence presented here has both strengths and limitations that require additional studies to resolve and improve the understanding of exposure response relationships. Replication of epidemiologic findings in independent populations with further elaboration of exposure assessment is needed to strengthen the knowledge base needed to better inform effective regulatory approaches. PMID:26309063

INFLUENCE OF THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID ON RAT ESTROUS CYCLICITY AND OVARIAN FOLLICULAR STEROID RELEASE IN VITRO

EPA Science Inventory

The drinking water disinfection by-product, dibromoacetic acid (DBA) has been reported to affect gonadal functions in the male rat. However, there is little information regarding its influence on female reproductive activity. Consequently, the present study investigated the eff...

POWDERED ACTIVATED CARBON FROM NORTH DAKOTA LIGNITE: AN OPTION FOR DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT CONTROL IN WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Daniel J. Stepan; Thomas A. Moe; Melanie D. Hetland

New federal drinking water regulations have been promulgated to restrict the levels of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in finished public water supplies. DBPs are suspected carcinogens and are formed when organic material is partially oxidized by disinfectants commonly used in the water treatment industry. Additional federal mandates are expected in the near future that will further affect public water suppliers with respect to DBPs. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) has traditionally been used by the water treatment industry for the removal of compounds contributing to taste and odor problems. PAC also has the potential to remove naturally occurring organic matter (NOM) frommore » raw waters prior to disinfection, thus controlling the formation of regulated DBPs. Many small water systems are currently using PAC for taste and odor control and have the potential to use PAC for controlling DBPs. This project, a cooperative effort between the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC), the Grand Forks Water Treatment Plant, and the University of North Dakota Department of Civil Engineering, consists of several interrelated tasks. The objective of the research was to evaluate a cost-effective PAC produced from North Dakota lignite for removing NOM from water and reducing trihalomethane formation potential. The research approach was to develop a statistically valid testing protocol that can be used to compare dose-response relationships between North Dakota lignite-derived PAC and commercially available PAC products. A statistical analysis was performed to determine whether significant correlations exist between operating conditions, water properties, PAC properties, and dose-response behavior. Pertinent physical and chemical properties were also measured for each of the waters and each of the PACs.« less

Disinfection by-products and microbial contamination in the treatment of pool water with granular activated carbon.

PubMed

Uhl, W; Hartmann, C

2005-01-01

For swimming pools, it is generally agreed that free chlorine levels have to be maintained to guarantee adequate disinfection. Recommended free chlorine levels can vary between 0.3 and 0.6 mg/L in Germany and up to 3 mg/L in other countries. Bathers introduce considerable amounts of organic matter, mainly in the form of such as urine and sweat, into the pool water. As a consequence, disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are formed. Regulations in Germany recommend levels of combined chlorine of less than 0.2 mg/L and levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) of less than 20 microg/L. Haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), chloropicrin and chloral hydrate are also detected in considerable amounts. However, these compounds are not regulated yet. Swimming pool staff and swimmers, especially athletes, are primarily exposed to these byproducts by inhalation and/or dermal uptake. In Germany, new regulations for swimming pool water treatment generally require the use of activated carbon. In this project, three different types of granular activated carbon (GAC) (one standard GAC, two catalytic GACs) are compared for their long time behaviour in pool water treatment. In a pilot plant operated with real swimming pool water, production and removal of disinfection byproducts (THMs, HAAs, AOXs), of biodegradable substances (AOC), of bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella, coliforms, HPC) as well as the removal of chlorine and chloramines are monitored as function of GAC bed depth. Combined chlorine penetrates deeper in the filter bed than free chlorine does. However, both, free and combined chlorine removal efficiencies decrease over the time of filter operation. The decreases of removal efficiencies are also observed for parameters such as dissolved organic carbon, spectral absorption coefficient, adsorbable organic carbon and most of the disinfection byproducts. However, THMs, especially chloroform are produced in the filter bed. The GAC beds were contaminated microbially

Transformation of pharmaceuticals during oxidation/disinfection processes in drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Postigo, Cristina; Richardson, Susan D

2014-08-30

Pharmaceuticals are emerging contaminants of concern and are widespread in the environment. While the levels of these substances in finished drinking waters are generally considered too low for human health concern, there are now concerns about their disinfection by-products (DBPs) that can form during drinking water treatment, which in some cases have been proven to be more toxic than the parent compounds. The present manuscript reviews the transformation products of pharmaceuticals generated in water during different disinfection processes, i.e. chlorination, ozonation, chloramination, chlorine dioxide, UV, and UV/hydrogen peroxide, and the main reaction pathways taking place. Most of the findings considered for this review come from controlled laboratory studies involving reactions of pharmaceuticals with these oxidants used in drinking water treatment. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Disinfection by-products in ballast water treatment: an evaluation of regulatory data.

PubMed

Werschkun, Barbara; Sommer, Yasmin; Banerji, Sangeeta

2012-10-15

To reduce the global spread of invasive aquatic species, international regulations will soon require reductions of the number of organisms in ballast water discharged by ships. For this purpose, ballast water treatment systems were developed and approved by an international procedure. These systems rely on established water treatment principles which, to different degrees, have been proven to generate disinfection by-products with hazardous properties but have only scarcely been investigated in marine environments. Our study evaluates the publicly available documentation about approved ballast water treatment systems with regard to by-product formation. The most commonly employed methods are chlorination, ozonation, and ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Chlorination systems generate trihalomethanes, halogenated acetic acids, and bromate in substantially larger quantities than reported for other areas of application. Levels are highest in brackish water, and brominated species predominate, in particular bromoform and dibromoacetic acid. Ozonation, which is less frequently utilized, produces bromoform in lower concentrations but forms higher levels of bromate, both of which were effectively reduced by active carbon treatment. In systems based on UV radiation, medium pressure lamps are employed as well as UV-induced advanced oxidation. For all UV systems, by-product formation is reported only occasionally. The most notable observations were small increases in nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, halogenated methanes and acetic acids. The assessment of by-product formation during ballast water treatment is limited by the lacking completeness and quality of available information. This concerns the extent and statistical characterisation of chemical analysis as well as the documentation of the test water parameters. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sensitivity to disinfection of bacterial indicator organisms for monitoring the Salmonella Enteritidis status of layer farms after cleaning and disinfection.

PubMed

Dewaele, I; Ducatelle, R; Herman, L; Heyndrickx, M; De Reu, K

2011-06-01

The present study evaluated Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Enterococcus hirae as potential indicator organisms for the possible Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) presence in layer farms after cleaning and disinfection by comparing their susceptibility to disinfection. A quantitative suspension disinfection test according to European Standard EN1656 was performed using disinfection products CID20 and Virocid (both from CID Lines, Ieper, Belgium). In a preliminary test, the sensitivity to both disinfection products was compared between ATCC strains of SE, E. coli, En. faecalis, and En. hirae. The sensitivity of SE to disinfection was most comparable to that of E. coli. A second disinfection test compared the elimination of E. coli to SE ATCC strains as well as field strains. Results showed no significant effect regarding the strain (P > 0.05 for CID20 and Virocid), meaning that no difference was detected in sensitivity toward disinfection. When comparing the sensitivity in general at species level for all concentrations of disinfectant used, no significant difference was found between E. coli and SE in sensitivity to Virocid (P > 0.05). In conclusion, because of its similar response to disinfection in a suspension disinfection test, E. coli could be used as an indicator for possible Salmonella presence after cleaning and disinfection.

Assessment of Reproductive Effects of Complex Mixtures of Disinfection By-Products in a Multi-Generational Rat Bioassay of Drinking Water Concentrates - Monterey

EPA Science Inventory

To address concerns raised by epidemiology studies, we conducted a multigenerational reproductive toxicity study in rats using a “whole” mixture of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs). Raw water was concentrated ~130 fold, chlorinated, and provided as drinking water to...

Disinfection Pilot Trial for Little Miami WWTP | Science ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

There is a serious interest growing nationally towards the use of PAA at various stages of public waste water treatment facilities; one of such use is secondary waste water treatment. MSDGC is currently interested in improving efficiency and economic aspects of waste water treatment. MSDGC requested for ORD’s support to evaluate alternative cost-effective disinfectants. This report herein is based on the data generated from the field pilot test conducted at the Little Miami Wastewater Treatment Plant. Chlorine assisted disinfection of wastewaters created the concern regarding the formation of high levels of toxic halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) detrimental to aquatic life and public health. Peracetic acid is emerging as a green alternative to chlorine and claimed to have economic and social benefits. In addition, it is a relatively simple retrofit to the existing chlorine treated wastewater treatment facilities. PAA is appealed to possess a much lower aquatic toxicity profile than chlorine and decays rapidly in the environment, even if overdosed. As a result, PAA generally does not need a quenching step, such as dechlorination, reducing process complexity, sodium pollution and cost. PAA treatment does not result in the formation of chlorinated disinfection by-products such as trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids and other byproducts such as cyanide and n-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA).

Chemistry, Toxicity and Health Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Disinfection ByProducts

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are formed by the reaction of oxidizing chemicals (such as chlorine, ozone and chloramines) used to control waterborne pathogens with natural organic material and other substances in water. DBP mixture composition varies as a function of geographic ...

[Control of disinfection in buildings used for poultry raising].

PubMed

Maris, P

1989-01-01

During a 2-year survey in turkey breeding farms, it was possible to compare six disinfection procedures by monitoring 14 first disinfections following the breeding house cleaning and 14 second disinfections prior to animal return. By swabbing all the germs from asbestos concrete surfaces, we noted that in the case of first disinfection the chloramine T-based product was more effective than phenol or quaternary ammonium-aldehyde-based products. For the second disinfection, it was demonstrated that a minimal dose of 15 kg of formaldehyde was necessary for disinfection to be satisfactory; 12 to 15 kg paraformaldehyde was as effective as 40 to 60 liters of 30-35% formol for buildings, the ground surface of which covered between 1,000 and 1,300 m2.

2008 Meeting in Germany: Emerging Environmental Contaminants and Current Issues

EPA Science Inventory

This presentation will discuss emerging environmental contaminants that are currently of concern to the U.S. EPA and to other agencies. Emerging contaminants include drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs), perfluorinated chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flame retardants, benzo...

Commercial Disinfectants During Disinfection Process Validation: More Failures than Success.

PubMed

Chatterjee, Shiv Sekhar; Chumber, Sushil Kumar; Khanduri, Uma

2016-08-01

Disinfection process validation is mandatory before introduction of a new disinfectant in hospital services. Commercial disinfection brands often question existing hospital policy claiming greater efficacy and lack of toxicity of their products. Inadvertent inadequate disinfection leads to morbidity, patient's economic burden, and the risk of mortality. To evaluate commercial disinfectants for high, intermediate and low-level disinfection so as to identify utility for our routine situations. This laboratory based experiment was conducted at St Stephen Hospital, Delhi during July-September 2013. Twelve commercial disinfectants: Sanidex®, Sanocid®, Cidex®, SekuSept Aktiv®, BIB Forte®, Alprojet W®, Desnet®, Sanihygiene®, Incidin®, D125®, Lonzagard®, and Glutishield® were tested. Time-kill assay (suspension test) was performed against six indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhi, Bacillus cereus, and Mycobacterium fortuitum). Low and high inoculum (final concentrations 1.5X10(6) and 9X10(6) cfu/ml) of the first five bacteria while only low level of M. fortuitum was tested. Cidex® (2.4% Glutaraldehyde) performed best as high level disinfectant while newer quarternary ammonium compounds (QACs) (Incidin®, D125®, and Lonzagard®) were good at low level disinfection. Sanidex® (0.55% Ortho-pthalaldehyde) though mycobactericidal took 10 minutes for sporicidal activity. Older QAC containing BIB Forte® and Desnet® took 20 minutes to fully inhibit P. aeruginosa. All disinfectants effectively reduced S. Typhi to zero counts within 5 minutes. Cidex® is a good high-level disinfectant while newer QACs (Incidin®, D125®, and Lonzagard®) were capable low-level disinfectants.

Case study approach to modeling historical disinfection by-product exposure in Iowa drinking waters.

PubMed

Krasner, Stuart W; Cantor, Kenneth P; Weyer, Peter J; Hildesheim, Mariana; Amy, Gary

2017-08-01

In the 1980s, a case-control epidemiologic study was conducted in Iowa (USA) to analyze the association between exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) and bladder cancer risk. Trihalomethanes (THMs), the most commonly measured and dominant class of DBPs in drinking water, served as a primary metric and surrogate for the full DBP mixture. Average THM exposure was calculated, based on rough estimates of past levels in Iowa. To reduce misclassification, a follow-up study was undertaken to improve estimates of past THM levels and to re-evaluate their association with cancer risk. In addition, the risk associated with haloacetic acids, another class of DBPs, was examined. In the original analysis, surface water treatment plants were assigned one of two possible THM levels depending on the point of chlorination. The re-assessment considered each utility treating surface or groundwater on a case-by-case basis. Multiple treatment/disinfection scenarios and water quality parameters were considered with actual DBP measurements to develop estimates of past levels. The highest annual average THM level in the re-analysis was 156μg/L compared to 74μg/L for the original analysis. This allowed the analysis of subjects exposed at higher levels (>96μg/L). The re-analysis established a new approach, based on case studies and an understanding of the water quality and operational parameters that impact DBP formation, for determining historical exposure. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Meeting in Canada: Chlorinated vs. Chloraminated Drinking Water: Toxicity-Based Identification of Disinfection By-Products Using ESI-MS and ESI-MS/MS

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because epidemiologic studies have shown that they are associated with bladder cancer and adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations. There is almost no information on high molecular weight DBPs (>...

Removal of soluble microbial products as the precursors of disinfection by-products in drinking water supplies.

PubMed

Liu, Jin-Lin; Li, Xiao-Yan

2015-01-01

Water pollution worsens the problem of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water supply. Biodegradation of wastewater organics produces soluble microbial products (SMPs), which can be important DBP precursors. In this laboratory study, a number of enhanced water treatment methods for DBP control, including enhanced coagulation, ozonation, and activated carbon adsorption, were evaluated for their effectiveness in treating SMP-containing water for the DBP reduction purpose. The results show that enhanced coagulation with alum could remove SMPs only marginally and decrease the DBP formation potential (DBPFP) of the water by less than 20%. Although ozone could cause destruction of SMPs in water, the overall DBPFP of the water did not decrease but increased after ozonation. In contrast, adsorption by granular activated carbon could remove the SMP organics from water by more than 60% and reduce the DBPFP by more than 70%. It is apparent that enhanced coagulation and ozonation are not suitable for the removal of SMPs as DBP precursors from polluted water, although enhanced coagulation has been commonly used to reduce the DBP formation caused by natural organic matter. In comparison, activated carbon adsorption is shown as a more effective means to remove the SMP content from water and hence to control the wastewater-derived DBP problem in water supply.

Disinfection By-Product Exposures and the Risk of Specific Cardiac Birth Defects

PubMed Central

Wright, J. Michael; Evans, Amanda; Kaufman, John A.; Rivera-Núñez, Zorimar; Narotsky, Michael G.

2016-01-01

Background: Epidemiological studies suggest that women exposed to disinfection by-products (DBPs) have an increased risk of delivering babies with cardiovascular defects (CVDs). Objective: We examined nine CVDs in relation to categorical DBP exposures including bromoform, chloroform, dibromochloromethane (DBCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), monobromoacetic acid (MBAA), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), and summary DBP measures (HAA5, THMBr, THM4, and DBP9). Methods: We calculated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) in a case–control study of birth defects in Massachusetts with complete quarterly 1999–2004 trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) data. We randomly matched 10 controls each to 904 CVD cases based on week of conception. Weight-averaged aggregate first-trimester DBP exposures were assigned to individuals based on residence at birth. Results: We detected associations for tetralogy of Fallot and the upper exposure categories for TCAA, DCAA, and HAA5 (aOR range, 3.34–6.51) including positive exposure–response relationships for DCAA and HAA5. aORs consistent in magnitude were detected between atrial septal defects and bromoform (aOR = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.01, 2.43), as well as DBCM, chloroform, and THM4 (aOR range, 1.26–1.67). Ventricular septal defects (VSDs) were associated with the highest bromoform (aOR = 1.85; 95% CI: 1.20, 2.83), MBAA (aOR = 1.81; 95% CI: 0.85, 3.84), and DBCM (aOR = 1.54; 95% CI: 1.00, 2.37) exposure categories. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first birth defect study to develop multi-DBP adjusted regression models as well as the first CVD study to evaluate HAA exposures and the second to evaluate bromoform exposures. Our findings, therefore, inform exposure specificity for the consistent associations previously reported between THM4 and CVDs including VSDs. Citation: Wright JM, Evans A, Kaufman JA, Rivera-Núñez Z, Narotsky MG. 2017. Disinfection by-product exposures and the risk of specific

CARCINOGENICITY OF INDIVIDUAL AND A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN A RAT MODEL OF HEREDITARY RENAL CELL CARCINOMA

EPA Science Inventory

Carcinogenicity of Individual and a Mixture of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products in a Rat Model of Hereditary Renal Cell Carcinoma

Eker rats develop hereditary renal cell carcinoma secondary to a germline mutation in the tuberous sclerosis 2 (Tsc2) gene and are ligh...

MEETING IN CHINA: CHLORINATED VS. CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER: TOXICITY-BASED IDENTIFICATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS USING ESI-MS AND ESI-MS/MS

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) are of concern because epidemiologic studies have shown that they are associated with bladder cancer and adverse reproductive/developmental effects in human populations, and some cause cancer in laboratory animals. As a result, the U...

MUTAGENICITY OF DRINKING WATER FOLLOWING DISINFECTION

EPA Science Inventory

Many drinking water utilities in the USA are considering alternatives to chlorine for disinfection in order to comply with federal regulations regarding disinfection by-products. An evaluation is thus needed of the potential risks associated with the use of alternative disinfecta...

Susceptibility of Vaccinia Virus to Chemical Disinfectants

PubMed Central

de Oliveira, Tércia Moreira Ludolfo; Rehfeld, Izabelle Silva; Coelho Guedes, Maria Isabel Maldonado; Ferreira, Jaqueline Maria Siqueira; Kroon, Erna Geessien; Lobato, Zélia Inês Portela

2011-01-01

Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the cause of bovine vaccinia (BV), an emerging zoonotic disease that affects dairy cows and milkers. Some chemical disinfectants have been used on farms affected by BV to disinfect cow teats and milkers' hands. To date, there is no information about the efficacy of disinfectants against VACV. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the virucidal activity of some active disinfectants commonly used in the field. Sodium hypochlorite, quaternary ammonium combined with chlorhexidine, and quaternary ammonium combined with glutaraldehyde were effective in inactivating the virus at all concentrations tested. Iodine and quaternary ammonium as the only active component were partially effective. The presence of bovine feces as organic matter and light decreased the effectiveness of sodium hypochlorite. These results show that an appropriated disinfection and asepsis of teats and hands may be helpful in the control and prevention of BV and other infections with VACV. PMID:21734141

List M: Registered Antimicrobial Products with Label Claims for Avian (Bird) Flu Disinfectants

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

These EPA disinfectant products are registered and labeled with a claim to inactivate Avian influenza A viruses on hard, non-porous surfaces. The label specifies the use sites (e.g., poultry houses and farm premises) for application of the product.

COMPONENT-BASED AND WHOLE-MIXTURE TECHNIQUES FOR ADDRESSING THE TOXICITY OF DRINKING-WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT MIXTURES

EPA Science Inventory

Chemical disinfection of water is of direct public health benefit as it results in decreased waterborne illness. The chemicals used to disinfect water react with naturally occurring organic matter, bromide and iodide in the source water, resulting in the formation of disinfection...

Developmental Toxicity Evaluations of Whole Mixtures of Disinfection By-products using Concentrated Drinking Water in Rats: Gestational and Lactational Effects of Sulfate and Sodium

EPA Science Inventory

A developmental toxicity bioassay was used in three experiments to evaluate drinking water concentrates for suitability in multigenerational studies. First, chlorinated water was concentrated 135 fold by reverse osmosis; select lost disinfection by-products were spiked back. Co...

Developmental Toxicity Evaluations of Whole Mixtures of Disinfection By-products using Concentrated Drinking Water in Rats: Gestational and Lactational Effects of Sulfate and Sodium*

EPA Science Inventory

A developmental toxicity bioassay was used in three experiments to evaluate drinking water concentrates for suitability in multigenerational studies. First, chlorinated water was concentrated 135 fold by reverse osmosis; select lost disinfection by-products were spiked back. Conc...

Guidance to Companies on Referring to Registered Disinfectant Products that Meet the CDC Criteria for Use Against the Ebola Virus

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

There are no EPA-registered products with label claims against the Ebola virus, but enveloped viruses such as Ebola are susceptible to many hospital disinfectants used to disinfect hard, non-porous surfaces. CDC guidance addresses use of such products.

TWENTY WEEK EXPOSURES TO THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID: REPRODUCTIVE CYCLICITY AND STEROID CONCENTRATIONS IN THE FEMALE SPRAGUE-DAWLEY RAT

EPA Science Inventory

Abstract
Elevated gavage exposures to the drinking water disinfection by-product dibromoacetic acid (DBA) have been found to disrupt estrous cyclicity in the rat and induce increases in estradiol concentrations in both cycling (day of estrus) and ovariectomized/estradiol-impla...

Effect of Permanganate Preoxidation to Natural Organic Matter and Disinfection by-Products Formation Potential Removal

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Hidayah, E. N.; Yeh, H. H.

2018-01-01

Laboratory scale experiments was conducted to examine effect of permanganate (KMnO4) peroxidation in characterizing and to remove natural organic matter (NOM) in source water. The experimental results shows that increasing permanganate dosage could decreased aromatic matter, as indicated by decreasing UV254 and SUVA value about 23% and 28%, respectively. It seems that permanganate preoxidation caused the breakdown of high molecular weight (MW) organics into low MW ones, as represented by increasing NPDOC about 10%. Further, disinfection by-products formation potential (DBPFP) in terms of trihalomethanes formation potential (THMFP) and haloacetic acid formation potential (HAAP) decreased about 15% and 23%, respectively. HAAFP removal is higher than THMFP removal and that DPBFP removal is consistent with UV254 and NPDOC removal.

Silver-based Antibacterial Surfaces for Drinking Water Disinfection - An overview

EPA Science Inventory

Risks associated with current disinfection techniques, including the formation of disinfection by-products and multi-drug resistant bacterial species, have prompted the exploration of advanced disinfection methods. One such technique employs silver nanoparticles incorporation on ...

Removal of disinfection by-product precursors by coagulation and an innovative suspended ion exchange process.

PubMed

Metcalfe, David; Rockey, Chris; Jefferson, Bruce; Judd, Simon; Jarvis, Peter

2015-12-15

This investigation aimed to compare the disinfection by-product formation potentials (DBPFPs) of three UK surface waters (1 upland reservoir and 2 lowland rivers) with differing characteristics treated by (a) a full scale conventional process and (b) pilot scale processes using a novel suspended ion exchange (SIX) process and inline coagulation (ILCA) followed by ceramic membrane filtration (CMF). Liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection analysis highlighted clear differences between the organic fractions removed by coagulation and suspended ion exchange. Pretreatments which combined SIX and coagulation resulted in significant reductions in dissolved organic carbon (DOC), UV absorbance (UVA), trihalomethane and haloacetic acid formation potential (THMFP, HAAFP), in comparison with the SIX or coagulation process alone. Further experiments showed that in addition to greater overall DOC removal, the processes also reduced the concentration of brominated DBPs and selectively removed organic compounds with high DBPFP. The SIX/ILCA/CMF process resulted in additional removals of DOC, UVA, THMFP, HAAFP and brominated DBPs of 50, 62, 62, 62% and 47% respectively compared with conventional treatment. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

High-level endoscope disinfection processes in emerging economies: financial impact of manual process versus automated endoscope reprocessing.

PubMed

Funk, S E; Reaven, N L

2014-04-01

The use of flexible endoscopes is growing rapidly around the world. Dominant approaches to high-level disinfection among resource-constrained countries include fully manual cleaning and disinfection and the use of automated endoscope reprocessors (AERs). Suboptimal reprocessing at any step can potentially lead to contamination, with consequences to patients and healthcare systems. To compare the potential results of guideline-recommended AERs to manual disinfection along three dimensions - productivity, need for endoscope repair, and infection transmission risk in India, China, and Russia. Financial modelling using data from peer-reviewed published literature and country-specific market research. In countries where revenue can be gained through productivity improvements, conversion to automated reprocessing has a positive direct impact on financial performance, paying back the capital investment within 14 months in China and seven months in Russia. In India, AER-generated savings and revenue offset nearly all of the additional operating costs needed to support automated reprocessing. Among endoscopy facilities in India and China, current survey-reported practices in endoscope reprocessing using manual soaking may place patients at risk of exposure to pathogens leading to infections. Conversion from manual soak to use of AERs, as recommended by the World Gastroenterology Organization, may generate cost and revenue offsets that could produce direct financial gains for some endoscopy units in Russia and China. Copyright © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Detection of genotoxic effects of drinking water disinfection by-products using Vicia faba bioassay.

PubMed

Hu, Yu; Tan, Li; Zhang, Shao-Hui; Zuo, Yu-Ting; Han, Xue; Liu, Na; Lu, Wen-Qing; Liu, Ai-Lin

2017-01-01

Plant-based bioassays have gained wide use among the toxicological and/or ecotoxicological assessment procedures because of their simplicity, sensitivity, low cost, and reliability. The present study describes the use of Vicia faba (V. faba) micronucleus (MN) test and V. faba comet assay in the evaluation of the genotoxic potential of disinfection by-products (DBPs) commonly found in chlorine-disinfected drinking water. Five haloacetic acids and three halogenated acetonitriles were chosen as representatives of DBPs in this study because they are of potentially great public health risk. Results of the MN test indicated that monochloroacetic acid (MCA), monobromoacetic acid (MBA), dichloroacetic acid (DCA), dibromoacetic acid (DBA), trichloroacetic acid (TCA), and trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) caused a statistically significant increase in MN frequency in V. faba root tip cells. However, no genotoxic response was observed for dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN). Results of the comet assay showed that all tested DBPs induced a statistically significant increase in genomic DNA damage to V. faba root tip cells. On considering the capacity to detect genomic damage of a different nature, we suggest that a combination of V. faba MN test and V. faba comet assay is a useful tool for the detection of genotoxic effects of DBPs. It is worthy of assessing the feasibility of using V. faba comet assay combined with V. faba MN test to screen for the genotoxic activity of chlorinated drinking water in future work.

HUMAN EXPOSURE TO WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS VIA FOODS AND BEVERAGES

EPA Science Inventory

The ingestion of tap water is a major route of exposure to water disinfection byproducts (DBPs), including haloacetonitriles, haloketones, and haloacetic acids. A potentially significant alternate route of exposure is through the consumption of beverages prepared with tap water ...

Disinfection of Contaminated Water by Using Solar Irradiation

PubMed Central

Caslake, Laurie F.; Connolly, Daniel J.; Menon, Vilas; Duncanson, Catriona M.; Rojas, Ricardo; Tavakoli, Javad

2004-01-01

Contaminated water causes an estimated 6 to 60 billion cases of gastrointestinal illness annually. The majority of these cases occur in rural areas of developing nations where the water supply remains polluted and adequate sanitation is unavailable. A portable, low-cost, and low-maintenance solar unit to disinfect unpotable water has been designed and tested. The solar disinfection unit was tested with both river water and partially processed water from two wastewater treatment plants. In less than 30 min in midday sunlight, the unit eradicated more than 4 log10 U (99.99%) of bacteria contained in highly contaminated water samples. The solar disinfection unit has been field tested by Centro Panamericano de Ingenieria Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente in Lima, Peru. At moderate light intensity, the solar disinfection unit was capable of reducing the bacterial load in a controlled contaminated water sample by 4 log10 U and disinfected approximately 1 liter of water in 30 min. PMID:14766599

Disinfection of contaminated water by using solar irradiation.

PubMed

Caslake, Laurie F; Connolly, Daniel J; Menon, Vilas; Duncanson, Catriona M; Rojas, Ricardo; Tavakoli, Javad

2004-02-01

Contaminated water causes an estimated 6 to 60 billion cases of gastrointestinal illness annually. The majority of these cases occur in rural areas of developing nations where the water supply remains polluted and adequate sanitation is unavailable. A portable, low-cost, and low-maintenance solar unit to disinfect unpotable water has been designed and tested. The solar disinfection unit was tested with both river water and partially processed water from two wastewater treatment plants. In less than 30 min in midday sunlight, the unit eradicated more than 4 log10 U (99.99%) of bacteria contained in highly contaminated water samples. The solar disinfection unit has been field tested by Centro Panamericano de Ingenieria Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente in Lima, Peru. At moderate light intensity, the solar disinfection unit was capable of reducing the bacterial load in a controlled contaminated water sample by 4 log10 U and disinfected approximately 1 liter of water in 30 min.

Improving stethoscope disinfection at a children's hospital.

PubMed

Zaghi, Justin; Zhou, Jing; Graham, Dionne A; Potter-Bynoe, Gail; Sandora, Thomas J

2013-11-01

Stethoscopes are contaminated with pathogenic bacteria and pose a risk for transmission of infections, but few clinicians disinfect their stethoscope after every use. We sought to improve stethoscope disinfection rates among pediatric healthcare providers by providing access to disinfection materials and visual reminders to disinfect stethoscopes. Prospective intervention study. Inpatient units and emergency department of a major pediatric hospital. Physicians and nurses with high anticipated stethoscope use. Baskets filled with alcohol prep pads and a sticker reminding providers to regularly disinfect stethoscopes were installed outside of patient rooms. Healthcare providers' stethoscope disinfection behaviors were directly observed before and after the intervention. Multivariable logistic regression models were created to identify independent predictors of stethoscope disinfection. Two hundred twenty-six observations were made in the preintervention period and 261 in the postintervention period (83% were of physicians). Stethoscope disinfection compliance increased significantly from a baseline of 34% to 59% postintervention (P < .001). In adjusted analyses, the postintervention period was associated with improved disinfection among both physicians (odds ratio [OR], 2.3 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.4-3.5]) and nurses (OR, 14.3 [95% CI, 4.6-44.6]). Additional factors independently associated with disinfection included subspecialty unit (vs general pediatrics; OR, 0.5 [95% CI, 0.3-0.8]) and contact precautions (OR, 2.3 [95% CI, 1.2-4.1]). Providing stethoscope disinfection supplies and visible reminders outside of patient rooms significantly increased stethoscope disinfection rates among physicians and nurses at a children's hospital. This simple intervention could be replicated at other healthcare facilities. Future research should assess the impact on patient infections.

ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN FOODS AND BEVERAGES

EPA Science Inventory

The determination of exposure to drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) requires an understanding of how drinking waters come into contact with the human through multiple pathways. The most significant pathway is the ingestion of drinking water. However, ingestion can oc...

ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN FOODS AND BEVERAGES

EPA Science Inventory

The determination of exposure to drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) requires an understanding of how drinking water comes in contact with humans through multiple pathways. In order to facilitate the investigation of human exposure to DBPs via foods and beverages, analy...

Peracetic acid in the disinfection of a hospital water system contaminated with Legionella species.

PubMed

Ditommaso, Savina; Biasin, Cinzia; Giacomuzzi, Monica; Zotti, Carla Maria; Cavanna, Alberto; Ruggenini Moiraghi, Angela

2005-05-01

To assess the efficacy of an alternative disinfection method for hospital water distribution systems contaminated with Legionella. Disinfection with peracetic acid was performed in a small hospital contaminated with L. pneumophila serotype 1. The disinfectant was used at concentrations of 50 ppm (first three surveillance phases) and 1,000 ppm (fourth surveillance phase) for 30 minutes. Environmental monitoring revealed that disinfection was maintained 1 week after treatment; however, levels of recontamination surpassing baseline values were detected after approximately 1 month. Comparison of water temperatures measured at the distal outlets showed a statistically significant association between temperature and bacterial load. The circulating water temperature was found to be lower in the two wards farthest away from the hot water production plant than in other wards. It was thought that the lower water temperature in the two wards promoted the bacterial growth even after disinfection. Peracetic acid may be useful in emergency situations, but does not provide definitive protection even if used monthly.

Conductive diamond sono-electrochemical disinfection (CDSED) for municipal wastewater reclamation.

PubMed

Llanos, Javier; Cotillas, Salvador; Cañizares, Pablo; Rodrigo, Manuel A

2015-01-01

In the present work, the disinfection of actual effluents from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) by a conductive diamond sono-electrochemical process was assessed. First, efficiency of single electrodisinfection process with diamond anodes (without the contribution of ultrasounds) was studied, finding that the total disinfection can be attained at current charges applied below 0.02kAhm(-3). It was also found that the main disinfection mechanism is the attack of Escherichia coli (E. coli) by the disinfectants produced in the electrochemical cell and that the production of chlorates is avoided when working at current densities not higher than 1.27Am(-2). Next, a marked synergistic effect was found when coupling ultrasound (US) irradiation to the electrochemical system (sono-electrochemical disinfection). This increase in the disinfection rate was found to be related to the suppression of the agglomeration of E. coli cells and the enhancement in the production of disinfectant species. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Control of disinfection by-products in canned vegetables caused by water used in their processing.

PubMed

Cardador, Maria Jose; Gallego, Mercedes

2017-01-01

Canned vegetables come into contact with sanitizers and/or treated water in industry during several steps (namely washing, sanitising, blanching and filling with sauces or brine solutions) and therefore they can contain disinfection by-products - DBPs). This study focused on the occurrence of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in a wide variety of canned vegetables (75 samples). For each vegetable, the edible solid and liquid phases of the package were separated and analysed individually. DBPs can be present in both solid (up to eight species) and liquid (up to 11 species) phases, their levels being higher in liquid ones. Volatile THMs predominate in the edible solid phase (up to four species), while HAAs do so in the liquid phase (up to five species) according to their ionic and non-volatile nature. The lowest concentrations of DBPs were found in tomatoes because they were often preserved in their own juice, without water.

Disinfection of low quality wastewaters by ultraviolet irradiation

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Zukovs, G.; Kollar, J.; Monteith, H.D.

1986-03-01

Pilot-scale disinfection of simulated combined sewer overflow (CSO) by ultraviolet light (UV) and by high-rate chlorination were compared. Disinfection efficiency was evaluated over a range of dosages and contact times for fecal coliforms, enterococci, P. Aeruginosa, and Salmonella spp. Fecal coliform were reduced 3.0 to 3.2 logs at a UV dose of approximately 350,000..mu.. W s/cm/sup 2/. High-rate chlorination, at a contact time of 2.0 minutes and total residual chlorine concentration of approximately 25 mg/L (as Cl/sub 2/), reduced fecal coliforms by 4.0 logs. Pathogens were reduced to detection limits by both processes. Neither photoreactivation nor regrowth occurred int hemore » disinfected effluents. The estimated capital costs of CSO disinfection by UV irradiation were consistently higher than for chlorination/dechlorination; operation and maintenance costs were similar. 19 references.« less

Disinfecting capabilities of oxychlorine compounds.

PubMed Central

Noss, C I; Olivieri, V P

1985-01-01

The bacterial virus f2 was inactivated by chlorine dioxide at acidic, neutral, and alkaline pH values. The rate of inactivation increased with increasing pH. Chlorine dioxide disproportionation products, chlorite and chlorate, were not active disinfectants. As chlorine dioxide solutions were degraded under alkaline conditions, they displayed reduced viricidal effectiveness, thereby confirming the chlorine dioxide free radical as the active disinfecting species. PMID:3911893

Genotoxicity analysis of two halonitromethanes, a novel group of disinfection by-products (DBPs), in human cells treated in vitro

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Liviac, Danae; Creus, Amadeu; Marcos, Ricard

Halonitromethanes (HNMs) constitute an emerging class of disinfection by-products (DBPs) produced when chlorine and/or ozone are used for water treatment. The HNMs are structurally similar to halomethanes, but have a nitro-group in place of hydrogen bonded to the central carbon atom. Since little information exists on the genotoxic potential of HNMs, a study has been carried out with two HNM compounds, namely trichloronitromethane (TCNM) and bromonitromethane (BNM) by using human cells. Primary damage induction has been measured with the Comet assay, which is used to determine both the repair kinetics of the induced damage and the proportion of induced oxidativemore » damage. In addition, the fixed DNA damage has been evaluated by using the micronucleus (MN) assay. The results obtained indicate that both compounds are genotoxic, inducing high levels of DNA breaks in the Comet assay, and that this DNA damage repairs well over time. In addition, oxidized bases constitute a high proportion of DNA-induced damage (50-75%). Contrarily, no positive effects were observed in the frequency of micronucleus, which measures both clastogenic and aneugenic effects, neither using TK6 cells nor peripheral blood lymphocytes. This lack of fixed genetic damage would minimize the potential mutagenic risk associated with HNMs exposure.« less

MEMBRANE EXTRACTION GC/MS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

For many years, public water supplies in the U.S.have been treated with a variety of chemicals aimed at reducing or eliminating infectious diseases. Chlorine is the most common disinfectant used to combat waterborne microbial diseases; however, the use of ozone, chlorine dioxid...

Mass Spectrometry Identification of Toxicologically Important Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection of drinking water has been rightly hailed as a public health triumph of the 20th century. Before its widespread use, millions of people died from waterborne diseases. Now, people in developed nations receive quality drinking water every day from their public wate...

DEVELOP METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT FORMATION POTENTIAL (DBP-FP) AND INSTRUMENT DETECTION SYSTEM FOR MONITORING DBP-FP IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

EPA requires drinking water utilities to monitor source water to determine the need for treatment to remove the precursors (natural organic matter {NOM}) of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Currently, drinking water utilities use total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic car...

Chlorination of oxybenzone: Kinetics, transformation, disinfection byproducts formation, and genotoxicity changes.

PubMed

Zhang, Shujuan; Wang, Xiaomao; Yang, Hongwei; Xie, Yuefeng F

2016-07-01

UV filters are a kind of emerging contaminant, and their transformation behavior in water treatment processes has aroused great concern. In particular, toxic products might be produced during reaction with disinfectants during the disinfection process. As one of the most widely used UV filters, oxybenzone has received significant attention, because its transformation and toxicity changes during chlorine oxidation are a concern. In our study, the reaction between oxybenzone and chlorine followed pseudo-first-order and second-order kinetics. Three transformation products were detected by LC-MS/MS, and the stability of products followed the order of tri-chloro-methoxyphenoyl > di-chlorinated oxybenzone > mono-chlorinated oxybenzone. Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) including chloroform, trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid and chloral hydrate were quickly formed, and increased at a slower rate until their concentrations remained constant. The maximum DBP/oxybenzone molar yields for the four compounds were 12.02%, 6.28%, 0.90% and 0.23%, respectively. SOS/umu genotoxicity test indicated that genotoxicity was highly elevated after chlorination, and genotoxicity showed a significantly positive correlation with the response of tri-chloro-methoxyphenoyl. Our results indicated that more genotoxic transformation products were produced in spite of the elimination of oxybenzone, posing potential threats to drinking water safety. This study shed light on the formation of DBPs and toxicity changes during the chlorination process of oxybenzone. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Drowning in Disinfection Byproducts? Swimming Pool Water Quality

EPA Science Inventory

Disinfection is mandatory for swimming pools, because transmission of disease by bacteria, virus and protozoa is the most significant health issue. However another issue arises, and care should be taken to minimize the risks from disinfection by-products (DBPs). Public pools are ...

Assessing exposure in epidemiologic studies to disinfection by-products in drinking water: report from an international workshop.

PubMed Central

Arbuckle, Tye E; Hrudey, Steve E; Krasner, Stuart W; Nuckols, Jay R; Richardson, Susan D; Singer, Philip; Mendola, Pauline; Dodds, Linda; Weisel, Clifford; Ashley, David L; Froese, Kenneth L; Pegram, Rex A; Schultz, Irvin R; Reif, John; Bachand, Annette M; Benoit, Frank M; Lynberg, Michele; Poole, Charles; Waller, Kirsten

2002-01-01

The inability to accurately assess exposure has been one of the major shortcomings of epidemiologic studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. A number of contributing factors include a) limited information on the identity, occurrence, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of the many DBPs that can be formed from chlorine, chloramine, ozone, and chlorine dioxide disinfection; b) the complex chemical interrelationships between DBPs and other parameters within a municipal water distribution system; and c) difficulties obtaining accurate and reliable information on personal activity and water consumption patterns. In May 2000, an international workshop was held to bring together various disciplines to develop better approaches for measuring DBP exposure for epidemiologic studies. The workshop reached consensus about the clear need to involve relevant disciplines (e.g., chemists, engineers, toxicologists, biostatisticians and epidemiologists) as partners in developing epidemiologic studies of DBPs in drinking water. The workshop concluded that greater collaboration of epidemiologists with water utilities and regulators should be encouraged in order to make regulatory monitoring data more useful for epidemiologic studies. Similarly, exposure classification categories in epidemiologic studies should be chosen to make results useful for regulatory or policy decision making. PMID:11834463

Evaluating gas chromatography with a halogen-specific detector for the determination of disinfection by-products in drinking water.

PubMed

Andersson, Anna; Ashiq, Muhammad Jamshaid; Shoeb, Mohammad; Karlsson, Susanne; Bastviken, David; Kylin, Henrik

2018-02-28

The occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water has become an issue of concern during the past decades. The DBPs pose health risks and are suspected to cause various cancer forms, be genotoxic, and have negative developmental effects. The vast chemical diversity of DBPs makes comprehensive monitoring challenging. Only few of the DBPs are regulated and included in analytical protocols. In this study, a method for simultaneous measurement of 20 DBPs from five different structural classes (both regulated and non-regulated) was investigated and further developed for 11 DBPs using solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography coupled with a halogen-specific detector (XSD). The XSD was highly selective towards halogenated DBPs, providing chromatograms with little noise. The method allowed detection down to 0.05 μg L -1 and showed promising results for the simultaneous determination of a range of neutral DBP classes. Compounds from two classes of emerging DBPs, more cytotoxic than the "traditional" regulated DBPs, were successfully determined using this method. However, haloacetic acids (HAAs) should be analyzed separately as some HAA methyl esters may degrade giving false positives of trihalomethanes (THMs). The method was tested on real water samples from two municipal waterworks where the target DBP concentrations were found below the regulatory limits of Sweden.

Exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products and pregnancy loss.

PubMed

Savitz, David A; Singer, Philip C; Herring, Amy H; Hartmann, Katherine E; Weinberg, Howard S; Makarushka, Christina

2006-12-01

Previous research has suggested that exposure to elevated levels of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) may cause pregnancy loss. In 2000-2004, the authors conducted a study in three US locations of varying DBP levels and evaluated 2,409 women in early pregnancy to assess their tap water DBP concentrations, water use, other risk factors, and pregnancy outcome. Tap water concentrations were measured in the distribution system weekly or biweekly. The authors considered DBP concentration and ingested amount and, for trihalomethanes only, bathing/showering and integrated exposure that included ingestion. On the basis of 258 pregnancy losses, they did not find an increased risk of pregnancy loss in relation to trihalomethane, haloacetic acid, or total organic halide concentrations; ingested amounts; or total exposure. In contrast to a previous study, pregnancy loss was not associated with high personal trihalomethane exposure (> or =75 micro g/liter and > or =5 glasses of water/day) (odds ratio = 1.1, 95% confidence interval: 0.7, 1.7). Sporadic elevations in risk were found across DBPs, most notably for ingested total organic halide (odds ratio = 1.5, 95% confidence interval: 1.0, 2.2 for the highest exposure quintile). These results provide some assurance that drinking water DBPs in the range commonly encountered in the United States do not affect fetal survival.

Development of Normal Human Colonocyte Cultures to Identify the Carcinogenic Potential of Priorty Disinfection By-products

EPA Science Inventory

Epidemiological studies have linked the consumption of disinfected surface waters to an increased risk of colorectal cancer. Of the approximately >600 disinfection byproducts (DBPs) identified, the US EPA regulates 11 DBPs for an increased risk of cancer. An in-depth mechanism-...

Disinfection by electrohydraulic treatment.

PubMed

Allen, M; Soike, K

1967-04-28

Electrohydraulic treatment was applied to suspensions of Escherichia coli, spores of Bacillus subtilis var. niger, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and bacteriophage T2 at an input energy that, in most cases, was below the energy required to sterilize. The input energy was held relatively constant for each of these microorganisms, but the capacitance and voltage were varied. Data are presented which show the degree of disinfection as a function of capacitance and voltage. In all cases, the degree of disinfection for a given input energy increases as both capacitance and voltage are lowered.

Simulation of raw water and treatment parameters in support of the disinfection by-products regulatory impact analysis

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Regli, S.; Cromwell, J.; Mosher, J.

The U.S. EPA has undertaken an effort to model how the water supply industry may respond to possible rules and how those responses may affect human health risk. The model is referred to as the Disinfection By-Product Regulatory Analysis Model (DBPRAM), The paper is concerned primarily with presenting and discussing the methods, underlying data, assumptions, limitations and results for the first part of the model. This part of the model shows the creation of sets of simulated water supplies that are representative of the conditions currently encountered by public water supplies with respect to certain raw water quality and watermore » treatment characteristics.« less

Formation of hazardous inorganic by-products during electrolysis of seawater as a disinfection process for desalination.

PubMed

Oh, Byung Soo; Oh, Sang Guen; Hwang, Youn Young; Yu, Hye-Weon; Kang, Joon-Wun; Kim, In S

2010-11-01

From our previous study, an electrochemical process was determined to be a promising tool for disinfection in a seawater desalination system, but an investigation on the production of several hazardous by-products is still required. In this study, a more intensive exploration of the formation patterns of perchlorate and bromate during the electrolysis of seawater was conducted. In addition, the rejection efficiencies of the targeted by-products by membrane processes (microfiltration and seawater reverse osmosis) were investigated to uncover the concentrations remaining in the final product from a membrane-based seawater desalination system for the production of drinking water. On the electrolysis of seawater, perchlorate did not provoke any problem due to the low concentrations formed, but bromate was produced at a much higher level, resulting in critical limitation in the application of the electrochemical process to the desalination of seawater. Even though the formed bromate was rejected via microfiltration and reverse osmosis during the 1st and 2nd passes, the residual concentration was a few orders of magnitude higher than the USEPA regulation. Consequently, it was concluded that the application of the electrochemical process to seawater desalination cannot be recommended without the control of bromate. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

HYDROGEN ABSTRACTION AND DECOMPOSITION OF BROMOPICRIN AND OTHER TRIHALOGENATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS BY GC/MS

EPA Science Inventory

Tribromonitromethane (bromopicrin), dibromochlorani-tromethane, bromodichloronitromethane, and trichloroni-tromethane (chloropicrin) have been identified as drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs). They are thermally unstable and decompose under commonly used injection port...

MODERATING INFLUENCE OF THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID ON A DITHIOCARBAMATE-INDUCED SUPPRESSION OF THE LUTEINIZING HORMONE SURGE IN FEMALE RATS.

EPA Science Inventory

The disinfection by-product dibromoacetic acid (DBA) has been found in female rats to increase circulating concentrations of both estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1). This effect is apparently due, at least in part, to a suppression in hepatic catabolism. The present study investigat...

Antimicrobial Products Registered for Disinfection Use against Avian Influenza on Poultry Farms and Other Facilities

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

EPA registers disinfectants against Avian Influenza A. Although there are no antimicrobial products registered for the H5N2 subtype of Avian Influenza A virus, based on available scientific information these products will work against other HPAI strains.

Development of a bar code-based exposure assessment method to evaluate occupational exposure to disinfectants and cleaning products: a pilot study.

PubMed

Quinot, Catherine; Amsellem-Dubourget, Sylvie; Temam, Sofia; Sevin, Etienne; Barreto, Christine; Tackin, Arzu; Félicité, Jérémy; Lyon-Caen, Sarah; Siroux, Valérie; Girard, Raphaële; Descatha, Alexis; Le Moual, Nicole; Dumas, Orianne

2018-05-14

Healthcare workers are highly exposed to various types of disinfectants and cleaning products. Assessment of exposure to these products remains a challenge. We aimed to investigate the feasibility of a method, based on a smartphone application and bar codes, to improve occupational exposure assessment among hospital/cleaning workers in epidemiological studies. A database of disinfectants and cleaning products used in French hospitals, including their names, bar codes and composition, was developed using several sources: ProdHyBase (a database of disinfectants managed by hospital hygiene experts), and specific regulatory agencies and industrial websites. A smartphone application has been created to scan bar codes of products and fill a short questionnaire. The application was tested in a French hospital. The ease of use and the ability to record information through this new approach were estimated. The method was tested in a French hospital (7 units, 14 participants). Through the application, 126 records (one record referred to one product entered by one participant/unit) were registered, majority of which were liquids (55.5%) or sprays (23.8%); 20.6% were used to clean surfaces and 15.9% to clean toilets. Workers used mostly products with alcohol and quaternary ammonium compounds (>90% with weekly use), followed by hypochlorite bleach and hydrogen peroxide (28.6%). For most records, information was available on the name (93.7%) and bar code (77.0%). Information on product compounds was available for all products and recorded in the database. This innovative and easy-to-use method could help to improve the assessment of occupational exposure to disinfectants/cleaning products in epidemiological studies. © Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.

[The principle of registration, evaluation and testing of disinfecting preparations].

PubMed

Röhm-Rodowald, Ewa; Jakimiak, Bozenna; Podgórska, Marta

2008-01-01

Disinfectants are used to produce a state in which the number of living micro-organisms has been reduced to a level which is appropriate to the practical situation. For any products which are included in the Biocidal Directive 98/8/EC, for which specific activity is claimed, test data has to be approved by the regulatory authority and a product license obtained before the product can be offered for sale. Disinfectants can be recorded as biocidal products or medical devices. Presently, it is possible to measure the activity of a product on defined micro-organisms in specified experimental conditions. Efficacy is the result of the use of a product according to a defined application. To allow different requirements in different areas of application, separate tests and pass criteria have been or will be prepared for each of following three areas of application: medical, veterinary and group comprising food, industrial, domestic and institutional areas. The laboratory methods to be used for testing the activity of chemical disinfectants meets the European standards. The tests are categorised on a modular basis as follows: phase 1 tests, phase 2 step 1 tests, phase 2 step 2 tests and phase 3 tests. In order to claim that a product has disinfectant properties, suitable for use in the medical area, the product shall be tested according to European standards: phase 2 step 1 tests, phase 2 step 2 tests. Phase 1 tests are not required to support claims for chemical disinfectants used in human medicine. Only phase 1 tests are required to support claims for active substances for which no particular area of application is specified. Medical devices are subjects to the European Directive 93/42/EEC which requires that a product must carry a CE mark. Disinfectants which are intended specifically by its manufacturer to be used on medical devices are themselves medical devices and so these products, as well as conforming to the instrument disinfection European standards as specified

9 CFR 51.8 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... ANIMALS DESTROYED BECAUSE OF BRUCELLOSIS Indemnity for Cattle, Bison, and Swine § 51.8 Disinfection of... for disinfection to 30 days when request for such extension is received by him prior to the expiration...

9 CFR 51.8 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... ANIMALS DESTROYED BECAUSE OF BRUCELLOSIS Indemnity for Cattle, Bison, and Swine § 51.8 Disinfection of... for disinfection to 30 days when request for such extension is received by him prior to the expiration...

9 CFR 51.8 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... ANIMALS DESTROYED BECAUSE OF BRUCELLOSIS Indemnity for Cattle, Bison, and Swine § 51.8 Disinfection of... for disinfection to 30 days when request for such extension is received by him prior to the expiration...

9 CFR 51.8 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... ANIMALS DESTROYED BECAUSE OF BRUCELLOSIS Indemnity for Cattle, Bison, and Swine § 51.8 Disinfection of... for disinfection to 30 days when request for such extension is received by him prior to the expiration...

Evaluation of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and apoptosis of wastewater before and after disinfection with performic acid.

PubMed

Ragazzo, Patrizia; Feretti, Donatella; Monarca, Silvano; Dominici, Luca; Ceretti, Elisabetta; Viola, Gaia; Piccolo, Valentina; Chiucchini, Nicoletta; Villarini, Milena

2017-06-01

Disinfection with performic acid (PFA) represents an emerging technology in wastewater treatment. Many recent studies indicate its effectiveness and suitability as a disinfectant for different applications; several have demonstrated its reliability as an alternative to chlorine for disinfecting secondary effluents from urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Some disinfection technologies, in relation to their oxidative power, lead to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of concern for their toxic and carcinogenic potential. The aim of this study was to investigate potential genotoxic, cytotoxic, and mutagenic effects of this disinfection agent on treated secondary effluent coming from a municipal WWTP. A strategy with multiple short-term tests and different target cells (bacterial, plant, and mammalian) was adopted to explore a relatively wide range of potential genotoxic events. The Ames test (point mutation in Salmonella), the micronucleus (chromosomal damage) and Comet tests (primary DNA damage) on human hepatic cells (HepG2) were conducted to detect mutagenicity and chromosomal DNA alterations. DNA fragmentation and mitochondrial potential assays were conducted to evaluate apoptosis in the same kinds of cells. Mutagenic and clastogenic effect potentials were evaluated by examining micronucleus formation in Allium cepa root cells. In all the in vitro tests, carried out on both disinfected and non-disinfected effluents, negative results were always obtained for mutagenic and genotoxic effects. In the Allium cepa tests, however, some non-concentrated wastewater samples after PFA treatment induced a slight increase in micronucleus frequencies in root cells, but not in a dose-related manner. In conclusion, PFA applied for disinfection to a secondary effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant did not contribute to the release of genotoxic or mutagenic compounds. Further studies are required to establish to which extent

Characteristics of molecular weight distribution of dissolved organic matter in bromide-containing water and disinfection by-product formation properties during treatment processes.

PubMed

Zhang, Ying; Zhang, Ning; Zhao, Peng; Niu, Zhiguang

2018-03-01

The characteristics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and bromide ion concentration have a significant influence on the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). In order to identify the main DBP precursors, DOM was divided into five fractions based on molecular weight (MW), trihalomethane formation potential and haloacetic acid formation potential were determined for fractions, and the change in contents of different fractions and total DBPs during treatment processes (pre-chlorination, coagulation, sand filtration, disinfection) were studied. Moreover, the relationship between bromide concentration and DBP generation characteristics in processes was also analyzed. The results showed that the main DBP precursors were the fraction with MW <1kDa and fraction with MW 3-10kDa, and the DBP's generation ability of lower molecular weight DOM (<10kDa) was higher than that of higher molecular weight DOM. During different processes, pre-chlorination and disinfection had limited effect on removing organics but could alter the MW distribution, and coagulation and filtration could effectively remove organics with higher MW. For DBPs, trihalomethanes (THMs) were mainly generated in pre-chlorination and disinfection, while haloacetic acids (HAAs) were mostly generated during pre-chlorination; coagulation and sand filtration had little effect on THMs but resulted in a slight removal of HAAs. In addition, the results of ANOVA tests suggested that molecular sizes and treatment processes have significant influence on DBP formation. With increasing bromide concentration, the brominated DBPs significantly increased, but the bromine incorporation factor in the processes was basically consistent at each concentration. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Drinking-Water Disinfection By-products and Semen Quality: A Cross-Sectional Study in China

PubMed Central

Zeng, Qiang; Wang, Yi-Xin; Xie, Shao-Hua; Xu, Liang; Chen, Yong-Zhe; Li, Min; Yue, Jing; Li, Yu-Feng; Liu, Ai-Lin

2014-01-01

Background: Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) has been demonstrated to impair male reproductive health in animals, but human evidence is limited and inconsistent. Objective: We examined the association between exposure to drinking-water DBPs and semen quality in a Chinese population. Methods: We recruited 2,009 men seeking semen analysis from the Reproductive Center of Tongji Hospital in Wuhan, China, between April 2011 and May 2012. Each man provided a semen sample and a urine sample. Semen samples were analyzed for sperm concentration, sperm motility, and sperm count. As a biomarker of exposure to drinking-water DBPs, trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) was measured in the urine samples. Results: The mean (median) urinary TCAA concentration was 9.58 (7.97) μg/L (interquartile range, 6.01–10.96 μg/L). Compared with men with urine TCAA in the lowest quartile, increased adjusted odds ratios (ORs) were estimated for below-reference sperm concentration in men with TCAA in the second and fourth quartiles (OR = 1.79; 95% CI: 1.19, 2.69 and OR = 1.51; 95% CI: 0.98, 2.31, respectively), for below-reference sperm motility in men with TCAA in the second and third quartiles (OR = 1.46; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.90 and OR = 1.30; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.70, respectively), and for below-reference sperm count in men with TCAA in the second quartile (OR 1.62; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.55). Nonmonotonic associations with TCAA quartiles were also estimated for semen parameters modeled as continuous outcomes, although significant negative associations were estimated for all quartiles above the reference level for sperm motility. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that exposure to drinking-water DBPs may contribute to decreased semen quality in humans. Citation: Zeng Q, Wang YX, Xie SH, Xu L, Chen YZ, Li M, Yue J, Li YF, Liu AL, Lu WQ. 2014. Drinking-water disinfection by-products and semen quality: a cross-sectional study in China. Environ Health Perspect 122:741–746; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp

Algal toxicity of the alternative disinfectants performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and their by-products hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and chlorite (ClO2-).

PubMed

Chhetri, Ravi Kumar; Baun, Anders; Andersen, Henrik Rasmus

2017-05-01

Environmental effect evaluation of disinfection of combined sewer overflow events with alternative chemical disinfectants requires that the environmental toxicity of the disinfectants and the main by-products of their use are known. Many disinfectants degrade quickly in water which should be included in the evaluation of both their toxicity as determined in standardized tests and their possible negative effect in the water environment. Here we evaluated according to the standardized ISO 8692 test the toxicity towards the green microalgae, Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, of three disinfectants: performic acid (PFA), peracetic acid (PAA) and chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ) as well as two by-products of their use: hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and chlorite. All of the five chemicals investigated showed clear toxicity to the algae with well-defined dose response curves. The EC 50 values ranged from 0.16 to 2.9mg/L based on nominal concentrations leading to the labeling of the chemicals as either toxic or very toxic. The five investigated chemicals decreased in toxicity in the order chlorine dioxide, performic acid, peracetic acid, chlorite and hydrogen peroxide. The stability of the chemicals increased in the same order as the toxicity decrease. This indicates that even though ClO 2 has the highest environmental hazard potential, it may still be suitable as an alternative disinfectant due to its rapid degradation in water. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Development of a Job-Task-Exposure Matrix to assess occupational exposure to disinfectants among U.S. nurses

PubMed Central

Quinot, C; Dumas, O; Henneberger, PK; Varraso, R; Wiley, AS; Speizer, FE; Goldberg, M; Zock, JP; Camargo, CA; Le Moual, N

2016-01-01

Objectives Occupational exposure to disinfectants is associated with work-related asthma, especially in healthcare workers. However, little is known about the specific products involved. To evaluate disinfectant exposures, we designed job-exposure (JEM) and job-task-exposure (JTEM) matrices, which are thought to be less prone to differential misclassification bias than self-reported exposure. We then compared the three assessment methods: self-reported exposure, JEM, and JTEM. Methods Disinfectant use was assessed by an occupational questionnaire in 9,073 U.S. female registered nurses without asthma, aged 49–68 years, drawn from the Nurses’ Health Study II. A JEM was created based on self-reported frequency of use (1–3, 4–7 days/week) of 7 disinfectants and sprays in 8 nursing jobs. We then created a JTEM combining jobs and disinfection tasks to further reduce misclassification. Exposure was evaluated in 3 classes (low, medium, high) using product-specific cut-offs (e.g., <30%, 30–49.9%, ≥50%, respectively, for alcohol); the cut-offs were defined from the distribution of self-reported exposure per job/task. Results The most frequently reported disinfectants were alcohol (weekly use: 39%), bleach (22%) and sprays (20%). More nurses were classified as highly exposed by JTEM (alcohol 41%, sprays 41%, bleach 34%) than by JEM (21%, 30%, 26%, respectively). Agreement between JEM and JTEM was fair-to-moderate (kappa: 0.3–0.5) for most disinfectants. JEM and JTEM exposure estimates were heterogeneous in most nursing jobs, except in emergency room and education/administration. Conclusion The JTEM may provide more accurate estimates than the JEM, especially for nursing jobs with heterogeneous tasks. Use of the JTEM is likely to reduce exposure misclassification. PMID:27566782

Exopolymeric substances from drinking water biofilms: Dynamics of production and relation with disinfection by products.

PubMed

Lemus Pérez, M F; Rodríguez Susa, M

2017-06-01

Exopolymeric substances (EPS) as an external matrix of biofilm could react with disinfectants in drinking water networks forming disinfection by-products (DBP). Based on an experimental setup using two chlorine conditions-biofilm 1 (2.6 ± 0.8 mgCl/L) and biofilm 2 (0.7 ± 0.2 mg Cl/L)-samples of biofilms were recovered during 9 campaigns and EPS were extracted. Analyses of SUVA, fluorescence and amino acid (AA) content were carried out on the EPS to observe variation over time and correlations with DBP formation potential (DBP fp ) after chlorination. SUVA values were under 2 L/mgC*m showing that both EPS were hydrophilic. Slightly higher SUVA in biofilm 2 with low variation over time was observed. Fluorescence showed that aromatic proteins and fulvic like substances were the principal components and increased in biofilm 1 over time. AA decreased with time, and higher values of alanine, threonine, proline and isoleucine were observed in biofilm 2. Based on general associations, the SUVA of biofilm 2 correlated well with chloroform (CF) (r = 0.80). Generally, in both biofilms, tryptophan-like substances were negatively correlated with DBP while humic acid-like substances correlated positively, but with low indexes (r = 0.3-0.6). Correlations of data from individual sampling increased the indices (r over 0.8), suggesting a temporal influence of other factors on DBP fp such as inorganics, filtered water and the structural composition of EPS. In biofilm 1, Br-haloacetic acids (Br-HAA), dibromoacetonitrile and bromochloro acetonitrile were inversely associated with arginine and valine, as were di and trichloropropanone to arginine. On the contrary, in biofilm 2, the following amino acids correlated positively with DBP: alanine with Br-HAA, alanine with CF, alanine with N-DBP (chloropicrin, di and tri-chloro acetonitrile), and valine with CF. As this is the first report about the relation between temporal variation of EPS and DBP fp of biofilms in two

REPRODUCTIVE AND DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY ASSOCIATED WITH DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS OF DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Over the past decade many toxicologic studies have addressed the potential for disinfection byproducts of drinking water to elicit alterations on the reproductive system and fetal development.
The types and designs of these studies vary considerably, but in general they can ...

Alterations in ovarian follicular progesterone secretion by elevated exposures to the drinking water disinfection by-product dibromoacetic acid: examination of the potential site(s) of impact along the steroidogenic pathway

EPA Science Inventory

Previous data from our laboratory indicated that the drinking water disinfection by-product, dibromoacetic acid (DBA), when applied in vitro to rat preovulatory follicles at a concentration consistent with blood levels found to disrupt estrous cyclicity, was able to block the sti...

What’s in the Pool? A Comprehensive Identification of Disinfection By-products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water

PubMed Central

Richardson, Susan D.; DeMarini, David M.; Kogevinas, Manolis; Fernandez, Pilar; Marco, Esther; Lourencetti, Carolina; Ballesté, Clara; Heederik, Dick; Meliefste, Kees; McKague, A. Bruce; Marcos, Ricard; Font-Ribera, Laia; Grimalt, Joan O.; Villanueva, Cristina M.

2010-01-01

Background Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity. Objectives We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results. Methods We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Results We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (~ 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100–S9 mix). Conclusions This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters. PMID:20833605

9 CFR 53.5 - Disinfection or destruction of materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Disinfection or destruction of....5 Disinfection or destruction of materials. (a) In order to prevent the spread of disease, materials... cost of disinfection would exceed the value of the materials or disinfection would be impracticable for...

9 CFR 53.5 - Disinfection or destruction of materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Disinfection or destruction of....5 Disinfection or destruction of materials. (a) In order to prevent the spread of disease, materials... cost of disinfection would exceed the value of the materials or disinfection would be impracticable for...

9 CFR 53.5 - Disinfection or destruction of materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Disinfection or destruction of....5 Disinfection or destruction of materials. (a) In order to prevent the spread of disease, materials... cost of disinfection would exceed the value of the materials or disinfection would be impracticable for...

9 CFR 53.5 - Disinfection or destruction of materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Disinfection or destruction of....5 Disinfection or destruction of materials. (a) In order to prevent the spread of disease, materials... cost of disinfection would exceed the value of the materials or disinfection would be impracticable for...

Clinical and cost effectiveness of eight disinfection methods for terminal disinfection of hospital isolation rooms contaminated with Clostridium difficile 027.

PubMed

Doan, L; Forrest, H; Fakis, A; Craig, J; Claxton, L; Khare, M

2012-10-01

Clostridium difficile spores can survive in the environment for months or years, and contaminated environmental surfaces are important sources of nosocomial C. difficile transmission. To compare the clinical and cost effectiveness of eight C. difficile environmental disinfection methods for the terminal cleaning of hospital rooms contaminated with C. difficile spores. This was a novel randomized prospective study undertaken in three phases. Each empty hospital room was disinfected, then contaminated with C. difficile spores and disinfected with one of eight disinfection products: hydrogen peroxide vapour (HPV; Bioquell Q10) 350-700 parts per million (ppm); dry ozone at 25 ppm (Meditrox); 1000 ppm chlorine-releasing agent (Actichlor Plus); microfibre cloths (Vermop) used in combination with and without a chlorine-releasing agent; high temperature over heated dry atomized steam cleaning (Polti steam) in combination with a sanitizing solution (HPMed); steam cleaning (Osprey steam); and peracetic acid wipes (Clinell). Swabs were inoculated on to C. difficile-selective agar and colony counts were performed pre and post disinfection for each method. A cost-effectiveness analysis was also undertaken comparing all methods to the current method of 1000 ppm chlorine-releasing agent (Actichlor Plus). Products were ranked according to the log(10) reduction in colony count from contamination phase to disinfection. The three statistically significant most effective products were hydrogen peroxide (2.303); 1000 ppm chlorine-releasing agent (2.223) and peracetic acid wipes (2.134). The cheaper traditional method of using a chlorine-releasing agent for disinfection was as effective as modern methods. Copyright © 2012 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Disinfection of sewage wastewater and sludge by electron treatment

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Trump, J. G.; Merrill, E. W.; Wright, K. A.

The use of machine-accelerated electrons to disinfect sewage waterwaste and sludge is discussed. The method is shown to be practical and energy-efficient for the broad spectrum disinfection of pathogenic organisms in municipal wastewaters and sludge removed from them. Studies of biological, chemical and physical effects are reported. Electron treatment is suggested as an alternative to chlorination of municipal liquid wastes after electron treatment to provide disinfection. Disposal of sewage sludge is recommended as an agricultural resource by subsurface land injection, or as a nutrient for fish populations by widespread ocean dispersal.

Secondary formation of disinfection by-products by UV treatment of swimming pool water.

PubMed

Spiliotopoulou, Aikaterini; Hansen, Kamilla M S; Andersen, Henrik R

2015-07-01

Formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during experimental UV treatment of pool water has previously been reported with little concurrence between laboratory studies, field studies and research groups. In the current study, changes in concentration of seven out of eleven investigated volatile DBPs were observed in experiments using medium pressure UV treatment, with and without chlorine and after post-UV chlorination. Results showed that post-UV chlorine consumption increased, dose-dependently, with UV treatment dose. A clear absence of trihalomethane formation by UV and UV with chlorine was observed, while small yet statistically significant increases in dichloroacetonitrile and dichloropropanone concentrations were detected. Results indicate that post-UV chlorination clearly induced secondary formation of several DBPs. However, the formation of total trihalomethanes was no greater than what could be replicated by performing the DBP formation assay with higher chlorine concentrations to simulate extended chlorination. Post-UV chlorination of water from a swimming pool that continuously uses UV treatment to control combined chlorine could not induce secondary formation for most DBPs. Concurrence for induction of trihalomethanes was identified between post-UV chlorination treatments and simulated extended chlorination time treatment. Trihalomethanes could not be induced by UV treatment of water from a continuously UV treated pool. This indicates that literature reports of experimentally induced trihalomethane formation by UV may be a result of kinetic increase in formation by UV. However, this does not imply that higher trihalomethane concentrations would occur in pools that apply continuous UV treatment. The bromine fraction of halogens in formed trihalomethanes increased with UV dose. This indicates that UV removes bromine atoms from larger molecules that participate in trihalomethane production during post-UV chlorination. Additionally, no significant

Growth inhibition of Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri by disinfectants containing peracetic acid.

PubMed

Meinelt, Thomas; Phan, Thy-My; Behrens, Sascha; Wienke, Andreas; Pedersen, Lars-Flemming; Liu, Dibo; Straus, David L

2015-04-08

Peracetic acid (PAA) is a therapeutic agent used for disinfection in aquaculture, but it must be investigated thoroughly in order to mitigate diseases without harming the fish. Successful disinfectants (like PAA) should not leave dangerous residues in the environment in order to successfully contribute to sustainable aquaculture. The aim of our study was to compare the effectiveness of 6 commercial PAA products with different molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios to reduce bacterial growth of Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri and to determine effective concentrations and exposure times. All products reduced colony-forming units (CFUs) of A. salmonicida and Y. ruckeri. Products with higher molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios inhibited growth better than products with lower molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios at the same PAA concentration; this indicates that H2O2 is not the driving force in the reduction of A. salmonicida and Y. ruckeri growth by PAA in vitro. The practical application of the products with high molecular PAA:H2O2 ratios should be prioritized if these pathogens are diagnosed.

The Power of Four (the 4-Lab Study): ORD’s Integrated Disinfection By-Products Mixtures Research Project

EPA Science Inventory

Chemical disinfection of water, a major public health triumph of the 20th century, has resulted in dramatic decreases in morbidity and mortality from water-borne disease. The intended result of chemical disinfection of drinking water is reduction of microbial contamination; the u...

Bacterial Spores Survive Treatment with Commercial Sterilants and Disinfectants

PubMed Central

Sagripanti, Jose-Luis; Bonifacino, Aylin

1999-01-01

This study compared the activity of commercial liquid sterilants and disinfectants on Bacillus subtilis spores deposited on three types of devices made of noncorrodible, corrodible, or polymeric material. Products like Renalin, Exspor, Wavicide-01, Cidexplus, and cupric ascorbate were tested under conditions specified for liquid sterilization. These products, at the shorter times indicated for disinfection, and popular disinfectants, like Clorox, Cavicide, and Lysol were also studied. Data obtained with a sensitive and quantitative test suggest that commercial liquid sterilants and disinfectants are less effective on contaminated surfaces than generally acknowledged. PMID:10473448

Bacterial spores survive treatment with commercial sterilants and disinfectants.

PubMed

Sagripanti, J L; Bonifacino, A

1999-09-01

This study compared the activity of commercial liquid sterilants and disinfectants on Bacillus subtilis spores deposited on three types of devices made of noncorrodible, corrodible, or polymeric material. Products like Renalin, Exspor, Wavicide-01, Cidexplus, and cupric ascorbate were tested under conditions specified for liquid sterilization. These products, at the shorter times indicated for disinfection, and popular disinfectants, like Clorox, Cavicide, and Lysol were also studied. Data obtained with a sensitive and quantitative test suggest that commercial liquid sterilants and disinfectants are less effective on contaminated surfaces than generally acknowledged.

Notes from the Field: Respiratory Symptoms and Skin Irritation Among Hospital Workers Using a New Disinfection Product - Pennsylvania, 2015.

PubMed

Hawley, Brie; Casey, Megan L; Cox-Ganser, Jean M; Edwards, Nicole; Fedan, Kathleen B; Cummings, Kristin J

2016-04-22

In March 2014, a new disinfection product, consisting of hydrogen peroxide, peroxyacetic acid, and acetic acid, was introduced at a Pennsylvania hospital to aid in the control of health care-associated infections. The product is an Environmental Protection Agency-registered non-bleach sporicide advertised as a one-step cleaner, disinfectant, and deodorizer. According to the manufacturer's safety data sheet, the product requires no personal protective equipment when it is diluted with water by an automated dispenser before use. On January 30, 2015, CDC's National Institute for Occupational Health (NIOSH) received a confidential employee request to conduct a health hazard evaluation at the hospital. The request cited concerns about exposure of hospital environmental services staff members to the product and reported symptoms among persons who had used the product that included eye and nasal problems, asthma-like symptoms, shortness of breath, skin problems, wheeze, chest tightness, and cough.

9 CFR 52.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... cleaning and disinfection, unless an official pseudorabies epidemiologist determines that a shorter or... and disinfection, except for cleaning and disinfection of the conveyances used to transport the swine... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances...

Reduction of risk of Salmonella infection from kitchen cleaning clothes by use of sodium hypochlorite disinfectant cleaner.

PubMed

Chaidez, C; Soto-Beltran, M; Gerba, C P; Tamimi, A H

2014-11-01

The objective of this study was to evaluate the reduction of infection risk due to exposure to Salmonella sp. in kitchen cleaning clothes by the use of a bleach (sodium hypochlorite) cleaner utilizing a continuous-time dynamic exposure model. The only route of exposure considered was hand contamination during cloth use. The occurrence and numbers of Salmonella was studied in 60 homes over a 6-week period in which half disinfected kitchen cleaning clothes with a sodium hypochlorite based disinfectant cleaner. This study demonstrated that a significant risk exists for Salmonella infection from kitchen cleaning clothes in Mexican homes and that this risk can be reduced by almost 100-fold by soaking cleaning clothes in a bleach product. The risks of infection and illness could likely be further reduced by developing a more effective procedure for reducing Salmonella in cleaning clothes treated twice a day with a sodium hypochlorite disinfectant (i.e. longer soaking time) or using a greater concentration of the disinfectant. Hygiene intervention is a key strategy to reduce the potential risk of disease-causing micro-organisms in households. There is a lack of understanding of the human health risk associated with the use of contaminated kitchen cleaning cloths. The study used a quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate the risk associated with the use of kitchen cleaning clothes by using disinfectant products. The results showed that the use of prescribe protocols can reduce the risk of Salmonella infections in household kitchens. © 2014 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

Models for estimation of the presence of non-regulated disinfection by-products in small drinking water systems.

PubMed

Guilherme, Stéphanie; Rodriguez, Manuel J

2017-10-23

Among all the organic disinfection by-products (DBPs), only trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) are regulated in drinking water, while most DBPs are not. Very little information exists on the occurrence of non-regulated DBPs, particularly in small water systems (SWS). Paradoxically, SWS are more vulnerable to DBPs because of a low capacity to implement adequate treatment technologies to remove DBP precursors. Since DBP analyses are expensive, usually SWS have difficulties to implement a rigorous characterization of these contaminants. The purpose of this study was to estimate non-regulated DBP levels in SWS from easy measurements of relevant parameters regularly monitored. Since no information on non-regulated DBPs in SWS was available, a sampling program was carried out in 25 SWS in two provinces of Canada. Five DBP families were investigated: THMs, HAAs, haloacetonitriles (HANs), halonitromethanes (HNMs), and haloketones (HKs). Multivariate linear mixed regression models were developed to estimate HAN, HK, and HNM levels from water quality characteristics in the water treatment plant, concentrations of regulated DBPs, and residual disinfectant levels. The models obtained have a good explanatory capacity since R 2 varies from 0.77 to 0.91 according to compounds and conditions for application (season and type of treatment). Model validation with an independent database suggested their ability for generalization in similar SWS in North America.

Evaluation of thirteen haloacetic acids and ten trihalomethanes formation by peracetic acid and chlorine drinking water disinfection.

PubMed

Xue, Runmiao; Shi, Honglan; Ma, Yinfa; Yang, John; Hua, Bin; Inniss, Enos C; Adams, Craig D; Eichholz, Todd

2017-12-01

Free chlorine is a commonly used disinfectant in drinking water treatment. However, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed during water disinfection. Haloacetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) are two major groups of DBPs. Iodo-HAAs and iodo-THMs (I-HAAs and I-THMs) are formed during the disinfection of the water containing high levels of iodide and are much more toxic than their chlorinated and brominated analogs. Peracetic acid (PAA) is a strong antimicrobial disinfectant that is expected to reduce the formation of HAAs and THMs during disinfection. In this study, the formations of thirteen HAAs and ten THMs, including the iodinated forms, have been investigated during PAA disinfection and chlorination as the comparison. The DBP formations under different iodide concentrations, pHs, and contact times were systematically investigated. Two types of commercial PAAs containing different concentrations of PAA and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) were studied. A solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method was upgraded for THM analysis including I-THMs. HAAs were analyzed by following a recently developed high performance ion chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Results show that the ratio of PAA and H 2 O 2 concentration significantly affect the formation of I-THMs and I-HAAs. During PAA disinfection with lower PAA than H 2 O 2 , no detectable levels of THMs and HAAs were observed. During PAA disinfection with higher PAA than H 2 O 2 , low levels of monoiodoacetic acid, diiodoacetic acid, and iodoform were formed, and these levels were enhanced with the increase of iodide concentration. No significant quantities of chloro- or bromo-THMs and HAAs were formed during PAA disinfection treatment. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Disinfection of bore well water with chlorine dioxide/sodium hypochlorite and hydrodynamic cavitation.

PubMed

Wang, Yifei; Jia, Aiyin; Wu, Yue; Wu, Chunde; Chen, Lijun

2015-01-01

The effect of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) on potable water disinfection of chemicals was investigated. The bore well water was introduced into HC set-up to examine the effect of HC alone and combination of HC and chemicals such as chlorine dioxide and sodium hypochlorite. The effect of inlet pressure and geometrical parameters on disinfection was studied using HC alone and the results showed that increasing inlet pressure and using more and bigger holes of orifice plates can result in a higher disinfection rates. When HC was combined with chemicals, HC can reduce the doses of the chemicals and shorten the time of disinfection. It was also found that the decrease in bacteria concentration followed a first-order kinetic model. As for the experiment of combination of HC and sodium hypochlorite for disinfection, HC not only improves the disinfection rate but also degrades natural organic matter and chloroform. Compared with only sodium hypochlorite disinfection, combined processes get higher disinfection rate and lower production of chloroform, particularly the pretreatment with HC enhances the disinfection rate by 32% and there is a simultaneous reduction in production of chloroform by 39%.

Effects of conventional ozonation and electro-peroxone pretreatment of surface water on disinfection by-product formation during subsequent chlorination.

PubMed

Mao, Yuqin; Guo, Di; Yao, Weikun; Wang, Xiaomao; Yang, Hongwei; Xie, Yuefeng F; Komarneni, Sridhar; Yu, Gang; Wang, Yujue

2018-03-01

The electro-peroxone (E-peroxone) process is an emerging ozone-based electrochemical advanced oxidation process that combines conventional ozonation with in-situ cathodic hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) production for oxidative water treatment. In this study, the effects of the E-peroxone pretreatment on disinfection by-product (DBP) formation from chlorination of a synthetic surface water were investigated and compared to conventional ozonation. Results show that due to the enhanced transformation of ozone (O 3 ) to hydroxyl radicals (OH) by electro-generated H 2 O 2 , the E-peroxone process considerably enhanced dissolved organic carbon (DOC) abatement and significantly reduced bromate (BrO 3 - ) formation compared to conventional ozonation. However, natural organic matter (NOM) with high UV 254 absorbance, which is the major precursors of chlorination DBPs, was less efficiently abated during the E-peroxone process than conventional ozonation. Consequently, while both conventional ozonation and the E-peroxone process substantially reduced the formation of DBPs (trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids) during post-chlorination, higher DBP concentrations were generally observed during chlorination of the E-peroxone pretreated waters than conventional ozonation treated. In addition, because of conventional ozonation or the E-peroxone treatment, DBPs formed during post-chlorination shifted to more brominated species. The overall yields of brominated DBPs exhibited strong correlations with the bromide concentrations in water. Therefore, while the E-peroxone process can effectively suppress bromide transformation to bromate, it may lead to higher formation of brominated DBPs during post-chlorination compared to conventional ozonation. These results suggest that the E-peroxone process can lead to different DBP formation and speciation during water treatment trains compared to conventional ozonation. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Iodide Residues in Milk Vary between Iodine-Based Teat Disinfectants.

PubMed

French, Elizabeth A; Mukai, Motoko; Zurakowski, Michael; Rauch, Bradley; Gioia, Gloria; Hillebrandt, Joseph R; Henderson, Mark; Schukken, Ynte H; Hemling, Thomas C

2016-07-01

Majority of iodine found in dairy milk comes from the diet and teat disinfection products used during milking process. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of 4 iodine-based teat dips on milk iodide concentrations varying in iodine level (0.25% vs. 0.5%, w/w), normal low viscosity dip versus barrier dip, and application method (dip vs. spray) to ensure safe iodine levels in dairy milk when these products are used. The iodine exposure study was performed during a 2-wk period. The trial farm was purged of all iodine-based disinfection products for 21 d during a prestudy "washout period," which resulted in baseline milk iodide range of 145 to 182 ppb. During the experiment, iodine-based teat dips were used as post-milking teat disinfectants and compared to a non-iodine control disinfectant. Milk iodide residue levels for each treatment was evaluated from composited group samples. Introduction of different iodine-based teat disinfectants increased iodide residue content in milk relative to the control by between 8 and 29 μg/L when averaged across the full trial period. However, residues levels for any treatment remained well below the consumable limit of 500 μg/L. The 0.5% iodine disinfectant increased milk iodide levels by 20 μg/L more compared to the 0.25% iodine. Compared to dip-cup application, spray application significantly increased milk iodide residue by 21 μg/L and utilized approximately 23% more teat dip. This carefully controlled study demonstrated an increase in milk iodide concentrations from iodine disinfectants, but increases were small and within acceptable limits. © 2016 Institute of Food Technologists®

FATE OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT PRECURSORS DURING RIVERBANK FILTRATION AT THREE MIDWEST UTILITIES

EPA Science Inventory

A 3-year project is underway to evaluate riverbank filtration systems along three major US rivers. A principal aspects of the study involved monitoring a suite or organic, inorganic, and microbiological water quality parameters, with emphasis on disinfection byproduct formation p...

Proteomic Adaptations to Starvation Prepare Escherichia coli for Disinfection Tolerance

PubMed Central

Du, Zhe; Nandakumar, Renu; Nickerson, Kenneth; Li, Xu

2015-01-01

Despite the low nutrient level and constant presence of secondary disinfectants, bacterial re-growth still occurs in drinking water distribution systems. The molecular mechanisms that starved bacteria use to survive low-level chlorine-based disinfectants are not well understood. The objective of this study is to investigate these molecular mechanisms at the protein level that prepare starved cells for disinfection tolerance. Two commonly used secondary disinfectants chlorine and monochloramine, both at 1 mg/L, were used in this study. The proteomes of normal and starved Escherichia coli (K12 MG1655) cells were studied using quantitative proteomics. Over 60-min disinfection, starved cells showed significantly higher disinfection tolerance than normal cells based on the inactivation curves for both chlorine and monochloramine. Proteomic analyses suggest that starvation may prepare cells for the oxidative stress that chlorine-based disinfection will cause by affecting glutathione metabolism. In addition, proteins involved in stress regulation and stress responses were among the ones up-regulated under both starvation and chlorine/monochloramine disinfection. By comparing the fold changes under different conditions, it is suggested that starvation prepares E. coli for disinfection tolerance by increasing the expression of enzymes that can help cells survive chlorine/monochloramine disinfection. Protein co-expression analyses show that proteins in glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway that were up-regulated under starvation are also involved in disinfection tolerance. Finally, the production and detoxification of methylglyoxal may be involved in the chlorine-based disinfection and cell defense mechanisms. PMID:25463932

The epidemiology and possible mechanisms of disinfection by-products in drinking water.

PubMed

Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark J; Grellier, James; Smith, Rachel; Iszatt, Nina; Bennett, James; Best, Nicky; Toledano, Mireille

2009-10-13

This paper summarizes the epidemiological evidence for adverse health effects associated with disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water and describes the potential mechanism of action. There appears to be good epidemiological evidence for a relationship between exposure to DBPs, as measured by trihalomethanes (THMs), in drinking water and bladder cancer, but the evidence for other cancers including colorectal cancer is inconclusive and inconsistent. There appears to be some evidence for an association between exposure to DBPs, specifically THMs, and little for gestational age/intrauterine growth retardation and, to a lesser extent, pre-term delivery, but evidence for relationships with other outcomes such as low birth weight, stillbirth, congenital anomalies and semen quality is inconclusive and inconsistent. Major limitations in exposure assessment, small sample sizes and potential biases may account for the inconclusive and inconsistent results in epidemiological studies. Moreover, most studies have focused on total THMs as the exposure metric, whereas other DBPs appear to be more toxic than the THMs, albeit generally occurring at lower levels in the water. The mechanisms through which DBPs may cause adverse health effects including cancer and adverse reproductive effects have not been well investigated. Several mechanisms have been suggested, including genotoxicity, oxidative stress, disruption of folate metabolism, disruption of the synthesis and/or secretion of placental syncytiotrophoblast-derived chorionic gonadotropin and lowering of testosterone levels, but further work is required in this area.

Cleaning and disinfection of equipment for gastrointestinal flexible endoscopy: interim recommendations of a Working Party of the British Society of Gastroenterology.

PubMed

1988-08-01

1. All patients undergoing gastrointestinal endoscopy must be considered 'at risk' for HIV and appropriate cleaning/disinfection measures taken for endoscopes and accessories. 2. Thorough manual cleaning with detergent, of the instrument and its channels is the most important part of the cleaning/disinfection procedure. Without this, blood, mucus and organic material will prevent adequate penetration of disinfectant for inactivation of bacteria and viruses. 3. Aldehyde preparations (2% activated glutaraldehyde and related products) are the recommended first line antibacterial and antiviral disinfectant. A four minute soak is recommended as sufficient for inactivation of vegetative bacteria and viruses (including HIV and HBV). 4. Quaternary ammonium detergents (8% Dettox for two minutes for bacterial disinfection), followed by exposure of the endoscope shaft and channels to ethyl alcohol (70% for four minutes for viral inactivation), is an acceptable second-line disinfectant routine where staff sensitisation prevents the use of an aldehyde disinfectant. 5. Accessories, including mouthguards and cleaning brushes, require similarly careful cleaning/disinfection, before and after each use. Disposable products (especially injection needles) may be used and appropriate items can be sterilised by autoclaving and kept in sterile packs. 6. Closed circuit endoscope washing machines have advantages in maintaining standards and avoiding staff sensitisation to disinfectants. Improved ventilation including exhaust extraction facilities may be required. 7. Endoscopy staff should receive HBV vaccination, wear gloves and appropriate protective garments, cover wounds or abrasions and avoid needlestick injuries (including spiked forceps, etc). 8. Known HIV-infected or AIDS patients are managed as immunosuppressed, and require protection from atypical mycobacteria/cryptosporidia etc, by one hour aldehyde disinfection of endoscopic equipment before and after the procedure. A dedicated

Cleaning and disinfection of equipment for gastrointestinal flexible endoscopy: interim recommendations of a Working Party of the British Society of Gastroenterology.

PubMed Central

1988-01-01

1. All patients undergoing gastrointestinal endoscopy must be considered 'at risk' for HIV and appropriate cleaning/disinfection measures taken for endoscopes and accessories. 2. Thorough manual cleaning with detergent, of the instrument and its channels is the most important part of the cleaning/disinfection procedure. Without this, blood, mucus and organic material will prevent adequate penetration of disinfectant for inactivation of bacteria and viruses. 3. Aldehyde preparations (2% activated glutaraldehyde and related products) are the recommended first line antibacterial and antiviral disinfectant. A four minute soak is recommended as sufficient for inactivation of vegetative bacteria and viruses (including HIV and HBV). 4. Quaternary ammonium detergents (8% Dettox for two minutes for bacterial disinfection), followed by exposure of the endoscope shaft and channels to ethyl alcohol (70% for four minutes for viral inactivation), is an acceptable second-line disinfectant routine where staff sensitisation prevents the use of an aldehyde disinfectant. 5. Accessories, including mouthguards and cleaning brushes, require similarly careful cleaning/disinfection, before and after each use. Disposable products (especially injection needles) may be used and appropriate items can be sterilised by autoclaving and kept in sterile packs. 6. Closed circuit endoscope washing machines have advantages in maintaining standards and avoiding staff sensitisation to disinfectants. Improved ventilation including exhaust extraction facilities may be required. 7. Endoscopy staff should receive HBV vaccination, wear gloves and appropriate protective garments, cover wounds or abrasions and avoid needlestick injuries (including spiked forceps, etc). 8. Known HIV-infected or AIDS patients are managed as immunosuppressed, and require protection from atypical mycobacteria/cryptosporidia etc, by one hour aldehyde disinfection of endoscopic equipment before and after the procedure. A dedicated

Improved contact lens disinfection by exposure to violet radiation.

PubMed

Hoenes, Katharina; Stangl, Felix; Gross, Andrej; Hessling, Martin

2016-01-01

Conventional procedures for contact lens disinfection, based on solutions with aggressive chemical ingredients, not only affect microorganisms but operate likewise damaging towards the epithelial eye surface. The aim of this study was to evaluate the applicability of an alternative or complementary disinfection procedure for contact lenses based on irradiation within the visible wavelength range. Suspensions of S. auricularis, B. subtilis and E. coli were exposed to 405 nm irradiation, for determining the disinfection efficacy. Surviving rates were analyzed by membrane filtration as well as a semi-quantitative analysis using DipSlides. A significant antibacterial effect of the 405 nm irradiation is verifiable for all probed bacteria. Using S. auricularis, there has been no colony forming after an irradiation exposure of 2 hours. The hitherto existing results give reason for the assumption that violet LEDs integrated in contact lens cases will provide a subsidiary disinfection activity and maybe even offer the reduction of chemical ingredients in lens cleaning solutions to become gentler to the eye. In addition the danger of a rerise of the germ concentration after the completion of the disinfection procedure will be reduced.

Genotoxic properties of haloacetonitriles: drinking water by-products of chlorine disinfection

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Daniel, F.B.; Schenck, K.M.; Mattox, J.K.

Chlorinated and brominated haloacetonitriles (HAN), known drinking water contaminants which form during chlorine disinfection, were investigated for genotoxic activity. The HAN produced DNA strand breaks in cultured human lymphoblastic (CCRF-CEM) cells, bound to the nucleophilic trapping agent 4-(p-nitrobenzyl)pyridine and formed a covalent bond to polyadenylic acid in a cell-free reaction system. Thus, we have demonstrated that these chemicals are genotoxic, which would indicate a potential for carcinogenic activity and for human health hazard.

Disinfection By-Product Formation and Mitigation Strategies in Point-of-Use Chlorination with Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate in Tanzania

PubMed Central

Lantagne, Daniele S.; Cardinali, Fred; Blount, Ben C.

2010-01-01

Almost a billion persons lack access to improved drinking water, and diarrheal diseases cause an estimated 1.87 million deaths per year. Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) tablets are widely recommended for household water treatment to reduce diarrhea. Because NaDCC is directly added to untreated water sources, concerns have been raised about the potential health impact of disinfection by-products. This study investigated trihalomethane (THM) production in water from six sources used for drinking (0.6–888.5 nephelometric turbidity units) near Arusha, Tanzania. No sample collected at 1, 8, and 24 hours after NaDCC addition exceeded the World Health Organization guideline values for either individual or total THMs. Ceramic filtration, sand filtration, cloth filtration, and settling and decanting were not effective mitigation strategies to reduce THM formation. Chlorine residual and THM formation were not significantly different in NaDCC and sodium hypochlorite treatment. Household chlorination of turbid and non-turbid waters did not create THM concentrations that exceeded health risk guidelines. PMID:20595492

Use of mechanism-based structure-activity relationships analysis in carcinogenic potential ranking for drinking water disinfection by-products.

PubMed Central

Woo, Yin-Tak; Lai, David; McLain, Jennifer L; Manibusan, Mary Ko; Dellarco, Vicki

2002-01-01

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramine, and ozone react with organic and inorganic matter in water. The observations that some DBPs such as trihalomethanes (THMs), di-/trichloroacetic acids, and 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) are carcinogenic in animal studies have raised public concern over the possible adverse health effects of DBPs. To date, several hundred DBPs have been identified. To prioritize research efforts, an in-depth, mechanism-based structure-activity relationship analysis, supplemented by extensive literature search for genotoxicity and other data, was conducted for ranking the carcinogenic potential of DBPs that met the following criteria: a) detected in actual drinking water samples, b) have insufficient cancer bioassay data for risk assessment, and c) have structural features/alerts or short-term predictive assays indicative of carcinogenic potential. A semiquantitative concern rating scale of low, marginal, low-moderate, moderate, high-moderate, and high was used along with delineation of scientific rationale. Of the 209 DBPs analyzed, 20 were of priority concern with a moderate or high-moderate rating. Of these, four were structural analogs of MX and five were haloalkanes that presumably will be controlled by existing and future THM regulations. The other eleven DBPs, which included halonitriles (6), haloketones (2), haloaldehyde (1), halonitroalkane (1), and dialdehyde (1), are suitable priority candidates for future carcinogenicity testing and/or mechanistic studies. PMID:11834465

Equivalency testing of ultraviolet disinfection for wastewater reclamation

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Oppenheimer, J.A.; Jacangelo, J.G.; Laine, J.M.

1996-11-01

UV light disinfection was shown to continuously provide microbial inactivation equivalent to chlorine while reducing the formation of known carcinogenic disinfection by-products and the formation of chronic whole effluent toxicity. This was the first study to demonstrate UV`s performance relative to chlorination over an extended timeframe at a full-scale facility treating to meet the most stringent California reclamation standards.

9 CFR 77.41 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Captive Cervids § 77.41 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.41 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Captive Cervids § 77.41 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.41 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Captive Cervids § 77.41 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.41 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Captive Cervids § 77.41 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

Developmental Toxicity of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products to Embryos of the African Clawed Frog (Xenopus laevis)

DTIC Science & Technology

2005-06-10

and as representatives of byproducts of different disinfection processes . Endpoints measured included embryo mortality (LC50), embryo malformation...chemicals were selected for testing based on their potential for human harm and as representatives of byproducts of different disinfection processes ...highest frequency include notochord maldevelopment, craniofacial defects, and cardiac edema. The EC50 for BDCM malformations (62-72 mg/L) was at a much

Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance

PubMed Central

McDonnell, Gerald; Russell, A. Denver

1999-01-01

Antiseptics and disinfectants are extensively used in hospitals and other health care settings for a variety of topical and hard-surface applications. A wide variety of active chemical agents (biocides) are found in these products, many of which have been used for hundreds of years, including alcohols, phenols, iodine, and chlorine. Most of these active agents demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity; however, little is known about the mode of action of these agents in comparison to antibiotics. This review considers what is known about the mode of action and spectrum of activity of antiseptics and disinfectants. The widespread use of these products has prompted some speculation on the development of microbial resistance, in particular whether antibiotic resistance is induced by antiseptics or disinfectants. Known mechanisms of microbial resistance (both intrinsic and acquired) to biocides are reviewed, with emphasis on the clinical implications of these reports. PMID:9880479

Characterization of engineered nanoparticles in commercially available spray disinfectant products advertised to contain colloidal silver

EPA Science Inventory

Given the potential for human exposure to silver nanoparticles from spray disinfectants and dietary supplements, we characterized the silver-containing nanoparticles in 22 commercial products that advertised the use of silver or colloidal silver as the active ingredient. Characte...

Factors affecting the formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products during chlorination of aspartic acid in drinking water.

PubMed

Chen, Wei; Liu, Zhigang; Tao, Hui; Xu, Hang; Gu, Yanmei; Chen, Zhaolin; Yu, Jingjing

2017-01-01

The formation of emerging nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) from the chlorination of aspartic acid (Asp) was investigated. The yield of dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) was higher than other N-DBPs, such as dichloroacetamide(DCAcAm) and chloropicrin (TCNM) during the chlorination of Asp. The formation of DCAN, DCAcAm, and TCNM all showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing during the chlorination of Asp with increasing contact time. The dosage of chlorine had an impact on the formation of DCAN, DCAcAm, and TCNM. The highest yields of DCAN and DCAcAm appeared when the Cl 2 /Asp molar ratio was about 20, the yield of TCNM increased with increasing the Cl 2 /Asp molar ratio from 5 to 30 and TCNM was not produced when the ratio was less than 5. Cyanogen chloride (CNCl) was detected when the Cl 2 /Asp molar ratio was lower than 5. N-DBPs formation was influenced by pH. DCAN formation increased with increasing pH from 5 to 6 and then decreased with increasing pH from 6 to 9, but DCAcAm and TCNM increased with increasing pH from 5 to 8 and then decreased. Higher temperatures reduced the formation of DCAN and DCAcAm, but increased TCNM formation. DCAN and DCAcAm formation decreased, and relatively stable TCNM formation increased, with increasing free chlorine contact time during chloramination. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) was produced during chloramination of Asp and increased with prolonged chloramination contact time. The presence of bromide ions enhanced the yields of haloacetonitriles and shifted N-DBPs to more brominated species. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

9 CFR 77.19 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Cattle and Bison § 77.19 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.19 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Cattle and Bison § 77.19 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.19 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Cattle and Bison § 77.19 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

9 CFR 77.19 - Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of premises... PRODUCTS TUBERCULOSIS Cattle and Bison § 77.19 Cleaning and disinfection of premises, conveyances, and... health officials. Cleaning and disinfection must be completed before the premises, conveyances, or...

Proteomic adaptations to starvation prepare Escherichia coli for disinfection tolerance.

PubMed

Du, Zhe; Nandakumar, Renu; Nickerson, Kenneth W; Li, Xu

2015-02-01

Despite the low nutrient level and constant presence of secondary disinfectants, bacterial re-growth still occurs in drinking water distribution systems. The molecular mechanisms that starved bacteria use to survive low-level chlorine-based disinfectants are not well understood. The objective of this study is to investigate these molecular mechanisms at the protein level that prepare starved cells for disinfection tolerance. Two commonly used secondary disinfectants chlorine and monochloramine, both at 1 mg/L, were used in this study. The proteomes of normal and starved Escherichia coli (K12 MG1655) cells were studied using quantitative proteomics. Over 60-min disinfection, starved cells showed significantly higher disinfection tolerance than normal cells based on the inactivation curves for both chlorine and monochloramine. Proteomic analyses suggest that starvation may prepare cells for the oxidative stress that chlorine-based disinfection will cause by affecting glutathione metabolism. In addition, proteins involved in stress regulation and stress responses were among the ones up-regulated under both starvation and chlorine/monochloramine disinfection. By comparing the fold changes under different conditions, it is suggested that starvation prepares E. coli for disinfection tolerance by increasing the expression of enzymes that can help cells survive chlorine/monochloramine disinfection. Protein co-expression analyses show that proteins in glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway that were up-regulated under starvation are also involved in disinfection tolerance. Finally, the production and detoxification of methylglyoxal may be involved in the chlorine-based disinfection and cell defense mechanisms. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessment of peracetic acid disinfected effluents by microbiotests.

PubMed

Antonelli, M; Mezzanotte, V; Panouillères, M

2009-09-01

Bioassays were performed by commercially available kits on peracetic acid (PAA) solutions, at different concentrations, and on secondary effluents (from two different wastewater treatment plants) after disinfection at bench-scale, considering both samples containing residual active PAA and the same samples where residual PAA was quenched. Four indicator organisms were used: Vibrio fischeri, Thamnocephalus platyurus, Daphnia magna, and Selenastrum capricornutum. The experiments lead to conclude that Thamnocephalus platyurus is a very sensitive organism, probably not adequate to perform a reliable toxicity assessment of effluents for monitoring purposes. The presence of specific organic compounds deriving from human metabolism and urban pollution, even at very low concentrations, can affect the results of bioassays, especially those performed on Vibrio fischeri. PAA is toxic for bacteria and crustaceans even at concentrations lower than the ones commonly used in wastewater disinfection (2-5 mg/L), while its effect on algae is smaller. The toxic effect on bacteria was expected, as PAA is used for disinfection, but its possible influence on biological processes in the receiving aquatic environment should be considered. Toxicity on crustaceans would confirm the fact that discharging disinfected effluents could raise some environmental problems.

Evaluating the Sporicidal Activity of Disinfectants against Clostridium difficile and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Spores by Using the Improved Methods Based on ASTM E2197-11

PubMed Central

Uwamahoro, Marie Christine; Massicotte, Richard; Hurtubise, Yves; Gagné-Bourque, François; Mafu, Akier Assanta; Yahia, L’Hocine

2018-01-01

Spore-forming pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium difficile, are associated with nosocomial infection, leading to the increased use of sporicidal disinfectants, which impacts socioeconomic costs. However, C. difficile can be prevented using microorganisms such as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, a prophylactic agent that has been proven to be effective against it in recent tests or it can be controlled by sporicidal disinfectants. These disinfectants against spores should be evaluated according to a known and recommended standard. Unfortunately, some newly manufactured disinfectants like Bioxy products have not yet been tested. ASTM E2197-11 is a standard test that uses stainless steel disks (1 cm in diameter) as carriers, and the performance of the test formulation is calculated by comparing the number of viable test organisms to that on the control carriers. Surface tests are preferable for evaluating disinfectants with sporicidal effects on hard surfaces. This study applies improved methods, based on the ASTM E2197-11 standard, for evaluating and comparing the sporicidal efficacies of several disinfectants against spores of C. difficile and B. amyloliquefaciens, which are used as the test organisms. With the improved method, all spores were recovered through vortexing and membrane filtration. The results show that chlorine-based products are effective in 5 min and Bioxy products at 5% w/v are effective in 10 min. Although Bioxy products may take longer to prove their effectiveness, their non-harmful effects to hospital surfaces and people have been well established in the literature. PMID:29459891

Evaluating the Sporicidal Activity of Disinfectants against Clostridium difficile and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Spores by Using the Improved Methods Based on ASTM E2197-11.

PubMed

Uwamahoro, Marie Christine; Massicotte, Richard; Hurtubise, Yves; Gagné-Bourque, François; Mafu, Akier Assanta; Yahia, L'Hocine

2018-01-01

Spore-forming pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium difficile , are associated with nosocomial infection, leading to the increased use of sporicidal disinfectants, which impacts socioeconomic costs. However, C. difficile can be prevented using microorganisms such as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens , a prophylactic agent that has been proven to be effective against it in recent tests or it can be controlled by sporicidal disinfectants. These disinfectants against spores should be evaluated according to a known and recommended standard. Unfortunately, some newly manufactured disinfectants like Bioxy products have not yet been tested. ASTM E2197-11 is a standard test that uses stainless steel disks (1 cm in diameter) as carriers, and the performance of the test formulation is calculated by comparing the number of viable test organisms to that on the control carriers. Surface tests are preferable for evaluating disinfectants with sporicidal effects on hard surfaces. This study applies improved methods, based on the ASTM E2197-11 standard, for evaluating and comparing the sporicidal efficacies of several disinfectants against spores of C. difficile and B. amyloliquefaciens , which are used as the test organisms. With the improved method, all spores were recovered through vortexing and membrane filtration. The results show that chlorine-based products are effective in 5 min and Bioxy products at 5% w/v are effective in 10 min. Although Bioxy products may take longer to prove their effectiveness, their non-harmful effects to hospital surfaces and people have been well established in the literature.

Formation of Toxic Iodinated Disinfection By-Products from Compounds Used in Medical Imaging

EPA Science Inventory

Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) were investigated as a source of iodine in the formation of iodo-trihalomethane (iodo-THM) and iodo-acid disinfection byproducts (DBPs), both of which are highly genotoxic and/or cytotoxic in mammalian cells. ICM are widely used at medical cen...

Comparison of Point-of-Use Technologies for Emergency Disinfection of Sewage-Contaminated Drinking Water ▿

PubMed Central

McLennan, S. Devin; Peterson, Lauren A.; Rose, Joan B.

2009-01-01

Four point-of-use disinfection technologies for treating sewage-contaminated well water were compared. Three systems, based on flocculant-disinfectant packets and N-halamine chlorine and bromine contact disinfectants, provided a range of 4.0 to >6.6 log10 reductions (LR) of naturally occurring fecal indicator and heterotrophic bacteria and a range of 0.9 to >1.9 LR of coliphage. PMID:19767479

Factors in the Selection of Surface Disinfectants for Use in a Laboratory Animal Setting

PubMed Central

Campagna, Michael V; Faure-Kumar, Emmanuelle; Treger, Janet A; Cushman, Jesse D; Grogan, Tristan R; Kasahara, Noriyuki; Lawson, Gregory W

2016-01-01

Because surface disinfectants are an important means of pathogen control within laboratory animal facilities, these products must have an appropriate spectrum of antimicrobial activity. However, many other factors must also be considered, including effects on human health, environmental safety, and animal behavior. Aqueous solutions of sodium hypochlorite often are considered to be the ‘gold standard’ for surface disinfection, but these products can be corrosive, caustic, and aversive in odor. This study was designed to identify disinfectants that are as effective as hypochlorite solutions but more acceptable for use in a laboratory animal setting. An antiviral disinfectant-efficacy assay was developed by using viral vectors that expressed green fluorescence protein as surrogates for wild-type viruses of concern in laboratory animals. Efficacy testing revealed that most of the products were highly effective when used against viral vectors in suspension. However, when the disinfectants were challenged by buffering virus in protein or drying virus on nonporous surfaces, the hypochlorite and peroxymonosulfate products performed the best. Review of safety data sheets for the agents indicated that a peroxide-based product was considerably safer than the other products tested and that the pH of most products was not conducive to disposal down a drain. Behavioral testing of Swiss Webster, C57Bl/6, and BALB/c mice showed that the hypochlorite- and peroxide-based products were clearly aversive, given that the mice consistently avoided these products. All of these factors must be considered when choosing the appropriate disinfectant. PMID:27025810

EFFECTS OF CHANGING DISINFECTANTS ON LEAD AND COPPER RELEASE– A REVIEW

EPA Science Inventory

More utilities are using chloramines in place of free chlorine for greater residual stability and better compliance with both the Total Coliform Rule (TCR) and more stringent requirements of the Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products Rule (D/DBPR). However, new information about ...

Household cleaning product-related injuries treated in US emergency departments in 1990-2006.

PubMed

McKenzie, Lara B; Ahir, Nisha; Stolz, Uwe; Nelson, Nicolas G

2010-09-01

The goal was to examine comprehensively the patterns and trends of household cleaning product-related injuries among children treated in US emergency departments. Through use of the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System database, cases of unintentional, nonfatal, household cleaning product-related injuries were selected by using product codes for drain cleaners, ammonia, metal polishes/tarnish removers, turpentine, dishwasher detergents, acids, swimming pool chemicals, oven cleaners, pine oil cleaners/disinfectants, laundry soaps/detergents, toilet bowl products, abrasive cleaners, general-purpose household cleaners, noncosmetic bleaches, windshield wiper fluids, caustic agents, lye, wallpaper cleaners, room deodorizers/fresheners, spot removers, and dishwashing liquids. Products were categorized according to major toxic ingredients, mode of action, and exposure. An estimated 267 269 childrenemergency departments for household cleaning product-related injuries. The number of injuries attributable to household cleaning product exposure decreased 46.0% from 22 141 in 1990 to 11 964 in 2006. The product most-commonly associated with injury was bleach (37.1%). Children 1 to 3 years of age accounted for 72.0% of cases. The primary mechanism of injury was ingestion (62.7%). The most common source or container was spray-bottles (40.1%). Although rates of household cleaner-related injuries from regular bottles or original containers and kitchenware decreased during the study period, spray-bottle injury rates showed no decrease. Although national rates of household cleaning product-related injuries in children decreased significantly over time, the number of injuries remains high.

Synergistic integration of sonochemical and electrochemical disinfection with DSA anodes.

PubMed

Cotillas, Salvador; Llanos, Javier; Castro-Ríos, Katherin; Taborda-Ocampo, Gonzalo; Rodrigo, Manuel A; Cañizares, Pablo

2016-11-01

This work focuses on the disinfection actual urban wastewater by the combination of ultrasound (US) irradiation and electrodisinfection with Dimensionally Stable Anodes (DSA). First, the inactivation of Escherichia coli (E. coli) during the sonochemical disinfection was studied at increasing ultrasound power. Results showed that it was not possible to achieve a complete disinfection, even at the highest US power (200 W) dosed by the experimental device used. Next, the electrodisinfection with DSA anodes at different current densities was studied, finding that it was necessary a minimum current density of 11.46 A m(-2) to reach the complete disinfection. Finally, an integrated sonoelectrodisinfection process was studied. Results showed a synergistic effect when coupling US irradiation with DSA electrodisinfection, with a synergy coefficient higher than 200% of the disinfection rate attained for the highest US power applied. In this process, hypochlorite and chloramines were identified as the main reagents for the disinfection process (neither chlorate nor perchlorate were detected), and the presence of trihalomethanes was far below acceptable values. Confirming this synergistic effect with DSA anodes opens the door to novel efficient disinfection processes, limiting the occurrence of hazardous disinfection by-products. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

9 CFR 52.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... SWINE DESTROYED BECAUSE OF PSEUDORABIES § 52.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All... cleaning and disinfection, unless an official pseudorabies epidemiologist determines that a shorter or...

9 CFR 52.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... SWINE DESTROYED BECAUSE OF PSEUDORABIES § 52.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All... cleaning and disinfection, unless an official pseudorabies epidemiologist determines that a shorter or...

9 CFR 52.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... SWINE DESTROYED BECAUSE OF PSEUDORABIES § 52.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All... cleaning and disinfection, unless an official pseudorabies epidemiologist determines that a shorter or...

9 CFR 52.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... SWINE DESTROYED BECAUSE OF PSEUDORABIES § 52.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All... cleaning and disinfection, unless an official pseudorabies epidemiologist determines that a shorter or...

An EPR study on wastewater disinfection by peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and UV irradiation.

PubMed

Bianchini, Roberto; Calucci, Lucia; Caretti, Cecilia; Lubello, Claudio; Pinzino, Calogero; Piscicelli, Michela

2002-09-01

EPR spectroscopy was applied to obtain qualitative and quantitative information on the radicals produced in disinfection processes of wastewater for agricultural reuse. The DEPMPO spin trap was employed to detect hydroxyl and carbon-centered short living radicals in two different peracetic acid solutions and a hydrogen peroxide solution used for water disinfection either in the absence or in the presence of UV-C irradiation. Moreover, three different kinds of water (wastewater, demineralized water, distilled water) were analysed in order to assess the contribution of Fenton reactions to the radical production. The spectroscopic results were discussed in relation to the efficiency of the different oxidizing agents and UV irradiation in wastewater disinfection evaluated as Escherichia Coli, Faecal and Total Coliforms inactivation.

Chloramination of Concentrated Drinking Water for Disinfection Byproduct Mixtures Creation- Indianapolis

EPA Science Inventory

Complex mixtures of disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectant oxidizes constituents (e.g., natural organic matter (NOM) and organic pollutants) found in the source water. Since 1974, over 600 DBPs have been identified in drinking water. Despite intense iden...

Drinking water and biofilm disinfection by Fenton-like reaction.

PubMed

Gosselin, F; Madeira, L M; Juhna, T; Block, J C

2013-10-01

A Fenton-like disinfection process was conducted with Fenton's reagent (H2O2) at pH 3 or 5 on autochthonous drinking water biofilms grown on corroded or non-corroded pipe material. The biofilm disinfection by Fenton-like oxidation was limited by the low content of iron and copper in the biomass grown on non-corroded plumbing. It was slightly improved by spiking the distribution system with some additional iron source (soluble iron II or ferrihydrite particles appeared as interesting candidates). However successful in situ disinfection of biofilms was only achieved in fully corroded cast iron pipes using H2O2 and adjusting the pH to 5. These new results provide additional support for the use of Fenton's processes for cleaning drinking water distribution systems contaminated with biological agents or organics. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Efficacy of surface disinfectant cleaners against emerging highly resistant gram-negative bacteria

PubMed Central

2014-01-01

Background Worldwide, the emergence of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria is a clinical problem. Surface disinfectant cleaners (SDCs) that are effective against these bacteria are needed for use in high risk areas around patients and on multi-touch surfaces. We determined the efficacy of several SDCs against clinically relevant bacterial species with and without common types of multidrug resistance. Methods Bacteria species used were ATCC strains; clinical isolates classified as antibiotic-susceptible; and multi-resistant clinical isolates from Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Serratia marcescens (all OXA-48 and KPC-2); Acinetobacter baumannii (OXA-23); Pseudomonas aeruginosa (VIM-1); and Achromobacter xylosoxidans (ATCC strain). Experiments were carried out according to EN 13727:2012 in quadruplicate under dirty conditions. The five evaluated SDCs were based on alcohol and an amphoteric substance (AAS), an oxygen-releaser (OR), surface-active substances (SAS), or surface-active-substances plus aldehydes (SASA; two formulations). Bactericidal concentrations of SDCs were determined at two different contact times. Efficacy was defined as a log10 ≥ 5 reduction in bacterial cell count. Results SDCs based on AAS, OR, and SAS were effective against all six species irrespective of the degree of multi-resistance. The SASA formulations were effective against the bacteria irrespective of degree of multi-resistance except for one of the four P. aeruginosa isolates (VIM-1). We found no general correlation between SDC efficacy and degree of antibiotic resistance. Conclusions SDCs were generally effective against gram-negative bacteria with and without multidrug resistance. SDCs are therefore suitable for surface disinfection in the immediate proximity of patients. Single bacterial isolates, however, might have reduced susceptibility to selected biocidal agents. PMID:24885029

Mass Disinfection of Documents Affected by Microorganisms: One Practical Experience.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Dobrusina, Svetlana; Velikova, Tatiana

This paper presents the results of disinfecting treatment of more than 200,000 documents damaged by microorganisms in connection with moving the documents from depositories to a new building of the National Library of Russia. For disinfection, a preparation Metatin GT made by a Swedish firm ACIMA was applied. Metatin GT meets three basic…

Role of Ultraviolet Disinfection in the Prevention of Surgical Site Infections.

PubMed

Simmons, Sarah; Dale, Charles; Holt, James; Velasquez, Katie; Stibich, Mark

2017-01-01

The role of the environment in surgical site infections is surprisingly understudied. UV disinfection holds promise for reducing the level of contamination in operating rooms and thereby lowering the risk of infection for patients. Issues such as the frequency, amount and locations for UV disinfection to have an impact on the risk of surgical site infection are recently emerging in the literature. As technologies and knowledge improve, UV disinfection will have a role to play in operating rooms in the future.

9 CFR 53.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... least 7 days following such cleaning and disinfection, unless the Administrator determines that a... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... LIVESTOCK OR POULTRY § 53.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All premises, including...

Bioanalytical assessment of adaptive stress responses in drinking water: A predictive tool to differentiate between micropollutants and disinfection by-products.

PubMed

Hebert, Armelle; Feliers, Cedric; Lecarpentier, Caroline; Neale, Peta A; Schlichting, Rita; Thibert, Sylvie; Escher, Beate I

2018-04-01

Drinking water can contain low levels of micropollutants, as well as disinfection by-products (DBPs) that form from the reaction of disinfectants with organic and inorganic matter in water. Due to the complex mixture of trace chemicals in drinking water, targeted chemical analysis alone is not sufficient for monitoring. The current study aimed to apply in vitro bioassays indicative of adaptive stress responses to monitor the toxicological profiles and the formation of DBPs in three drinking water distribution systems in France. Bioanalysis was complemented with chemical analysis of forty DBPs. All water samples were active in the oxidative stress response assay, but only after considerable sample enrichment. As both micropollutants in source water and DBPs formed during treatment can contribute to the effect, the bioanalytical equivalent concentration (BEQ) approach was applied for the first time to determine the contribution of DBPs, with DBPs found to contribute between 17 and 58% of the oxidative stress response. Further, the BEQ approach was also used to assess the contribution of volatile DBPs to the observed effect, with detected volatile DBPs found to have only a minor contribution as compared to the measured effects of the non-volatile chemicals enriched by solid-phase extraction. The observed effects in the distribution systems were below any level of concern, quantifiable only at high enrichment and not different from bottled mineral water. Integrating bioanalytical tools and the BEQ mixture model for monitoring drinking water quality is an additional assurance that chemical monitoring is not overlooking any unknown chemicals or transformation products and can help to ensure chemically safe drinking water. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Efficacy of disinfectants and detergents intended for a pig farm environment where Salmonella is present.

PubMed

Gosling, Rebecca J; Mawhinney, Ian; Vaughan, Kelly; Davies, Robert H; Smith, Richard P

2017-05-01

Disinfection is a useful component of disease control, although products and chemical groups vary in their activity against different pathogens. This study investigated the ability of fifteen disinfectants to eliminate pig-associated Salmonella. Active compounds of products included chlorocresol, glutaraldehyde/formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde/quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC), iodine, peracetic acid and potassium peroxomonosulphate. Six detergents were also tested for their ability to dislodge faecal material, and interactions with specific disinfectants. Eight serovars were screened against all products using dilution tests and a monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium strain was selected for further testing. The disinfectants were tested using models to replicate boot dip (faecal suspension) and animal housing (surface contamination) disinfection respectively at the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Approved Disinfectant General Orders (GO) concentration, half GO and twice GO. Stability over time and ability to eliminate Salmonella in biofilm was also assessed. The most effective products were then field tested. Most products at GO concentration eliminated Salmonella in the faecal suspension model. One glutaraldehyde/QAC and one glutaraldehyde/formaldehyde-based product at GO concentration eliminated Salmonella in the surface contamination model. Chlorocresol-based products were more stable in the faecal suspension model. One chlorocresol and the glutaraldehyde/formaldehyde-based product were most successful in eliminating Salmonella from biofilms. All products tested on farm reduced bacterial log counts; the glutaraldehyde/QAC based product produced the greatest reduction. The type of product and the application concentration can impact on efficacy of farm disinfection; therefore, clearer guidance is needed to ensure the appropriate programmes are used for specific environments. Crown Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

9 CFR 51.8 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... facilities, conveyances, or other materials on the premises that would require such cleaning and disinfection... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... ANIMALS DESTROYED BECAUSE OF BRUCELLOSIS Indemnity for Cattle, Bison, and Swine § 51.8 Disinfection of...

Application of a high-level peracetic acid disinfection protocol to re-process antibiotic disinfected skin allografts.

PubMed

Lomas, R J; Huang, Q; Pegg, D E; Kearney, J N

2004-01-01

Skin allografts, derived from cadaveric donors, are widely used for the treatment of burns and ulcers. Prior to use in clinical situations, these allografts are disinfected using a cocktail of antibiotics and then cryopreserved. Unfortunately, this antibiotic disinfection procedure fails to decontaminate a significant proportion and these contaminated grafts can not be used clinically. We have investigated whether it is possible to apply a second, more potent disinfection procedure to these contaminated grafts and effectively to re-process them for clinical use. Cadaveric skin grafts, treated with antibiotics and cryopreserved, were thawed and a peracetic acid (PAA) disinfection protocol applied. The grafts were then preserved in a high concentration of glycerol or propylene glycol, and properties thought to be essential for successful clinical performance assessed. The cytotoxicity of the grafts was assessed using both extract and contact assays; damage to the skin collagen was assessed using a collagenase susceptibility assay and the capacity of the grafts to elicit an inflammatory response in vitro was assessed by quantifying the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha by human peripheral blood mononuclear phagocytes. PAA disinfection, in conjunction with either glycerol or propylene glycol preservation, did not render the grafts cytotoxic, pro-inflammatory, or increase their susceptibility to collagenase digestion. The rates of penetration of glycerol and propylene glycol into the re-processed skin were comparable to those of fresh skin. This study has demonstrated that PAA disinfection combined with immersion in high concentrations of either glycerol or propylene glycol was an effective method for re-processing contaminated skin allografts, and may justify their clinical use.

IDENTIFICATION OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS FROM OZONE, CHLORINE DIOXIDE, CHLORAMINE, AND CHLORINE

EPA Science Inventory

Many drinking water treatment plants are currently using alternative disinfectants to treat drinking water, with ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine being the most popular. However, compared to chlorine, which has been much more widely studied, there is little information abo...

40 CFR 141.54 - Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... for disinfectants. MRDLGs for disinfectants are as follows: Disinfectant residual MRDLG(mg/L) Chlorine... 40 Protection of Environment 23 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants. 141.54 Section 141.54 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY...

40 CFR 141.54 - Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... for disinfectants. MRDLGs for disinfectants are as follows: Disinfectant residual MRDLG(mg/L) Chlorine... 40 Protection of Environment 24 2012-07-01 2012-07-01 false Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants. 141.54 Section 141.54 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY...

40 CFR 141.54 - Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... for disinfectants. MRDLGs for disinfectants are as follows: Disinfectant residual MRDLG(mg/L) Chlorine... 40 Protection of Environment 24 2013-07-01 2013-07-01 false Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants. 141.54 Section 141.54 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY...

Concentrations of disinfection by-products in swimming pool following modifications of the water treatment process: An exploratory study.

PubMed

Tardif, Robert; Rodriguez, Manuel; Catto, Cyril; Charest-Tardif, Ginette; Simard, Sabrina

2017-08-01

The formation and concentration of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in pool water and the ambient air vary according to the type of water treatment process used. This exploratory study was aimed at investigating the short-term impact of modifications of the water treatment process on traditional DBP levels (e.g., trihalomethanes (THMs), chloramines) and emerging DBPs (e.g., Halonitromethanes, Haloketones, NDMA) in swimming pool water and/or air. A sampling program was carried to understand the impact of the following changes made successively to the standard water treatment process: activation of ultraviolet (UV) photoreactor, halt of air stripping with continuation of air extraction from the buffer tank, halt of air stripping and suppression of air extraction from the buffer tank, suppression of the polyaluminium silicate sulfate (PASS) coagulant. UV caused a high increase of Halonitromethanes (8.4 fold), Haloketones (2.1 fold), and THMs in the water (1.7 fold) and, of THMs in the air (1.6 fold) and contributed to reducing the level of chloramines in the air (1.6 fold) and NDMA in the water (2.1 fold). The results highlight the positive impact of air stripping in reducing volatile contaminants. The PASS did not change the presence of DBPs, except for the THMs, which decrease slightly with the use of this coagulant. This study shows that modifications affecting the water treatment process can rapidly produce important and variable impacts on DBP levels in water and air and suggests that implementation of any water treatment process to reduce DBP levels should take into account the specific context of each swimming pool. Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Disinfection of wastewater with peracetic acid: a review.

PubMed

Kitis, Mehmet

2004-03-01

Peracetic acid is a strong disinfectant with a wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity. Due to its bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, and sporicidal effectiveness as demonstrated in various industries, the use of peracetic acid as a disinfectant for wastewater effluents has been drawing more attention in recent years. The desirable attributes of peracetic acid for wastewater disinfection are the ease of implementing treatment (without the need for expensive capital investment), broad spectrum of activity even in the presence of heterogeneous organic matter, absence of persistent toxic or mutagenic residuals or by-products, no quenching requirement (i.e., no dechlorination), small dependence on pH, short contact time, and effectiveness for primary and secondary effluents. Major disadvantages associated with peracetic acid disinfection are the increases of organic content in the effluent due to acetic acid (AA) and thus in the potential microbial regrowth (acetic acid is already present in the mixture and is also formed after peracetic acid decomposition). Another drawback to the use of peracetic acid is its high cost, which is partly due to limited production capacity worldwide. However, if the demand for peracetic acid increases, especially from the wastewater industry, the future mass production capacity might also be increased, thus lowering the cost. In such a case, in addition to having environmental advantages, peracetic acid may also become cost-competitive with chlorine.

Cross-Resistance of UV- or Chlorine Dioxide-Resistant Echovirus 11 to Other Disinfectants

PubMed Central

Zhong, Qingxia; Carratalà, Anna; Ossola, Rachele; Bachmann, Virginie; Kohn, Tamar

2017-01-01

The emergence of waterborne viruses with resistance to disinfection has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in the environment. Yet, the implications of such resistance for virus control remain obscure. In this study we investigate if viruses with resistance to a given disinfection method exhibit cross-resistance to other disinfectants. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)- or UV-resistant populations of echovirus 11 were exposed to five inactivating treatments (free chlorine, ClO2, UV radiation, sunlight, and heat), and the extent of cross-resistance was determined. The ClO2-resistant population exhibited cross-resistance to free chlorine, but to none of the other inactivating treatments tested. We furthermore demonstrated that ClO2 and free chlorine act by a similar mechanism, in that they mainly inhibit the binding of echovirus 11 to its host cell. As such, viruses with host binding mechanisms that can withstand ClO2 treatment were also better able to withstand oxidation by free chlorine. Conversely, the UV-resistant population was not significantly cross-resistant to any other disinfection treatment. Overall, our results indicate that viruses with resistance to multiple disinfectants exist, but that they can be controlled by inactivating methods that operate by a distinctly different mechanism. We therefore suggest to utilize two disinfection barriers that act by different mechanisms in order to control disinfection-resistant viruses. PMID:29046672

INDUCTION OF TRANSTITIONAL CELL HYPERPLASIA IN THE URINARY BLADDER AND ABERRANT CRYPT FOCI IN THE COLON OF RATS TREATED WITH INDIVIDUAL AND A MIXTURE OF DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS

EPA Science Inventory

ABSTRACT

Cancer of the urinary bladder and colon are significant human health concerns. Epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between these cancers and the chronic consumption of drinking water containing disinfection by-products (DBPs). The present study...

Surface Disinfectants for Burn Units Evaluated by a New Double Method, Using Microorganisms Recently Isolated From Patients, on a Surface Germ-Carrier Model.

PubMed

Herruzo, Rafael; Vizcaino, Maria Jose; Herruzo, Irene; Sanchez, Manuel

Assessment methods of surface disinfection based on international standards (Environmental Protection Agency, European Norms, etc) do not correspond to hospital reality. New evaluation methods of surfaces disinfection are proposed to choose the most suitable disinfectant to act against clinically relevant microorganisms detected on the surfaces of burn units. 1) "Immediate effect": 6 products were compared using a glass germ-carrier and 20 recently isolated microorganisms from different patients in the intensive care units. Disinfectants were applied with microfiber cloths. Log10 reductions were calculated for colony forming units produced after 15 minutes of disinfectant application. 2) "Residual effect": the glass germ-carriers were previously impregnated with one of the studied disinfectants. After a 30-minute wait period, they were then contaminated with 1 microorganism (from the 20 above-mentioned). After 15 minutes, the disinfectant was inhibited and the log10 reduction of colony forming units was assessed. The immediate effect (disinfection and microorganism dragging and transferring from the surface to the cloth) produced complete elimination of the inoculums for all products used except one (a diluted quaternary ammonium). The average residual effect found on the 20 microorganisms was moderate: 2 to 3 log10 colony forming unit reduction with chlorine dioxide or 0.5% chlorhexidine (and lower with the other products), obtaining surfaces refractory to recontamination, at least, during 30 minutes. Two tests should be performed before advising surface disinfectant: 1) direct effect and 2) residual efficacy. These characteristics should be considered when a new surface disinfectant is chosen. Chlorine dioxide has a similar or better direct effect than sodium hypochlorite and a similar residual effect than chlorhexidine.

9 CFR 53.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... LIVESTOCK OR POULTRY § 53.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All premises, including... disinfection shall be shared according to the agreement reached under § 53.2 with the State in which the work...

9 CFR 53.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... LIVESTOCK OR POULTRY § 53.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All premises, including... disinfection shall be shared according to the agreement reached under § 53.2 with the State in which the work...

9 CFR 53.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... LIVESTOCK OR POULTRY § 53.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All premises, including... disinfection shall be shared according to the agreement reached under § 53.2 with the State in which the work...

9 CFR 53.7 - Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Disinfection of premises, conveyances... LIVESTOCK OR POULTRY § 53.7 Disinfection of premises, conveyances, and materials. All premises, including... disinfection shall be shared according to the agreement reached under § 53.2 with the State in which the work...

Catalytic ozonation of dimethyl phthalate and chlorination disinfection by-product precursors over Ru/AC.

PubMed

Wang, Jianbing; Zhou, Yunrui; Zhu, Wanpeng; He, Xuwen

2009-07-15

Catalytic ozonation of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) in aqueous solution (5mg/L) under various reactions was performed to examine the effect of catalyst dosage, catalyst particle size, ozone dosage, and gas flow rate on the mineralization of DMP. The mineralization of DMP can be achieved via ozonation and the presence of Ru/AC could greatly accelerate the mineralization rate of DMP in ozonation process. In the continuous experiment of the Ru/AC catalyzed ozonation of DMP, total organic carbon (TOC) removals were kept stable around 75% during 42 h reaction. No leaching of ruthenium was observed in the treated water samples. The treatment of natural water using Ru/AC+O(3), Ru/AC+O(2) and ozonation alone was studied. In the Ru/AC+O(3) process, TOC removals, the reductions of the haloacetic acid formation potentials (HAAFPs), and the reductions of the trihalomethane formation potentials (THMFPs) of 11 water samples were 22-44%, 39-61% and 50-65%, respectively. Ru/AC+O(3) process was much more effective than ozonation alone for TOC removal and the reduction of disinfection by-product formation potential (DBPFP) in the treatment of natural water. It is a promising water treatment technology.

Overcoming the problem of residual microbial contamination in dental suction units left by conventional disinfection using novel single component suction handpieces in combination with automated flood disinfection.

PubMed

Boyle, M A; O'Donnell, M J; Russell, R J; Galvin, N; Swan, J; Coleman, D C

2015-10-01

Decontaminating dental chair unit (DCU) suction systems in a convenient, safe and effective manner is problematic. This study aimed to identify and quantify the extent of the problems using 25 DCUs, methodically eliminate these problems and develop an efficient approach for reliable, effective, automated disinfection. DCU suction system residual contamination by environmental and human-derived bacteria was evaluated by microbiological culture following standard aspiration disinfection with a quaternary ammonium disinfectant or alternatively, a novel flooding approach to disinfection. Disinfection of multicomponent suction handpieces, assembled and disassembled, was also studied. A prototype manual and a novel automated Suction Tube Cleaning System (STCS) were developed and tested, as were novel single component suction handpieces. Standard aspiration disinfection consistently failed to decontaminate DCU suction systems effectively. Semi-confluent bacterial growth (101-500 colony forming units (CFU) per culture plate) was recovered from up to 60% of suction filter housings and from up to 19% of high and 37% of low volume suction hoses. Manual and automated flood disinfection of DCU suction systems reduced this dramatically (ranges for filter cage and high and low volume hoses of 0-22, 0-16 and 0-14CFU/plate, respectively) (P<0.0001). Multicomponent suction handpieces could not be adequately disinfected without prior removal and disassembly. Novel single component handpieces, allowed their effective disinfection in situ using the STCS, which virtually eliminated contamination from the entire suction system. Flood disinfection of DCU suction systems and single component handpieces radically improves disinfection efficacy and considerably reduces potential cross-infection and cross-contamination risks. DCU suction systems become heavily contaminated during use. Conventional disinfection does not adequately control this. Furthermore, multicomponent suction handpieces

9 CFR 96.8 - Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2014-01-01 2014-01-01 false Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. 96.8 Section 96.8 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE... Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. Uncertified foreign animal casings arriving at a seaboard...

9 CFR 96.8 - Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. 96.8 Section 96.8 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE... Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. Uncertified foreign animal casings arriving at a seaboard...

9 CFR 96.8 - Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. 96.8 Section 96.8 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE... Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. Uncertified foreign animal casings arriving at a seaboard...

9 CFR 96.8 - Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. 96.8 Section 96.8 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE... Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. Uncertified foreign animal casings arriving at a seaboard...

9 CFR 96.8 - Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. 96.8 Section 96.8 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE... Uncertified casings; disinfection at seaboard port. Uncertified foreign animal casings arriving at a seaboard...

ALTERATION OF ESTROUS CYCLICITY BY THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID: RELATIONSHIP TO AN EFFECT ON ESTRADIOL METABOLISM?

EPA Science Inventory

A number of chemicals formed by disinfection of municipal drinking water have been suspected to cause reproductive alterations in humans and test animals. One class of these chemicals, the haloacetic acids, have been reported to alter a number of rat testicular endpoints, includ...

MODELING CHLORINE DECAY AND THE FORMATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPS) IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

A major objective of drinking water treatment is to provide microbiologically safe drinking water. The combination of conventional drinking water treatment and disinfection has proved to be one of the major public health advances in modern times. In the US, chlorine is most often...

Engineered biofiltration for the removal of disinfection by-product precursors and genotoxicity.

PubMed

McKie, Michael J; Taylor-Edmonds, Liz; Andrews, Susan A; Andrews, Robert C

2015-09-15

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when naturally occurring organic matter reacts with chlorine used in drinking water treatment, and DBPs formed in chlorinated drinking water samples have been shown to cause a genotoxic response. The objective of the current study was to further understand the principles of biofiltration and the resulting impacts on the formation of DBPs and genotoxicity. Pilot-scale systems were utilized to assess the performance of engineered biofilters enhanced with hydrogen peroxide, in-line coagulants, and nutrients when compared to passively operated biofilters and conventional treatment (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, non-biological filtration). Organic fractionation was completed using liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection (LC-OCD). Water samples were chlorinated after collection and examined for the removal of trihalomethane (THM), haloacetic acid (HAA), and adsorbable organic halide (AOX) precursors. Additionally, the formation potential of two halogenated furanones, 3-chloro-4(dichloromethyl)-2(5H)-furanone (MX) and mucochloric acid (MCA), and genotoxicity was determined. Biofiltration was shown to preferentially remove more DBP precursors than dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Formation potential of the unregulated DBPs, including MX and MCA, and genotoxic response was shown to be correlated to THM formation. These results infer that monitoring for THMs and HAAs provide insight to the formation of more mutagenic DBPs such as halogenated furanones, and that biofiltration may preferentially remove precursors to DBPs at a rate exceeding the removal of DOC. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A comparison of genotoxicity change in reclaimed wastewater from different disinfection processes.

PubMed

Chai, Qiwan; Hu, Allen; Qian, Yukun; Ao, Xiuwei; Liu, Wenjun; Yang, Hongwei; Xie, Yuefeng F

2018-01-01

Effluents before disinfection from four wastewater reclamation plants were treated with chlorine (Cl 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ), medium-pressure ultraviolet (MPUV) and four different combinations of the above, to evaluate the effect of disinfection processes on the genotoxicity removal by the SOS/umu test. Results showed that the genotoxicity increased after MPUV irradiation (10-100 mJ/cm 2 ), but declined when adopting other disinfection processes. The effectiveness of genotoxicity reduction by five chemical disinfectants was identified as: O 3  > pre-ozonation with Cl 2  ≈ ClO 2  > combination of ClO 2 and Cl 2  > Cl 2 . The sequential combination of MPUV, Cl 2 and O 3 reduced the genotoxicity to a level similar to the source water. The influence of differential disinfection process varied on iodinated wastewater, which is closely related to the competitive reactions between disinfectants, iodine and dissolved organic matters. The removal of genotoxic pollutants and the formation of genotoxic disinfection by-products are the two major factors that lead to the change in genotoxicity during disinfection. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Biological Treatment of Water Disinfection Byproducts using ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Major disinfection by-products (DBPs) from the chlorination process of drinking water include trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acides (HAA5). THMs mainly consist of chloroform, and other harsh chemicals. Prolonged consumptions of drinking water containing high levels of THMs has been linked with diseases of the liver, kidneys, bladder, or central nervous system and may increase likelihood of cancer. A risk also exists for THMs exposure via inhalation while showering, bathing or washing clothes and dishes. Due to these risks, the U.S. EPA regulate THMs content in drinking water. This research investigates biological degradation of THM using chloroform as a model compound. The study aims to decrease possible risks of THMs through filtration. Throughout this year’s presentations, there is a common theme of health and safety concerns. UC researchers are working hard to clean water ways of naturally occurring contaminates as well as man-made toxins found in our waterways. The significance of these presentations translates into the promise of safer environments, and more importantly saved lives, as UC’s faculty continues to produce real-world solutions to problems threatening the world around us. A biotech process has been developed and demonstrated that effectively remove and treat volatile disinfection by-products from drinking water. The process strips low concentration disinfection by-products, such as trihalomethanes, that are formed during the chlori

Disinfectant Susceptibility Profiling of Glutaraldehyde-Resistant Nontuberculous Mycobacteria.

PubMed

Burgess, Winona; Margolis, Alyssa; Gibbs, Sara; Duarte, Rafael Silva; Jackson, Mary

2017-07-01

OBJECTIVE Activated alkaline glutaraldehyde (GTA) remains one of the most widely used high-level disinfectants worldwide. However, several reports have highlighted the potential for nontuberculous mycobacteria to develop high-level resistance to this product. Because aldehyde resistance may lead to cross-resistance to other biocides, we investigated the susceptibility profile of GTA-resistant Mycobacterium chelonae and M. abscessus isolates to various disinfectant chemistries. METHODS High-level disinfectants commonly used in the reprocessing of endoscopes and other heat-sensitive, semicritical medical equipment, including different formulations of aldehyde-based products and oxidizing agents, were tested against 10 slow- and fast-growing, GTA-susceptible and GTA-resistant, Mycobacterium isolates in suspension tests and carrier tests at different temperatures. RESULTS While peracetic acid- and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants (S40, Resert XL, Reliance DG) efficiently killed all of the Mycobacterium isolates, GTA- and ortho-phthalaldehyde-based products (ie, Cidex, Aldahol, Cidex OPA) showed variable efficacy against GTA-resistant strains despite the ability of some formulations (Aldahol) to overcome the resistance of some of these isolates, especially when the temperature was increased from 20°C to 25°C. CONCLUSIONS Application permitting, oxidizing chemistries may provide a safe alternative to aldehyde-based products, particularly in GTA-resistant mycobacterial outbreaks. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2017;38:784-791.

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Iodo-acids were recently identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, (Z)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, and (E)-2-iodo-3...

Fibrous Catalyst-Enhanced Acanthamoeba Disinfection by Hydrogen Peroxide.

PubMed

Kilvington, Simon; Winterton, Lynn

2017-11-01

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) disinfection systems are contact-lens-patient problem solvers. The current one-step, criterion-standard version has been widely used since the mid-1980s, without any significant improvement. This work identifies a potential next-generation, one-step H2O2, not based on the solution formulation but rather on a case-based peroxide catalyst. One-step H2O2 systems are widely used for contact lens disinfection. However, antimicrobial efficacy can be limited because of the rapid neutralization of the peroxide from the catalytic component of the systems. We studied whether the addition of an iron-containing catalyst bound to a nonfunctional propylene:polyacryonitrile fabric matrix could enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of these one-step H2O2 systems. Bausch + Lomb PeroxiClear and AOSept Plus (both based on 3% H2O2 with a platinum-neutralizing disc) were the test systems. These were tested with and without the presence of the catalyst fabric using Acanthamoeba cysts as the challenge organism. After 6 hours' disinfection, the number of viable cysts was determined. In other studies, the experiments were also conducted with biofilm formed by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Elizabethkingia meningoseptica bacteria. Both control systems gave approximately 1-log10 kill of Acanthamoeba cysts compared with 3.0-log10 kill in the presence of the catalyst (P < .001). In the biofilm studies, no viable bacteria were recovered following disinfection in the presence of the catalyst compared with ≥3.0-log10 kill when it was omitted. In 30 rounds' recurrent usage, the experiments, in which the AOSept Plus system was subjected to 30 rounds of H2O2 neutralization with or without the presence of catalytic fabric, showed no loss in enhanced biocidal efficacy of the material. The catalytic fabric was also shown to not retard or increase the rate of H2O2 neutralization. We have demonstrated the catalyst significantly increases the efficacy of one-step H2O2

Pyruvate remediation of cell stress and genotoxicity induced by haloacetic acid drinking water disinfection by-products.

PubMed

Dad, Azra; Jeong, Clara H; Pals, Justin A; Wagner, Elizabeth D; Plewa, Michael J

2013-10-01

Monohaloacetic acids (monoHAAs) are a major class of drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) and are cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. We propose a model of toxic action based on monoHAA-mediated inhibition of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as a target cytosolic enzyme. This model predicts that GAPDH inhibition by the monoHAAs will lead to a severe reduction of cellular ATP levels and repress the generation of pyruvate. A loss of pyruvate will lead to mitochondrial stress and genomic DNA damage. We found a concentration-dependent reduction of ATP in Chinese hamster ovary cells after monoHAA treatment. ATP reduction per pmol monoHAA followed the pattern of iodoacetic acid (IAA) > bromoacetic acid (BAA) > chloroacetic acid (CAA), which is the pattern of potency observed with many toxicological endpoints. Exogenous supplementation with pyruvate enhanced ATP levels and attenuated monoHAA-induced genomic DNA damage as measured with single cell gel electrophoresis. These data were highly correlated with the SN 2 alkylating potentials of the monoHAAs and with the induction of toxicity. The results from this study strongly support the hypothesis that GAPDH inhibition and the possible subsequent generation of reactive oxygen species is linked with the cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, teratogenicity, and neurotoxicity of these DBPs. Copyright © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

PREDICTING THE FORMATION OF CHLORINATED AND BROMINATED BY-PRODUCTS.

EPA Science Inventory

Although disinfection has been and continues to be one of the major public health advances in the 20th century, the disinfectants themselves may react with naturally-occurring materials in treated water to form unintended by-products which may themselves pose risks. This is of p...

Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from reaction of monochloramine: a new disinfection by-product.

PubMed

Choi, Junghoon; Valentine, Richard L

2002-02-01

Studies have been conducted specifically to investigate the hypothesis that N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) can be produced by reactions involving monochloramine. Experiments were conducted using dimethylamine (DMA) as a model precursor. NDMA was formed from the reaction between DMA and monochloramine indicating that it should be considered a potential disinfection by-product. The formation of NDMA increased with increased monochloramine concentration and showed maximum in yield when DMA was varied at fixed monochloramine concentrations. The mass spectra of the NDMA formed from DMA and 15N isotope labeled monochloramine (15NH2Cl) showed that the source of one of the nitrogen atoms in the nitroso group in NDMA was from monochloramine. Addition of 0.05 and 0.5 mM of preformed monochloramine to a secondarily treated wastewater at pH 7.2 also resulted in the formation of 3.6 and 111 ng/L of NDMA, respectively, showing that this is indeed an environmentally relevant NDMA formation pathway. The proposed NDMA formation mechanism consists of (i) the formation of 1,1-dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) intermediate from the reaction of DMA with monochloramine followed by, (ii) the oxidation of UDMH by monochloramine to NDMA, and (iii) the reversible chlorine transfer reaction between monochloramine and DMA which is parallel to (i). We conclude that reactions involving monochloramine in addition to classical nitrosation reactions are potentially important pathways for NDMA formation.

The effectiveness of three home products in cleaning and disinfection of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli on home environmental surfaces.

PubMed

Goodyear, N; Brouillette, N; Tenaglia, K; Gore, R; Marshall, J

2015-11-01

The objectives of this study were to investigate three products for: (i) cleaning effectiveness on two common household surfaces, and (ii) disinfection effectiveness against two common bacteria. Products included conventional ('bleach'), environmentally preferable (EP), do-it-yourself (DIY: distilled white vinegar, club soda, tea tree oil), 24-h old DIY, and individual DIY components in dilution. For cleaning ceramic, no product was effective (≥85% removal of Hucker's soil), however, DIY performed better than EP and bleach. On stainless, only DIY failed to meet the standard. For disinfection, bleach and EP achieved ≥5·00 log10 reductions under all conditions. DIY and components were more active against Escherichia coli than Staphylococcus aureus but only fresh DIY and 50% vinegar achieved ≥5·00 log10 reductions. EP is an effective alternative to bleach. DIY may be an adequate alternative for cleaning ceramic and for household use, where complete elimination of micro-organisms is unnecessary; however, it must be freshly prepared each day. This is the first report of performance of purportedly safer alternatives for both cleaning and disinfection for use in home health care. The EP product and DIY are potential alternatives for some household uses. © 2015 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

UV Disinfection of Wastewater and Combined Sewer Overflows.

PubMed

Gibson, John; Drake, Jennifer; Karney, Bryan

2017-01-01

Municipal wastewater contains bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that adversely affect the environment, human health, and economic activity. One way to mitigate these effects is a final disinfection step using ultraviolet light (UVL). The advantages of UVL disinfection, when compared to the more traditional chlorine, include no chlorinated by-products, no chemical residual, and relatively compact size. The design of most UV reactors is complex. It involves lamp selection, power supply design, optics, and hydraulics. In general, medium pressure lamps are more compact, powerful, and emit over a wider range of light than the more traditional low pressure lamps. Low pressure lamps, however, may be electrically more efficient. In UV disinfection, the fraction of surviving organisms (e.g. E. coli) will decrease exponentially with increasing UV dose. However, the level of disinfection that can be achieved is often limited by particle-associated organisms. Efforts to remove or reduce the effects of wastewater particles will often improve UV disinfection effectiveness. Regrowth, photoreactivation, or dark repair after UV exposure are sometimes cited as disadvantages of UV disinfection. Research is continuing in this area, however there is little evidence that human pathogens can photoreactivate in environmental conditions, at doses used in wastewater treatment. The UV disinfection of combined sewer overflows, a form of wet weather pollution, is challenging and remains largely at the research phase. Pre-treatment of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) with a cationic polymer to induce fast settling, and a low dose of alum to increase UV transmittance, has shown promise at the bench scale.

Acute toxicity of dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), a typical nitrogenous disinfection by-product (N-DBP), on zebrafish (Danio rerio).

PubMed

Lin, Tao; Zhou, Dongju; Dong, Jian; Jiang, Fuchun; Chen, Wei

2016-11-01

Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) is a typical nitrogenous disinfection by-product (N-DBP) and its toxicity on aquatic animals is investigated for the first time. The present study was designed to investigate the potential adverse effects of DCAN on zebrafish. DCAN could induce developmental toxicity to zebrafish embryos. A significant decrease in hatchability and an increase in malformation and mortality occurred when DCAN concentration was above 100µg/L. Heart function alteration and neuronal function disturbance occurred at concentration higher than 500 and 100µg/L, respectively. Further, DCAN was easily accumulated in adult zebrafish. The rank order of declining bioconcentration factor (BCF) was liver (1240-1670)> gill (1210-1430)> muscle (644-877). DCAN caused acute metabolism damage to adult zebrafish especially at 8 days exposure, at which time the "Integrated Biomarker Response" (IBR) index value reached 798 at 1mg/L DCAN dose. Acute DNA damage was induced to adult zebrafish by DCAN even at 10µg/L dose. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Effectiveness of Four Disinfectants against Ebola Virus on Different Materials

PubMed Central

Smither, Sophie; Phelps, Amanda; Eastaugh, Lin; Ngugi, Sarah; O’Brien, Lyn; Dutch, Andrew; Lever, Mark Stephen

2016-01-01

The West Africa Ebola virus (EBOV) outbreak has highlighted the need for effective disinfectants capable of reducing viral load in a range of sample types, equipment and settings. Although chlorine-based products are widely used, they can also be damaging to equipment or apparatus that needs continuous use such as aircraft use for transportation of infected people. Two aircraft cleaning solutions were assessed alongside two common laboratory disinfectants in a contact kill assay with EBOV on two aircraft relevant materials representative of a porous and non-porous surface. A decimal log reduction of viral titre of 4 is required for a disinfectant to be deemed effective and two of the disinfectants fulfilled this criteria under the conditions tested. One product, Ardrox 6092, was found to perform similarly to sodium hypochlorite, but as it does not have the corrosive properties of sodium hypochlorite, it could be an alternative disinfectant solution to be used for decontamination of EBOV on sensitive apparatus. PMID:27399759

Transformation pathways and acute toxicity variation of 4-hydroxyl benzophenone in chlorination disinfection process.

PubMed

Liu, Wei; Wei, Dongbin; Liu, Qi; Du, Yuguo

2016-07-01

Benzophenones compounds (BPs) are widely used as UV filters, and have been frequently found in multiple environmental matrices. The residual of BPs in water would cause potential threats on ecological safety and human health. Chlorination disinfection is necessary in water treatment process, in which many chemicals remained in water would react with disinfectant chlorine and form toxic by-products. By using ultra performance liquid phase chromatography quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometer (UPLC-QTOF-MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), the transformation of 4-hydroxyl benezophenone (4HB) with free available chlorine (FAC) was characterized. Eight major products were detected and seven of them were identified. Transformation pathways of 4HB under acid, neutral, and alkaline conditions were proposed respectively. The transformation mechanisms involved electrophilic chlorine substitution of 4HB, Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones, hydrolysis of esters and oxidative breakage of benzene ring. The orthogonal experiments of pH and dosages of disinfectant chlorine were conducted. The results suggested that pH conditions determined the occurrence of reaction types, and the dosages of disinfectant chlorine affected the extent of reactions. Photobacterium assay demonstrated that acute toxicity had significant increase after chlorination disinfection of 4HB. It was proved that 3,5-dichloro-4HB, one of the major transformation products, was responsible for the increasing acute toxicity after chlorination. It is notable that, 4HB at low level in real ambient water matrices could be transformed during simulated chlorination disinfection practice. Especially, two major products 3-chloro-4HB and 3,5-dichloro-4HB were detected out, implying the potential ecological risk after chlorination disinfection of 4HB. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Characterization and disinfection by-product formation potential of natural organic matter in surface and ground waters from Northern Florida

USGS Publications Warehouse

Rostad, C.E.; Leenheer, J.A.; Katz, B.; Martin, B.S.; Noyes, T.I.

2000-01-01

Streamwaters in northern Florida have large concentrations of natural organic matter (NOM), and commonly flow directly into the ground water system through karst features, such as sinkholes. In this study NOM from northern Florida stream and ground waters was fractionated, the fractions characterized by infrared (IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and then chlorinated to investigate their disinfection by-product (DBP) formation potential (FP). As the NOM character changed (as quantified by changes in NOM distribution in various fractions, such as hydrophilic acids or hydrophobic neutrals) due to migration through the aquifer, the total organic halide (TOX)-FP and trihalomethane (THM)-FP yield of each of these fractions varied also. In surface waters, the greatest DBP yields were produced by the colloid fraction. In ground waters, DBP yield of the hydrophobic acid fraction (the greatest in terms of mass) decreased during infiltration.

Can pulsed xenon ultraviolet light systems disinfect aerobic bacteria in the absence of manual disinfection?

PubMed

Jinadatha, Chetan; Villamaria, Frank C; Ganachari-Mallappa, Nagaraja; Brown, Donna S; Liao, I-Chia; Stock, Eileen M; Copeland, Laurel A; Zeber, John E

2015-04-01

Whereas pulsed xenon-based ultraviolet light no-touch disinfection systems are being increasingly used for room disinfection after patient discharge with manual cleaning, their effectiveness in the absence of manual disinfection has not been previously evaluated. Our study indicates that pulsed xenon-based ultraviolet light systems effectively reduce aerobic bacteria in the absence of manual disinfection. These data are important for hospitals planning to adopt this technology as adjunct to routine manual disinfection. Published by Elsevier Inc.

Interaction of Human Enteric Viruses with Microbial Compounds: Implication for Virus Persistence and Disinfection Treatments.

PubMed

Waldman, Prunelle; Meseguer, Alba; Lucas, Françoise; Moulin, Laurent; Wurtzer, Sébastien

2017-12-05

Although the interaction between phages and bacteria has already been well described, it only recently emerged that human viruses also interact with bacteria in the mammalian gut. We studied whether this interaction could occur in tap water and thus confer enteric viruses protection against temperature and the classical disinfection treatments used in drinking water production. We demonstrated that the addition of lipopolysaccharide or peptidoglycan of bacterial origin to enterovirus provides thermal protection through stabilization of the viral capsid. This interaction plays a role when viruses are exposed to disinfection that targets the capsid, but less so when the virus genome is directly targeted. The interaction seems to be serotype-specific, suggesting that the capsid protein sequence could be important. The protection is linked to a direct association between viral particles and bacterial compounds as observed by microscopy. These results show that bacterial compounds present in the environment can affect virus inactivation.

Disinfection of secondary effluents by infiltration percolation.

PubMed

Makni, H

2001-01-01

Among the most attractive applications of reclaimed wastewater are: irrigation of public parks, sports fields, golf courses and market gardening. These uses require advanced wastewater treatment including disinfection. According to WHO guidelines (1989) and current rules and regulations in Tunisia, faecal coliform levels have to be reduced to < 10(3) or 10(2) CFU/100 mL. In Tunisia, most wastewater plants are only secondary treatment and, in order to meet health related regulations, the effluents need to be disinfected. However, it is usual for secondary effluents to need filtration prior to disinfection. Effectiveness of conventional disinfection processes, such as chlorination and UV radiation, are dependent upon the oxidation level and the levels of suspended solids of the treated water. Ozonation is relatively expensive and energy consuming. The consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of conventional techniques, their reliability, investment needs and operational costs will lead to the use of less sophisticated alternative techniques for certain facilities. Among alternative techniques, soil aquifer treatment and infiltration percolation through sand beds have been studied in Arizona, Israel, France, Spain and Morocco. Infiltration percolation plants have been intermittently fed with secondary or high quality primary effluents which percolated through 1.5-2 m unsaturated coarse sand and were recovered by under-drains. In such infiltration percolation facilities, microorganisms were eliminated through numerous physical, physicochemical and biological inter-related processes (mechanical filtration, adsorption and microbial degradation respectively). Efficiency of faecal coliform removal was dependent upon the water detention times in the filtering medium and on the oxidation of the filtered water. Effluents of Sfax town aerated ponds were infiltrated through 1.5 m deep sand columns in order to determine the performance of infiltration percolation in the

Use of disinfectants in open-air dairying.

PubMed

Hutchinson, R E

1995-06-01

Disinfection systems are essential in providing dairy foods which are safe for consumption by all sectors and age groups of the human population. The New Zealand dairy industry ensures quality competition under International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) general systems standards (ISO 9002 and ISO Guide 25) and is subject to food safety assurance legislation (Dairy Industry Regulations 1990). This latter regulation requires that safe foods be produced in accordance with Product Safety Programmes approved by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Safety can be demonstrated by compliance with the Codes of Practice of the industry. Farm dairy detergents and sanitisers must be approved for use. These disinfection systems are described.

Evaluating the similarity of complex drinking-water disinfection by-product mixtures: overview of the issues.

PubMed

Rice, Glenn E; Teuschler, Linda K; Bull, Richard J; Simmons, Jane E; Feder, Paul I

2009-01-01

Humans are exposed daily to complex mixtures of environmental chemical contaminants, which arise as releases from sources such as engineering procedures, degradation processes, and emissions from mobile or stationary sources. When dose-response data are available for the actual environmental mixture to which individuals are exposed (i.e., the mixture of concern), these data provide the best information for dose-response assessment of the mixture. When suitable data on the mixture itself are not available, surrogate data might be used from a sufficiently similar mixture or a group of similar mixtures. Consequently, the determination of whether the mixture of concern is "sufficiently similar" to a tested mixture or a group of tested mixtures is central to the use of whole mixture methods. This article provides an overview for a series of companion articles whose purpose is to develop a set of biostatistical, chemical, and toxicological criteria and approaches for evaluating the similarity of drinking-water disinfection by-product (DBPs) complex mixtures. Together, the five articles in this series serve as a case study whose techniques will be relevant to assessing similarity for other classes of complex mixtures of environmental chemicals. Schenck et al. (2009) describe the chemistry and mutagenicity of a set of DBP mixtures concentrated from five different drinking-water treatment plants. Bull et al. (2009a, 2009b) describe how the variables that impact the formation of DBP affect the chemical composition and, subsequently, the expected toxicity of the mixture. Feder et al. (2009a, 2009b) evaluate the similarity of DBP mixture concentrates by applying two biostatistical approaches, principal components analysis, and a nonparametric "bootstrap" analysis. Important factors for determining sufficient similarity of DBP mixtures found in this research include disinfectant used; source water characteristics, including the concentrations of bromide and total organic carbon

Growth inhibition of Aeromonas salmonicida and Yersinia ruckeri by disinfectants containing peracetic acid

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

Peracetic acid (PAA) is an agent used for disinfection in aquaculture. PAA contributes to sustainable aquaculture, because it releases no harmful residue in the environment. However, there is lack of guideline about the effective application of different PAA products against various pathogens in p...

Fingerprinting the reactive toxicity pathways of 50 drinking water disinfection by-products.

PubMed

Stalter, Daniel; O'Malley, Elissa; von Gunten, Urs; Escher, Beate I

2016-03-15

A set of nine in vitro cellular bioassays indicative of different stages of the cellular toxicity pathway was applied to 50 disinfection by-products (DBPs) to obtain a better understanding of the commonalities and differences in the molecular mechanisms of reactive toxicity of DBPs. An Eschericia coli test battery revealed reactivity towards proteins/peptides for 64% of the compounds. 98% activated the NRf2-mediated oxidative stress response and 68% induced an adaptive stress response to genotoxic effects as indicated by the activation of the tumor suppressor protein p53. All DBPs reactive towards DNA in the E. coli assay and activating p53 also induced oxidative stress, confirming earlier studies that the latter could trigger DBP's carcinogenicity. The energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital ELUMO as reactivity descriptor was linearly correlated with oxidative stress induction for trihalomethanes (r(2)=0.98) and haloacetamides (r(2)=0.58), indicating that potency of these DBPs is connected to electrophilicity. However, the descriptive power was poor for haloacetic acids (HAAs) and haloacetonitriles (r(2) (<) 0.06). For HAAs, we additionally accounted for speciation by including the acidity constant with ELUMO in a two-parameter multiple linear regression model. This increased r(2) to >0.80, indicating that HAAs' potency is connected to both, electrophilicity and speciation. Based on the activation of oxidative stress response and the soft electrophilic character of most tested DBPs we hypothesize that indirect genotoxicity-e.g., through oxidative stress induction and/or enzyme inhibition-is more plausible than direct DNA damage for most investigated DBPs. The results provide not only a mechanistic understanding of the cellular effects of DBPs but the effect concentrations may also serve to evaluate mixture effects of DBPs in water samples. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Do Iodine Contrast Media Compounds Used for Medical Imaging Contribute to the Formation of Iodinated Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water?

EPA Science Inventory

Iodinated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) have recently gained attention due to their cyto- and genotoxicity and increased formation in drinking water treated with chloramine, which has become an increasingly popular disinfectant in the United States. One of these—iodoacetic acid...

DISINFECTION OF NEW WATER MAINS

EPA Science Inventory

The 'AWWA Standard for Disinfecting Water Mains' (AWWA C601-68) has fallen into disuse by a number of water utilities because of repeated bacteriological failures following initial disinfection with the recommended high-dose chlorination. Other methods of disinfection, including ...

Drinking water disinfection by-products exposure and health effects on pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review.

PubMed

Mashau, Funanani; Ncube, Esper Jacobeth; Voyi, Kuku

2018-04-01

Epidemiological studies have found that maternal exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) may lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes although the findings tend to be inconsistent. The objective of this study was to systematically review the evidence in associated with drinking water DBP exposure in relation to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Peer-reviewed articles were identified using electronic databases searched for studies published in the English language. Studies selected for review were evaluated for exposure assessment, confounders, and analyses risks of bias in the selection, outcomes assessment, and attrition. A comprehensive search and screening yielded a total of 32 studies, of which 12 (38%) reported a statistical association between maternal exposure to DBPs and adverse pregnancy outcomes. A maternal exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) shows an increased risk of small for gestational age (SGA) and slightly increased risk of pregnancy loss. Risks of bias were low among the studies included in the review. Evidence on association relating to adverse pregnancy outcomes to DBP exposure is still less significant. There is a need for future robust research in this field, with the use of urinary trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) biomarkers as a direct exposure assessment method for this field.

Nanomaterial Case Study: Nanoscale Silver in Disinfectant ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

EPA announced the release of the final report, Nanomaterial Case Study: Nanoscale Silver in Disinfectant Spray. This report represents a case study of engineered nanoscale silver (nano-Ag), focusing on the specific example of nano-Ag as possibly used in disinfectant sprays. This case study is organized around the comprehensive environmental assessment (CEA) framework, which structures available information pertaining to the product life cycle, environmental transport and fate, exposure-dose in receptors (i.e., humans, ecological populations, and the environment), and potential impacts in these receptors. The document does not draw conclusions about potential risks. Instead, it is intended to be used as part of a process to identify what is known and unknown about nano-Ag in a selected application. In turn, the external review draft of the document provided a starting point to identify and prioritize possible research directions to support future assessments of nanomaterials. The information presented in the case study and the questions raised in this document are a foundation for a process to determine priorities among various research topics and directions. After that process has been completed, a final chapter will be added to this document to summarize highlights from preceding chapters and the major research issues that have emerged.

Ozone reactions with indoor materials during building disinfection

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Poppendieck, D.; Hubbard, H.; Ward, M.; Weschler, C.; Corsi, R. L.

There is scant information related to heterogeneous indoor chemistry at ozone concentrations necessary for the effective disinfection of buildings, i.e., hundreds to thousands of ppm. In the present study, 24 materials were exposed for 16 h to ozone concentrations of 1000-1200 ppm in the inlet streams of test chambers. Initial ozone deposition velocities were similar to those reported in the published literature for much lower ozone concentrations, but decayed rapidly as reaction sites on material surfaces were consumed. For every material, deposition velocities converged to a relatively constant, and typically low, value after approximately 11 h. The four materials with the highest sustained deposition velocities were ceiling tile, office partition, medium density fiberboard and gypsum wallboard backing. Analysis of ozone reaction probabilities indicated that throughout each experiment, and particularly after several hours of disinfection, surface reaction resistance dominated the overall resistance to ozone deposition for nearly all materials. Total building disinfection by-products (all carbonyls) were quantified per unit area of each material for the experimental period. Paper, office partition, and medium density fiberboard each released greater than 38 mg m -2 of by-products.

Degradation kinetics of organic chloramines and formation of disinfection by-products during chlorination of creatinine.

PubMed

Zhang, Tianyang; Xu, Bin; Wang, Anqi; Cui, Changzheng

2018-03-01

Organic chloramines can interfere with the measurement of effective combined chlorine in chlorinated water and are potential intermediate products of highly toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). In order to know more about the degradation and transformation of organic chloramines, a typical organic chloramine precursor creatinine was selected for investigation and a corresponding individual organic chloramine chlorocreatinine was prepared in this study. The preparation condition of chlorocreatinine by chlorination was established as chlorine/creatinine = 1 M/M, reaction time = 2 h and pH = 7.0. Then the degradation kinetics of chlorocreatinine during further chlorination was studied, and a second-order rate constant of 1.16 (±0.14) M -1 s -1 was obtained at pH 7.0. Solution pH significantly influenced the degradation rate, and the elementary rate constants of chlorocreatinine with HOCl+H + , HOCl, OCl - and chlorocreatinine - with OCl - were calculated as 2.43 (±1.55) × 10 4  M -2  s -1 , 1.05 (±0.09) M -1 s -1 , 2.86 (±0.30) M -1 s -1 and 3.09 (±0.24) M -1 s -1 , respectively. Besides, it was found that chlorocreatinine could be further converted into several C-DBPs (chloroform and trichloroacetone) and N-DBPs (dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and trichloronitromethane (TCNM)) during chlorination. The total yield of DBPs increased obviously with increasing pH, especially for TCNM. In addition, the presence of humic acid in creatinine solution could increase the formation of DCAN obviously during chlorination. Based on the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis, the conversion pathways of chlorocreatinine were proposed. Several kinds of intermediate products were also identified as organic chloramines and some of them could even exist stably during the further chlorination. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT'S FOUR LAB STUDY: TOXICOLOGICCAL AND CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF COMPLEX MIXTURES OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPS) AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITIES FOR A LARGE U. S. EPA MULTILABORATORY STUDY

EPA Science Inventory

Office of Research and Development's Four Lab Study: Toxicological and Chemical Evaluation of Complex Mixtures of Disinfection By-Products (DBPs), and Quality Assurance Activities for a Large U.S. EPA Multilaboratoty Study

Thomas J. Hughes, Project and QA Manager, Expe...

Water disinfection: A relationship between ozone and aldehyde production

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Gilli, G.; Scursatone, E.; Palin, L.

In the water potabilization plant of Turin city (Italy), the oxidation process is carried out with ozone. Due to its well-known insufficient performance, it is necessary to add alternative oxidants (hypochlorite ion and chlorine dioxide). In this paper, the authors discuss the formation of linear carbonyl groups during surface water treatment in Turni. The results obtained in the field confirm the synthesis of some aliphatic carbonyl compounds of low molecular weight. This phenomenon happens preeminently during the ozone disinfection process and, secondarily, during the other disinfection processes. Experimental results show that, in this last event, chlorine reacts with organic substances,more » and in a second moment, after organics consumption, if chlorine is still in a sufficient concentration, oxidizing them.« less

Major concerns regarding lung injury and related health conditions caused by the use of humidifier disinfectant

PubMed Central

2016-01-01

A total of 221 patients were evaluated to be humidifier disinfectant associated with lung injury (HDLI) through two rounds of programs through April 2015. The humidifier disinfectant (HD) brands most often associated with HDLI were found to be Oxy (n=151, 68 %) and Cefu (n=26, 17 %). Polyhexamethylene guanidine used for disinfectant for four types of HD brands including Oxy was found to be associated with the highest number of HDLI cases (n=188). Further programs are operating to identify various health effects including lung injury which may be associated with the use of HD. Not only national agencies, but also pertinent environmental health societies should cooperate in the necessary investigations so that this tragedy can be properly addressed and future incidents concerning chemicals and chemical-containing products can be prevented. PMID:27431912

The Disinfecting Potential of Contact Lens Soutions used by Sultan Qaboos University Students

PubMed Central

Nzeako, B. C.; Al-Sumri, Sara H.

2011-01-01

Objectives: This study aimed to determine the disinfecting potential of some contact lens solutions used by some university students in Oman. Methods: This work was carried out from January to June 2010 in the Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. Fifty disinfecting solutions, in which contact lenses were disinfected according to the manufacturers’ instructions, were collected from the students and plated on various microbiological culture media. Bacterial isolates were identified by API-20E, API-20NE and Phoenix automated systems while fungi were identified by their cultural characteristics and biochemistry. Results: From 98 isolates, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was 23.5%; Penicillium, 13%; Candida species, 9.2%; coagulase negative staphylococci, 9.2%; Serratia marcescens, 6.1%; Bacillus, 5.1%; Aspergillus flavus, 5.1%; Serratia liquefaciens, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Enterobacter cloacae and Aspergillus niger, 4.1% each; Chryseomonas luteola and Chryseomonas indologenes, 3.1% each; Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Serratia odorifera, 2.0% each; Enterobacter aerogenes and Klebsiella pneumoniae, 1% each. Most isolates (65%) came from polyhexanide containing solutions. Conclusion: Contact lens disinfecting solutions with the same formulations, but manufactured by different companies, possessed different disinfecting potentials. PMID:21969898

Bacterial Contamination and Disinfection Status of Laryngoscopes Stored in Emergency Crash Carts

PubMed Central

Lee, Jung Won; Shin, Hee Bong; Lee, In Kyung

2017-01-01

Objectives To identify bacterial contamination rates of laryngoscope blades and handles stored in emergency crash carts by hospital and area according to the frequency of intubation attempts. Methods One hundred forty-eight handles and 71 blades deemed ready for patient use from two tertiary hospitals were sampled with sterile swabs using a standardized rolling technique. Samples were considered negative (not contaminated) if no colonies were present on the blood agar plate after an 18-hour incubation period. Samples were stratified by hospital and according to the frequency of intubation attempts (10 attempts per year) using the χ2-test and Fisher exact test. Results One or more species of bacteria were isolated from 4 (5.6%) handle tops, 20 (28.2%) handles with knurled surfaces, and 27 (18.2%) blades. No significant differences were found in microbial contamination levels on the handle tops and blades between the two hospitals and two areas according to the frequency of intubation attempts. However, significant differences were found between the two hospitals and two areas in the level of microbial contamination on the handles with knurled surfaces (p<0.05). Conclusions Protocols and policies must be reviewed to standardize procedures to clean and disinfect laryngoscope blades and handles; handles should be re-designed to eliminate points of contact with the blade; and single-use, one-piece laryngoscopes should be introduced. PMID:28605891

Chloraminated Concentrated Drinking Water for Disinfection Byproduct Mixtures Research: Evaluating Free Chlorine Contact Times

EPA Science Inventory

Complex mixtures of disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectant oxidizes constituents (e.g., natural organic matter (NOM) and organic pollutants) present in the source water. Since 1974, over 600 DBPs have been identified in drinking water, yet a large portio...

Chloramination of Concentrated Drinking Water: Evaluation of Disinfection Byproduct Formation and Dosing Scenarios - Portland

EPA Science Inventory

Complex mixtures of disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when the disinfectant oxidizes constituents (e.g., natural organic matter (NOM) and organic pollutants) found in the source water. Since 1974, over 600 DBPs have been identified in drinking water. Despite intense iden...

Effect of Disinfectants on Glucose Monitors

PubMed Central

Mahoney, John J; Lim, Christine G

2012-01-01

Background Monitoring blood glucose levels is an integral part of routine diabetes management. To minimize the risk of transmission of bloodborne pathogens during monitoring, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that glucose meters be disinfected after each use whenever they are used to test multiple patients. The objective of this study is to assess the compatibility of some common disinfectants with certain blood glucose meter systems. Methods We tested six disinfectants for adverse impact on meter performance or the exterior meter surfaces. The disinfectants tested were 0.525% sodium hypochlorite, 20% 2-propanol and 10% ethanol, 17.2% isopropanol, 55% isopropanol, 70% isopropanol, and hydrogen peroxide. To assess meter performance, we tested OneTouch® Ultra® blood glucose monitoring systems with control solution before and after application of either water or disinfectant. To assess the effect on exterior meter surfaces, we performed a soaking test to simulate long-term exposure to disinfectant. Results Paired t-test results showed that the control solution data associated with disinfectant and with water application were not significantly different for each meter type. However, most of the meter types were adversely affected by hydrogen peroxide and/or by the higher concentrations of alcohol-based disinfectants. Conclusions Although none of the six disinfectants affected meter performance, hydrogen peroxide and isopropanol >20% adversely affected the exterior surfaces of the tested meters. When complying with CDC instructions for meter disinfection, users should use caution and choose disinfectants that have been validated by the meter manufacturer. PMID:22401326

Effect of disinfectants on glucose monitors.

PubMed

Mahoney, John J; Lim, Christine G

2012-01-01

Monitoring blood glucose levels is an integral part of routine diabetes management. To minimize the risk of transmission of bloodborne pathogens during monitoring, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that glucose meters be disinfected after each use whenever they are used to test multiple patients. The objective of this study is to assess the compatibility of some common disinfectants with certain blood glucose meter systems. We tested six disinfectants for adverse impact on meter performance or the exterior meter surfaces. The disinfectants tested were 0.525% sodium hypochlorite, 20% 2-propanol and 10% ethanol, 17.2% isopropanol, 55% isopropanol, 70% isopropanol, and hydrogen peroxide. To assess meter performance, we tested OneTouch® Ultra® blood glucose monitoring systems with control solution before and after application of either water or disinfectant. To assess the effect on exterior meter surfaces, we performed a soaking test to simulate long-term exposure to disinfectant. Paired t-test results showed that the control solution data associated with disinfectant and with water application were not significantly different for each meter type. However, most of the meter types were adversely affected by hydrogen peroxide and/or by the higher concentrations of alcohol-based disinfectants. Although none of the six disinfectants affected meter performance, hydrogen peroxide and isopropanol >20% adversely affected the exterior surfaces of the tested meters. When complying with CDC instructions for meter disinfection, users should use caution and choose disinfectants that have been validated by the meter manufacturer. © 2012 Diabetes Technology Society.

New formaldehyde base disinfectants.

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Trujillo, R.; Lindell, K. F.

1973-01-01

Preparations of formaldehyde in various organic liquids - ethylene glycol, glycerol, and propylene glycol - serve as effective disinfectants towards microbial vegetative cells and spores. This disinfection is a temperature-dependent process and is manifest when these formaldehyde base disinfectants are dissolved in water. The irritating vapors associated with formaldehyde disinfection are not present in either of these new formaldehyde base disinfectants or in aqueous solutions of them.

Evaluating sufficient similarity for drinking-water disinfection by-product (DBP) mixtures with bootstrap hypothesis test procedures.

PubMed

Feder, Paul I; Ma, Zhenxu J; Bull, Richard J; Teuschler, Linda K; Rice, Glenn

2009-01-01

In chemical mixtures risk assessment, the use of dose-response data developed for one mixture to estimate risk posed by a second mixture depends on whether the two mixtures are sufficiently similar. While evaluations of similarity may be made using qualitative judgments, this article uses nonparametric statistical methods based on the "bootstrap" resampling technique to address the question of similarity among mixtures of chemical disinfectant by-products (DBP) in drinking water. The bootstrap resampling technique is a general-purpose, computer-intensive approach to statistical inference that substitutes empirical sampling for theoretically based parametric mathematical modeling. Nonparametric, bootstrap-based inference involves fewer assumptions than parametric normal theory based inference. The bootstrap procedure is appropriate, at least in an asymptotic sense, whether or not the parametric, distributional assumptions hold, even approximately. The statistical analysis procedures in this article are initially illustrated with data from 5 water treatment plants (Schenck et al., 2009), and then extended using data developed from a study of 35 drinking-water utilities (U.S. EPA/AMWA, 1989), which permits inclusion of a greater number of water constituents and increased structure in the statistical models.

9 CFR 91.18 - Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export. 91.18 Section 91.18 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION....18 Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export. All fittings, utensils and equipment...

9 CFR 91.18 - Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 9 Animals and Animal Products 1 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export. 91.18 Section 91.18 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION....18 Cleaning and disinfection of transport carriers for export. All fittings, utensils and equipment...

40 CFR 141.54 - Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... for disinfectants. MRDLGs for disinfectants are as follows: Disinfectant residual MRDLG(mg/L) Chlorine 4 (as Cl 2). Chloramines 4 (as Cl 2). Chlorine dioxide 0.8 (as ClO2) [63 FR 69465, Dec. 16, 1998] ...

40 CFR 141.54 - Maximum residual disinfectant level goals for disinfectants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... for disinfectants. MRDLGs for disinfectants are as follows: Disinfectant residual MRDLG(mg/L) Chlorine 4 (as Cl 2). Chloramines 4 (as Cl 2). Chlorine dioxide 0.8 (as ClO2) [63 FR 69465, Dec. 16, 1998] ...

Impact of chlorinated disinfection on copper corrosion in hot water systems

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Montes, J. Castillo; Hamdani, F.; Creus, J.; Touzain, S.; Correc, O.

2014-09-01

In France, hot water quality control inside buildings is occasionally ensured by disinfection treatments using temperature increases or addition of sodium hypochlorite (between 0.5 ppm and 1 ppm residual free chlorine). This disinfectant is a strong oxidiser and it could interact with metallic pipes usually used in hot water systems. This work deals with the study of the impact of these treatments on the durability of copper pipes. The objective of this work was to investigate the influence of sodium hypochlorite concentration and temperature on the copper corrosion mechanism. Copper samples were tested under dynamic and static conditions of ageing with sodium hypochlorite solutions ranging from 0 to 100 ppm with temperature at 50 °C and 70 °C. The efficiency of a corrosion inhibitor was investigated in dynamic conditions. Visual observations and analytical analyses of the internal surface of samples was studied at different ageing duration. Corrosion products were characterised by X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Temperature and disinfectant were found to considerably affect the copper corrosion mechanism. Surprisingly, the corrosiveness of the solution was higher at lower temperatures. The temperature influences the nature of corrosion products. The protection efficiency is then strongly depend on the nature of the corrosion products formed at the surface of copper samples exposed to the aggressive solutions containing different concentration of disinfectant.

Chemical cleaning/disinfection and ageing of organic UF membranes: a review.

PubMed

Regula, C; Carretier, E; Wyart, Y; Gésan-Guiziou, G; Vincent, A; Boudot, D; Moulin, P

2014-06-01

Membrane separation processes have become a basic unit operation for process design and product development. These processes are used in a variety of separation and concentration steps, but in all cases, the membranes must be cleaned regularly to remove both organic and inorganic material deposited on the surface and/or into the membrane bulk. Cleaning/disinfection is a vital step in maintaining the permeability and selectivity of the membrane in order to get the plant to its original capacity, to minimize risks of bacteriological contamination, and to make acceptable products. For this purpose, a large number of chemical cleaning/disinfection agents are commercially available. In general, these cleaning/disinfection agents have to improve the membrane flux to a certain extent. However, they can also cause irreversible damages in membrane properties and performances over the long term. Until now, there is considerably less literature dedicated to membrane ageing than to cleaning/disinfection. The knowledge in cleaning/disinfection efficiency has recently been improved. But in order to develop optimized cleaning/disinfection protocols there still remains a challenge to better understand membrane ageing. In order to compensate for the lack of correlated cleaning/disinfection and ageing data from the literature, this paper investigates cleaning/disinfection efficiencies and ageing damages of organic ultrafiltration membranes. The final aim is to provide less detrimental cleaning/disinfection procedures and to propose some guidelines which should have been taken into consideration in term of membrane ageing studies. To carry out this study, this article will detail the background of cleaning/disinfection and aging membrane topics in a first introductive part. In a second part, key factors and endpoints of cleaning/disinfection and aging membranes will be discussed deeply: the membrane role and the cleaning parameters roles, such as water quality, storing conditions

9 CFR 95.24 - Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

..., skins, and other materials. 95.24 Section 95.24 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... ENTRY INTO THE UNITED STATES § 95.24 Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials. Hides, skins, and other materials required by the regulations in this part to be disinfected shall be...

9 CFR 95.24 - Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

..., skins, and other materials. 95.24 Section 95.24 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... ENTRY INTO THE UNITED STATES § 95.24 Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials. Hides, skins, and other materials required by the regulations in this part to be disinfected shall be...

9 CFR 95.24 - Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

..., skins, and other materials. 95.24 Section 95.24 Animals and Animal Products ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH... ENTRY INTO THE UNITED STATES § 95.24 Methods for disinfection of hides, skins, and other materials. Hides, skins, and other materials required by the regulations in this part to be disinfected shall be...