Liu, Feng; Wang, Xiao-Dong; Zhao, Yi-Ying; Li, Yan-Jun; Liu, Yong-Chang; Sun, Jie
2015-01-01
Insect pests have caused noticeable economic losses in agriculture, and the heavy use of insecticide to control pests not only brings the threats of insecticide resistance but also causes the great pollution to foods and the environment. Transgenic plants producing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) directed against insect genes have been is currently developed for protection against insect pests. In this study, we used this technology to silence the arginine kinase (AK) gene of Helicoverpa armigera (HaAK), encoding a phosphotransferase that plays a critical role in cellular energy metabolism in invertebrate. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants producing HaAK dsRNA were generated by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The maximal mortality rate of 55% was reached when H. armigera first-instar larvae were fed with transgenic plant leaves for 3 days, which was dramatically higher than the 18% mortality recorded in the control group. Moreover, the ingestion of transgenic plants significantly retarded larval growth, and the transcript levels of HaAK were also knocked down by up to 52%. The feeding bioassays further indicated that the inhibition efficiency was correlated with the integrity and concentration of the produced HaAK dsRNA in transgenic plants. These results strongly show that the resistance to H. armigera was improved in transgenic Arabidopsis plants, suggesting that the RNAi targeting of AK has the potential for the control of insect pests. PMID:25552931
A Study of Displacement in Jean Rhys' Novel "Wide Sargasso Sea"
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Jamal, Inna Malissa bte Che; Singh, Hardev Kaur A/P Jujar; Mani, Manimangai
2014-01-01
"Wide Sargasso Sea," by Jean Rhys, is a novel filled with tragedy; two characters in conflict meet in circumstances not in their best interests but rather for other people. This novel is an illustration of the mad woman in the novel "Jane Eyre," by Charlotte Bronte, as the story of her life before madness is told in the novel…
Resolving the ambiguity in the relation between Stokes shift and Huang-Rhys parameter.
de Jong, Mathijs; Seijo, Luis; Meijerink, Andries; Rabouw, Freddy T
2015-07-14
Electronic transitions in luminescent molecules or centers in crystals couple to vibrations. This results in broadening of absorption and emission bands, as well as in the occurence of a Stokes shift EStokes. In principle, one can derive from EStokes the Huang-Rhys parameter S, which describes the microscopic details of the vibrational coupling and can be related to the equilibrium position offset ΔQe between the ground state and excited state. The commonly used textbook relations EStokes = (2S - 1)ℏω and EStokes = 2Sℏω are only approximately valid. In this paper we investigate how EStokes is related to S, taking into account the effects of a finite temperature. We show that in different ranges of temperature, different approximate relations between EStokes and S are appropriate. Moreover, we demonstrate that the difference between the barycenters of absorption and emission bands can be used to determine S in an unambiguous way. The position of the barycenter is, contrary to the Stokes shift, unaffected by temperature.
Stargardt, Tom; Schreyögg, Jonas
2006-01-01
Several EU countries are determining reimbursement prices of pharmaceuticals by cross-referencing prices of foreign countries. Our objective is to quantify the theoretical cross-border spill-over effects of cross-reference pricing schemes on pharmaceutical prices in the former EU-15 countries. An analytical model was developed estimating the impact of pharmaceutical price changes in Germany on pharmaceutical prices in other countries in the former EU-15 using cross-reference pricing. We differentiated between the direct impact (from referencing to Germany directly) and the indirect impact (from referencing to other countries that conduct their own cross-reference pricing schemes). The relationship between the direct and indirect impact of a price change depends mainly on the method applied to set reimbursement prices. When applying cross-reference pricing, the reimbursement price is either determined by the lowest of foreign prices (e.g. Portugal), the average of foreign prices (e.g. Ireland) or a weighted average of foreign prices (e.g. Italy). If the respective drug is marketed in all referenced countries and prices are regularly updated, a price reduction of 1.00 euro in Germany will reduce maximum reimbursement prices in the former EU-15 countries from 0.15 euros in Austria to 0.36 euros in Italy. On one side, the cross-border spill-over effects of price reductions are undoubtedly welcomed by decision makers and may be favourable to the healthcare system in general. On the other side, these cross-border spill-over effects also provide strong incentives for strategic product launches, launch delays and lobbying activities, and can affect the effectiveness of regulation. To avoid the negative effects of cross-reference pricing, a weighted index of prices from as many countries as possible should be used to determine reimbursement prices in order to reduce the direct and indirect impact of individual countries.
7 CFR 1000.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing... advanced pricing factors. Class prices per hundredweight of milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, component prices, and advanced pricing factors shall be as follows. The prices and pricing factors described...
7 CFR 1030.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1030.50 Section 1030.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued... prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1124.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1124.50 Section 1124.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued... prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1000.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
..., rounded to the nearest cent, shall be the protein price per pound times 3.1 plus the other solids price... cents and multiplying the result by 0.99. (n) Protein price. The protein price per pound, rounded to the... one-hundredth cent, shall be the U.S. average NASS dry whey survey price reported by the Department...
7 CFR 1000.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... order) for the preceding month: (1) The Class II price; (2) The Class II butterfat price; (3) The Class... the following month: (1) The Class I price; (2) The Class I skim milk price; (3) The Class I butterfat...; (7) The butterfat price; (8) The nonfat solids price; (9) The protein price; (10) The other solids...
7 CFR 1000.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... order) for the preceding month: (1) The Class II price; (2) The Class II butterfat price; (3) The Class... the following month: (1) The Class I price; (2) The Class I skim milk price; (3) The Class I butterfat...; (7) The butterfat price; (8) The nonfat solids price; (9) The protein price; (10) The other solids...
7 CFR 1000.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... order) for the preceding month: (1) The Class II price; (2) The Class II butterfat price; (3) The Class... the following month: (1) The Class I price; (2) The Class I skim milk price; (3) The Class I butterfat...; (7) The butterfat price; (8) The nonfat solids price; (9) The protein price; (10) The other solids...
7 CFR 1000.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... order) for the preceding month: (1) The Class II price; (2) The Class II butterfat price; (3) The Class... the following month: (1) The Class I price; (2) The Class I skim milk price; (3) The Class I butterfat...; (7) The butterfat price; (8) The nonfat solids price; (9) The protein price; (10) The other solids...
7 CFR 1000.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... order) for the preceding month: (1) The Class II price; (2) The Class II butterfat price; (3) The Class... the following month: (1) The Class I price; (2) The Class I skim milk price; (3) The Class I butterfat...; (7) The butterfat price; (8) The nonfat solids price; (9) The protein price; (10) The other solids...
7 CFR 1126.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1126.53 Section 1126.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1030.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1030.53 Section 1030.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1033.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1033.53 Section 1033.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1005.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1005.53 Section 1005.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1032.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1032.53 Section 1032.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1006.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1006.53 Section 1006.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1001.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1001.53 Section 1001.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1131.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1131.53 Section 1131.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1007.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1007.53 Section 1007.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
7 CFR 1006.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1006.50 Section 1006.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1007.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1007.50 Section 1007.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1126.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1126.50 Section 1126.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1131.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1131.50 Section 1131.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1005.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1005.50 Section 1005.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1032.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1032.50 Section 1032.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1001.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1001.50 Section 1001.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1033.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1033.50 Section 1033.50 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued..., and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.50. ...
7 CFR 1124.53 - Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. 1124.53 Section 1124.53 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture... Announcement of class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors. See § 1000.53. ...
Higher Education Prices and Price Indexes. 1978 Supplement.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Halstead, D. Kent; Hickson, Lenel
The 1978 supplement to the basic study, Higher Education Prices and Price Indexes, presents higher education price index data for fiscal years 1971 through 1978. A price index series measures the effects of price change, and price change only, on a fixed group of items. The indexes reported here measure price changes from 1967, the reference date.…
48 CFR 36.207 - Pricing fixed-price construction contracts.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Pricing fixed-price... Contracting for Construction 36.207 Pricing fixed-price construction contracts. (a) Generally, firm-fixed... methods. (b) Lump-sum pricing shall be used in preference to unit pricing except when— (1) Large...
Enhancing medicine price transparency through price information mechanisms
2014-01-01
Background Medicine price information mechanisms provide an essential tool to countries that seek a better understanding of product availability, market prices and price compositions of individual medicines. To be effective and contribute to cost savings, these mechanisms need to consider prices in their particular contexts when comparing between countries. This article discusses in what ways medicine price information mechanisms can contribute to increased price transparency and how this may affect access to medicines for developing countries. Methods We used data collected during the course of a WHO project focusing on the development of a vaccine price and procurement information mechanism. The project collected information from six medicine price information mechanisms and interviewed data managers and technical experts on key aspects as well as observed market effects of these mechanisms. The reviewed mechanisms were broken down into categories including objective and target audience, as well as the sources, types and volumes of data included. Information provided by the mechanisms was reviewed according to data available on medicine prices, product characteristics, and procurement modalities. Results We found indications of positive effects on access to medicines resulting from the utilization of the reviewed mechanisms. These include the uptake of higher quality medicines, more favorable results from contract negotiations, changes in national pricing policies, and the decrease of prices in certain segments for countries participating in or deriving data from the various mechanisms. Conclusion The reviewed mechanisms avoid the methodological challenges observed for medicine price comparisons that only use national price databases. They work with high quality data and display prices in the appropriate context of procurement modalities as well as the peculiarities of purchasing countries. Medicine price information mechanisms respond to the need for increased
Enhancing medicine price transparency through price information mechanisms.
Hinsch, Michael; Kaddar, Miloud; Schmitt, Sarah
2014-05-08
Medicine price information mechanisms provide an essential tool to countries that seek a better understanding of product availability, market prices and price compositions of individual medicines. To be effective and contribute to cost savings, these mechanisms need to consider prices in their particular contexts when comparing between countries. This article discusses in what ways medicine price information mechanisms can contribute to increased price transparency and how this may affect access to medicines for developing countries. We used data collected during the course of a WHO project focusing on the development of a vaccine price and procurement information mechanism. The project collected information from six medicine price information mechanisms and interviewed data managers and technical experts on key aspects as well as observed market effects of these mechanisms.The reviewed mechanisms were broken down into categories including objective and target audience, as well as the sources, types and volumes of data included. Information provided by the mechanisms was reviewed according to data available on medicine prices, product characteristics, and procurement modalities. We found indications of positive effects on access to medicines resulting from the utilization of the reviewed mechanisms. These include the uptake of higher quality medicines, more favorable results from contract negotiations, changes in national pricing policies, and the decrease of prices in certain segments for countries participating in or deriving data from the various mechanisms. The reviewed mechanisms avoid the methodological challenges observed for medicine price comparisons that only use national price databases. They work with high quality data and display prices in the appropriate context of procurement modalities as well as the peculiarities of purchasing countries. Medicine price information mechanisms respond to the need for increased medicine price transparency and have the
Higher Education Prices and Price Indexes: 1981 Update.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Research Associates of Washington, DC.
Higher Education prices and price indexes for fiscal years 1979-1981 are presented, with narrative explanation. A price index series measures the effects of price change on a fixed group of items. The change in price index values from year to year may be interpreted as the change in dollars required to offset the effects of inflation in buying the…
Patients' views on price shopping and price transparency.
Semigran, Hannah L; Gourevitch, Rebecca; Sinaiko, Anna D; Cowling, David; Mehrotra, Ateev
2017-06-01
Driven by the growth of high deductibles and price transparency initiatives, patients are being encouraged to search for prices before seeking care, yet few do so. To understand why this is the case, we interviewed individuals who were offered access to a widely used price transparency website through their employer. Qualitative interviews. We interviewed individuals enrolled in a preferred provider organization product through their health plan about their experience using the price transparency tool (if they had done so), their past medical experiences, and their opinions on shopping for care. All interviews were transcribed and manually coded using a thematic coding guide. In general, respondents expressed frustration with healthcare costs and had a positive opinion of the idea of price shopping in theory, but 2 sets of barriers limited their ability to do so in reality. The first was the salience of searching for price information. For example, respondents recognized that due to their health plan benefits design, they would not save money by switching to a lower-cost provider. Second, other factors were more important than price for respondents when choosing a provider, including quality and loyalty to current providers. We found a disconnect between respondents' enthusiasm for price shopping and their reported use of a price transparency tool to shop for care. However, many did find the tool useful for other purposes, including checking their claims history. Addressing the barriers to price shopping identified by respondents can help inform ongoing and future price transparency initiatives.
Leopold, Christine; Mantel-Teeuwisse, Aukje Katja; Seyfang, Leonhard; Vogler, Sabine; de Joncheere, Kees; Laing, Richard Ogilvie; Leufkens, Hubert
2012-01-01
Objectives: This study aims to examine the impact of external price referencing (EPR) on on-patent medicine prices, adjusting for other factors that may affect price levels such as sales volume, exchange rates, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, total pharmaceutical expenditure (TPE), and size of the pharmaceutical industry. Methods: Price data of 14 on-patent products, in 14 European countries in 2007 and 2008 were obtained from the Pharmaceutical Price Information Service of the Austrian Health Institute. Based on the unit ex-factory prices in EURO, scaled ranks per country and per product were calculated. For the regression analysis the scaled ranks per country and product were weighted; each country had the same sum of weights but within a country the weights were proportional to its sales volume in the year (data obtained from IMS Health). Taking the scaled ranks, several statistical analyses were performed by using the program “R”, including a multiple regression analysis (including variables such as GDP per capita and national industry size). Results: This study showed that on average EPR as a pricing policy leads to lower prices. However, the large variation in price levels among countries using EPR confirmed that the price level is not only driven by EPR. The unadjusted linear regression model confirms that applying EPR in a country is associated with a lower scaled weighted rank (p=0.002). This interaction persisted after inclusion of total pharmaceutical expenditure per capita and GDP per capita in the final model. Conclusions: The study showed that for patented products, prices are in general lower in case the country applied EPR. Nevertheless substantial price differences among countries that apply EPR could be identified. Possible explanations could be found through a correlation between pharmaceutical industry and the scaled price ranks. In conclusion, we found that implementing external reference pricing could lead to lower prices. PMID
7 CFR 1000.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
..., rounded to the nearest cent, shall be the protein price per pound times 3.1 plus the other solids price...) Multiply the protein price computed in paragraph (q)(1)(i) of this section by 3.1; (iii) Multiply the other... multiply the result by 1.383; (3) Add to the amount computed pursuant to paragraph (n)(2) of this section...
7 CFR 1000.50 - Class prices, component prices, and advanced pricing factors.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
..., rounded to the nearest cent, shall be the protein price per pound times 3.1 plus the other solids price...) Multiply the protein price computed in paragraph (q)(1)(i) of this section by 3.1; (iii) Multiply the other... multiply the result by 1.383; (3) Add to the amount computed pursuant to paragraph (n)(2) of this section...
Electricity Prices in a Competitive Environment: Marginal Cost Pricing
1997-01-01
Presents the results of an analysis that focuses on two questions: (1) How are prices for competitive generation services likely to differ from regulated prices if competitive prices are based on marginal costs rather than regulated cost-of-service pricing? (2) What impacts will the competitive pricing of generation services (based on marginal costs) have on electricity consumption patterns, production costs, and the financial integrity of electricity suppliers?
Optimal dynamic pricing for deteriorating items with reference-price effects
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Xue, Musen; Tang, Wansheng; Zhang, Jianxiong
2016-07-01
In this paper, a dynamic pricing problem for deteriorating items with the consumers' reference-price effect is studied. An optimal control model is established to maximise the total profit, where the demand not only depends on the current price, but also is sensitive to the historical price. The continuous-time dynamic optimal pricing strategy with reference-price effect is obtained through solving the optimal control model on the basis of Pontryagin's maximum principle. In addition, numerical simulations and sensitivity analysis are carried out. Finally, some managerial suggestions that firm may adopt to formulate its pricing policy are proposed.
Impact of European pharmaceutical price regulation on generic price competition: a review.
Puig-Junoy, Jaume
2010-01-01
Although economic theory indicates that it should not be necessary to intervene in the generic drug market through price regulation, most EU countries intervene in this market, both by regulating the maximum sale price of generics (price cap) and by setting the maximum reimbursement rate, especially by means of reference pricing systems. We analyse current knowledge of the impact of direct price-cap regulation of generic drugs and the implementation of systems regulating the reimbursement rate, particularly through reference pricing and similar tools, on dynamic price competition between generic competitors in Europe. A literature search was carried out in the EconLit and PubMed databases, and on Google Scholar. The search included papers published in English or Spanish between January 2000 and July 2009. Inclusion criteria included that studies had to present empirical results of a quantitative nature for EU countries of the impact of price capping and/or regulation of the reimbursement rate (reference pricing or similar systems) on price dynamics, corresponding to pharmacy sales, in the generic drug market. The available evidence indicates that price-cap regulation leads to a levelling off of generic prices at a higher level than would occur in the absence of this regulation. Reference pricing systems cause an obvious and almost compulsory reduction in the consumer price of all pharmaceuticals subject to this system, to a varying degree in different countries and periods, the reduction being greater for originator-branded drugs than for generics. In several countries with a reference pricing system, it was observed that generics with a consumer price lower than the reference price do not undergo price reductions until the reference price is reduced, even when there are other lower-priced generics on the market (absence of price competition below the reference price). Beyond the price reduction forced by the price-cap and/or reference pricing regulation itself
Cigarette Prices and Community Price Comparisons in US Military Retail Stores
Poston, Walker S.C.; Haddock, Christopher K.; Jahnke, Sara A.; Smith, Elizabeth; Malone, Ruth E.; Jitnarin, Nattinee
2016-01-01
BACKGROUND Tobacco pricing impacts use, yet military retailers sell discounted cigarettes. No systematic research has examined how military retail stores use internal community comparisons to set prices. We analyzed data obtained through a Freedom of Information Act request on community price comparisons used by military retail to set cigarette prices. METHODS Data on cigarette prices were obtained directly from military retailers (exchanges) from January 2013–March 2014. Complete pricing data was provided from exchanges on 114 military installations. RESULTS The average price for a pack of Marlboro cigarettes in military exchanges was $5.51, which was similar to the average lowest community price ($5.45; Mean Difference=−0.06; p=0.104) and almost a $1.00 lower than the average highest price ($6.44). Military retail prices were 2.1%, 6.2%, and 13.7% higher than the lowest, average, and highest community comparisons and 18.2% of exchange prices violated pricing instructions. There was a negative correlation (r = −.21, p = 0.02) between the number of community stores surveyed and exchange cigarette prices. CONCLUSIONS There was no significant difference between prices for cigarettes on military installations and the lowest average community comparison, and in some locations the prices violated DoD policy. US Marine Corps exchanges had the lowest prices, which is of concern given that the Marines also have the highest rates of tobacco use in the DoD. Given the relationship between tobacco product prices and demand, a common minimum (or floor) shelf price for tobacco products should be set for all exchanges and discount coupon redemptions should be prohibited. PMID:27553357
Price performance following stock's IPO in different price limit systems
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Wu, Ting; Wang, Yue; Li, Ming-Xia
2018-01-01
An IPO burst occurred in China's stock markets in 2015, while price limit trading rules usually help to reduce the short-term trading mania on individual stocks. It is interesting to make clear the function of the price limits after IPOs. We firstly make a statistical analysis based on all the IPO stocks listed from 1990 to 2015. A high dependency exists between the activities in stock's IPO and various market environment. We also focus on the price dynamics in the first 40 trading days after the stock listed. We find that price limit system will delay the price movement, especially for the up-trend movements, which may lead to longer continuous price limit hits. Similar to our previous work, many results such as ;W; shape can be also observed in the future daily return after the price limit open. At last, we find most IPO measures show evident correlations with the following price limit hits. IPO stocks with lower first-day turnover and earning per share will be followed with a longer continuous price limit hits and lower future daily return under the newest trading rules, which give us a good way to estimate the occurrence of price limit hits and the following price dynamics. Our analysis provides a better understanding of the price dynamics after IPO events and offers potential practical values for investors.
Cigarette prices and community price comparisons in US military retail stores.
Poston, Walker S C; Haddock, Christopher K; Jahnke, Sara A; Smith, Elizabeth; Malone, Ruth E; Jitnarin, Nattinee
2016-09-01
Tobacco pricing impacts use, yet military retailers sell discounted cigarettes. No systematic research has examined how military retail stores use internal community comparisons to set prices. We analysed data obtained through a Freedom of Information Act request on community price comparisons used by military retail to set cigarette prices. Data on cigarette prices were obtained directly from military retailers (exchanges) from January 2013 to March 2014. Complete pricing data were obtained from exchanges on 114 military installations. The average price for a pack of Marlboro cigarettes in military exchanges was US$5.51, which was similar to the average lowest community price (US$5.45; mean difference=-0.06; p=0.104) and almost a US$1.00 lower than the average highest price (US$6.44). Military retail prices were 2.1%, 6.2% and 13.7% higher than the lowest, average and highest community comparisons, respectively, and 18.2% of exchange prices violated pricing instructions. There was a negative correlation (r=-0.21, p=0.02) between the number of community stores surveyed and exchange cigarette prices. There was no significant difference between prices for cigarettes on military installations and the lowest average community comparison, and in some locations, the prices violated Department of Defense (DoD) policy. US Marine Corps exchanges had the lowest prices, which is of concern given that the Marines also have the highest rates of tobacco use in the DoD. Given the relationship between tobacco product prices and demand, a common minimum (or floor) shelf price for tobacco products should be set for all exchanges and discount coupon redemptions should be prohibited. Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/.
Why do stumpage prices increase more than lumber prices?
William G. Luppold; John E. Baumgras; John E. Baumgras
1998-01-01
Every sawmiller who has been in business more than 5 years realizes that hardwood stumpage prices tend to increase faster than lumber prices, decreasing the margin between these two prices. Although increases in stumpage versus lumber prices are readily apparent, the reason for the decrease in the margin is not. Recent research findings indicate that the stumpage/...
Option pricing: Stock price, stock velocity and the acceleration Lagrangian
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Baaquie, Belal E.; Du, Xin; Bhanap, Jitendra
2014-12-01
The industry standard Black-Scholes option pricing formula is based on the current value of the underlying security and other fixed parameters of the model. The Black-Scholes formula, with a fixed volatility, cannot match the market's option price; instead, it has come to be used as a formula for generating the option price, once the so called implied volatility of the option is provided as additional input. The implied volatility not only is an entire surface, depending on the strike price and maturity of the option, but also depends on calendar time, changing from day to day. The point of view adopted in this paper is that the instantaneous rate of return of the security carries part of the information that is provided by implied volatility, and with a few (time-independent) parameters required for a complete pricing formula. An option pricing formula is developed that is based on knowing the value of both the current price and rate of return of the underlying security which in physics is called velocity. Using an acceleration Lagrangian model based on the formalism of quantum mathematics, we derive the pricing formula for European call options. The implied volatility of the market can be generated by our pricing formula. Our option price is applied to foreign exchange rates and equities and the accuracy is compared with Black-Scholes pricing formula and with the market price.
48 CFR 216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 216.203 Section 216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 216.203 Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 216.203 Section 216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 216.203 Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 216.203 Section 216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 216.203 Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 216.203 Section 216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 216.203 Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 216.203 Section 216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 216.203 Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 3016.203 - Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. 3016.203 Section 3016.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 3016.203 Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 3016.203 - Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. 3016.203 Section 3016.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 3016.203 Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 3016.203 - Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. 3016.203 Section 3016.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 3016.203 Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 3016.203 - Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. 3016.203 Section 3016.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 3016.203 Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 3016.203 - Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2013-10-01 2012-10-01 true Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. 3016.203 Section 3016.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 3016.203 Fixed price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
Beyond the sticker price: including and excluding time in comparing food prices.
Yang, Yanliang; Davis, George C; Muth, Mary K
2015-07-01
An ongoing debate in the literature is how to measure the price of food. Most analyses have not considered the value of time in measuring the price of food. Whether or not the value of time is included in measuring the price of a food may have important implications for classifying foods based on their relative cost. The purpose of this article is to compare prices that exclude time (time-exclusive price) with prices that include time (time-inclusive price) for 2 types of home foods: home foods using basic ingredients (home recipes) vs. home foods using more processed ingredients (processed recipes). The time-inclusive and time-exclusive prices are compared to determine whether the time-exclusive prices in isolation may mislead in drawing inferences regarding the relative prices of foods. We calculated the time-exclusive price and time-inclusive price of 100 home recipes and 143 processed recipes and then categorized them into 5 standard food groups: grains, proteins, vegetables, fruit, and dairy. We then examined the relation between the time-exclusive prices and the time-inclusive prices and dietary recommendations. For any food group, the processed food time-inclusive price was always less than the home recipe time-inclusive price, even if the processed food's time-exclusive price was more expensive. Time-inclusive prices for home recipes were especially higher for the more time-intensive food groups, such as grains, vegetables, and fruit, which are generally underconsumed relative to the guidelines. Focusing only on the sticker price of a food and ignoring the time cost may lead to different conclusions about relative prices and policy recommendations than when the time cost is included. © 2015 American Society for Nutrition.
Armed Services Pricing Manual (ASPM). Volume 2: Price Analysis
1987-01-01
able to conclude that competition is adequate and thelowest. price is reasonable. You may compare it with the most recent prices paid or the Government ...estimates When price comparisons are not possible, the offered price may be compared with the purcha:ie request estimate (if there is one) or other Government ...both Government and public libraries. There are highly specialized governmental statistical puhlications besides those listed, and there are many
Measuring Price Changes: A Study of the Price Indexes. Fourth Edition.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Wallace, William H.; Cullison, William E.
This three-part monograph examines the major price indexes used to measure the intensity of inflation. The first part discusses the recent behavior of prices as measured by the Consumer Price Index (commodities, goods, and services), the Producer Price Index (wholesale prices of crude materials, intermediate materials, supplies, components, and…
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
2012-08-01
Nonlinear pricing refers to a case in which the price or tariff is not strictly proportional to the quantity : purchased. While economists have studied nonlinear pricing for quite some time, its application to road pricing : is relatively unexplored ...
Consumer food choices: the role of price and pricing strategies.
Steenhuis, Ingrid H M; Waterlander, Wilma E; de Mul, Anika
2011-12-01
To study differences in the role of price and value in food choice between low-income and higher-income consumers and to study the perception of consumers about pricing strategies that are of relevance during grocery shopping. A cross-sectional study was conducted using structured, written questionnaires. Food choice motives as well as price perceptions and opinion on pricing strategies were measured. The study was carried out in point-of-purchase settings, i.e. supermarkets, fast-food restaurants and sports canteens. Adults (n 159) visiting a point-of-purchase setting were included. Price is an important factor in food choice, especially for low-income consumers. Low-income consumers were significantly more conscious of value and price than higher-income consumers. The most attractive strategies, according to the consumers, were discounting healthy food more often and applying a lower VAT (Value Added Tax) rate on healthy food. Low-income consumers differ in their preferences for pricing strategies. Since price is more important for low-income consumers we recommend mainly focusing on their preferences and needs.
Tiered co-payments, pricing, and demand in reference price markets for pharmaceuticals.
Herr, Annika; Suppliet, Moritz
2017-12-01
Health insurance companies curb price-insensitive behavior and the moral hazard of insureds by means of cost-sharing, such as tiered co-payments or reference pricing in drug markets. This paper evaluates the effect of price limits - below which drugs are exempt from co-payments - on prices and on demand. First, using a difference-in-differences estimation strategy, we find that the new policy decreases prices by 5 percent for generics and increases prices by 4 percent for brand-name drugs in the German reference price market. Second, estimating a nested-logit demand model, we show that consumers appreciate co-payment exempt drugs and calculate lower price elasticities for brand-name drugs than for generics. This explains the different price responses of brand-name and generic drugs and shows that price-related co-payment tiers are an effective tool to steer demand to low-priced drugs. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
48 CFR 1316.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1316.203 Section 1316.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 416.203 Section 416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1216.203 Section 1216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 916.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments. 916.203 Section 916.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 616.203 - Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. 616.203 Section 616.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 416.203 Section 416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 616.203 - Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. 616.203 Section 616.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 616.203 - Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. 616.203 Section 616.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1316.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1316.203 Section 1316.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1316.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1316.203 Section 1316.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1316.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1316.203 Section 1316.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 616.203 - Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. 616.203 Section 616.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1216.203 Section 1216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 616.203 - Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. 616.203 Section 616.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-Price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 916.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments. 916.203 Section 916.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 416.203 Section 416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 916.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments. 916.203 Section 916.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 416.203 Section 416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 916.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments. 916.203 Section 916.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 916.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustments. 916.203 Section 916.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustments. ...
48 CFR 1216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1216.203 Section 1216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1216.203 Section 1216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1316.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1316.203 Section 1316.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 416.203 Section 416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1216.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1216.203 Section 1216.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF...-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1416.203 Section 1416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1416.203 Section 1416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1416.203 Section 1416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1416.203 Section 1416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 1416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 1416.203 Section 1416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF... Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
Value-based differential pricing: efficient prices for drugs in a global context.
Danzon, Patricia; Towse, Adrian; Mestre-Ferrandiz, Jorge
2015-03-01
This paper analyzes pharmaceutical pricing between and within countries to achieve second-best static and dynamic efficiency. We distinguish countries with and without universal insurance, because insurance undermines patients' price sensitivity, potentially leading to prices above second-best efficient levels. In countries with universal insurance, if each payer unilaterally sets an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) threshold based on its citizens' willingness-to-pay for health; manufacturers price to that ICER threshold; and payers limit reimbursement to patients for whom a drug is cost-effective at that price and ICER, then the resulting price levels and use within each country and price differentials across countries are roughly consistent with second-best static and dynamic efficiency. These value-based prices are expected to differ cross-nationally with per capita income and be broadly consistent with Ramsey optimal prices. Countries without comprehensive insurance avoid its distorting effects on prices but also lack financial protection and affordability for the poor. Improving pricing efficiency in these self-pay countries includes improving regulation and consumer information about product quality and enabling firms to price discriminate within and between countries. © 2013 The Authors. Health Economics published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
How do minimum cigarette price laws affect cigarette prices at the retail level?
Feighery, E C; Ribisl, K M; Schleicher, N C; Zellers, L; Wellington, N
2005-04-01
Half of US states have minimum cigarette price laws that were originally passed to protect small independent retailers from unfair price competition with larger retailers. These laws prohibit cigarettes from being sold below a minimum price that is set by a formula. Many of these laws allow cigarette company promotional incentives offered to retailers, such as buydowns and master-type programmes, to be calculated into the formula. Allowing this provision has the potential to lower the allowable minimum price. This study assesses whether stores in states with minimum price laws have higher cigarette prices and lower rates of retailer participation in cigarette company promotional incentive programmes. Retail cigarette prices and retailer participation in cigarette company incentive programmes in 2001 were compared in eight states with minimum price laws and seven states without them. New York State had the most stringent minimum price law at the time of the study because it excluded promotional incentive programmes in its price setting formula; cigarette prices in New York were compared to all other states included in the study. Cigarette prices were not significantly different in our sample of US states with and without cigarette minimum price laws. Cigarette prices were significantly higher in New York stores than in the 14 other states combined. Most existing minimum cigarette price laws appear to have little impact on the retail price of cigarettes. This may be because they allow the use of promotional programmes, which are used by manufacturers to reduce cigarette prices. New York's strategy to disallow these types of incentive programmes may result in higher minimum cigarette prices, and should also be explored as a potential policy strategy to control cigarette company marketing practices in stores. Strict cigarette minimum price laws may have the potential to reduce cigarette consumption by decreasing demand through increased cigarette prices and reduced
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Lee, C. M.; Stone, B.
1982-01-01
In 1977 NASA published Shuttle Reimbursement Policies for Civil U.S. Government, DOD and Commercial and Foreign Users. These policies were based on the principle of total cost recovery over a period of time with a fixed flat price for initial period to time to enhance transition. This fixed period was to be followed with annual adjustments thereafter, NASA is establishing a new price for 1986 and beyond. In order to recover costs, that price must be higher than the initial fixed price through FY 1985. NASA intends to remain competitive. Competitive posture includes not only price, but other factors such as assured launch, reliability, and unique services. NASA's pricing policy considers all these factors.
What factors affect the prices of low-priced U.S. solar PV systems?
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Nemet, Gregory F.; O'Shaughnessy, Eric; Wiser, Ryan
The price of solar PV systems has declined rapidly, yet there are some much lower-priced systems than others. This study explores the factors that determine prices in these low-priced (LP) systems. Using a data set of 42,611 residential-scale PV systems installed in the U.S. in 2013, we use quantile regressions to estimate the importance of factors affecting the installed prices for LP systems (those at the 10th percentile) in comparison to median-priced systems. We find that the value of solar to consumers-a variable that accounts for subsidies, electric rates, and PV generation levels-is associated with lower prices for LP systemsmore » but higher prices for median priced systems. Conversely, systems installed in new home construction are associated with lower prices at the median but higher prices for LP. Other variables have larger price-reducing effects on LP than on median priced systems: systems installed in Arizona and Florida, as well as commercial and thin film systems. In contrast, the following have a smaller effect on prices for LP systems than median priced systems: tracking systems, self-installations, systems installed in Massachusetts, the system size, and installer experience. Furthermore, these results highlight the complex factors at play that lead to LP systems and shed light into how such LP systems can come about.« less
What factors affect the prices of low-priced U.S. solar PV systems?
Nemet, Gregory F.; O'Shaughnessy, Eric; Wiser, Ryan; ...
2017-08-09
The price of solar PV systems has declined rapidly, yet there are some much lower-priced systems than others. This study explores the factors that determine prices in these low-priced (LP) systems. Using a data set of 42,611 residential-scale PV systems installed in the U.S. in 2013, we use quantile regressions to estimate the importance of factors affecting the installed prices for LP systems (those at the 10th percentile) in comparison to median-priced systems. We find that the value of solar to consumers-a variable that accounts for subsidies, electric rates, and PV generation levels-is associated with lower prices for LP systemsmore » but higher prices for median priced systems. Conversely, systems installed in new home construction are associated with lower prices at the median but higher prices for LP. Other variables have larger price-reducing effects on LP than on median priced systems: systems installed in Arizona and Florida, as well as commercial and thin film systems. In contrast, the following have a smaller effect on prices for LP systems than median priced systems: tracking systems, self-installations, systems installed in Massachusetts, the system size, and installer experience. Furthermore, these results highlight the complex factors at play that lead to LP systems and shed light into how such LP systems can come about.« less
How do minimum cigarette price laws affect cigarette prices at the retail level?
Feighery, E; Ribisl, K; Schleicher, N; Zellers, L; Wellington, N
2005-01-01
Objectives: Half of US states have minimum cigarette price laws that were originally passed to protect small independent retailers from unfair price competition with larger retailers. These laws prohibit cigarettes from being sold below a minimum price that is set by a formula. Many of these laws allow cigarette company promotional incentives offered to retailers, such as buydowns and master-type programmes, to be calculated into the formula. Allowing this provision has the potential to lower the allowable minimum price. This study assesses whether stores in states with minimum price laws have higher cigarette prices and lower rates of retailer participation in cigarette company promotional incentive programmes. Design: Retail cigarette prices and retailer participation in cigarette company incentive programmes in 2001 were compared in eight states with minimum price laws and seven states without them. New York State had the most stringent minimum price law at the time of the study because it excluded promotional incentive programmes in its price setting formula; cigarette prices in New York were compared to all other states included in the study. Results: Cigarette prices were not significantly different in our sample of US states with and without cigarette minimum price laws. Cigarette prices were significantly higher in New York stores than in the 14 other states combined. Conclusions: Most existing minimum cigarette price laws appear to have little impact on the retail price of cigarettes. This may be because they allow the use of promotional programmes, which are used by manufacturers to reduce cigarette prices. New York's strategy to disallow these types of incentive programmes may result in higher minimum cigarette prices, and should also be explored as a potential policy strategy to control cigarette company marketing practices in stores. Strict cigarette minimum price laws may have the potential to reduce cigarette consumption by decreasing demand through
Pharmaceutical policies: effects of reference pricing, other pricing, and purchasing policies.
Acosta, Angela; Ciapponi, Agustín; Aaserud, Morten; Vietto, Valeria; Austvoll-Dahlgren, Astrid; Kösters, Jan Peter; Vacca, Claudia; Machado, Manuel; Diaz Ayala, Diana Hazbeydy; Oxman, Andrew D
2014-10-16
Pharmaceuticals are important interventions that could improve people's health. Pharmaceutical pricing and purchasing policies are used as cost-containment measures to determine or affect the prices that are paid for drugs. Internal reference pricing establishes a benchmark or reference price within a country which is the maximum level of reimbursement for a group of drugs. Other policies include price controls, maximum prices, index pricing, price negotiations and volume-based pricing. To determine the effects of pharmaceutical pricing and purchasing policies on health outcomes, healthcare utilisation, drug expenditures and drug use. We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), part of The Cochrane Library (including the Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group Register) (searched 22/10/2012); MEDLINE In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations and MEDLINE, Ovid (searched 22/10/2012); EconLit, ProQuest (searched 22/10/2012); PAIS International, ProQuest (searched 22/10/2012); World Wide Political Science Abstracts, ProQuest (searched 22/10/2012); INRUD Bibliography (searched 22/10/2012); Embase, Ovid (searched 14/12/2010); NHSEED, part of The Cochrane Library (searched 08/12/2010); LILACS, VHL (searched 14/12/2010); International Political Science Abstracts (IPSA), Ebsco (searched (17/12/2010); OpenSIGLE (searched 21/12/10); WHOLIS, WHO (searched 17/12/2010); World Bank (Documents and Reports) (searched 21/12/2010); Jolis (searched 09/10/2011); Global Jolis (searched 09/10/2011) ; OECD (searched 30/08/2005); OECD iLibrary (searched 30/08/2005); World Bank eLibrary (searched 21/12/2010); WHO - The Essential Drugs and Medicines web site (browsed 21/12/2010). Policies in this review were defined as laws; rules; financial and administrative orders made by governments, non-government organisations or private insurers. To be included a study had to include an objective measure of at least one of the following outcomes: drug use
What Factors Affect the Prices of Low-Priced U.S. Solar PV Systems?
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Nemet, Gregory F.; O'Shaughnessy, Eric; Wiser, Ryan
The price of solar PV systems has declined rapidly, yet there are some much lower-priced systems than others. This study explores the factors leading some systems to be so much lower priced than others. Using a data set of 42,611 residential-scale PV systems installed in the U.S. in 2013, we use quantile regressions to estimate the importance of factors affecting the installed prices for low-priced (LP) systems (those at the 10th percentile) in comparison to median-priced systems. We find that the value of solar to consumers–a variable that accounts for subsidies, electric rates, and PV generation levels–is associated with lowermore » prices for LP systems but higher prices for median priced systems. Conversely, systems installed in new home construction are associated with lower prices at the median but higher prices for LP. Other variables have larger cost-reducing effects on LP than on median priced systems: systems installed in Arizona and Florida, as well as commercial and thin film systems. In contrast, the following have a smaller effect on prices for LP systems than median priced systems: tracking systems, self-installations, systems installed in Massachusetts, the system size, and installer experience. These results highlight the complex factors at play that lead to LP systems and shed light into how such LP systems can come about.« less
Do higher-priced generic medicines enjoy a competitive advantage under reference pricing?
Puig-Junoy, Jaume
2012-11-01
In many countries with generic reference pricing, generic producers and distributors compete by means of undisclosed discounts offered to pharmacies in order to reduce acquisition costs and to induce them to dispense their generic to patients in preference over others. The objective of this article is to test the hypothesis that under prevailing reference pricing systems for generic medicines, those medicines sold at a higher consumer price may enjoy a competitive advantage. Real transaction prices for 179 generic medicines acquired by pharmacies in Spain have been used to calculate the discount rate on acquisition versus reimbursed costs to pharmacies. Two empirical hypotheses are tested: the discount rate at which pharmacies acquire generic medicines is higher for those pharmaceutical presentations for which there are more generic competitors; and, the discount rate at which pharmacies acquire generic medicines is higher for those pharmaceutical forms for which the consumer price has declined less in relation to the consumer price of the brand drug before generic entry (higher-priced generic medicines). An average discount rate of 39.3% on acquisition versus reimbursed costs to pharmacies has been observed. The magnitude of the discount positively depends on the number of competitors in the market. The higher the ratio of the consumer price of the generic to that of the brand drug prior to generic entry (i.e. the smaller the price reduction of the generic in relation to the brand drug), the larger the discount rate. Under reference pricing there is intense price competition among generic firms in the form of unusually high discounts to pharmacies on official ex-factory prices reimbursed to pharmacies. However, this effect is highly distorting because it favours those medicines with a higher relative price in relation to the brand price before generic entry.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1986
Dennis M. May
1988-01-01
In 1986, the average price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood was $47.20, a decrease of 6 percent from the 1985 price. The average price for a green ton of chipped residues also decreased, down 1 percent to $21.77. The average price for a green ton of sawdust fell to $10.25, 3 percent below the 1985 price. Between 1977 and 1986, real prices for roundwood fell, but real...
Price-cap Regulation, Uncertainty and the Price Evolution of New Pharmaceuticals.
Shajarizadeh, Ali; Hollis, Aidan
2015-08-01
This paper examines the effect of the regulations restricting price increases on the evolution of pharmaceutical prices. A novel theoretical model shows that this policy leads firms to price new drugs with uncertain demand above the expected value initially. Price decreases after drug launch are more likely, the higher the uncertainty. We empirically test the model's predictions using data from the Canadian pharmaceutical market. The level of uncertainty is shown to play a crucial role in drug pricing strategies. © 2014 The Authors. Health Economics Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Variation in Drug Prices at Pharmacies: Are Prices Higher in Poorer Areas?
Gellad, Walid F; Choudhry, Niteesh K; Friedberg, Mark W; Brookhart, M Alan; Haas, Jennifer S; Shrank, William H
2009-01-01
Objective To determine whether retail prices for prescription drugs are higher in poorer areas. Data Sources The MyFloridarx.com website, which provides retail prescription prices at Florida pharmacies, and median ZIP code income from the 2000 Census. Study Design We compared mean pharmacy prices for each of the four study drugs across ZIP code income groups. Pharmacies were classified as either chain pharmacies or independent pharmacies. Data Collection Prices were downloaded in November 2006. Principal Findings Across the four study drugs, mean prices were highest in the poorest ZIP codes: 9 percent above the statewide average. Independent pharmacies in the poorest ZIP codes charged the highest mean prices. Conclusions Retail prescription prices appear to be higher in poorer ZIP codes of Florida. PMID:19178584
48 CFR 5416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 5416.203 Section 5416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 5416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2013-10-01 2012-10-01 true Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 5416.203 Section 5416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 5416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 5416.203 Section 5416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 5416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 5416.203 Section 5416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 5416.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 7 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 5416.203 Section 5416.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
Price sensitive demand with random sales price - a newsboy problem
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sankar Sana, Shib
2012-03-01
Up to now, many newsboy problems have been considered in the stochastic inventory literature. Some assume that stochastic demand is independent of selling price (p) and others consider the demand as a function of stochastic shock factor and deterministic sales price. This article introduces a price-dependent demand with stochastic selling price into the classical Newsboy problem. The proposed model analyses the expected average profit for a general distribution function of p and obtains an optimal order size. Finally, the model is discussed for various appropriate distribution functions of p and illustrated with numerical examples.
48 CFR 16.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 16.203 Section 16.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 16.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 16.203 Section 16.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 16.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 16.203 Section 16.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 16.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 16.203 Section 16.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
48 CFR 16.203 - Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with economic price adjustment. 16.203 Section 16.203 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION... contracts with economic price adjustment. ...
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1983
Dennis M. May
1985-01-01
The average price per cord for Midsouth roundwood pulpwood increased less than 1 percent to $48.38 in 1983. The average price for a green ton of chipped mill residues fell 9.3 percent to $23.34. Sawdust prices averaged $13.04 per green ton, a 42.2 percent increase over 1982 prices. Prices for rail delivery of wood fiber continue to be slightly lower than truck...
Nonlinear Road Pricing : [Summary
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
2012-01-01
Nonlinear pricing is an unfamiliar term for a familiar idea. Linear pricing charges all consumers the same price for the same quantity of goods or services; in nonlinear schemes, the price varies, depending, for example, on quantity purchased or a co...
Chip prices as a proxy for nonsawtimber prices in the Pacific Northwest.
Richard W. Haynes
1999-01-01
The heavy focus on Pacific Northwest saw-log prices makes it difficult for land managers to develop price expectations for stands that contain both sawtimber and nonsawtimber logs. This raises the question: What is a reasonable proxy (or measure) for nonsawtimber prices in the Pacific Northwest? One such proxy is export chip prices, which serve as a reasonable measure...
Price-dependent quality: examining the effects of price on multimedia quality requirements
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hands, David S.; Partridge, Caroline; Cheng, Kennedy; Jacobs, Richard J.
2007-02-01
Traditionally, subjective quality assessments are made in isolation of mediating factors (e.g. interest in content, price). This approach is useful for determining the pure perceptual quality of content. Recently, there has been a growing interest in understanding users' quality of experience. To move from perceptual quality assessment to quality of experience assessment, factors beyond reproduction quality must be considered. From a commercial perspective, content and price are key determinants of success. This paper investigates the relationship between price and quality. Subjects selected content that was of interest to them. Subjects were given a budget of ten pounds at the start of the test. When viewing content, subjects were free to select different levels of quality. The lowest quality was free (and subjects left the test with ten pounds). The highest quality used up the full budget (and subjects left the test with no money). A range of pricing tariffs was used in the test. During the test, subjects were allowed to prioritise quality or price. The results of the test found that subjects prioritised quality over price across all tariff levels. At the higher pricing tariffs, subjects became more price sensitive. Using data from a number of subjective tests, a utility function describing the relationship between price and quality was produced.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1985
Dennis M. May
1987-01-01
In 1985, the average price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood was $50.12, a decrease of less than 1 percent from the 1984 price. In contrast, the average price for a green ton of chipped residues decreased to $21.97, 14 percent below the price paid in 1984. The average price for a green ton of sawdust also fell in 1985, dropping 2 percent to $10.60. The 1985 expenditure...
Gruenewald, Paul J; Ponicki, William R; Holder, Harold D; Romelsjö, Anders
2006-01-01
Although the published literature on alcohol beverage taxes, prices, sales, and related problems treats alcoholic beverages as a simple good, alcohol is a complex good composed of different beverage types (i.e., beer, wine, and spirits) and quality brands (e.g., high-, medium-, and low-quality beers). As a complex good, consumers may make substitutions between purchases of different beverage types and brands in response to price increases. For this reason, the availability of a broad range of beverage prices provides opportunities for consumers to mitigate the effects of average price increases through quality substitutions; a change in beverage choice in response to price increases to maintain consumption. Using Swedish price and sales data provided by Systembolaget for the years 1984 through 1994, this study assessed the relationships between alcohol beverage prices, beverage quality, and alcohol sales. The study examined price effects on alcohol consumption using seemingly unrelated regression equations to model the impacts of price increases within 9 empirically defined quality classes across beverage types. The models enabled statistical assessments of both own-price and cross-price effects between types and classes. The results of these analyses showed that consumers respond to price increases by altering their total consumption and by varying their brand choices. Significant reductions in sales were observed in response to price increases, but these effects were mitigated by significant substitutions between quality classes. The findings suggest that the net impacts of purposeful price policy to reduce consumption will depend on how such policies affect the range of prices across beverage brands.
48 CFR 16.205 - Fixed-price contracts with prospective price redetermination.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts with prospective price redetermination. 16.205 Section 16.205 Federal Acquisition Regulations System FEDERAL ACQUISITION REGULATION CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES TYPES OF CONTRACTS Fixed-Price Contracts 16.205...
Pricing hospital care: Global budgets and marginal pricing strategies.
Sutherland, Jason M
2015-08-01
The Canadian province of British Columbia (BC) is adding financial incentives to increase the volume of surgeries provided by hospitals using a marginal pricing approach. The objective of this study is to calculate marginal costs of surgeries based on assumptions regarding hospitals' availability of labor and equipment. This study is based on observational clinical, administrative and financial data generated by hospitals. Hospital inpatient and outpatient discharge summaries from the province are linked with detailed activity-based costing information, stratified by assigned case mix categorizations. To reflect a range of operating constraints governing hospitals' ability to increase their volume of surgeries, a number of scenarios are proposed. Under these scenarios, estimated marginal costs are calculated and compared to prices being offered as incentives to hospitals. Existing data can be used to support alternative strategies for pricing hospital care. Prices for inpatient surgeries do not generate positive margins under a range of operating scenarios. Hip and knee surgeries generate surpluses for hospitals even under the most costly labor conditions and are expected to generate additional volume. In health systems that wish to fine-tune financial incentives, setting prices that create incentives for additional volume should reflect knowledge of hospitals' underlying cost structures. Possible implications of mis-pricing include no response to the incentives or uneven increases in supply. Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.. All rights reserved.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Shaman, Susan; Zemsky, Robert M.
1984-01-01
A discussion of college pricing policy results in three observations: (1) trends toward differentiation of base prices by program and other disaggregation such as level of study will continue; (2) competitive price discounting will intensify through the period of shrinking enrollments; and (3) for most families, discussion of college costs and…
Allowance market pricing indicators
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Miller, R.W.
1995-12-31
Regardless of whether buyers and sellers rely on one allowance price indicator or a combination of several, the publication of price indicators has facilitated trading in the SO{sub 2} allowance market. Buyers and sellers feel more comfortable with a price benchmark against which to measure their actions; liquidity has increased; and transactions are easier to conclude. At this market`s present stage of development, five price indicators are worthy of discussion: EPA Allowance Auctions; Compliance Strategies Review`s EATX; Utility Environment Report`s price range; Cantor Fitzgerald`s Allowance Price Indicators; and Emissions Exchange Corporation`s Exchange Values. But experience in other markets indicates thatmore » (1) others will be created as the market develops, and (2) all published price indicators will tend to converge as time passes.« less
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Engelhardt, Lucas M.
2015-01-01
In this article, the author presents a price-takers' market simulation geared toward principles-level students. This simulation demonstrates that price-taking behavior is a natural result of the conditions that create perfect competition. In trials, there is a significant degree of price convergence in just three or four rounds. Students find this…
48 CFR 52.215-10 - Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data. 52.215-10 Section 52.215-10 Federal Acquisition Regulations System... Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.215-10 Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data... or Pricing Data (OCT 2010) (a) If any price, including profit or fee, negotiated in connection with...
Analysis of Commercial Pricing Factors: A Framework for Commercial Item Pricing
2002-03-01
24 A. INTRODUCTION ...................................24 B. PRICING THEORIES ...............................25 1. Market Theory ...25 2. Transactional Cost Economics .................30 3. Game or Bargaining Theory ....................35 C. CURRENT PRICE...from Congressional intent to have the Government acquisition process rely on market forces to determine fair and reasonable prices. (Ref. 22, p. 2
Baker, W; Marn, M; Zawada, C
2001-02-01
Companies generally have set prices on the Internet in two ways. Many start-ups have offered untenably low prices in a rush to capture first-mover advantage. Many incumbents have simply charged the same prices on-line as they do off-line. Either way, companies are missing a big opportunity. The fundamental value of the Internet lies not in lowering prices or making them consistent but in optimizing them. After all, if it's easy for customers to compare prices on the Internet, it's also easy for companies to track customers' behavior and adjust prices accordingly. The Net lets companies optimize prices in three ways. First, it lets them set and announce prices with greater precision. Different prices can be tested easily, and customers' responses can be collected instantly. Companies can set the most profitable prices, and they can tap into previously hidden customer demand. Second, because it's so easy to change prices on the Internet, companies can adjust prices in response to even small fluctuations in market conditions, customer demand, or competitors' behavior. Third, companies can use the clickstream data and purchase histories that it collects through the Internet to segment customers quickly. Then it can offer segment-specific prices or promotions immediately. By taking full advantage of the unique possibilities afforded by the Internet to set prices with precision, adapt to changing circumstances quickly, and segment customers accurately, companies can get their pricing right. It's one of the ultimate drivers of e-business success.
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Chamberlain, R. G.; Aster, R. W.; Firnett, P. J.; Miller, M. A.
1985-01-01
Improved Price Estimation Guidelines, IPEG4, program provides comparatively simple, yet relatively accurate estimate of price of manufactured product. IPEG4 processes user supplied input data to determine estimate of price per unit of production. Input data include equipment cost, space required, labor cost, materials and supplies cost, utility expenses, and production volume on industry wide or process wide basis.
Export chip prices as a proxy for nonsawtimber prices in the Pacific Northwest.
Gwenlyn M. Busby
2006-01-01
Forest-land managers use price data and market analysis to form expectations and make informed management decisions. There is an abundance of price data for sawtimber, but for nonsawtimber, the availability of price data is limited. This constrains the ability of forest-land managers to form reasonable price expectations for stands that contain both sawtimber and...
California's Hospital Fair Pricing Act reduced the prices actually paid by uninsured patients.
Bai, Ge
2015-01-01
California's Hospital Fair Pricing Act, passed in 2006, aims to protect uninsured patients from paying hospital gross charges: the full, undiscounted prices based on each hospital's chargemaster. In this study I examined how the law affects the net price actually paid by uninsured patients--a question critical for evaluating the law's impact. I found that from 2004 to 2012 the net price actually paid by uninsured patients shrank from 6 percent higher than Medicare prices to 68 percent lower than Medicare prices; the adjusted collection ratio, essentially the amount the hospital actually collected for every dollar in gross price charged, for uninsured patients dropped from 32 percent to 11 percent; and although hospitals have been increasingly less able to generate revenues from uninsured patients, they have raised the proportion of services provided to them in relation to total services provided to all patients. The substantial protection provided to uninsured patients by the California Hospital Fair Pricing Act has important implications for federal and state policy makers seeking to achieve a similar goal. States or Congress could legislate criteria determining the eligibility for discounted charges, mandate a lower price ceiling, and regulate for-profit hospitals in regard to uninsured patients. Project HOPE—The People-to-People Health Foundation, Inc.
Multi-factor energy price models and exotic derivatives pricing
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hikspoors, Samuel
The high pace at which many of the world's energy markets have gradually been opened to competition have generated a significant amount of new financial activity. Both academicians and practitioners alike recently started to develop the tools of energy derivatives pricing/hedging as a quantitative topic of its own. The energy contract structures as well as their underlying asset properties set the energy risk management industry apart from its more standard equity and fixed income counterparts. This thesis naturally contributes to these broad market developments in participating to the advances of the mathematical tools aiming at a better theory of energy contingent claim pricing/hedging. We propose many realistic two-factor and three-factor models for spot and forward price processes that generalize some well known and standard modeling assumptions. We develop the associated pricing methodologies and propose stable calibration algorithms that motivate the application of the relevant modeling schemes.
Pesko, Michael F; Licht, Andrea S; Kruger, Judy M
2013-11-01
Because cigarette price minimization strategies can provide substantial price reductions for individuals continuing their usual smoking behaviors following federal and state cigarette excise tax increases, we examined independent price reductions compensating for overlapping strategies. The possible availability of larger independent price reduction opportunities in states with higher cigarette excise taxes is explored. Regression analysis used the 2006-2007 Tobacco Use Supplement of the Current Population Survey (N = 26,826) to explore national and state-level independent price reductions that smokers obtained from purchasing cigarettes (a) by the carton, (b) in a state with a lower average after-tax cigarette price than in the state of residence, and (c) in "some other way," including online or in another country. Price reductions from these strategies are estimated jointly to compensate for known overlapping strategies. Each strategy reduced the price of cigarettes by 64-94 cents per pack. These price reductions are 9%-22% lower than conventionally estimated results not compensating for overlapping strategies. Price reductions vary substantially by state. Following cigarette excise tax increases, the price reduction available from purchasing cigarettes by cartons increased. Additionally, the price reduction from purchasing cigarettes in a state with a lower average after-tax cigarette price is positively associated with state cigarette excise tax rates and border state cigarette excise tax rate differentials. Findings from this large, nationally representative study of cigarette smokers suggest that price reductions are larger in states with higher cigarette excise taxes, and increase as cigarette excise taxes rise.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1987
John S. Vissage
1990-01-01
In 1987, the average price per cord of Midsouth pulpwood was $47.47, an increase of less than 1 percent from the 1988 price. The average price per green ton of chipped residues decreased less than 1 percent to $2164. The average price of other residues remained at $10.25 per green ton. The total expenditure for pulpwood in the Midsouth increased approximately 1...
Reference pricing with endogenous generic entry.
Brekke, Kurt R; Canta, Chiara; Straume, Odd Rune
2016-12-01
Reference pricing intends to reduce pharmaceutical expenditures by increasing demand elasticity and stimulating generic competition. We develop a novel model where a brand-name producer competes in prices with several generics producers in a market with brand-biased and brand-neutral consumers. Comparing with coinsurance, we show that reference pricing, contrary to policy makers' intentions, discourages generic entry, as it induces the brand-name producer to price more aggressively. Thus, the net effect of reference pricing on drug prices is ambiguous, implying that reference pricing can be counterproductive in reducing expenditures. However, under price regulation, we show that reference pricing may stimulate generic entry, since a binding price cap weakens the aggressive price response by the brand-name producer. This may explain mixed empirical results on the competitive effects of reference pricing. Finally, we show that reference pricing may be welfare improving when accounting for brand preferences despite its adverse effects on entry and prices. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Prices. 8.707 Section 8... Blind or Severely Disabled 8.707 Prices. (a) The prices of items on the Procurement List are fair market prices established by the Committee. All prices for supplies ordered under this subpart are f.o.b. origin...
Pricing and Enrollment Planning.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Martin, Robert E.
2003-01-01
Presents a management model for pricing and enrollment planning that yields optimal pricing decisions relative to student fees and average scholarship, the institution's financial ability to support students, and an average cost-pricing rule. (SLD)
Pricing and Marketing Online Information Services.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Webber, Sheila Anne Elizabeth
1998-01-01
Discusses the pricing of online information in the broader context of marketing. Highlights include changes in the marketing context and issues of value relating to price; other reviews of online pricing; trends affecting price, including public sector involvement and the Internet; promotional pricing; price discrimination; and price aggregation…
2013-01-01
Introduction: Because cigarette price minimization strategies can provide substantial price reductions for individuals continuing their usual smoking behaviors following federal and state cigarette excise tax increases, we examined independent price reductions compensating for overlapping strategies. The possible availability of larger independent price reduction opportunities in states with higher cigarette excise taxes is explored. Methods: Regression analysis used the 2006–2007 Tobacco Use Supplement of the Current Population Survey (N = 26,826) to explore national and state-level independent price reductions that smokers obtained from purchasing cigarettes (a) by the carton, (b) in a state with a lower average after-tax cigarette price than in the state of residence, and (c) in “some other way,” including online or in another country. Price reductions from these strategies are estimated jointly to compensate for known overlapping strategies. Results: Each strategy reduced the price of cigarettes by 64–94 cents per pack. These price reductions are 9%–22% lower than conventionally estimated results not compensating for overlapping strategies. Price reductions vary substantially by state. Following cigarette excise tax increases, the price reduction available from purchasing cigarettes by cartons increased. Additionally, the price reduction from purchasing cigarettes in a state with a lower average after-tax cigarette price is positively associated with state cigarette excise tax rates and border state cigarette excise tax rate differentials. Conclusions: Findings from this large, nationally representative study of cigarette smokers suggest that price reductions are larger in states with higher cigarette excise taxes, and increase as cigarette excise taxes rise. PMID:23729501
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1984
Dennis M. May
1986-01-01
In 1984, the average price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood was $50.55, an increase of 4.5 percent from 1983. The average price for a green ton of chipped residues also increased, up 9.0 percent to $25.44. However, the average price for a green ton of sawdust fell 17.3 percent to $10.79. Rail delivery prices for wood fiber continue to be lower than truck delivery...
The determinants of pricing in pharmaceuticals: are US prices really so high?
Cabrales, Antonio; Jiménez-Martín, Sergi
2013-11-01
This paper studies price determination in pharmaceutical markets using data for 25 countries, 6 years, and a comprehensive list of products from the MIDAS IMS database. A key finding is that the USA has prices that are not significantly higher than those of countries with similar income levels, especially those that are 'lightly regulated'. More importantly, price differences to the US levels increase for 'branded', world top selling, or innovative products, and decrease, regardless of the level of regulation for mature or widely diffused molecules. Because prices for top selling molecules may be easier to perceive and recollect and more important for companies, they may bias the public discussion about international price differences. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Bolinger, Mark; Wiser, Ryan; Golove, William
2003-08-13
Against the backdrop of increasingly volatile natural gas prices, renewable energy resources, which by their nature are immune to natural gas fuel price risk, provide a real economic benefit. Unlike many contracts for natural gas-fired generation, renewable generation is typically sold under fixed-price contracts. Assuming that electricity consumers value long-term price stability, a utility or other retail electricity supplier that is looking to expand its resource portfolio (or a policymaker interested in evaluating different resource options) should therefore compare the cost of fixed-price renewable generation to the hedged or guaranteed cost of new natural gas-fired generation, rather than to projectedmore » costs based on uncertain gas price forecasts. To do otherwise would be to compare apples to oranges: by their nature, renewable resources carry no natural gas fuel price risk, and if the market values that attribute, then the most appropriate comparison is to the hedged cost of natural gas-fired generation. Nonetheless, utilities and others often compare the costs of renewable to gas-fired generation using as their fuel price input long-term gas price forecasts that are inherently uncertain, rather than long-term natural gas forward prices that can actually be locked in. This practice raises the critical question of how these two price streams compare. If they are similar, then one might conclude that forecast-based modeling and planning exercises are in fact approximating an apples-to-apples comparison, and no further consideration is necessary. If, however, natural gas forward prices systematically differ from price forecasts, then the use of such forecasts in planning and modeling exercises will yield results that are biased in favor of either renewable (if forwards < forecasts) or natural gas-fired generation (if forwards > forecasts). In this report we compare the cost of hedging natural gas price risk through traditional gas-based hedging
Price adjustment clauses : report.
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
2012-10-01
Price adjustment mechanisms exist to account for fluctuations in commodity or labor prices and have : been used for highway construction in 47 states. They are useful in stabilizing bid prices in times of : economic uncertainty and preventing default...
7 CFR 1000.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1000.54 Section 1000.54 Agriculture... Prices § 1000.54 Equivalent price. If for any reason a price or pricing constituent required for computing the prices described in § 1000.50 is not available, the market administrator shall use a price or...
McGlone, Sarah M
2010-01-01
New vaccine pricing is a complicated process that could have substantial long-standing scientific, medical and public health ramifications. Pricing can have a considerable impact on new vaccine adoption and, thereby, either culminate or thwart years of research and development and public health efforts. Typically, pricing strategy consists of the following eleven components: (1) Conduct a target population analysis; (2) Map potential competitors and alternatives; (3) Construct a vaccine target product profile (TPP) and compare it to projected or actual TPPs of competing vaccines; (4) Quantify the incremental value of the new vaccine's characteristics; (5) Determine vaccine positioning in the marketplace; (6) Estimate the vaccine price-demand curve; (7) Calculate vaccine costs (including those of manufacturing, distribution, and research and development); (8) Account for various legal, regulatory, third party payer and competitor factors; (9) Consider the overall product portfolio; (10) Set pricing objectives; (11) Select pricing and pricing structure. While the biomedical literature contains some studies that have addressed these components, there is still considerable room for more extensive evaluation of this important area. PMID:20861678
Lee, Bruce Y; McGlone, Sarah M
2010-08-01
New vaccine pricing is a complicated process that could have substantial long-standing scientific, medical, and public health ramifications. Pricing can have a considerable impact on new vaccine adoption and, thereby, either culminate or thwart years of research and development and public health efforts. Typically, pricing strategy consists of the following ten components: 1. Conduct a target population analysis; 2. Map potential competitors and alternatives; 3. Construct a vaccine target product profile (TPP) and compare it to projected or actual TPPs of competing vaccines; 4. Quantify the incremental value of the new vaccine's characteristics; 5. Determine vaccine positioning in the marketplace; 6. Estimate the vaccine price-demand curve; 7. Calculate vaccine costs (including those of manufacturing, distribution, and research and development); 8. Account for various legal, regulatory, third party payer, and competitor factors; 9. Consider the overall product portfolio; 10. Set pricing objectives; 11. Select pricing and pricing structure. While the biomedical literature contains some studies that have addressed these components, there is still considerable room for more extensive evaluation of this important area.
48 CFR 52.215-10 - Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Price Reduction for... Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.215-10 Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data. As prescribed in 15.408(b), insert the following clause: Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost...
The Pricing of Information--A Search-Based Approach to Pricing an Online Search Service.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Boyle, Harry F.
1982-01-01
Describes innovative pricing structure consisting of low connect time fee, print fees, and search fees, offered by Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) ONLINE--an online searching system used to locate chemical substances. Pricing options considered by CAS, the search-based pricing approach, and users' reactions to pricing structures are noted. (EJS)
Fairness and dynamic pricing: comments
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Hogan, William W.
2010-07-15
In ''The Ethics of Dynamic Pricing,'' Ahmad Faruqui lays out a case for improved efficiency in using dynamic prices for retail electricity tariffs and addresses various issues about the distributional effects of alternative pricing mechanisms. The principal contrast is between flat or nearly constant energy prices and time-varying prices that reflect more closely the marginal costs of energy and capacity. The related issues of fairness criteria, contracts, risk allocation, cost allocation, means testing, real-time pricing, and ethical policies of electricity market design also must be considered. (author)
Roberts, Eric T.; Mehrotra, Ateev; McWilliams, J. Michael
2017-01-01
Provider consolidation has intensified concerns that providers with market power may be able to charge higher prices without having to deliver better care. Providers have argued that higher prices cover the costs of delivering higher-quality care. We examined the relationship between physician practice prices for outpatient services and the quality and efficiency of care provided to their patients. Using commercial claims, we classified practices as high-priced or low-priced. We compared care quality, utilization, and spending between high-priced and low-priced practices in the same areas using data from the Consumer Assessment of Health Care Providers and Systems survey and linked claims for Medicare beneficiaries. Compared with low-priced practices, high-priced practices were much larger and received 36% higher prices. Patients of high-priced practices reported significantly higher scores on some measures of care coordination and management, but did not differ meaningfully in their overall care ratings, other domains of patient experiences (including physician ratings and access to care), receipt of mammography, vaccinations, or diabetes services, acute care use, or total Medicare spending. These findings suggest an overall weak relationship between practices’ prices and the quality and efficiency of care they provide, calling into question claims that high-priced providers deliver substantially higher-value care. PMID:28461352
Hanlon, Michael; Zhang, Raymond
2013-03-01
Few data are available on what donors, governments and other implementing organisations pay for the medicines they procure. To partly address this shortcoming, we analyse transactions of pharmaceuticals on the WHO's essential medicines list. Our objective was to identify the determinants of prices paid for these drugs. We used data from the 2008 version of the International Drug Price Indicator Guide. We normalised transactions by representing their value as a 'price per daily dose'. We used a mixed-effects regression model to quantify the impact of observable characteristics on prices paid. We present evidence of first-degree price discrimination in the market for essential medicines. We find that as a country's per capita wealth doubles, prices paid for the same pharmaceutical increase by 33%. These data indicate that purchasing agents from wealthier countries pay more for essential medicines, all factors constant. This behaviour is not a form of development assistance for health but rather is indicative of inefficient markets in which buyers' lack of information enables suppliers to charge higher prices than they could otherwise.
Anderson, Eric; Simester, Duncan
2003-09-01
For most of the items they buy, consumers don't have an accurate sense of what the price should be. Ask them to guess how much a four-pack of 35-mm film costs, and you'll get a variety of wrong answers: Most people will underestimate; many will only shrug. Research shows that consumers' knowledge of the market is so far from perfect that it hardly deserves to be called knowledge at all. Yet people happily buy film and other products every day. Is this because they don't care what kind of deal they're getting? No. Remarkably, it's because they rely on retailers to tell them whether they're getting a good price. In subtle and not-so-subtle ways, retailers send signals to customers, telling them whether a given price is relatively high or low. In this article, the authors review several common pricing cues retailers use--"sale" signs, prices that end in 9, signpost items, and price-matching guarantees. They also offer some surprising facts about how--and how well--those cues work. For instance, the authors' tests with several mail-order catalogs reveal that including the word "sale" beside a price can increase demand by more than 50%. The practice of using a 9 at the end of a price to denote a bargain is so common, you'd think customers would be numb to it. Yet in a study the authors did involving a women's clothing catalog, they increased demand by a third just by changing the price of a dress from $34 to $39. Pricing cues are powerful tools for guiding customers' purchasing decisions, but they must be applied judiciously. Used inappropriately, the cues may breach customers' trust, reduce brand equity, and give rise to lawsuits.
Food Prices and Climate Extremes: A Model of Global Grain Price Variability with Storage
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Otto, C.; Schewe, J.; Frieler, K.
2015-12-01
Extreme climate events such as droughts, floods, or heat waves affect agricultural production in major cropping regions and therefore impact the world market prices of staple crops. In the last decade, crop prices exhibited two very prominent price peaks in 2007-2008 and 2010-2011, threatening food security especially for poorer countries that are net importers of grain. There is evidence that these spikes in grain prices were at least partly triggered by actual supply shortages and the expectation of bad harvests. However, the response of the market to supply shocks is nonlinear and depends on complex and interlinked processes such as warehousing, speculation, and trade policies. Quantifying the contributions of such different factors to short-term price variability remains difficult, not least because many existing models ignore the role of storage which becomes important on short timescales. This in turn impedes the assessment of future climate change impacts on food prices. Here, we present a simple model of annual world grain prices that integrates grain stocks into the supply and demand functions. This firstly allows us to model explicitly the effect of storage strategies on world market price, and thus, for the first time, to quantify the potential contribution of trade policies to price variability in a simple global framework. Driven only by reported production and by long--term demand trends of the past ca. 40 years, the model reproduces observed variations in both the global storage volume and price of wheat. We demonstrate how recent price peaks can be reproduced by accounting for documented changes in storage strategies and trade policies, contrasting and complementing previous explanations based on different mechanisms such as speculation. Secondly, we show how the integration of storage allows long-term projections of grain price variability under climate change, based on existing crop yield scenarios.
E-Valuation: Pricing E-Learning.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Hartley, Darin E.
2001-01-01
Looks at the ways that electronic learning is priced in organizations and the factors that influence the pricing. Discusses pros and cons of several pricing options: price per seat, subscription, pay as you go, per server, free, and payment based on time. (JOW)
A Case Study of Pharmaceutical Pricing in China: Setting the Price for Off-Patent Originators.
Hu, Shanlian; Zhang, Yabing; He, Jiangjiang; Du, Lixia; Xu, Mingfei; Xie, Chunyan; Peng, Ying; Wang, Linan
2015-08-01
This article aims to define a value-based approach to pricing and reimbursement for off-patent originators using a multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach centered on a systematic analysis of current pricing and reimbursement policies in China. A drug price policy review was combined with a quantitative analysis of China's drug purchasing database. Policy preferences were identified through a MCDA performed by interviewing well-known academic experts and industry stakeholders. The study findings indicate that the current Chinese price policy includes cost-based pricing and the establishment of maximum retail prices and premiums for off-patent originators, whereas reference pricing may be adopted in the future. The literature review revealed significant differences in the dissolution profiles between originators and generics; therefore, dissolution profiles need to be improved. Market data analysis showed that the overall price ratio of generics and off-patent originators was around 0.54-0.59 in 2002-2011, with a 40% price difference, on average. Ten differentiating value attributes were identified and MCDA was applied to test the impact of three pricing policy scenarios. With the condition of implementing quality consistency regulations and controls, a reduction in the price gap between high-quality off-patent products (including originator and generics) seemed to be the preferred policy. Patents of many drugs will expire within the next 10 years; thus, pricing will be an issue of importance for off-patent originators and generic alternatives.
Gilbert, C. L.; Morgan, C. W.
2010-01-01
The high food prices experienced over recent years have led to the widespread view that food price volatility has increased. However, volatility has generally been lower over the two most recent decades than previously. Variability over the most recent period has been high but, with the important exception of rice, not out of line with historical experience. There is weak evidence that grains price volatility more generally may be increasing but it is too early to say. PMID:20713400
Construction of Discrete Time Shadow Price
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Rogala, Tomasz, E-mail: rogalatp@gmail.com; Stettner, Lukasz, E-mail: stettner@impan.pl
2015-12-15
In the paper expected utility from consumption over finite time horizon for discrete time markets with bid and ask prices and strictly concave utility function is considered. The notion of weak shadow price, i.e. an illiquid price, depending on the portfolio, under which the model without bid and ask price is equivalent to the model with bid and ask price is introduced. Existence and the form of weak shadow price is shown. Using weak shadow price usual (called in the paper strong) shadow price is then constructed.
The Retail Price Model is a tool to estimate the average retail electricity prices - under both competitive and regulated market structures - using power sector projections and assumptions from the Energy Information Administration.
Competitive Electricity Prices: An Update
1998-01-01
Illustrates a third impact of the move to competitive generation pricing -- the narrowing of the range of prices across regions of the country. This feature article updates information in Electricity Prices in a Competitive Environment: Marginal Cost Pricing of Generation Services and Financial Status of Electric Utilities.
Hertzman, Peter; Miller, Paul; Tolley, Keith
2018-02-01
With the introduction of new expensive medicines, traditional pricing schemes based on constructs such as price per pill/vial have been challenged. Potential innovative schemes could be either financial-based or performance-based. Within financial-based schemes the use of price discrimination is an emerging option, which we explore in this assessment. Areas covered: In the short term the price per indication approach is likely to become more prevalent for high cost, high benefit new pharmaceuticals, such as those emerging in oncology (e.g. new combination immunotherapies). 'Two-Part Pricing' (2PP) is a frequently used payment method in other industries, which consists of an Entry Fee, giving the buyer the right to use the product, and a Usage Price charged every time the product is purchased. Introducing 2PP into biopharma could have cross-stakeholder benefits including broader patient access, and improvement in budget/revenue predictability. A concern however is the potential complexity of the negotiation between manufacturer and payer. Expert commentary: We believe 'price discrimination' and 2PP in particular can be relevant for some new, expensive specialist medicines. A recommended first step would be to initiate pilots to test to what degree the 2PP approach meets stakeholder objectives and is practical to implement within specialty care.
Wilson, Leslie; Turkistani, Fatema A; Huang, Wei; Tran, Dang M; Lin, Tracy Kuo
2018-01-01
California's Workers' Compensation System (CAWCS) Department of Industrial Relations questioned the adequacy of the current Medi-Cal fee-schedule pricing and requested analysis of alternatives that maximize price availability and maintain budget neutrality. To compare CAWCS pharmacy-dispensed (PD) drug prices under alternative fee schedules, and identify combinations of alternative benchmarks that have prices available for the largest percentage of PD drugs and that best reach budget neutrality. Claims transaction-level data (2011-2013) from CAWCS were used to estimate total annual PD pharmaceutical payments. Medi-Cal pricing data was from the Workman's Compensation Insurance System (WCIS). Average Wholesale Prices (AWP), Wholesale Acquisition Costs (WAC), Direct Prices (DP), Federal Upper Limit (FUL) prices, and National Average Drug Acquisition Costs (NADAC) were from Medi-Span. We matched National Drug Codes (NDCs), pricing dates, and drug quantity for comparisons. We report pharmacy-dispensed (PD) claims frequency, reimbursement matching rate, and paid costs by CAWCS as the reference price against all alternative price benchmarks. Of 12,529,977 CAWCS claims for pharmaceutical products 11.6% (1,462,814) were for PD drugs. Prescription drug cost for CAWCS was over $152M; $63.9M, $47.9M, and $40.6M in 2011-2013. Ninety seven percent of these CAWCS PD claims had a Medi-Cal price. Alternative mechanisms provided a price for fewer claims; NADAC 94.23%, AWP 90.94%, FUL 73.11%, WAC 66.98%, and DP 14.33%. Among CAWCS drugs with no Medi-Cal price in PD claims, AWP, WAC, NADAC, DP, and FUL provided prices for 96.7%, 63.14%, 24.82%, 20.83%, and 15.08% of claims. Overall CAWCS paid 100.52% of Medi-Cal, 60% of AWP, 97% of WAC, 309.53% of FUL, 103.83% of DP, and 136.27% of NADAC. CAWCS current Medi-Cal fee-schedule price list for PD drugs is more complete than all alternative fee-schedules. However, all reimbursement approaches would require combinations of pricing benchmarks
48 CFR 1615.407-1 - Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. 1615.407-1 Section 1615.407-1 Federal Acquisition... CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 1615.407-1 Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. The clause set forth in section 1652.215-70...
48 CFR 1615.407-1 - Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. 1615.407-1 Section 1615.407-1 Federal Acquisition... CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 1615.407-1 Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. The clause set forth in section 1652.215-70...
48 CFR 1615.407-1 - Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. 1615.407-1 Section 1615.407-1 Federal Acquisition... CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 1615.407-1 Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. The clause set forth in section 1652.215-70...
48 CFR 1615.407-1 - Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. 1615.407-1 Section 1615.407-1 Federal Acquisition... CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 1615.407-1 Rate reduction for defective pricing or defective cost or pricing data. The clause set forth in section 1652.215-70...
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 10 Energy 3 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Pricing. 218.12 Section 218.12 Energy DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY OIL STANDBY MANDATORY INTERNATIONAL OIL ALLOCATION Supply Orders § 218.12 Pricing. The price for oil subject to a supply order issued pursuant to this subpart shall be based on the price conditions...
48 CFR 52.215-11 - Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data-Modifications.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Price Reduction for... CONTRACT CLAUSES Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.215-11 Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data—Modifications. As prescribed in 15.408(c), insert the following clause: Price Reduction for...
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Alden, Lori
2003-01-01
In this article, the author discusses the educational frozen price game she developed to teach the basic economic principle of price allocation. In addition to demonstrating the advantages of price allocation, the game also illustrates such concepts as opportunity costs, cost benefit comparisons, and the trade-off between efficiency and equity.…
Option price and market instability
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Baaquie, Belal E.; Yu, Miao
2017-04-01
An option pricing formula, for which the price of an option depends on both the value of the underlying security as well as the velocity of the security, has been proposed in Baaquie and Yang (2014). The FX (foreign exchange) options price was empirically studied in Baaquie et al., (2014), and it was found that the model in general provides an excellent fit for all strike prices with a fixed model parameters-unlike the Black-Scholes option price Hull and White (1987) that requires the empirically determined implied volatility surface to fit the option data. The option price proposed in Baaquie and Cao Yang (2014) did not fit the data during the crisis of 2007-2008. We make a hypothesis that the failure of the option price to fit data is an indication of the market's large deviation from its near equilibrium behavior due to the market's instability. Furthermore, our indicator of market's instability is shown to be more accurate than the option's observed volatility. The market prices of the FX option for various currencies are studied in the light of our hypothesis.
Puig-Junoy, Jaume; Moreno-Torres, Iván
2010-12-01
To assess the impact of competition on the consumer price and the average price paid by the National Health System (NHS) under reference pricing in the Spanish generic market. Descriptive analysis of the time trend in consumer prices before and after the application of reference pricing for the eight most sold active ingredients from 1997 to 2009. The entry of a generic at a lower consumer price than that of the brand-name pharmaceutical or the first generic does not cause a voluntary reduction in the consumer price of either the brand drug or the first generic, either before or after the application of RP. Generic entry at a lower consumer price than previously existing pharmaceuticals always causes a slight reduction in the average price paid by the NHS; however, the average price paid by the NHS is always notably higher than the lowest, the difference being greater in relative terms under reference pricing. The Spanish RP system results in very little consumer price competition between generic firms, price reduction thus being limited to regulatory measures. NHS purchases show little sensitivity to price differences between equivalent drugs priced at or below the reference price. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Wilson, Leslie; Turkistani, Fatema A.; Huang, Wei; Tran, Dang M.; Lin, Tracy Kuo
2018-01-01
Introduction California’s Workers’ Compensation System (CAWCS) Department of Industrial Relations questioned the adequacy of the current Medi-Cal fee-schedule pricing and requested analysis of alternatives that maximize price availability and maintain budget neutrality. Objectives To compare CAWCS pharmacy-dispensed (PD) drug prices under alternative fee schedules, and identify combinations of alternative benchmarks that have prices available for the largest percentage of PD drugs and that best reach budget neutrality. Methods Claims transaction-level data (2011–2013) from CAWCS were used to estimate total annual PD pharmaceutical payments. Medi-Cal pricing data was from the Workman’s Compensation Insurance System (WCIS). Average Wholesale Prices (AWP), Wholesale Acquisition Costs (WAC), Direct Prices (DP), Federal Upper Limit (FUL) prices, and National Average Drug Acquisition Costs (NADAC) were from Medi-Span. We matched National Drug Codes (NDCs), pricing dates, and drug quantity for comparisons. We report pharmacy-dispensed (PD) claims frequency, reimbursement matching rate, and paid costs by CAWCS as the reference price against all alternative price benchmarks. Results Of 12,529,977 CAWCS claims for pharmaceutical products 11.6% (1,462,814) were for PD drugs. Prescription drug cost for CAWCS was over $152M; $63.9M, $47.9M, and $40.6M in 2011–2013. Ninety seven percent of these CAWCS PD claims had a Medi-Cal price. Alternative mechanisms provided a price for fewer claims; NADAC 94.23%, AWP 90.94%, FUL 73.11%, WAC 66.98%, and DP 14.33%. Among CAWCS drugs with no Medi-Cal price in PD claims, AWP, WAC, NADAC, DP, and FUL provided prices for 96.7%, 63.14%, 24.82%, 20.83%, and 15.08% of claims. Overall CAWCS paid 100.52% of Medi-Cal, 60% of AWP, 97% of WAC, 309.53% of FUL, 103.83% of DP, and 136.27% of NADAC. Conclusions CAWCS current Medi-Cal fee-schedule price list for PD drugs is more complete than all alternative fee-schedules. However, all
Essays on pricing dynamics, price dispersion, and nested logit modelling
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Verlinda, Jeremy Alan
The body of this dissertation comprises three standalone essays, presented in three respective chapters. Chapter One explores the possibility that local market power contributes to the asymmetric relationship observed between wholesale costs and retail prices in gasoline markets. I exploit an original data set of weekly gas station prices in Southern California from September 2002 to May 2003, and take advantage of highly detailed station and local market-level characteristics to determine the extent to which spatial differentiation influences price-response asymmetry. I find that brand identity, proximity to rival stations, bundling and advertising, operation type, and local market features and demographics each influence a station's predicted asymmetric relationship between prices and wholesale costs. Chapter Two extends the existing literature on the effect of market structure on price dispersion in airline fares by modeling the effect at the disaggregate ticket level. Whereas past studies rely on aggregate measures of price dispersion such as the Gini coefficient or the standard deviation of fares, this paper estimates the entire empirical distribution of airline fares and documents how the shape of the distribution is determined by market structure. Specifically, I find that monopoly markets favor a wider distribution of fares with more mass in the tails while duopoly and competitive markets exhibit a tighter fare distribution. These findings indicate that the dispersion of airline fares may result from the efforts of airlines to practice second-degree price discrimination. Chapter Three adopts a Bayesian approach to the problem of tree structure specification in nested logit modelling, which requires a heavy computational burden in calculating marginal likelihoods. I compare two different techniques for estimating marginal likelihoods: (1) the Laplace approximation, and (2) reversible jump MCMC. I apply the techniques to both a simulated and a travel mode
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Faruqui, Ahmad
2010-07-15
Dynamic pricing has garnered much interest among regulators and utilities, since it has the potential for lowering energy costs for society. But the deployment of dynamic pricing has been remarkably tepid. The underlying premise is that dynamic pricing is unfair. But the presumption of unfairness in dynamic pricing rests on an assumption of fairness in today's tariffs. (author)
Estimating Drug Costs: How do Manufacturer Net Prices Compare with Other Common US Price References?
Mattingly, T Joseph; Levy, Joseph F; Slejko, Julia F; Onwudiwe, Nneka C; Perfetto, Eleanor M
2018-05-12
Drug costs are frequently estimated in economic analyses using wholesale acquisition cost (WAC), but what is the best approach to develop these estimates? Pharmaceutical manufacturers recently released transparency reports disclosing net price increases after accounting for rebates and other discounts. Our objective was to determine whether manufacturer net prices (MNPs) could approximate the discounted prices observed by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). We compared the annual, average price discounts voluntarily reported by three pharmaceutical manufacturers with the VA price for specific products from each company. The top 10 drugs by total sales reported from company tax filings for 2016 were included. The discount observed by the VA was determined from each drug's list price, reported as WAC, in 2016. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the VA discount observed and a weighted price index was calculated using the lowest price to the VA (Weighted VA Index), which was compared with the manufacturer index. The discounted price as a percentage of the WAC ranged from 9 to 74%. All three indexes estimated by the average discount to the VA were at or below the manufacturer indexes (42 vs. 50% for Eli Lilly, 56 vs. 65% for Johnson & Johnson, and 59 vs. 59% for Merck). Manufacturer-reported average net prices may provide a close approximation of the average discounted price granted to the VA, suggesting they may be a useful proxy for the true pharmacy benefits manager (PBM) or payer cost. However, individual discounts for products have wide variation, making a standard discount adjustment across multiple products less acceptable.
Trading network predicts stock price.
Sun, Xiao-Qian; Shen, Hua-Wei; Cheng, Xue-Qi
2014-01-16
Stock price prediction is an important and challenging problem for studying financial markets. Existing studies are mainly based on the time series of stock price or the operation performance of listed company. In this paper, we propose to predict stock price based on investors' trading behavior. For each stock, we characterize the daily trading relationship among its investors using a trading network. We then classify the nodes of trading network into three roles according to their connectivity pattern. Strong Granger causality is found between stock price and trading relationship indices, i.e., the fraction of trading relationship among nodes with different roles. We further predict stock price by incorporating these trading relationship indices into a neural network based on time series of stock price. Experimental results on 51 stocks in two Chinese Stock Exchanges demonstrate the accuracy of stock price prediction is significantly improved by the inclusion of trading relationship indices.
Babar, Zaheer Ud Din; Ibrahim, Mohamed Izham Mohamed; Singh, Harpal; Bukahri, Nadeem Irfan; Creese, Andrew
2007-03-27
Malaysia's stable health care system is facing challenges with increasing medicine costs. To investigate these issues a survey was carried out to evaluate medicine prices, availability, affordability, and the structure of price components. The methodology developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Health Action International (HAI) was used. Price and availability data for 48 medicines was collected from 20 public sector facilities, 32 private sector retail pharmacies and 20 dispensing doctors in four geographical regions of West Malaysia. Medicine prices were compared with international reference prices (IRPs) to obtain a median price ratio. The daily wage of the lowest paid unskilled government worker was used to gauge the affordability of medicines. Price component data were collected throughout the supply chain, and markups, taxes, and other distribution costs were identified. In private pharmacies, innovator brand (IB) prices were 16 times higher than the IRPs, while generics were 6.6 times higher. In dispensing doctor clinics, the figures were 15 times higher for innovator brands and 7.5 for generics. Dispensing doctors applied high markups of 50%-76% for IBs, and up to 316% for generics. Retail pharmacy markups were also high-25%-38% and 100%-140% for IBs and generics, respectively. In the public sector, where medicines are free, availability was low even for medicines on the National Essential Drugs List. For a month's treatment for peptic ulcer disease and hypertension people have to pay about a week's wages in the private sector. The free market by definition does not control medicine prices, necessitating price monitoring and control mechanisms. Markups for generic products are greater than for IBs. Reducing the base price without controlling markups may increase profits for retailers and dispensing doctors without reducing the price paid by end users. To increase access and affordability, promotion of generic medicines and improved availability
Pricing effects on food choices.
French, Simone A
2003-03-01
Individual dietary choices are primarily influenced by such considerations as taste, cost, convenience and nutritional value of foods. The current obesity epidemic has been linked to excessive consumption of added sugars and fat, as well as to sedentary lifestyles. Fat and sugar provide dietary energy at very low cost. Food pricing and marketing practices are therefore an essential component of the eating environment. Recent studies have applied economic theories to changing dietary behavior. Price reduction strategies promote the choice of targeted foods by lowering their cost relative to alternative food choices. Two community-based intervention studies used price reductions to promote the increased purchase of targeted foods. The first study examined lower prices and point-of-purchase promotion on sales of lower fat vending machine snacks in 12 work sites and 12 secondary schools. Price reductions of 10%, 25% and 50% on lower fat snacks resulted in an increase in sales of 9%, 39% and 93%, respectively, compared with usual price conditions. The second study examined the impact of a 50% price reduction on fresh fruit and baby carrots in two secondary school cafeterias. Compared with usual price conditions, price reductions resulted in a four-fold increase in fresh fruit sales and a two-fold increase in baby carrot sales. Both studies demonstrate that price reductions are an effective strategy to increase the purchase of more healthful foods in community-based settings such as work sites and schools. Results were generalizable across various food types and populations. Reducing prices on healthful foods is a public health strategy that should be implemented through policy initiatives and industry collaborations.
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Qu, Chunhong; Li, Huishang; Hao, Shuai; Zhang, Xuebiao; Yang, Wei
2017-10-01
Taking Shanghai as an example, the influence of the vegetable price insurance on the fluctuation of prices was analyzed in the article. It was found that the sequence of seasonal fluctuations characteristics of leafy vegetable prices was changed by the vegetable cost-price insurance, the period of price fluctuation was elongated from 12-to-18 months to 37 months, and the influence of random factors on the price fluctuations was reduced in some degree. There was still great space for innovation of the vegetable prices insurance system in Shanghai. Some countermeasures would be suggested to develop the insurance system to better to play the role of insurance and promote the market running more smoothly in Shanghai such as prolonging the insurance cycle, improving the price information monitoring mechanism and innovating income insurance products and so on.
Understanding Price Formation in Electricity Markets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kadoya, Toshihisa; Sasaki, Tetsuo; Yokoyama, Akihiko; Ihara, Satoru
The electricity price will influence the future growth and mix of generation capacity that will in turn influence the future electricity price, and therefore, it is important to understand how electricity price is formed as well as its short-term and long-term impacts on the economy. This paper describes evaluation of PJM day-ahead market bidding data and comparison of various electricity markets in terms of the market clearing price and volatility. The objective is to find critical factors and mechanisms determining the movements of electricity price. It was found that speculation by a small number of bidders can cause price spikes, that a Nash equilibrium may exist during a delayed response of the electricity price to a decline of the fuel price, and that the hydro generation with storage capability effectively stabilizes the electricity price.
48 CFR 15.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... determining the type of data required: (i) No additional data from the offeror, if the price is based on... reasonable price. (3) Obtain the type and quantity of data necessary to establish a fair and reasonable price... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.402 Pricing policy. Contracting...
48 CFR 15.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... determining the type of data required: (i) No additional data from the offeror, if the price is based on... reasonable price. (3) Obtain the type and quantity of data necessary to establish a fair and reasonable price... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.402 Pricing policy. Contracting...
48 CFR 15.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... determining the type of data required: (i) No additional data from the offeror, if the price is based on... reasonable price. (3) Obtain the type and quantity of data necessary to establish a fair and reasonable price... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.402 Pricing policy. Contracting...
Price-skid boosts propane sales
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Ellis, P.
1979-02-05
Lower propane costs have prompted industrial users to switch from natural gas, although dealers are cautioning that they are gambling on an unstable price competition. Analysis of price and use trends indicates that the propane market is growing where users have relied on the interstate gas market, which will be experiencing incremental price increases. Those buying propane on the spot market will get the best prices because the propane market is now glutted as a result of conservation and large gas supplies. A further drop in propane price is not anticipated because producers would lack incentive to extract propane frommore » higher-priced natural gas unless it becomes justified by demand for unleaded gas, of which propane is a by-product.« less
Impacts of changing hardwood lumber consumption and price on stumpage and sawlog prices in Ohio
William Luppold; Matthew Bumgardner; T. Eric. McConnell
2014-01-01
In the early 2000s, increasing US furniture imports preceded declining US hardwood lumber demand and price. In the summer of 2002, however, hardwood lumber prices started to increase as demand by construction industries increased. By the mid-2000s, hardwood lumber prices hit all-time highs. Lumber prices hit all-time highs for red oak (Quercus spp...
Roberts, Eric T; Mehrotra, Ateev; McWilliams, J Michael
2017-05-01
Consolidation of physician practices has intensified concerns that providers with greater market power may be able to charge higher prices without having to deliver better care, compared to providers with less market power. Providers have argued that higher prices cover the costs of delivering higher-quality care. We examined the relationship between physician practice prices for outpatient services and practices' quality and efficiency of care. Using commercial claims data, we classified practices as being high- or low-price. We used national data from the Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems survey and linked claims for Medicare beneficiaries to compare high- and low-price practices in the same geographic area in terms of care quality, utilization, and spending. Compared with low-price practices, high-price practices were much larger and received 36 percent higher prices. Patients of high-price practices reported significantly higher scores on some measures of care coordination and management but did not differ meaningfully in their overall care ratings, other domains of patient experiences (including physician ratings and access to care), receipt of preventive services, acute care use, or total Medicare spending. This suggests an overall weak relationship between practice prices and the quality and efficiency of care and calls into question claims that high-price providers deliver substantially higher-value care. Project HOPE—The People-to-People Health Foundation, Inc.
Trading Network Predicts Stock Price
Sun, Xiao-Qian; Shen, Hua-Wei; Cheng, Xue-Qi
2014-01-01
Stock price prediction is an important and challenging problem for studying financial markets. Existing studies are mainly based on the time series of stock price or the operation performance of listed company. In this paper, we propose to predict stock price based on investors' trading behavior. For each stock, we characterize the daily trading relationship among its investors using a trading network. We then classify the nodes of trading network into three roles according to their connectivity pattern. Strong Granger causality is found between stock price and trading relationship indices, i.e., the fraction of trading relationship among nodes with different roles. We further predict stock price by incorporating these trading relationship indices into a neural network based on time series of stock price. Experimental results on 51 stocks in two Chinese Stock Exchanges demonstrate the accuracy of stock price prediction is significantly improved by the inclusion of trading relationship indices. PMID:24429767
Weighted south-wide average pulpwood prices
James E. Granskog; Kevin D. Growther
1991-01-01
Weighted average prices provide a more accurate representation of regional pulpwood price trends when production volumes valy widely by state. Unweighted South-wide average delivered prices for pulpwood, as reported by Timber Mart-South, were compared to average annual prices weighted by each state's pulpwood production from 1977 to 1986. Weighted average prices...
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Litten, Larry H.
1986-01-01
The most provocative perspectives on pricing for colleges and universities have come from the introduction of marketing into higher education. A brief review of these developments is offered to serve as an orientation for the consideration of pricing issues per se. (Author/MLW)
International drug price comparisons: quality assessment.
Machado, Márcio; O'Brodovich, Ryan; Krahn, Murray; Einarson, Thomas R
2011-01-01
To quantitatively summarize results (i.e., prices and affordability) reported from international drug price comparison studies and assess their methodological quality. A systematic search of the most relevant databases-Medline, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (IPA), and Scopus, from their inception to May 2009-was conducted to identify original research comparing international drug prices. International drug price information was extracted and recorded from accepted papers. Affordability was reported as drug prices adjusted for income. Study quality was assessed using six criteria: use of similar countries, use of a representative sample of drugs, selection of specific types of prices, identification of drug packaging, different weights on price indices, and the type of currency conversion used. Of the 1 828 studies identified, 21 were included. Only one study adequately addressed all quality issues. A large variation in study quality was observed due to the many methods used to conduct the drug price comparisons, such as different indices, economic parameters, price types, basket of drugs, and more. Thus, the quality of published studies was considered poor. Results varied across studies, but generally, higher income countries had higher drug prices. However, after adjusting drug prices for affordability, higher income countries had more affordable prices than lower income countries. Differences between drug prices and affordability in different countries were found. Low income countries reported less affordability of drugs, leaving room for potential problems with drug access, and consequently, a negative impact on health. The quality of the literature on this topic needs improvement.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1988
John S. Vissage
1990-01-01
In 1988, the average price per cord of Midsouth roundwood pulpwood was $49.21, an increase of approximately 4 percent since 1987. The average price per green ton of chipped residues fell 3 percent to $20.99. The total expenditure by Midsouth pulpmills for pulpwood increased about one-half percent to $1,569 million in 1988. However, the real prices, in terms of...
48 CFR 46.707 - Pricing aspects of fixed-price incentive contract warranties.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... FEDERAL ACQUISITION REGULATION CONTRACT MANAGEMENT QUALITY ASSURANCE Warranties 46.707 Pricing aspects of... the total final price. Contractor compliance with the warranty after the establishment of the total...
48 CFR 46.707 - Pricing aspects of fixed-price incentive contract warranties.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... FEDERAL ACQUISITION REGULATION CONTRACT MANAGEMENT QUALITY ASSURANCE Warranties 46.707 Pricing aspects of... the total final price. Contractor compliance with the warranty after the establishment of the total...
How to Find the Price That's Right.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Crompton, John L.
1981-01-01
Five primary methods used by recreation and park agencies to establish a price are reviewed: (1) going-rate pricing; (2) demand oriented pricing; (3) variable cost pricing; (4) partial overhead pricing; and (5) average cost pricing. (CJ)
Chaotic structure of oil prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bildirici, Melike; Sonustun, Fulya Ozaksoy
2018-01-01
The fluctuations in oil prices are very complicated and therefore, it is unable to predict its effects on economies. For modelling complex system of oil prices, linear economic models are not sufficient and efficient tools. Thus, in recent years, economists attached great attention to non-linear structure of oil prices. For analyzing this relationship, GARCH types of models were used in some papers. Distinctively from the other papers, in this study, we aimed to analyze chaotic pattern of oil prices. Thus, it was used the Lyapunov Exponents and Hennon Map to determine chaotic behavior of oil prices for the selected time period.
Is College Pricing Power Pro-Cyclical?
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Altringer, Levi; Summers, Jeffrey
2015-01-01
We define pricing power as a college's ability to increase its net tuition revenue by raising its sticker-price for tuition. The greater is the positive effect of sticker-price increases on net tuition revenue, the greater is the pricing power. We gauge variation in the pricing power of private, non-profit baccalaureate colleges by estimating this…
48 CFR 15.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... certified cost or pricing data when required by 15.403-4, along with data other than certified cost or pricing data as necessary to establish a fair and reasonable price; or (2) When certified cost or pricing data are not required by 15.403-4, obtain data other than certified cost or pricing data as necessary...
48 CFR 15.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... certified cost or pricing data when required by 15.403-4, along with data other than certified cost or pricing data as necessary to establish a fair and reasonable price; or (2) When certified cost or pricing data are not required by 15.403-4, obtain data other than certified cost or pricing data as necessary...
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Panda, S.; Saha, S.; Basu, M.
2013-01-01
Product perishability is an important aspect of inventory control. To minimise the effect of deterioration, retailers in supermarkets, departmental store managers, etc. always want higher inventory depletion rate. In this article, we propose a dynamic pre- and post-deterioration cumulative discount policy to enhance inventory depletion rate resulting low volume of deterioration cost, holding cost and hence higher profit. It is assumed that demand is a price and time dependent ramp-type function and the product starts to deteriorate after certain amount of time. Unlike the conventional inventory models with pricing strategies, which are restricted to a fixed number of price changes and to a fixed cycle length, we allow the number of price changes before as well as after the start of deterioration and the replenishment cycle length to be the decision variables. Before start of deterioration, discounts on unit selling price are provided cumulatively in successive pricing cycles. After the start of deterioration, discounts on reduced unit selling price are also provided in a cumulative way. A mathematical model is developed and the existence of the optimal solution is verified. A numerical example is presented, which indicates that under the cumulative effect of price discounting, dynamic pricing policy outperforms static pricing strategy. Sensitivity analysis of the model is carried out.
Spatial competition and price formation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Nagel, Kai; Shubik, Martin; Paczuski, Maya; Bak, Per
2000-12-01
We look at price formation in a retail setting, that is, companies set prices, and consumers either accept prices or go someplace else. In contrast to most other models in this context, we use a two-dimensional spatial structure for information transmission, that is, consumers can only learn from nearest neighbors. Many aspects of this can be understood in terms of generalized evolutionary dynamics. In consequence, we first look at spatial competition and cluster formation without price. This leads to establishement size distributions, which we compare to reality. After some theoretical considerations, which at least heuristically explain our simulation results, we finally return to price formation, where we demonstrate that our simple model with nearly no organized planning or rationality on the part of any of the agents indeed leads to an economically plausible price.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1990
Patrick E. Miller
1992-01-01
In 1990, the average delivered price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood was $52.95, an increase of 5.7 percent since 1989. The average delivered price for a green ton of chipped residues increased about 3.7 percent to $22.51. The total pulpwood expenditure for Midsouth pulpmills increased 13 percent to $1,883 million in 1990. In terms of 1981 dollars, real prices fell...
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
St. John, Edward P.
1994-01-01
A study used price-response measures from recent national studies to assess college and university pricing (tuition and student aid) alternatives in diverse institutional settings. It is concluded that such analyses are feasible. Analysis indicated limits to "Robin Hood" pricing patterns are predominant in private colleges. Consideration…
Impact of cigarette minimum price laws on the retail price of cigarettes in the USA.
Tynan, Michael A; Ribisl, Kurt M; Loomis, Brett R
2013-05-01
Cigarette price increases prevent youth initiation, reduce cigarette consumption and increase the number of smokers who quit. Cigarette minimum price laws (MPLs), which typically require cigarette wholesalers and retailers to charge a minimum percentage mark-up for cigarette sales, have been identified as an intervention that can potentially increase cigarette prices. 24 states and the District of Columbia have cigarette MPLs. Using data extracted from SCANTRACK retail scanner data from the Nielsen company, average cigarette prices were calculated for designated market areas in states with and without MPLs in three retail channels: grocery stores, drug stores and convenience stores. Regression models were estimated using the average cigarette pack price in each designated market area and calendar quarter in 2009 as the outcome variable. The average difference in cigarette pack prices are 46 cents in the grocery channel, 29 cents in the drug channel and 13 cents in the convenience channel, with prices being lower in states with MPLs for all three channels. The findings that MPLs do not raise cigarette prices could be the result of a lack of compliance and enforcement by the state or could be attributed to the minimum state mark-up being lower than the free-market mark-up for cigarettes. Rather than require a minimum mark-up, which can be nullified by promotional incentives and discounts, states and countries could strengthen MPLs by setting a simple 'floor price' that is the true minimum price for all cigarettes or could prohibit discounts to consumers and retailers.
Nonlinear Pricing in Energy and Environmental Markets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ito, Koichiro
This dissertation consists of three empirical studies on nonlinear pricing in energy and environmental markets. The first investigates how consumers respond to multi-tier nonlinear price schedules for residential electricity. Chapter 2 asks a similar research question for residential water pricing. Finally, I examine the effect of nonlinear financial rewards for energy conservation by applying a regression discontinuity design to a large-scale electricity rebate program that was implemented in California. Economic theory generally assumes that consumers respond to marginal prices when making economic decisions, but this assumption may not hold for complex price schedules. The chapter "Do Consumers Respond to Marginal or Average Price? Evidence from Nonlinear Electricity Pricing" provides empirical evidence that consumers respond to average price rather than marginal price when faced with nonlinear electricity price schedules. Nonlinear price schedules, such as progressive income tax rates and multi-tier electricity prices, complicate economic decisions by creating multiple marginal prices for the same good. Evidence from laboratory experiments suggests that consumers facing such price schedules may respond to average price as a heuristic. I empirically test this prediction using field data by exploiting price variation across a spatial discontinuity in electric utility service areas. The territory border of two electric utilities lies within several city boundaries in southern California. As a result, nearly identical households experience substantially different nonlinear electricity price schedules. Using monthly household-level panel data from 1999 to 2008, I find strong evidence that consumers respond to average price rather than marginal or expected marginal price. I show that even though this sub-optimizing behavior has a minimal impact on individual welfare, it can critically alter the policy implications of nonlinear pricing. The second chapter " How Do
Brent L. Sohngen; Richard W. Haynes
1994-01-01
Prices for red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) hardwood logs are published and analyzed for reliability, consistency, and robustness. Timberland managers can use these prices to make decisions about land management. They show that values for red alder logs have been increasing steadily for the last 11 years.
Babar, Zaheer Ud Din; Ibrahim, Mohamed Izham Mohamed; Singh, Harpal; Bukahri, Nadeem Irfan; Creese, Andrew
2007-01-01
Background Malaysia's stable health care system is facing challenges with increasing medicine costs. To investigate these issues a survey was carried out to evaluate medicine prices, availability, affordability, and the structure of price components. Methods and Findings The methodology developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Health Action International (HAI) was used. Price and availability data for 48 medicines was collected from 20 public sector facilities, 32 private sector retail pharmacies and 20 dispensing doctors in four geographical regions of West Malaysia. Medicine prices were compared with international reference prices (IRPs) to obtain a median price ratio. The daily wage of the lowest paid unskilled government worker was used to gauge the affordability of medicines. Price component data were collected throughout the supply chain, and markups, taxes, and other distribution costs were identified. In private pharmacies, innovator brand (IB) prices were 16 times higher than the IRPs, while generics were 6.6 times higher. In dispensing doctor clinics, the figures were 15 times higher for innovator brands and 7.5 for generics. Dispensing doctors applied high markups of 50%–76% for IBs, and up to 316% for generics. Retail pharmacy markups were also high—25%–38% and 100%–140% for IBs and generics, respectively. In the public sector, where medicines are free, availability was low even for medicines on the National Essential Drugs List. For a month's treatment for peptic ulcer disease and hypertension people have to pay about a week's wages in the private sector. Conclusions The free market by definition does not control medicine prices, necessitating price monitoring and control mechanisms. Markups for generic products are greater than for IBs. Reducing the base price without controlling markups may increase profits for retailers and dispensing doctors without reducing the price paid by end users. To increase access and affordability
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kanai, Yasuhiro; Abe, Keiji; Seki, Yoichi
2015-06-01
We propose a price percolation model to reproduce the price distribution of components used in industrial finished goods. The intent is to show, using the price percolation model and a component category as an example, that percolation behaviors, which exist in the matter system, the ecosystem, and human society, also exist in abstract, random phenomena satisfying the power law. First, we discretize the total potential demand for a component category, considering it a random field. Second, we assume that the discretized potential demand corresponding to a function of a finished good turns into actual demand if the difficulty of function realization is less than the maximum difficulty of the realization. The simulations using this model suggest that changes in a component category's price distribution are due to changes in the total potential demand corresponding to the lattice size and the maximum difficulty of realization, which is an occupation probability. The results are verified using electronic components' sales data.
Monthly petroleum-product price report
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Not Available
1982-07-01
This report provides Congress and the public with information on monthly national weighted average prices for refined petroleum products. the data published are the primary source of price data for refined products for the refining, reselling, and retailing sectors necessary for the Department of Energy (DOE) to execute its role in monitoring prices. In addition, the data provide the information necessary for Congress, DOE, and the public to perform analyses and projections related to energy supplies, demands, and prices. The legislative authority for this survey is the Federal Energy Administration Act of 1974 (PL 93-275). Price data in this publicationmore » were collected fronm separate surveys. Average prices are derived from a survey of refiners, large resellers and/or retailers, and independent gas plant operators. Data from this monthly survey are available from July 1975. Average No. 2 heating oil prices were derived from a sample survye of refiners, resellers, and retailers who sell heating oil. The geographic coverage for this report is the 50 states and the District of Columbia.« less
Kwon, Hye-Young; Godman, Brian
2017-08-01
Between 2000 and 2013, spending on medicines in Korea increased by 275.3%. In order to curb this trend, several pricing policies and measures were introduced. This study reviews these policies and their implications based on pricing regulations as well as a literature review. New medicines now undergo both a reimbursement assessment and price negotiations. The reimbursement of new medicines is based on their cost effectiveness. The prices of new medicines are subsequently fixed through negotiations between the payer, the National Health Insurance Service, and the relevant manufacturer. Generic drugs are automatically priced via a new standard methodology. Repricing mechanisms were complicated and now redundant. Simple and efficient measures rather than complex and inefficient measures are needed to maintain the value-for-money principle for new medicines as well as achieve financial efficiency through price competition among generic drugs.
Has competition lowered hospital prices?
Zwanziger, Jack; Mooney, Cathleen
2005-01-01
On Jan. 1, 1997, New York ended its regulation of hospital prices with the intent of using competitive markets to control prices and increase efficiency. This paper uses data that come from annual reports filed by all health maintenance organizations (HMOs) operating in New York and include payments to and usage in the major hospitals in an HMO's network. We estimate the relationship between implied prices and hospital, plan, and market characteristics. The models show that after 1997, hospitals in more competitive markets paid less. Partially offsetting these price reductions were price increases associated with hospital mergers that reduced the competitiveness of the local market. Hospital deregulation was successful, at least in the short run, in using price competition to reduce hospital payments; it is unclear whether this success will be undermined by the structural changes taking place in the hospital industry.
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Jack, John; Kwan, Eric; Wood, Milana
2011-01-01
PRICE H was introduced into the JPL cost estimation tool set circa 2003. It became more available at JPL when IPAO funded the NASA-wide site license for all NASA centers. PRICE H was mainly used as one of the cost tools to validate proposal grassroots cost estimates. Program offices at JPL view PRICE H as an additional crosscheck to Team X (JPL Concurrent Engineering Design Center) estimates. PRICE H became widely accepted ca, 2007 at JPL when the program offices moved away from grassroots cost estimation for Step 1 proposals. PRICE H is now one of the key cost tools used for cost validation, cost trades, and independent cost estimates.
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Aster, R. W.; Chamberlain, R. G.; Zendejas, S. C.; Lee, T. S.; Malhotra, S.
1986-01-01
Company-wide or process-wide production simulated. Price Estimation Guidelines (IPEG) program provides simple, accurate estimates of prices of manufactured products. Simplification of SAMIS allows analyst with limited time and computing resources to perform greater number of sensitivity studies. Although developed for photovoltaic industry, readily adaptable to standard assembly-line type of manufacturing industry. IPEG program estimates annual production price per unit. IPEG/PC program written in TURBO PASCAL.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1992
Patrick E. Miller
1994-01-01
The average price in the Midsouth for a cord of roundwood pulpwood increased 5.1 percent from $56.39 in 1991 to $59.29 in 1992. The average delivered price for a green ton of chipped residues was $27.30, an increase of 6.1 percent. In 1992, expenditures for Midsouth pulpwood increased 14.0 percent to $2.2 million. Real prices continued to rise for both softwood and...
EOQ model for perishable products with price-dependent demand, pre and post discounted selling price
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Santhi, G.; Karthikeyan, K.
2017-11-01
In this article we introduce an economic order quantity model for perishable products like vegetables, fruits, milk, flowers, meat, etc.,with price-dependent demand, pre and post discounted selling price. Here we consider the demand is depending on selling price and deterioration rate is constant. Here we developed mathematical model to determine optimal discounton the unit selling price to maximize total profit. Numerical examples are given for illustrated.
48 CFR 570.110 - Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data. 570.110 Section 570.110 Federal Acquisition Regulations System... PROPERTY General 570.110 Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data. (a) The...
Hospital pricing policies: the simple economics.
Robison, G A; Robison, H D
1986-10-01
Changes in hospital reimbursement structures and the shrinking inpatient service market are forcing hospitals to reexamine their pricing strategies. This article examines historical hospital pricing, the effect of pricing in a competitive market and considerations for hospitals moving toward competitive pricing for services.
Personal Computer Price and Performance.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Crawford, Walt
1993-01-01
Discusses personal computer price trends since 1986; describes offerings and prices for four direct-market suppliers, i.e., Dell CompuAdd, PC Brand, and Gateway 2000; and discusses overall value and price/performance ratios. Tables and graphs chart value over time. (EA)
Impact of health care price transparency on price variation: the New Hampshire experience.
Tu, Ha T; Lauer, Johanna R
2009-11-01
Price variation for medical procedures performed in both hospital outpatient departments and freestanding facilities has not decreased in New Hampshire since the state launched the HealthCost price transparency program in early 2007, according to new research jointly conducted by the New Hampshire Insurance Department and the Center for Studying Health System Change (HSC). New Hampshire stakeholders cited weak provider competition as the key reason for lack of impact. The state's hospital market is geographically segmented in rural areas and has few competitors even in urban areas. In addition, few consumers have strong incentives to shop based on price: Only 5 percent of the state's privately insured residents were enrolled in high-deductible plans in 2007. However, some observers suggested that HealthCost--along with other state price transparency initiatives--has helped to focus employer and policy maker attention on provider price differences and has caused some hospitals to moderate their demands for rate increases.
7 CFR 1005.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1005.54 Section 1005.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1005.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Uniform Prices ...
7 CFR 1006.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1006.54 Section 1006.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1006.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Uniform Prices ...
7 CFR 1131.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1131.54 Section 1131.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1131.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Uniform Prices ...
7 CFR 1007.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1007.54 Section 1007.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1007.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Uniform Prices ...
7 CFR 1033.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1033.54 Section 1033.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1033.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Producer Price Differential ...
7 CFR 1032.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1032.54 Section 1032.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1032.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Producer Price Differential ...
7 CFR 1126.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1126.54 Section 1126.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1126.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Producer Price Differential ...
2016-04-30
competitions and dual sourcing. [patrick.n.watkins4.civ@mail.mil] Abstract This paper examines how collaboration between the cost analysis and price ...analysis. A review of the CSDRs by the price analyst led to the conclusion that the level of detail in the CSDR between recurring and non -recurring hours...Reports (CSDRs) – Starting in 2004 renewed emphasis on contractually requiring CSDR – CSDRs report actual and non -recurring costs • Price Negotiation
Price and cigarette consumption in Europe.
Gallus, S; Schiaffino, A; La Vecchia, C; Townsend, J; Fernandez, E
2006-04-01
To analyse the variation in demand for tobacco according to price of cigarettes across the European region. Cross-sectional study. All the 52 countries of the European region. For each European country, data were collected on annual per adult cigarette consumption (2000), smoking prevalence (most recent), retail price of a pack of local and foreign brand cigarettes (around 2000), the gross domestic product adjusted by purchasing power parities, and the adult population (2000). Price elasticity of demand for cigarettes (that is, the change in cigarette consumption according to a change in tobacco price) across all the European countries, estimated by double-log multiple linear regression. Controlling for male to female prevalence ratio, price elasticities for consumption were -0.46 (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.74 to -0.17) and -0.74 (95% CI -1.13 to -0.35) for local and foreign brand, respectively. The inverse relation between cigarette price and consumption was stronger in countries not in the European Union (price elasticity for foreign brand cigarettes of -0.8) as compared to European Union countries (price elasticity of -0.4). The result that, on average, in Europe smoking consumption decreases 5-7% for a 10% increase in the real price of cigarettes strongly supports an inverse association between price and cigarette smoking.
48 CFR 15.405 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Price negotiation. 15.405... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.405 Price negotiation. (a) The purpose of performing cost or price analysis is to develop a negotiation position that permits the...
48 CFR 15.405 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Price negotiation. 15.405... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.405 Price negotiation. (a) The purpose of performing cost or price analysis is to develop a negotiation position that permits the...
48 CFR 15.405 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Price negotiation. 15.405... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.405 Price negotiation. (a) The purpose of performing cost or price analysis is to develop a negotiation position that permits the...
48 CFR 15.405 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price negotiation. 15.405... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.405 Price negotiation. (a) The purpose of performing cost or price analysis is to develop a negotiation position that permits the...
48 CFR 15.405 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Price negotiation. 15.405... AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 15.405 Price negotiation. (a) The purpose of performing cost or price analysis is to develop a negotiation position that permits the...
7 CFR 1124.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1124.54 Section 1124.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Regulating Handling Class Prices § 1124.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. Producer Price Differential ...
In Search of Ideal Information Pricing.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Hawkins, Donald T.
1989-01-01
Reviews some of the models used for pricing online information services and discusses some of the implications of these pricing algorithms. Topics discussed include online versus print pricing; charges for the retrieval process; charges for the retrieved information; telecommunications charges; and the pricing policies of Chemical Abstracts…
48 CFR 215.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Pricing policy. 215.402... OF DEFENSE CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 215.402 Pricing policy. Follow the procedures at PGI 215.402 when conducting cost or price analysis, particularly...
[The French medecine pricing committee].
Giorgi, D
2017-09-01
The French medicine pricing committee (CEPS) has to reconcile several major constraints, including optimal patient access to medicines and a good control of expenditures on reimbursable medicines. From 2013 to 2015, drug price decreases and discounts obtained by CEPS contributed more than € 5 billion to the balance of the health insurance accounts. As for price setting, there is a significant drop in the prices of medicines in France once they are registered for reimbursement. France is affected by a limited, but costly, flow of innovative medicines, whose prices are higher than those of previous generations, a reflection of an international gradient to which France is obviously subject, despite prices that remain at the low end of the range in Western Europe. The provision of innovative medicines for all patients who need them has been ensured in France over the last fifteen years at a controlled cost. But with the arrival of new expensive products, a resolute policy of control of expenditures must take over from the fall in prices, and original financing channels will have to be explored. Copyright © 2017 Académie Nationale de Pharmacie. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Ma, Haiying; Mo, Zan; Zhang, Huijun; Wang, Cuicui; Fu, Huijian
2018-01-01
Studies have revealed that consumers are susceptible to price framing effect, a common cognitive bias, due to their limited capacity in processing information. The effect of price framing in a bundling context and its neural correlates, however, remain not clearly characterized. The present study applied the event-related potentials (ERPs) approach to investigate the role of price framing in information processing and purchase decision making in a bundling context. Three price frames were created with practically identical total prices (with a maximum difference of ¥0.1, which was about equal to 0.016 US dollars) for a bundle with two components, a focal product and a tie-in product. In normal price condition (NP), both the focal and tie-in products were offered at a normal discounted price; in zero price condition (ZP), the tie-in product was offered free while the total price of the bundle remained the same as NP; whereas in low price condition (LP), the tie-in product was offered at a low token price (¥0.1), and the focal product shared the same price as the focal product of ZP. The behavioral results showed a higher purchase rate and a shorter reaction time for ZP in contrast to NP. Neurophysiologically, enlarged LPP amplitude was elicited by ZP relative to NP, suggesting that ZP triggered a stronger positive affect that could motivate decision to buy. Thus, this study provides both behavioral and neural evidence for how different price framing information is processed and ultimately gives rise to price framing effect in purchase decision making. PMID:29731705
Ma, Haiying; Mo, Zan; Zhang, Huijun; Wang, Cuicui; Fu, Huijian
2018-01-01
Studies have revealed that consumers are susceptible to price framing effect, a common cognitive bias, due to their limited capacity in processing information. The effect of price framing in a bundling context and its neural correlates, however, remain not clearly characterized. The present study applied the event-related potentials (ERPs) approach to investigate the role of price framing in information processing and purchase decision making in a bundling context. Three price frames were created with practically identical total prices (with a maximum difference of ¥0.1, which was about equal to 0.016 US dollars) for a bundle with two components, a focal product and a tie-in product. In normal price condition (NP), both the focal and tie-in products were offered at a normal discounted price; in zero price condition (ZP), the tie-in product was offered free while the total price of the bundle remained the same as NP; whereas in low price condition (LP), the tie-in product was offered at a low token price (¥0.1), and the focal product shared the same price as the focal product of ZP. The behavioral results showed a higher purchase rate and a shorter reaction time for ZP in contrast to NP. Neurophysiologically, enlarged LPP amplitude was elicited by ZP relative to NP, suggesting that ZP triggered a stronger positive affect that could motivate decision to buy. Thus, this study provides both behavioral and neural evidence for how different price framing information is processed and ultimately gives rise to price framing effect in purchase decision making.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Prices. 408.707 Section 408.707 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE COMPETITION AND ACQUISITION... Are Blind or Severely Disabled 408.707 Prices. Prior to applying for a price revision, the chief of...
Traditional Pricing or Something Else?
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Epple, John H.
1980-01-01
It is argued tha alternate pricing methods for college textbooks--including net pricing, net billing, and single copy order pricing--would be detrimental to college bookstores. Publishers are urged to continue with the traditional method, and other publisher practices that could help bookstore managers are suggested. (JMD)
78 FR 29785 - Priority Mail Pricing
Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
2013-05-21
... POSTAL REGULATORY COMMISSION [Docket No. R2013-7; Order No. 1714] Priority Mail Pricing AGENCY... and Distribute, or Premium Forwarding Service. Id. at 3 n.3. Price cap compliance. For the Special... that after the price change, the unused pricing authority available for the Special Services class will...
7 CFR 1001.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat solids price; (d) The other solids price; (e) The butterfat price; (f) The average butterfat, protein... containing 3.5 percent butterfat computed by combining the Class III price and the producer price...
7 CFR 1001.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat solids price; (d) The other solids price; (e) The butterfat price; (f) The average butterfat, protein... containing 3.5 percent butterfat computed by combining the Class III price and the producer price...
7 CFR 1001.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat solids price; (d) The other solids price; (e) The butterfat price; (f) The average butterfat, protein... containing 3.5 percent butterfat computed by combining the Class III price and the producer price...
7 CFR 1001.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat solids price; (d) The other solids price; (e) The butterfat price; (f) The average butterfat, protein... containing 3.5 percent butterfat computed by combining the Class III price and the producer price...
7 CFR 1001.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat solids price; (d) The other solids price; (e) The butterfat price; (f) The average butterfat, protein... containing 3.5 percent butterfat computed by combining the Class III price and the producer price...
Ranyard, R; Charlton, J P; Williamson, J
2001-02-01
Alternative reference prices, either displayed in the environment (external) or recalled from memory (internal) are known to influence consumer judgments and decisions. In one line of previous research, internal reference prices have been defined in terms of general price expectations. However, Thaler (Marketing Science 4 (1985) 199; Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 12 (1999) 183) defined them as fair prices expected from specific types of seller. Using a Beer Pricing Task, he found that seller context had a substantial effect on willingness to pay, and concluded that this was due to specific internal reference prices evoked by specific contexts. In a think aloud study using the same task (N = 48), we found only a marginal effect of seller context. In a second study using the Beer Pricing Task and seven analogous ones (N = 144), general internal reference prices were estimated by asking people what they normally paid for various commodities. Both general internal reference prices and seller context influenced willingness to pay, although the effect of the latter was again rather small. We conclude that general internal reference prices have a greater impact in these scenarios than specific ones, because of the lower cognitive load involved in their storage and retrieval.
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jin, Xin
Recent years have seen dramatic fluctuations in crude oil prices. This dissertation attempts to better understand price behavior. The first chapter studies the behavior of crude oil spot and futures prices. Oil prices, particularly spot and short-term futures prices, appear to have switched from I(0) to I(1) in early 2000s. To better understand this apparent change in persistence, a factor model of oil prices is proposed, where the prices are decomposed into long-term and short-term components. The change in the persistence behavior can be explained by changes in the relative volatility of the underlying components. Fitting the model to weekly data on WTI prices, the volatility of the persistent shocks increased substantially relative to other shocks. In addition, the risk premiums in futures prices have changed their signs and become more volatile. The estimated net marginal convenience yield using the model also shows changes in its behavior. These observations suggest that a dramatic fundamental change occurred in the period from 2002 to 2004 in the dynamics of the crude oil market. The second chapter explores the short-run price-inventory dynamics in the presence of different shocks. Classical competitive storage model states that inventory decision considers both current and future market condition, and thus interacts with spot and expected future spot prices. We study competitive storage holding in an equilibrium framework, focusing on the dynamic response of price and inventory to different shocks. We show that news shock generates response profile different from traditional contemporaneous shocks in price and inventory. The model is applied to world crude oil market, where the market expectation is estimated to experience a sharp change in early 2000s, together with a persisting constrained supply relative to demand. The expectation change has limited effect on crude oil spot price though. The world oil market structure has been studied extensively but no
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Price Reduction for... PROVISIONS AND CONTRACT CLAUSES Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.214-27 Price Reduction for Defective... following clause: Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data—Modifications—Sealed Bidding...
Tiered Pricing: Implications for Library Collections
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Hahn, Karla
2005-01-01
In recent years an increasing number of publishers have adopted tiered pricing of journals. The design and implications of tiered-pricing models, however, are poorly understood. Tiered pricing can be modeled using several variables. A survey of current tiered-pricing models documents the range of key variables used. A sensitivity analysis…
"Photographing money" task pricing
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jia, Zhongxiang
2018-05-01
"Photographing money" [1]is a self-service model under the mobile Internet. The task pricing is reasonable, related to the success of the commodity inspection. First of all, we analyzed the position of the mission and the membership, and introduced the factor of membership density, considering the influence of the number of members around the mission on the pricing. Multivariate regression of task location and membership density using MATLAB to establish the mathematical model of task pricing. At the same time, we can see from the life experience that membership reputation and the intensity of the task will also affect the pricing, and the data of the task success point is more reliable. Therefore, the successful point of the task is selected, and its reputation, task density, membership density and Multiple regression of task positions, according to which a nhew task pricing program. Finally, an objective evaluation is given of the advantages and disadvantages of the established model and solution method, and the improved method is pointed out.
Price Discrimination: A Classroom Experiment
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Aguiló, Paula; Sard, Maria; Tugores, Maria
2016-01-01
In this article, the authors describe a classroom experiment aimed at familiarizing students with different types of price discrimination (first-, second-, and third-degree price discrimination). During the experiment, the students were asked to decide what tariffs to set as monopolists for each of the price discrimination scenarios under…
Third-Degree Price Discrimination Revisited
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Kwon, Youngsun
2006-01-01
The author derives the probability that price discrimination improves social welfare, using a simple model of third-degree price discrimination assuming two independent linear demands. The probability that price discrimination raises social welfare increases as the preferences or incomes of consumer groups become more heterogeneous. He derives the…
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ready, Robert Clayton
I show that relative levels of aggregate consumption and personal oil consumption provide an excellent proxy for oil prices, and that high oil prices predict low future aggregate consumption growth. Motivated by these facts, I add an oil consumption good to the long-run risk model of Bansal and Yaron [2004] to study the asset pricing implications of observed changes in the dynamic interaction of consumption and oil prices. Empirically I observe that, compared to the first half of my 1987--2010 sample, oil consumption growth in the last 10 years is unresponsive to levels of oil prices, creating an decrease in the mean-reversion of oil prices, and an increase in the persistence of oil price shocks. The model implies that the change in the dynamics of oil consumption generates increased systematic risk from oil price shocks due to their increased persistence. However, persistent oil prices also act as a counterweight for shocks to expected consumption growth, with high expected growth creating high expectations of future oil prices which in turn slow down growth. The combined effect is to reduce overall consumption risk and lower the equity premium. The model also predicts that these changes affect the riskiness of of oil futures contracts, and combine to create a hump shaped term structure of oil futures, consistent with recent data.
Pharmaceutical patents and price controls.
Vogel, Ronald J
2002-07-01
Since 1995, every member-country of the World Trade Organization (WTO) has agreed to honor a 20-year patent-life, from the date of a pharmaceutical company's application for the patent, in the country of application. Patent protection retards competitive imitation of an invented product. This kind of protection is particularly important for pharmaceuticals, because pharmaceuticals that are not derived from biotechnology can be imitated easily and inexpensively. The economic function of a patent is to allow a period of above-normal profits for a technically and commercially successful product; these profits stimulate further investment and invention. However, direct price controls, or permutations of direct price controls on pharmaceutical compounds, can fully or partially circumvent the economic intent of patent agreements. This paper formulates an economic model that takes into account demand and cost/supply dimensions of the output and pricing of a hypothetical pharmaceutical, extrapolating about the respective effects of direct price controls and lack of price controls, and describing permutations of direct price controls in different countries. The pharmaceutical industry depends on patents to fund the development and introduction of new products. A country can indirectly circumvent the economic logic of a patent by using price controls, but it cannot shift the economic costs of such a policy to another country that does not use price controls. Instead, less money is available for research and development (R&D). Pharmaceutical price controls allow some countries to avoid the constraints of patent agreements without breaking those agreements outright. This, in turn, reduces the amount of profit available for further R&D, which is a detriment to consumers worldwide.
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Fesharaki, F.
1994-05-01
For a clear picture of how oil prices develop, the author steps away from the price levels to which the world is accustomed, and evaluates scientifically. What makes prices jump from one notch to another The move results from a political or economic shock or the perception of a particular position by the futures market and the media. The shock could range from a war or an assassination to a promise of cooperation among OPEC members (when believed by the market) or to speculation about another failure at an OPEC meeting. In the oil market, only a couple of factualmore » figures can provide a floor to the price of oil. The cost of production of oil in the Gulf is around $2 to $3/bbl, and the cost of production of oil (capital and operating costs) in key non-OPEC areas is well under $10/bbl. With some adjustments for transport and quality, a price range of $13/bbl to $16/bbl would correspond to a reasonable sustainable floor price. The reason for prices above the floor price has been a continuous fear of oil supply interruptions. That fear kept prices above the floor price for many years. The fear factor has now almost fully disappeared. The market has gone through the drama of the Iranian Revolution, the Iran-Iraq war, the tanker war, the invasion of Kuwait, and the expulsions of the Iraqis. And still the oil flowed -- all the time. It has become abundantly clear that fears above the oil market were unjustified. Everyone needs to export oil, and oil will flow under the worst circumstances. The demise of the fear factor means that oil prices tend toward the floor price for a prolonged period.« less
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 41 Public Contracts and Property Management 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 true Prices. 51-5.5 Section 51... FOR PURCHASE FROM PEOPLE WHO ARE BLIND OR SEVERELY DISABLED 5-CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS § 51-5.5 Prices. (a) The prices for items on the Procurement List are fair market prices established by the Committee...
The Basic Economics of CD-ROM Pricing.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Erkkila, John E.
1991-01-01
This explanation of how the basic economic model of pricing applies to the CD-ROM industry considers the supply and demand sides of the market and compares three distinct pricing strategies: (1) pricing to maximize profits; (2) average cost pricing; and (3) marginal cost pricing. (EAM)
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 43 Public Lands: Interior 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price. 402.6 Section 402.6 Public Lands: Interior Regulations Relating to Public Lands BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR SALE OF LANDS IN FEDERAL RECLAMATION PROJECTS Public Lands § 402.6 Price. The price of land sold under this...
The Pricing of Economics Books.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Laband, David; Hudson, John
2003-01-01
Examines the pricing and other characteristics of books. Notes substantial increases in book prices between 2000 and 1985 data. Suggests a major factor is the increasing importance of foreign presses that sell books at higher prices. Indicates that discount on paperbacks appear to have been relatively stable in the two years studied. (JEH)
16 CFR 233.5 - Miscellaneous price comparisons.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 16 Commercial Practices 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Miscellaneous price comparisons. 233.5... DECEPTIVE PRICING § 233.5 Miscellaneous price comparisons. The practices covered in the provisions set forth... principles. For example, retailers should not advertise a retail price as a “wholesale” price. They should...
The determinants of hardwood lumber price
William G. Luppold; Jennifer M. Jacobsen; Jennifer M. Jacobsen
1985-01-01
Econometric equations were estimated to determine the effects of domestic foreign hardwood lumber demands on oak and hardwood lumber prices. Oak price seemed to be more sensitive to changes in exports than overall hardwood lumber price. However, the main determinants of hardwood lumber and oak lumber prices were found to be domestic demand and millstock levels.
48 CFR 1615.402 - Pricing policy.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 6 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 true Pricing policy. 1615.402... Contract Pricing 1615.402 Pricing policy. Pricing of FEHB contracts is governed by 5 U.S.C. 8902(i), 5 U.S... for which the FEHB Program premiums for the contract term will be less than the threshold at FAR 15...
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... 17 Commodity and Securities Exchanges 3 2010-04-01 2010-04-01 false Price test. 242.201 Section...-Regulation of Short Sales § 242.201 Price test. Link to an amendment published at 75 FR 11323, Mar. 10, 2010. (a) No short sale price test, including any short sale price test of any self-regulatory organization...
Endogenous versus exogenous generic reference pricing for pharmaceuticals.
Antoñanzas, F; Juárez-Castelló, C A; Rodríguez-Ibeas, R
2017-12-01
In this paper we carry out a vertical differentiation duopoly model applied to pharmaceutical markets to analyze how endogenous and exogenous generic reference pricing influence competition between generic and branded drugs producers. Unlike the literature, we characterize for the exogenous case the equilibrium prices for all feasible relevant reference prices. Competition is enhanced after the introduction of a reference pricing system. We also compare both reference pricing systems on welfare grounds, assuming two different objective functions for health authorities: (i) standard social welfare and (ii) gross consumer surplus net of total pharmaceutical expenditures. We show that regardless of the objective function, health authorities will never choose endogenous reference pricing. When health authorities are paternalistic, the exogenous reference price that maximizes standard social welfare is such that the price of the generic drug is the reference price while the price of the branded drug is higher than the reference price. When health authorities are not paternalistic, the optimal exogenous reference price is such that the price of the branded drug is the reference price while the price of the generic drug is lower than the reference price.
Periodicals Price Survey 2002: Doing the Digital Flip.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Van Orsdel, Lee; Born, Kathleen
2002-01-01
Presents the annual periodicals price study. Highlights include average prices; cost histories; cost projections for future budgeting; electronic journal issues; flip pricing, defined as online access at the core of pricing negotiations; various pricing models; purchasing print at deeply discounted prices; and current trends in pricing and in the…
Three essays on access pricing
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sydee, Ahmed Nasim
In the first essay, a theoretical model is developed to determine the time path of optimal access price in the telecommunications industry. Determining the optimal access price is an important issue in the economics of telecommunications. Setting a high access price discourages potential entrants; a low access price, on the other hand, amounts to confiscation of private property because the infrastructure already built by the incumbent is sunk. Furthermore, a low access price does not give the incumbent incentives to maintain the current network and to invest in new infrastructures. Much of the existing literature on access pricing suffers either from the limitations of a static framework or from the assumption that all costs are avoidable. The telecommunications industry is subject to high stranded costs and, therefore, to address this issue a dynamic model is imperative. This essay presents a dynamic model of one-way access pricing in which the compensation involved in deregulatory taking is formalized and then analyzed. The short run adjustment after deregulatory taking has occurred is carried out and discussed. The long run equilibrium is also analyzed. A time path for the Ramsey price is shown as the correct dynamic price of access. In the second essay, a theoretical model is developed to determine the time path of optimal access price for an infrastructure that is characterized by congestion and lumpy investment. Much of the theoretical literature on access pricing of infrastructure prescribes that the access price be set at the marginal cost of the infrastructure. In proposing this rule of access pricing, the conventional analysis assumes that infrastructure investments are infinitely divisible so that it makes sense to talk about the marginal cost of investment. Often it is the case that investments in infrastructure are lumpy and can only be made in large chunks, and this renders the marginal cost concept meaningless. In this essay, we formalize a model of
External referencing and pharmaceutical price negotiation.
Garcia Mariñoso, Begoña; Jelovac, Izabela; Olivella, Pau
2011-06-01
External referencing (ER) imposes a price cap for pharmaceuticals, based on prices of identical or comparable products in foreign countries. Suppose a foreign country (F) negotiates prices with a pharmaceutical firm, whereas a home country (H) can either negotiate prices independently or implement ER, based on the foreign price. We show that country H prefers ER if copayments in H are relatively high. This preference is reinforced when H's population is small. Irrespective of relative country sizes, ER by country H harms country F. Our model is inspired by the wide European experience with this cost-containment policy. Namely, in Europe, drug authorization and price negotiations are carried out by separate agencies. We confirm our main results in two extensions. The first one allows for therapeutic competition between drugs. In the second one, drug authorization and price negotiation take place in a single agency. 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
48 CFR 52.215-11 - Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or Pricing Data-Modifications.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... accordingly and the contract shall be modified to reflect the reduction. This right to a price reduction is... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price Reduction for... CONTRACT CLAUSES Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.215-11 Price Reduction for Defective Certified Cost or...
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 33 Navigation and Navigable Waters 3 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Price. 211.75 Section 211.75... Under Jurisdiction of Department of the Army for Cottage Site Development and Use § 211.75 Price. The... for a price equal to the fair market value of the site at the time of the sale. ...
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 39 Postal Service 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Pricing. 551.6 Section 551.6 Postal Service UNITED STATES POSTAL SERVICE POSTAGE PROGRAMS SEMIPOSTAL STAMP PROGRAM § 551.6 Pricing. (a) The Semipostal Authorization Act, as amended by Public Law 107-67, section 652, 115 Stat. 514 (2001), prescribes that the price...
National Hospital Input Price Index
Freeland, Mark S.; Anderson, Gerard; Schendler, Carol Ellen
1979-01-01
The national community hospital input price index presented here isolates the effects of prices of goods and services required to produce hospital care and measures the average percent change in prices for a fixed market basket of hospital inputs. Using the methodology described in this article, weights for various expenditure categories were estimated and proxy price variables associated with each were selected. The index is calculated for the historical period 1970 through 1978 and forecast for 1979 through 1981. During the historical period, the input price index increased an average of 8.0 percent a year, compared with an average rate of increase of 6.6 percent for overall consumer prices. For the period 1979 through 1981, the average annual increase is forecast at between 8.5 and 9.0 percent. Using the index to deflate growth in expenses, the level of real growth in expenditures per inpatient day (net service intensity growth) averaged 4.5 percent per year with considerable annual variation related to government and hospital industry policies. PMID:10309052
National hospital input price index.
Freeland, M S; Anderson, G; Schendler, C E
1979-01-01
The national community hospital input price index presented here isolates the effects of prices of goods and services required to produce hospital care and measures the average percent change in prices for a fixed market basket of hospital inputs. Using the methodology described in this article, weights for various expenditure categories were estimated and proxy price variables associated with each were selected. The index is calculated for the historical period 1970 through 1978 and forecast for 1979 through 1981. During the historical period, the input price index increased an average of 8.0 percent a year, compared with an average rate of increase of 6.6 percent for overall consumer prices. For the period 1979 through 1981, the average annual increase is forecast at between 8.5 and 9.0 per cent. Using the index to deflate growth in expenses, the level of real growth in expenditures per inpatient day (net service intensity growth) averaged 4.5 percent per year with considerable annual variation related to government and hospital industry policies.
Regional Hospital Input Price Indexes
Freeland, Mark S.; Schendler, Carol Ellen; Anderson, Gerard
1981-01-01
This paper describes the development of regional hospital input price indexes that is consistent with the general methodology used for the National Hospital Input Price Index. The feasibility of developing regional indexes was investigated because individuals inquired whether different regions experienced different rates of increase in hospital input prices. The regional indexes incorporate variations in cost-share weights (the amount an expense category contributes to total spending) associated with hospital type and location, and variations in the rate of input price increases for various regions. We found that between 1972 and 1979 none of the regional price indexes increased at average annual rates significantly different from the national rate. For the more recent period 1977 through 1979, the increase in one Census Region was significantly below the national rate. Further analyses indicated that variations in cost-share weights for various types of hospitals produced no substantial variations in the regional price indexes relative to the national index. We consider these findings preliminary because of limitations in the availability of current, relevant, and reliable data, especially for local area wage rate increases. PMID:10309557
Three studies of retail gasoline pricing dynamics
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Atkinson, Benjamin James
In many Canadian cities, retail gasoline prices appear to cycle, rising by large amounts in one or two days followed by several days of small consecutive price decreases. While many empirical studies examine such markets, certain questions cannot b e properly answered without high frequency, station-specific price data for an entire market. Thus, the first paper in this thesis uses bi-hourly price data collected for 27 stations in Guelph, Ontario, eight tunes per day for 103 days to examine several basic predictions of the Edgeworth cycle theory. The results are largely consistent with this theory. However, most independent firms do not tend to undercut their rivals' prices, contrary to previous findings. Furthermore, the tuning, sizes and leaders of price increases appear to be very predictable, and a specific pattern of price movements has been detected on days when prices increase. These findings suggest that leading a price increase might not be as risky as one may expect. The second paper uses these same data to examine the implications o f an informal theory of competitive gasoline pricing, as advanced by industry and government. Consistent with this theory, stations do tend to set prices to match (or set a small positive or negative differential with) a small number of other stations, which are not necessarily the closest stations. Also, while retailers frequently respond to price changes within two hours, many take considerably longer to respond than is predicted by the theory. Finally, while price decreases do ripple across the market like falling dominos, increases appear to propagate based more on geographic location and source of price control than proximity to the leaders. The third paper uses both these data and Guelph price data collected every 12 hours during the same 103 days from OntarioGasPrices.com to examine the sample selection biases that might exist in such Internet price data, as well as their implications for empirical research. It is
Pricing of GPO Sales Publications.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Schwarzkopf, LeRoy C.
This report analyzes the pricing policy of the Government Printing Office (GPO) for publications sold to the public. It discusses the sharp rise in prices for GPO sales publications from November 1972 through 1975. This is a detailed report which expands on the summary report prepared by the author as chairman of the Pricing Subcommittee, GPO…
Ethnic diversity deflates price bubbles
Levine, Sheen S.; Apfelbaum, Evan P.; Bernard, Mark; Bartelt, Valerie L.; Zajac, Edward J.; Stark, David
2014-01-01
Markets are central to modern society, so their failures can be devastating. Here, we examine a prominent failure: price bubbles. Bubbles emerge when traders err collectively in pricing, causing misfit between market prices and the true values of assets. The causes of such collective errors remain elusive. We propose that bubbles are affected by ethnic homogeneity in the market and can be thwarted by diversity. In homogenous markets, traders place undue confidence in the decisions of others. Less likely to scrutinize others’ decisions, traders are more likely to accept prices that deviate from true values. To test this, we constructed experimental markets in Southeast Asia and North America, where participants traded stocks to earn money. We randomly assigned participants to ethnically homogeneous or diverse markets. We find a marked difference: Across markets and locations, market prices fit true values 58% better in diverse markets. The effect is similar across sites, despite sizeable differences in culture and ethnic composition. Specifically, in homogenous markets, overpricing is higher as traders are more likely to accept speculative prices. Their pricing errors are more correlated than in diverse markets. In addition, when bubbles burst, homogenous markets crash more severely. The findings suggest that price bubbles arise not only from individual errors or financial conditions, but also from the social context of decision making. The evidence may inform public discussion on ethnic diversity: it may be beneficial not only for providing variety in perspectives and skills, but also because diversity facilitates friction that enhances deliberation and upends conformity. PMID:25404313
Ethnic diversity deflates price bubbles.
Levine, Sheen S; Apfelbaum, Evan P; Bernard, Mark; Bartelt, Valerie L; Zajac, Edward J; Stark, David
2014-12-30
Markets are central to modern society, so their failures can be devastating. Here, we examine a prominent failure: price bubbles. Bubbles emerge when traders err collectively in pricing, causing misfit between market prices and the true values of assets. The causes of such collective errors remain elusive. We propose that bubbles are affected by ethnic homogeneity in the market and can be thwarted by diversity. In homogenous markets, traders place undue confidence in the decisions of others. Less likely to scrutinize others' decisions, traders are more likely to accept prices that deviate from true values. To test this, we constructed experimental markets in Southeast Asia and North America, where participants traded stocks to earn money. We randomly assigned participants to ethnically homogeneous or diverse markets. We find a marked difference: Across markets and locations, market prices fit true values 58% better in diverse markets. The effect is similar across sites, despite sizeable differences in culture and ethnic composition. Specifically, in homogenous markets, overpricing is higher as traders are more likely to accept speculative prices. Their pricing errors are more correlated than in diverse markets. In addition, when bubbles burst, homogenous markets crash more severely. The findings suggest that price bubbles arise not only from individual errors or financial conditions, but also from the social context of decision making. The evidence may inform public discussion on ethnic diversity: it may be beneficial not only for providing variety in perspectives and skills, but also because diversity facilitates friction that enhances deliberation and upends conformity.
18 CFR 2.17 - Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-04-01
... 18 Conservation of Power and Water Resources 1 2012-04-01 2012-04-01 false Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue). 2.17 Section 2.17 Conservation of Power and Water Resources FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY GENERAL RULES GENERAL POLICY AND...
18 CFR 2.17 - Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-04-01
... 18 Conservation of Power and Water Resources 1 2014-04-01 2014-04-01 false Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue). 2.17 Section 2.17 Conservation of Power and Water Resources FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY GENERAL RULES GENERAL POLICY AND...
18 CFR 2.17 - Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... 18 Conservation of Power and Water Resources 1 2010-04-01 2010-04-01 false Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue). 2.17 Section 2.17 Conservation of Power and Water Resources FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY GENERAL RULES GENERAL POLICY AND...
18 CFR 2.17 - Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-04-01
... 18 Conservation of Power and Water Resources 1 2013-04-01 2013-04-01 false Price discrimination and anticompetitive effect (price squeeze issue). 2.17 Section 2.17 Conservation of Power and Water Resources FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY GENERAL RULES GENERAL POLICY AND...
16 CFR 233.1 - Former price comparisons.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 16 Commercial Practices 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Former price comparisons. 233.1 Section 233... DECEPTIVE PRICING § 233.1 Former price comparisons. (a) One of the most commonly used forms of bargain advertising is to offer a reduction from the advertiser's own former price for an article. If the former price...
The prices people pay for medicines in Zimbabwe.
Gavaza, P; Simoyi, T; Makunike, B; Maponga, C C
2009-01-01
To collect, analyse and compare prices of medicines in different sectors and parts of the country and to compare them with the medicine prices in other countries. A prospective cross sectional study. Pharmacy outlets in Zimbabwe comprising 27 retail pharmacies, 23 dispensing doctors, eight public hospital pharmacies and seven municipal clinics. Median price ratios, 25th percentiles and 75th percentiles. Innovator brands in the private sector were priced 10 times the International References Prices (IRP) and more than three times the price of generic medicines. Dispensing doctors were charging the highest prices for medicines and the public sector had the least prices. The national procurement agency, NatPharm, procured medicines at prices slightly below the Management Sciences for Health (MSH) prices. Prices of medicines in the public sector were higher than average prices for medicines from seven other African countries. Medicine prices in Zimbabwe are high, a scenario that may compromise affordability and accessibility to medicines especially by the poor. Urgent steps are needed to reduce the level and effect of the high prices on the population, especially the poor.
Modeling the stock price returns volatility using GARCH(1,1) in some Indonesia stock prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Awalludin, S. A.; Ulfah, S.; Soro, S.
2018-01-01
In the financial field, volatility is one of the key variables to make an appropriate decision. Moreover, modeling volatility is needed in derivative pricing, risk management, and portfolio management. For this reason, this study presented a widely used volatility model so-called GARCH(1,1) for estimating the volatility of daily returns of stock prices of Indonesia from July 2007 to September 2015. The returns can be obtained from stock price by differencing log of the price from one day to the next. Parameters of the model were estimated by Maximum Likelihood Estimation. After obtaining the volatility, natural cubic spline was employed to study the behaviour of the volatility over the period. The result shows that GARCH(1,1) indicate evidence of volatility clustering in the returns of some Indonesia stock prices.
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Montero-Lorenzo, José-María; Larraz-Iribas, Beatriz; Páez, Antonio
2009-12-01
A vast majority of the recent literature on spatial hedonic analysis has been concerned with residential property values, with only very few examples of studies focused on commercial property prices. The dearth of studies can be attributed to some of the challenges faced in the analysis of commercial properties, in particular the scarcity of information compared to residential transactions. In order to address this issue, in this paper we propose the use of cokriging and housing prices as ancillary information to estimate commercial property prices. Cokriging takes into account the spatial autocorrelation structure of property prices, and the use of more abundant information on housing prices helps to improve the accuracy of property value estimates. A case study of Toledo in Spain, a city for which commercial activity stemming from tourism is one of the key elements of the economy in the city, demonstrates that substantial accuracy and precision gains can be obtained from the use of cokriging.
5 CFR 1645.5 - Calculation of share prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 5 Administrative Personnel 3 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Calculation of share prices. 1645.5... PRICES § 1645.5 Calculation of share prices. (a) Calculation of share price. The share price for each TSP... price for that fund for the current business day is the sum of the incremental change in the share price...
Pricing foreign equity option with stochastic volatility
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sun, Qi; Xu, Weidong
2015-11-01
In this paper we propose a general foreign equity option pricing framework that unifies the vast foreign equity option pricing literature and incorporates the stochastic volatility into foreign equity option pricing. Under our framework, the time-changed Lévy processes are used to model the underlying assets price of foreign equity option and the closed form pricing formula is obtained through the use of characteristic function methodology. Numerical tests indicate that stochastic volatility has a dramatic effect on the foreign equity option prices.
Real-time pricing strategy of micro-grid energy centre considering price-based demand response
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Xu, Zhiheng; Zhang, Yongjun; Wang, Gan
2017-07-01
With the development of energy conversion technology such as power to gas (P2G), fuel cell and so on, the coupling between energy sources becomes more and more closely. Centralized dispatch among electricity, natural gas and heat will become a trend. With the goal of maximizing the system revenue, this paper establishes the model of micro-grid energy centre based on energy hub. According to the proposed model, the real-time pricing strategy taking into account price-based demand response of load is developed. And the influence of real-time pricing strategy on the peak load shifting is discussed. In addition, the impact of wind power predicted inaccuracy on real-time pricing strategy is analysed.
Price competition in the Chinese pharmaceutical market.
Wang, Y Richard
2006-06-01
We study price competition between high-quality global products and low-quality local products in a developing country, i.e., China, Nearly all previous studies on pharmaceutical price competition focused on developed countries with bioequivalent generics. In China, local generic products are not bioequivalent and are deemed of lower quality, while global products in the same class are considered similar in quality and better substitutes. We hypothesize that local generic competition drives down local product price but not global product price. In addition, we hypothesize that therapeutic competition among similar global products lowers global product price. Our empirical results support both hypotheses. Number of local generic competitors has a significantly negative effect on local product price but no effect on global product price, while number of global therapeutic competitors has a significantly negative effect on global product price. Policy changes that encourage bioequivalent local products and accelerate global product approvals will enhance price competition in China.
Srivastava, Divya; McGuire, Alistair
2014-07-30
Access to medicines is an important health policy issue. This paper considers demand structures in a selection of low-income countries from the perspective of public authorities as the evidence base is limited. Analysis of the demand for medicines in low-income countries is critical for effective pharmaceutical policy where regulation is less developed, health systems are cash constrained and medicines are not typically subsidised by a public health insurance system This study analyses the demand for medicines in low-income countries from the perspective of the prices paid by public authorities. The analysis draws on a unique dataset from World Health Organization (WHO) and Health Action International (HAI) using 2003 data on procurement prices of medicines across 16 low-income countries covering 48 branded drugs and 18 therapeutic categories. Variation in prices, the mark-ups over marginal costs and estimation of price elasticities allows assessment of whether these elasticities are correlated with a country's national income. Using the Ramsey pricing rule, the study's findings suggest that substantial cross-country variation in prices and mark-ups exist, with price elasticities ranging from -1 to -2, which are weakly correlated with national income. Government demand for medicines thus appears to be price elastic, raising important policy implications aimed at improving access to medicines for patients in low-income countries.
A silver lining to higher prices at the pump? Gasoline prices and teen driving behaviors.
Sen, Bisakha; Patidar, Nitish; Thomas, Sheikilya
2014-01-01
Existing literature shows negative relationships between gasoline price and motor vehicle crashes, particularly among teens. This paper extends that literature by evaluating the relationship between gasoline price and self-reported risky driving among teens. Observational study using multivariate empirical analysis, using pooled data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, waves 2003-2009. Secondary data from survey administered in private and public high schools across the United States. Students in grades 9 through 12, surveyed biennially from 2003 to 2009 (n = 58,749). Outcomes are (self-reported) driving without seatbelts, driving after consuming alcohol, and moderate physical activity (like walking or bicycling). State-level retail gasoline prices constitute the main predictor variable. Multivariate logistic models are estimated for the full sample, as well as by gender, race/ethnicity, and age. Individual characteristics, state unemployment, and state driving policies are controlled for. Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Results are reported in form of risk differences. Higher gasoline prices are negatively and significantly associated with driving without seatbelts. Associations are particularly strong for males and minorities. There are fewer statistical associations between gasoline prices and driving after drinking. Higher gasoline prices are positively associated with more moderate physical activity. Higher gasoline prices are associated with less risky driving behaviors among teens, and they may be associated with more active forms of transportation, like walking and bicycling. The study limitations are discussed.
48 CFR 239.7406 - Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data. 239.7406 Section 239.7406 Federal Acquisition Regulations System... ACQUISITION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Telecommunications Services 239.7406 Cost or pricing data and...
Monthly stumpage prices for the Pacific Northwest.
Richard W. Haynes
1991-01-01
Seasonal variation is found in monthly stumpage price data. Seasonal adjustments indicate that monthly adjustments improve the utility of estimates of monthly stumpage prices. Comparisons of adjusted and unadjusted prices suggest that the unadjusted price series are reasonably robust.
19 CFR 351.414 - Comparison of normal value with export price (constructed export price).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... export price). (a) Introduction. The Secretary normally will average prices used as the basis for normal... calculate weighted averages for such shorter period as the Secretary deems appropriate. (e) Application of...
Motor fuels : California gasoline price behavior
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
2000-04-01
Retail gasoline prices in the United States have risen sharply since early 1999, mostly in response to sharply rising world crude oil prices. Although gasoline prices have, in general, been relatively low for U.S. consumers-compared with both histori...
Spatial price dynamics: From complex network perspective
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Y. L.; Bi, J. T.; Sun, H. J.
2008-10-01
The spatial price problem means that if the supply price plus the transportation cost is less than the demand price, there exists a trade. Thus, after an amount of exchange, the demand price will decrease. This process is continuous until an equilibrium state is obtained. However, how the trade network structure affects this process has received little attention. In this paper, we give a evolving model to describe the levels of spatial price on different complex network structures. The simulation results show that the network with shorter path length is sensitive to the variation of prices.
Price-Shopping in Consumer-Directed Health Plans
Sood, Neeraj; Wagner, Zachary; Huckfeldt, Peter; Haviland, Amelia
2013-01-01
We use health insurance claims data from 63 large employers to estimate the extent of price shopping for nine common outpatient services in consumer-directed health plans (CDHPs) compared to traditional health plans. The main measures of price-shopping include: (1) the total price paid on the claim, (2) the share of claims from low and high cost providers and (3) the savings from price shopping relative to choosing prices randomly. All analyses control for individual and zip code level demographics and plan characteristics. We also estimate differences in price shopping within CDHPs depending on expected health care costs and whether the service was bought before or after reaching the deductible. For 8 out of 9 services analyzed, prices paid by CDHP and traditional plan enrollees did not differ significantly; CDHP enrollees paid 2.3% less for office visits. Similarly, office visits was the only service where CDHP enrollment resulted in a significantly larger share of claims from low cost providers and greater savings from price shopping relative to traditional plans. There was also no evidence that, within CDHP plans, consumers with lower expected medical expenses exhibited more price-shopping or that consumers exhibited more price-shopping before reaching the deductible. PMID:25342936
7 CFR 1030.54 - Equivalent price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Equivalent price. 1030.54 Section 1030.54 Agriculture Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE (Marketing Agreements... Handling Class Prices § 1030.54 Equivalent price. See § 1000.54. ...
Creative pricing strategies for medical services.
Tellis, G J
1987-01-01
This paper discusses the strategic role of the pricing of medical services. Strategic pricing is a creative process that can be a vital means of defining marketing segments, differentiating services, and gaining a competitive advantage. The central issue in strategic pricing is creatively using the principle of cross-subsidies or shared economies over consumer groups, service sets, or competitors. This principle yields a rich set of pricing strategies that can be used in response to various environments.
Factors influencing global antiretroviral procurement prices.
Wirtz, Veronika J; Forsythe, Steven; Valencia-Mendoza, Atanacio; Bautista-Arredondo, Sergio
2009-11-18
Antiretroviral medicines (ARVs) are one of the most costly parts of HIV/AIDS treatment. Many countries are struggling to provide universal access to ARVs for all people living with HIV and AIDS. Although substantial price reductions of ARVs have occurred, especially between 2002 and 2008, achieving sustainable access for the next several decades remains a major challenge for most low- and middle-income countries. The objectives of the present study were twofold: first, to analyze global ARV prices between 2005 and 2008 and associated factors, particularly procurement methods and key donor policies on ARV procurement efficiency; second, to discuss the options of procurement processes and policies that should be considered when implementing or reforming access to ARV programs. An ARV-medicines price-analysis was carried out using the Global Price Reporting Mechanism from the World Health Organization. For a selection of 12 ARVs, global median prices and price variation were calculated. Linear regression models for each ARV were used to identify factors that were associated with lower procurement prices. Logistic regression models were used to identify the characteristics of those countries which procure below the highest and lowest direct manufactured costs. Three key factors appear to have an influence on a country's ARV prices: (a) whether the product is generic or not; (b) the socioeconomic status of the country; (c) whether the country is a member of the Clinton HIV/AIDS Initiative. Factors which did not influence procurement below the highest direct manufactured costs were HIV prevalence, procurement volume, whether the country belongs to the least developed countries or a focus country of the United States President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief. One of the principal mechanisms that can help to lower prices for ARV over the next several decades is increasing procurement efficiency. Benchmarking prices could be one useful tool to achieve this.
Factors influencing global antiretroviral procurement prices
2009-01-01
Background Antiretroviral medicines (ARVs) are one of the most costly parts of HIV/AIDS treatment. Many countries are struggling to provide universal access to ARVs for all people living with HIV and AIDS. Although substantial price reductions of ARVs have occurred, especially between 2002 and 2008, achieving sustainable access for the next several decades remains a major challenge for most low- and middle-income countries. The objectives of the present study were twofold: first, to analyze global ARV prices between 2005 and 2008 and associated factors, particularly procurement methods and key donor policies on ARV procurement efficiency; second, to discuss the options of procurement processes and policies that should be considered when implementing or reforming access to ARV programs. Methods An ARV-medicines price-analysis was carried out using the Global Price Reporting Mechanism from the World Health Organization. For a selection of 12 ARVs, global median prices and price variation were calculated. Linear regression models for each ARV were used to identify factors that were associated with lower procurement prices. Logistic regression models were used to identify the characteristics of those countries which procure below the highest and lowest direct manufactured costs. Results Three key factors appear to have an influence on a country's ARV prices: (a) whether the product is generic or not; (b) the socioeconomic status of the country; (c) whether the country is a member of the Clinton HIV/AIDS Initiative. Factors which did not influence procurement below the highest direct manufactured costs were HIV prevalence, procurement volume, whether the country belongs to the least developed countries or a focus country of the United States President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief. Conclusion One of the principal mechanisms that can help to lower prices for ARV over the next several decades is increasing procurement efficiency. Benchmarking prices could be one useful
48 CFR 931.102 - Fixed-price contracts.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Fixed-price contracts. 931... REQUIREMENTS CONTRACT COST PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES Applicability 931.102 Fixed-price contracts. The intent of... Government in— (a) Pricing fixed-price prime contracts and modifications, (b) Evaluating the reasonableness...
75 FR 73983 - Assessments, Large Bank Pricing
Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
2010-11-30
... 327 RIN 3064-AD66 Assessments, Large Bank Pricing AGENCY: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC... Pricing. This correction clarifies that the comment period for the Assessments, Large Bank Pricing ends January 3, 2011. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Lisa Ryu, Chief, Large Bank Pricing Section, Division of...
Beheshti, Rahmatollah; Igusa, Takeru; Jones-Smith, Jessica
2016-11-01
The price of food has long been considered one of the major factors that affects food choices. However, the price metric (e.g., the price of food per calorie or the price of food per gram) that individuals predominantly use when making food choices is unclear. Understanding which price metric is used is especially important for studying individuals with severe budget constraints because food price then becomes even more important in food choice. We assessed which price metric is used by low-income individuals in deciding what to eat. With the use of data from NHANES and the USDA Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies, we created an agent-based model that simulated an environment representing the US population, wherein individuals were modeled as agents with a specific weight, age, and income. In our model, agents made dietary food choices while meeting their budget limits with the use of 1 of 3 different metrics for decision making: energy cost (price per calorie), unit price (price per gram), and serving price (price per serving). The food consumption patterns generated by our model were compared to 3 independent data sets. The food choice behaviors observed in 2 of the data sets were found to be closest to the simulated dietary patterns generated by the price per calorie metric. The behaviors observed in the third data set were equidistant from the patterns generated by price per calorie and price per serving metrics, whereas results generated by the price per gram metric were further away. Our simulations suggest that dietary food choice based on price per calorie best matches actual consumption patterns and may therefore be the most salient price metric for low-income populations. © 2016 American Society for Nutrition.
Guillaumier, Ashleigh; Bonevski, Billie; Paul, Christine; D'Este, Catherine; Doran, Christopher; Siahpush, Mohammad
2014-03-01
Increases in tobacco taxation can lead to reductions in tobacco consumption and prevalence of use across social groups. However, use of price-minimisation strategies to manage current and future tobacco use and the role of financial stress is less understood. This study aimed to measure the effect of cigarette price increases on price-minimisation strategy endorsement and financial stress among socioeconomically disadvantaged smokers. Community service organisation welfare recipients in NSW, Australia completed a touchscreen survey. Smoking history, financial stress, highest price to quit and responses to hypothetical cigarette price increases were assessed. Participants were 354 smokers (response rate = 79%). Most participants received income from a government pension (95%), earned price rises, significantly more participants endorsed trying to quit in response to the larger increase scenario (P < 0.001), and fewer selected no change to their smoking (P < 0.001). Numerous price-minimisation strategies (e.g. switching to cheaper brands/products) were endorsed, but remained constant across hypothetical scenarios; level of financial stress appeared to have little influence. Smokers indicating they would not change their smoking in response to price rises had higher levels of nicotine dependence. Socially disadvantaged smokers endorsed numerous price-minimising strategies to maintain smoking at hypothetically increased costs. Larger cigarette price rises motivated more smokers to consider quitting, while price-resistant smokers appeared to have a more entrenched smoker status. © 2013 Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs.
Andreyeva, Tatiana; Long, Michael W; Brownell, Kelly D
2010-02-01
In light of proposals to improve diets by shifting food prices, it is important to understand how price changes affect demand for various foods. We reviewed 160 studies on the price elasticity of demand for major food categories to assess mean elasticities by food category and variations in estimates by study design. Price elasticities for foods and nonalcoholic beverages ranged from 0.27 to 0.81 (absolute values), with food away from home, soft drinks, juice, and meats being most responsive to price changes (0.7-0.8). As an example, a 10% increase in soft drink prices should reduce consumption by 8% to 10%. Studies estimating price effects on substitutions from unhealthy to healthy food and price responsiveness among at-risk populations are particularly needed.
Robinson, James C; Whaley, Christopher; Brown, Timothy T
2016-09-01
Prices for laboratory and other clinical services vary widely. Employers and insurers increasingly are adopting "reference pricing" policies to create incentives for patients to select lower-priced facilities. To measure the association between implementation of reference pricing and patient choice of laboratory, test prices, patient out-of-pocket spending, and insurer spending. We conducted an observational study of changes in laboratory pricing and selection by employees of a large national grocery firm (n = 30 415) before and after the firm implemented a reference pricing policy for laboratory services and compared the findings with changes over the same period for policy holders of a large national insurer that did not implement reference pricing (n = 181 831). The grocery firm established a maximum payment limit at the 60th percentile of the distribution of prices for each laboratory test in each region. Employees were provided with data on prices at all laboratories through a mobile digital platform. Patients selecting a laboratory that charged more than the payment limit were required to pay the full difference themselves. A total of 2.13 million claims were analyzed for 285 types of in vitro diagnostic tests between 2010 and 2013. Patient choice of laboratory, price paid per test, patient out-of-pocket costs, and employer spending. Compared with trends in prices paid by insurance policy holders not subject to reference pricing, and after adjusting for characteristics of tests and patients, implementation of reference pricing was associated with a 31.9% reduction (95% CI, 20.6%-41.6%) in average price paid per test by the third year of the program. In these 3 years, total spending on laboratory tests declined by $2.57 million (95% CI, $1.59-$3.35 million). Out-of-pocket costs by patients declined by $1.05 million (95% CI, $0.73-$1.37 million). Spending by the employer declined by $1.70 million (95% CI, $0.92-$2.48 million). When combined with
Xu, Xin; Wang, Xu; Caraballo, Ralph S.
2015-01-01
Context Raising unit price is one of the most effective ways of reducing cigarette consumption. A large proportion of US adult smokers use generic brands or price discounts in response to higher prices, which may mitigate the public health impacts of raising unit price. Objective The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the retail price impact and the determinants of price-related discount use among US adult smokers by their most commonly used cigarette brand types. Methods Data from the 2009–2010 National Adult Tobacco Survey, a telephone survey of US adults 18 years or older, was used to assess price-related discount use by cigarette brands. Price-related discounts included coupons, rebates, buy 1 get 1 free, 2 for 1, or any other special promotions. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess sociodemographic and tobacco use determinants of discount use by cigarette brands. Results Discount use was most common among premium brand users (22.1%), followed by generic (13.3%) and other brand (10.8%) users. Among premium brand users, those who smoked 10 to 20 cigarettes per day were more likely to use discounts, whereas elderly smokers, non-Hispanic blacks, those with greater annual household income, dual users of cigarettes and other combustible tobacco products, and those who had no quit intentions were less likely to do so. Among generic brand users, those who had no quit intentions and those who smoked first cigarette within 60 minutes after waking were more likely to use discounts. Conclusions Frequent use of discounts varies between smokers of premium and generic cigarette brands. Setting a high minimum price, together with limiting the use of coupons and promotions, may uphold the effect of cigarette excise taxes to reduce smoking prevalence. PMID:26598952
Xu, Xin; Wang, Xu; Caraballo, Ralph S
2016-01-01
Raising unit price is one of the most effective ways of reducing cigarette consumption. A large proportion of US adult smokers use generic brands or price discounts in response to higher prices, which may mitigate the public health impacts of raising unit price. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the retail price impact and the determinants of price-related discount use among US adult smokers by their most commonly used cigarette brand types. Data from the 2009-2010 National Adult Tobacco Survey, a telephone survey of US adults 18 years or older, was used to assess price-related discount use by cigarette brands. Price-related discounts included coupons, rebates, buy 1 get 1 free, 2 for 1, or any other special promotions. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess sociodemographic and tobacco use determinants of discount use by cigarette brands. Discount use was most common among premium brand users (22.1%), followed by generic (13.3%) and other brand (10.8%) users. Among premium brand users, those who smoked 10 to 20 cigarettes per day were more likely to use discounts, whereas elderly smokers, non-Hispanic blacks, those with greater annual household income, dual users of cigarettes and other combustible tobacco products, and those who had no quit intentions were less likely to do so. Among generic brand users, those who had no quit intentions and those who smoked first cigarette within 60 minutes after waking were more likely to use discounts. Frequent use of discounts varies between smokers of premium and generic cigarette brands. Setting a high minimum price, together with limiting the use of coupons and promotions, may uphold the effect of cigarette excise taxes to reduce smoking prevalence.
Statistical field theory of futures commodity prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Baaquie, Belal E.; Yu, Miao
2018-02-01
The statistical theory of commodity prices has been formulated by Baaquie (2013). Further empirical studies of single (Baaquie et al., 2015) and multiple commodity prices (Baaquie et al., 2016) have provided strong evidence in support the primary assumptions of the statistical formulation. In this paper, the model for spot prices (Baaquie, 2013) is extended to model futures commodity prices using a statistical field theory of futures commodity prices. The futures prices are modeled as a two dimensional statistical field and a nonlinear Lagrangian is postulated. Empirical studies provide clear evidence in support of the model, with many nontrivial features of the model finding unexpected support from market data.
Price and consumption of tobacco.
Singh, Virendra; Sharma, Bharat Bhushan; Saxena, Puneet; Meena, Hardayal; Mangal, Daya Krishan
2012-07-01
It is thought that price increase in tobacco products leads to reduced consumption. Though many studies have substantiated this concept, it has not been well studied in India. Recently, price of tobacco products was increased due to ban on plastic sachets of chewing tobacco and increased tax in Rajasthan. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of price rise on overall consumption of tobacco in Jaipur city, Rajasthan. This study was carried out in Jaipur city. Two-staged stratified sampling was used. In the first phase of study, cost and consumption of various tobacco products in the months of February and April were enquired from 25 retail tobacco shops. In the second phase, tobacco consumption was enquired from 20 consecutive consumers purchasing any tobacco product from all the above retail tobacco shops. The data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired "t" test. The comparison of prices of tobacco products between February and April revealed that the price of cigarette, bidi, and chewing tobacco has increased by 19%, 21%, and 68%, respectively. Average decrease in sales of cigarettes, bidi, and chewing tobacco at shops included in the study were 14%, 23%, and 38%, respectively. The consumers purchasing tobacco also reported decreased consumption. Chewing tobacco showed the maximum reduction (21%). Consumption of cigarette and bidi has also reduced by 15% and 13%, respectively. It may be concluded that reduction in consumption is associated with increased price of tobacco products. Reduced consumption is comparative to the magnitude of price increase.
Price and consumption of tobacco
Singh, Virendra; Sharma, Bharat Bhushan; Saxena, Puneet; Meena, Hardayal; Mangal, Daya Krishan
2012-01-01
Background: It is thought that price increase in tobacco products leads to reduced consumption. Though many studies have substantiated this concept, it has not been well studied in India. Recently, price of tobacco products was increased due to ban on plastic sachets of chewing tobacco and increased tax in Rajasthan. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of price rise on overall consumption of tobacco in Jaipur city, Rajasthan. Materials and Methods: This study was carried out in Jaipur city. Two-staged stratified sampling was used. In the first phase of study, cost and consumption of various tobacco products in the months of February and April were enquired from 25 retail tobacco shops. In the second phase, tobacco consumption was enquired from 20 consecutive consumers purchasing any tobacco product from all the above retail tobacco shops. The data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics and paired “t” test. Results: The comparison of prices of tobacco products between February and April revealed that the price of cigarette, bidi, and chewing tobacco has increased by 19%, 21%, and 68%, respectively. Average decrease in sales of cigarettes, bidi, and chewing tobacco at shops included in the study were 14%, 23%, and 38%, respectively. The consumers purchasing tobacco also reported decreased consumption. Chewing tobacco showed the maximum reduction (21%). Consumption of cigarette and bidi has also reduced by 15% and 13%, respectively. Conclusion: It may be concluded that reduction in consumption is associated with increased price of tobacco products. Reduced consumption is comparative to the magnitude of price increase. PMID:22919157
48 CFR 215.470 - Estimated data prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Estimated data prices. 215..., DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 215.470 Estimated data prices. (a) DoD requires estimates of the prices of data in order to evaluate the...
48 CFR 215.470 - Estimated data prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Estimated data prices. 215..., DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 215.470 Estimated data prices. (a) DoD requires estimates of the prices of data in order to evaluate the...
48 CFR 215.470 - Estimated data prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Estimated data prices. 215..., DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 215.470 Estimated data prices. (a) DoD requires estimates of the prices of data in order to evaluate the...
48 CFR 452.216-74 - Ceiling Price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Ceiling Price. 452.216-74... SOLICITATION PROVISIONS AND CONTRACT CLAUSES Texts of Provisions and Clauses 452.216-74 Ceiling Price. As prescribed in 416.670, insert the following clause: Ceiling Price (FEB 1988) The ceiling price of this...
Price Discrimination and Resale: A Classroom Experiment
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Basuchoudhary, Atin; Metcalf, Christopher; Pommerenke, Kai; Reiley, David; Rojas, Christian; Rostek, Marzena; Stodder, James
2008-01-01
The authors present a classroom experiment designed to illustrate key concepts of third-degree price discrimination. By participating as buyers and sellers, students actively learn (1) how group pricing differs from uniform pricing, (2) how resale between buyers limits a seller's ability to price discriminate, and (3) how preventing price…
48 CFR 252.215-7000 - Pricing adjustments.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Pricing adjustments. 252... Provisions And Clauses 252.215-7000 Pricing adjustments. As prescribed in 215.408(1), use the following clause: Pricing Adjustments (DEC 1991) The term “pricing adjustment,” as used in paragraph (a) of the...
Pricing Strategies for CD-ROM Products.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Rowley, J. E.
1994-01-01
Pricing strategies for subscriptions and licenses for CD-ROMs are different for single users and networks. The basic components of pricing strategies are charges for subscription, connect line, display/print, telecommunication, session rate, special commands, and special services. Highlights selected supplier pricing strategies for single users…
Pricing Structures for Automated Library Consortia.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Machovec, George S.
1993-01-01
Discusses the development of successful pricing algorithms for cooperative library automation projects. Highlights include desirable characteristics of pricing measures, including simplicity and the ability to allow for system growth; problems with transaction-based systems; and a review of the pricing strategies of seven library consortia.…
Pulpwood Prices for the Midsouth, 1982
James F. Rosson
1984-01-01
Average prices for roundwood, chipped residues, and saw-dust rose 4 percent from 1981 to 1982. Pulpwood price increases are due to inflation as real costs have remained stable. The price for softwood roundwood is $52.89 per cord; hardwood roundwood is $39.79 per cord.
Regulation, the capital-asset pricing model, and the arbitrage pricing theory
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Roll, R.W.; Ross, S.A.
1983-05-26
This article describes the arbitrage pricing theory (APT) as and compares it with the capital-asset pricing model (CAPM) as a tool for computing the cost of capital in utility regulatory proceedings. The article argues that the APT is a significantly superior method for determining equity cost, and demonstrates that its application to utilities derives more-sensible estimates of the cost of equity capital than the CAPM. 8 references, 1 figure, 2 tables.
Long, Michael W.; Brownell, Kelly D.
2010-01-01
In light of proposals to improve diets by shifting food prices, it is important to understand how price changes affect demand for various foods. We reviewed 160 studies on the price elasticity of demand for major food categories to assess mean elasticities by food category and variations in estimates by study design. Price elasticities for foods and nonalcoholic beverages ranged from 0.27 to 0.81 (absolute values), with food away from home, soft drinks, juice, and meats being most responsive to price changes (0.7–0.8). As an example, a 10% increase in soft drink prices should reduce consumption by 8% to 10%. Studies estimating price effects on substitutions from unhealthy to healthy food and price responsiveness among at-risk populations are particularly needed. PMID:20019319
48 CFR 252.247-7001 - Price adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price adjustment. 252.247... Clauses 252.247-7001 Price adjustment. As prescribed in 247.270-4(b), use the following clause: Price Adjustment (JAN 1997) (a) The Contractor warrants that the prices set forth in this contract— (1) Are based...
47 CFR 51.503 - General pricing standard.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 47 Telecommunication 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false General pricing standard. 51.503 Section 51.503... Pricing of Elements § 51.503 General pricing standard. (a) An incumbent LEC shall offer elements to... commission— (1) Pursuant to the forward-looking economic cost-based pricing methodology set forth in §§ 51...
11 CFR 110.17 - Price index increase.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 11 Federal Elections 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Price index increase. 110.17 Section 110.17... PROHIBITIONS § 110.17 Price index increase. (a) Price index increases for party committee expenditure... 11 CFR 109.32 and 110.8 shall be increased by the percent difference between the price index, as...
Concept of Price in a Library Context.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Talaga, James A.
1991-01-01
Discusses pricing problems of public library service. The meaning of price in a library context is examined, including amount charged and patron's cost; components of price setting are described, including the impact of demand, cost, and competition; and library pricing strategies are suggested that should help achieve the library's goals. (13…
Equitable Prices of Single-Source Drugs in Thailand.
Ngorsuraches, Surachat; Chaiyakan, Kanokkan
2015-08-01
In Thailand, total drug expenditure has grown rapidly. Recently, the Thai government has addressed the issue of drug pricing, but the prices of single-source drugs remain a major challenge. To examine equitable prices of single-source drugs in Thailand. A total of 98 single-source and high-expenditure drugs were examined. Unit prices from the Drug and Medical Supplies Information Center (DMSIC) and National Average Drug Acquisition Cost (NADAC) were used to represent drug prices at the provider level in Thailand and the U.S., respectively. Data for measuring drug affordability, e.g., dose and poverty line, were obtained from Micromedex online and the National Statistical Office (NSO). The U.S. drug prices were adjusted by the Human Development Index (HDI) to be equitable prices for Thailand. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) was used to convert US currency into Thai baht. All prices in this study were based on the year 2012. Catastrophic, Impoverishment, and WHO/Health Action International (HAI) approaches were used to determine Thai citizens' ability to afford the study drugs. Finally, uncertainty analyses were conducted. From all study drugs, 55 single-source drugs were priced higher than their equitable prices, ranging from 0.38 to 422.36% higher. Among these, 28 items were antineoplastic drugs. The prices of drugs outside the National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM), as well as the country's newer drugs, tended to be higher than their calculated equitable prices. The majority of drugs in Thailand priced higher than equitable prices were unaffordable for most Thai citizens. The uncertainty analyses revealed that almost all results were relatively robust. Most single-source drug prices in Thailand were higher than their equitable prices, and were likely to be unaffordable to Thai citizens.
The Economics of Professional Journal Pricing.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Stoller, Michael A.; And Others
1996-01-01
Evaluates the literature on journal pricing that emphasizes three types of price discrimination practiced by publishers. Concludes that the monopoly power of commercial publishers and a third party payment system are the cause of increasing journal costs. Recommends incentives to journal users, adoption of equitable pricing systems, and employing…
Oil price: Endless ability to surprise
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Manzano, Baltasar
2016-05-01
Economic agents have varying expectations on oil price fluctuations that play an important role in determining the timing and magnitude of oil price shocks. A study now shows that heterogeneous expectations should be included when modelling oil price shocks to grasp their impact on macroeconomic outcomes and energy policies.
Dual pricing algorithm in ISO markets
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
O'Neill, Richard P.; Castillo, Anya; Eldridge, Brent
The challenge to create efficient market clearing prices in centralized day-ahead electricity markets arises from inherent non-convexities in unit commitment problems. When this aspect is ignored, marginal prices may result in economic losses to market participants who are part of the welfare maximizing solution. In this essay, we present an axiomatic approach to efficient prices and cost allocation for a revenue neutral and non-confiscatory day-ahead market. Current cost allocation practices do not adequately attribute costs based on transparent cost causation criteria. Instead we propose an ex post multi-part pricing scheme, which we refer to as the Dual Pricing Algorithm. Lastly,more » our approach can be incorporated into current dayahead markets without altering the market equilibrium.« less
Dual pricing algorithm in ISO markets
O'Neill, Richard P.; Castillo, Anya; Eldridge, Brent; ...
2016-10-10
The challenge to create efficient market clearing prices in centralized day-ahead electricity markets arises from inherent non-convexities in unit commitment problems. When this aspect is ignored, marginal prices may result in economic losses to market participants who are part of the welfare maximizing solution. In this essay, we present an axiomatic approach to efficient prices and cost allocation for a revenue neutral and non-confiscatory day-ahead market. Current cost allocation practices do not adequately attribute costs based on transparent cost causation criteria. Instead we propose an ex post multi-part pricing scheme, which we refer to as the Dual Pricing Algorithm. Lastly,more » our approach can be incorporated into current dayahead markets without altering the market equilibrium.« less
Price Transparency in the Online Age.
Kaplan, Jonathan L; Mills, Parker H
2016-05-01
Plastic surgeons are sometimes hesitant to provide their pricing information online, due to several concerns. However, if implemented right, price transparency can be used as a lead generation tool that provides consumers with the pricing information they want and gives the physician the consumer's contact information for follow-up. This study took place during the author's first year in private practice in a new city. An interactive price transparency platform (ie, cost estimator) was integrated into his website, allowing consumers to submit a "wishlist" of procedures to check pricing on these procedures of interest. However, the consumer must submit their contact information to receive the desired breakdown of costs that are tailored based on the author's medical fees. During that first year, without any advertising expenditure, the author's website received 412 wishlists from 208 unique consumers. Consumers (17.8%) that submitted a wishlist came in for a consultation and 62% of those booked a procedure. The average value of a booked procedure was over US $4000 and cumulatively, all of the leads from this one lead source in that first year generated over US $92,000 in revenue. When compared with non-price-aware patients, price-aware patients were 41% more likely to book a procedure. Price transparency led to greater efficiency and reduced consultations that ended in "sticker shock." When prudently integrated into a medical practice, price transparency can be a great lead generation source for patients that are (1) paying out of pocket for medically necessary services due to a high-deductible health plan or (2) paying for services not typically covered by insurance, such as cosmetic services.
Wang, Xiao; Fang, Yu; Yang, Shimin; Jiang, Minghuan; Yan, Kangkang; Wu, Lina; Lv, Bing; Shen, Qian
2014-01-01
Objective To evaluate the prices and availability of paediatric essential medicines in Shaanxi Province, China. Methods Price and availability data for 28 paediatric essential medicines were collected from 60 public hospitals and 60 retail pharmacies in six areas of Shaanxi Province using a standardised methodology developed by the World Health Organization and Health Action International, during November to December 2012. Affordability was measured as the number of days’ wages required for the lowest-paid unskilled government worker to purchase standard treatments for common conditions. Data on medicine price components were collected from hospitals, wholesalers and distributors to obtain price mark-ups. Findings The mean availabilities of originator brands (OBs) and lowest-priced generics (LPGs) were 10.8% and 27.3% in the public hospitals and 11.9% and 20.6% in the private pharmacies. The public procurement and retail prices were 2.25 and 2.59 times the international reference prices (IRPs) for three OBs, and 0.52 and 0.93 times for 20 LPGs. In the private sector, the final prices for OBs and LPGs were 3.89 and 1.25 times their IRPs. The final price in the private sector was 2.7% lower than in the public sector for OBs, and 14.1% higher for LPGs. Generally, standard treatments cost less than 1 day’s wages in both sectors. Distribution mark-ups applied to brand salbutamol in Xi'an was 65.5%, and up to 185.3% for generic. Cumulative mark-ups for LPGs in Ankang were also high, from 33% to 50%. The manufacturer’s selling price is the largest contributor to the final price in both areas. Conclusions The government should approve a list of national paediatric essential medicines. The availability, price and affordability of these should be improved in both public hospitals and private pharmacies to enable children to obtain effective treatment. Measures should be taken to improve the efficiency of the centralised medicine purchasing system. PMID:24595099
Wang, Xiao; Fang, Yu; Yang, Shimin; Jiang, Minghuan; Yan, Kangkang; Wu, Lina; Lv, Bing; Shen, Qian
2014-01-01
To evaluate the prices and availability of paediatric essential medicines in Shaanxi Province, China. Price and availability data for 28 paediatric essential medicines were collected from 60 public hospitals and 60 retail pharmacies in six areas of Shaanxi Province using a standardised methodology developed by the World Health Organization and Health Action International, during November to December 2012. Affordability was measured as the number of days' wages required for the lowest-paid unskilled government worker to purchase standard treatments for common conditions. Data on medicine price components were collected from hospitals, wholesalers and distributors to obtain price mark-ups. The mean availabilities of originator brands (OBs) and lowest-priced generics (LPGs) were 10.8% and 27.3% in the public hospitals and 11.9% and 20.6% in the private pharmacies. The public procurement and retail prices were 2.25 and 2.59 times the international reference prices (IRPs) for three OBs, and 0.52 and 0.93 times for 20 LPGs. In the private sector, the final prices for OBs and LPGs were 3.89 and 1.25 times their IRPs. The final price in the private sector was 2.7% lower than in the public sector for OBs, and 14.1% higher for LPGs. Generally, standard treatments cost less than 1 day's wages in both sectors. Distribution mark-ups applied to brand salbutamol in Xi'an was 65.5%, and up to 185.3% for generic. Cumulative mark-ups for LPGs in Ankang were also high, from 33% to 50%. The manufacturer's selling price is the largest contributor to the final price in both areas. The government should approve a list of national paediatric essential medicines. The availability, price and affordability of these should be improved in both public hospitals and private pharmacies to enable children to obtain effective treatment. Measures should be taken to improve the efficiency of the centralised medicine purchasing system.
48 CFR 52.216-6 - Price Redetermination-Retroactive.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price Redetermination....216-6 Price Redetermination—Retroactive. As prescribed in 16.206-4, insert the following clause: Price Redetermination—Retroactive (OCT 1997) (a) General. The unit price and the total price stated in this contract...
48 CFR 52.216-5 - Price Redetermination-Prospective.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price Redetermination....216-5 Price Redetermination—Prospective. As prescribed in 16.205-4, insert the following clause: Price Redetermination—Prospective (OCT 1997) (a) General. The unit prices and the total price stated in this contract...
48 CFR 225.7303 - Pricing acquisitions for FMS.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Pricing acquisitions for... Military Sales 225.7303 Pricing acquisitions for FMS. (a) Price FMS contracts using the same principles used in pricing other defense contracts. However, application of the pricing principles in FAR parts 15...
7 CFR 1124.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (g) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the Class III price and the...
7 CFR 1124.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (g) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the Class III price and the...
7 CFR 1124.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (g) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the Class III price and the...
7 CFR 1124.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (g) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the Class III price and the...
7 CFR 1124.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (g) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the Class III price and the...
Scollo, Michelle; Hayes, Linda; Wakefield, Melanie
2013-07-13
Deciding on an appropriate level for taxes on tobacco products is a critical issue in tobacco control. The aim of the present study was to describe the critical price points for packs for smokers of each pack size, to calculate what this would equate to in terms of price per stick, and to ascertain whether price points varied by age, socio-economic status and heaviness of smoking. In November 2011, 586 Victorian smokers of factory-made cigarettes were asked during a telephone survey about their usual brand, including the size and cost of their usual pack. They were also asked about use of illicit tobacco. Smokers estimated what price their preferred pack would need to reach before they would seriously consider quitting. Three-quarters of regular smokers of manufactured cigarettes could envisage their usual brand reaching a price at which they would seriously consider quitting. Analyses revealed that answers clustered around whole numbers, (AUD$15, $20, $25 and $30), with a median nominated price point of AUD$20 per pack. The median price point at which regular smokers would consider quitting was calculated to be 80 cents per stick, compared to the current median reported stick price of 60 cents.Of the smokers who nominated a price point, 60.1% indicated they would seriously consider quitting if the cost of their usual brand equated to 80 cents per stick or less; 87.5% would seriously consider quitting if sticks reached one dollar each. These results do suggest a potentially useful approach to setting taxes in Australia. If taxes can be set high enough to ensure that the cost of the smokers' preferred packs exceeds critical price points, then it seems likely that more people would seriously attempt to quit than if the price increased to a level even slightly below the price points. Our study suggests that a tax increase large enough to ensure that a typical pack of 25 cigarettes in Australia cost at least AUD$20 would prompt more than 60% of smokers able to nominate
2013-01-01
Background Deciding on an appropriate level for taxes on tobacco products is a critical issue in tobacco control. The aim of the present study was to describe the critical price points for packs for smokers of each pack size, to calculate what this would equate to in terms of price per stick, and to ascertain whether price points varied by age, socio-economic status and heaviness of smoking. Methods In November 2011, 586 Victorian smokers of factory-made cigarettes were asked during a telephone survey about their usual brand, including the size and cost of their usual pack. They were also asked about use of illicit tobacco. Smokers estimated what price their preferred pack would need to reach before they would seriously consider quitting. Results Three-quarters of regular smokers of manufactured cigarettes could envisage their usual brand reaching a price at which they would seriously consider quitting. Analyses revealed that answers clustered around whole numbers, (AUD$15, $20, $25 and $30), with a median nominated price point of AUD$20 per pack. The median price point at which regular smokers would consider quitting was calculated to be 80 cents per stick, compared to the current median reported stick price of 60 cents. Of the smokers who nominated a price point, 60.1% indicated they would seriously consider quitting if the cost of their usual brand equated to 80 cents per stick or less; 87.5% would seriously consider quitting if sticks reached one dollar each. Conclusions These results do suggest a potentially useful approach to setting taxes in Australia. If taxes can be set high enough to ensure that the cost of the smokers’ preferred packs exceeds critical price points, then it seems likely that more people would seriously attempt to quit than if the price increased to a level even slightly below the price points. Our study suggests that a tax increase large enough to ensure that a typical pack of 25 cigarettes in Australia cost at least AUD$20 would prompt
Pricing products: juxtaposing affordability with quality appeal.
1984-01-01
Choosing appropriate product prices is 1 of the most crucial steps in creating an effective contraceptive social marketing (CSM) sales campaign. The Social Marketing Forum conducted an informal survey of social marketing project managers, international contractors, and marketing consultants to determine how CSM programs cope with pricing problems and ways to circumvent some obstacles. According to Diana Altman, a family planning consultant, low prices that make products available to needy individuals are more important than the program's self sufficiency, yet if prices are too low, consumers think the products were unusable in the US and thus were dumped on local markets. Other key factors include commercial competition, spiraling inflation rates, and problems with rising prices and retailer/distributor margins. A sampling of per capita gross national products indicates the poverty level of most CSM projects' target market. Consequently, CSM projects must set low pices, regardless of program operating costs. The goal often is to increase the demand and availability for contraceptives. The fact that social marketing products must pass through retail networks to reach consumers complicates the pricing equation. To deal with the problem, India's Nirodh program gives a 25% margin to distributors/wholesalers, compared to 6% offered on most other goods. Retailers also receive a 25% margin, more than double the commercial rate. Once prices are set, increases pose hazards. Local government approval often is a prerequisite and can require lengthy negotiations. Market studies remain a valuable approach to effective pricing, according to PNA's Mallamad and other research consultants. They cite such effective research strategies as test marketing products and asking consumers how prices affect buying habits. Further, CSM projects can jump over some pricing hurdles through creative marketing. An effective pricing strategy alone cannot produce a successful CSM program. Pricing
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Kleinert, Harold L.; And Others
1988-01-01
A program used to teach moderately to severely mentally handicapped students to select the lower priced items in actual shopping activities is described. Through a five-phase process, students are taught to compare prices themselves as well as take into consideration variations in the sizes of containers and varying product weights. (VW)
Unit Price Scaling Trends for Chemical Products
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Qi, Wei; Sathre, Roger; William R. Morrow, III
2015-08-01
To facilitate early-stage life-cycle techno-economic modeling of emerging technologies, here we identify scaling relations between unit price and sales quantity for a variety of chemical products of three categories - metal salts, organic compounds, and solvents. We collect price quotations for lab-scale and bulk purchases of chemicals from both U.S. and Chinese suppliers. We apply a log-log linear regression model to estimate the price discount effect. Using the median discount factor of each category, one can infer bulk prices of products for which only lab-scale prices are available. We conduct out-of-sample tests showing that most of the price proxies deviatemore » from their actual reference prices by a factor less than ten. We also apply the bootstrap method to determine if a sample median discount factor should be accepted for price approximation. We find that appropriate discount factors for metal salts and for solvents are both -0.56, while that for organic compounds is -0.67 and is less representative due to greater extent of product heterogeneity within this category.« less
Stock price prediction using geometric Brownian motion
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Farida Agustini, W.; Restu Affianti, Ika; Putri, Endah RM
2018-03-01
Geometric Brownian motion is a mathematical model for predicting the future price of stock. The phase that done before stock price prediction is determine stock expected price formulation and determine the confidence level of 95%. On stock price prediction using geometric Brownian Motion model, the algorithm starts from calculating the value of return, followed by estimating value of volatility and drift, obtain the stock price forecast, calculating the forecast MAPE, calculating the stock expected price and calculating the confidence level of 95%. Based on the research, the output analysis shows that geometric Brownian motion model is the prediction technique with high rate of accuracy. It is proven with forecast MAPE value ≤ 20%.
14 CFR 381.13 - Price increases.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 14 Aeronautics and Space 4 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Price increases. 381.13 Section 381.13... REGULATIONS SPECIAL EVENT TOURS § 381.13 Price increases. (a) Should the tour operator increase a participant's tour price by more than 10 percent (aggregate of all increases to that participant), that...
7 CFR 1006.61 - Computation of uniform prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
..., the market administrator shall compute a uniform butterfat price, a uniform skim milk price, and a... section. (b) Uniform skim milk price. The uniform skim milk price per hundredweight, rounded to the... paragraph (a) of this section times 3.5 pounds of butterfat; and (2) Multiply the uniform skim milk price...
7 CFR 1007.61 - Computation of uniform prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
..., the market administrator shall compute a uniform butterfat price, a uniform skim milk price, and a... section. (b) Uniform skim milk price. The uniform skim milk price per hundredweight, rounded to the... paragraph (a) of this section times 3.5 pounds of butterfat; and (2) Multiply the uniform skim milk price...
7 CFR 1131.61 - Computation of uniform prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
..., the market administrator shall compute a uniform butterfat price, a uniform skim milk price, and a... section. (b) Uniform skim milk price. The uniform skim milk price per hundredweight, rounded to the... paragraph (a) of this section times 3.5 pounds of butterfat; and (2) Multiply the uniform skim milk price...
Estimating a Research and Development Price Index
1993-01-01
8330-1399- 8 1. Military research -Prices-United States. 2. Indexation (Economnics)-United States. I. Title U393.5.$54 1993 338.4 3^35507--dc2O 93-20614...3 Step 2. Identifying Changes in Relevant Sector Prices .......... 4 Some General Considerations... 4 Identifying Price Changes ..................................... 6 Detailed Methods for Identifying Price Changes ................ 6 Step 3
Hardwood stumpage price trends in New England
D.F. Dennis; P.E. Sendak
1991-01-01
Stumpage price trends in New Hampshire and Vermont varied considerably among species and products. Real stumpage price trends, expressed in 1988 dollars using the Producer Price Index to remove the effect of inflation, are reported for selected species and products. Long-term (1964-1989) trends in average annual prices are reported for New Hampshire and short-term (...
Higher cigarette prices influence cigarette purchase patterns.
Hyland, A; Bauer, J E; Li, Q; Abrams, S M; Higbee, C; Peppone, L; Cummings, K M
2005-04-01
To examine cigarette purchasing patterns of current smokers and to determine the effects of cigarette price on use of cheaper sources, discount/generic cigarettes, and coupons. Higher cigarette prices result in decreased cigarette consumption, but price sensitive smokers may seek lower priced or tax-free cigarette sources, especially if they are readily available. This price avoidance behaviour costs states excise tax money and dampens the health impact of higher cigarette prices. Telephone survey data from 3602 US smokers who were originally in the COMMIT (community intervention trial for smoking cessation) study were analysed to assess cigarette purchase patterns, use of discount/generic cigarettes, and use of coupons. 59% reported engaging in a high price avoidance strategy, including 34% who regularly purchase from a low or untaxed venue, 28% who smoke a discount/generic cigarette brand, and 18% who report using cigarette coupons more frequently that they did five years ago. The report of engaging in a price avoidance strategy was associated with living within 40 miles of a state or Indian reservation with lower cigarette excise taxes, higher average cigarette consumption, white, non-Hispanic race/ethnicity, and female sex. Data from this study indicate that most smokers are price sensitive and seek out measures to purchase less expensive cigarettes, which may decrease future cessation efforts.
Cryptocurrency price drivers: Wavelet coherence analysis revisited.
Phillips, Ross C; Gorse, Denise
2018-01-01
Cryptocurrencies have experienced recent surges in interest and price. It has been discovered that there are time intervals where cryptocurrency prices and certain online and social media factors appear related. In addition it has been noted that cryptocurrencies are prone to experience intervals of bubble-like price growth. The hypothesis investigated here is that relationships between online factors and price are dependent on market regime. In this paper, wavelet coherence is used to study co-movement between a cryptocurrency price and its related factors, for a number of examples. This is used alongside a well-known test for financial asset bubbles to explore whether relationships change dependent on regime. The primary finding of this work is that medium-term positive correlations between online factors and price strengthen significantly during bubble-like regimes of the price series; this explains why these relationships have previously been seen to appear and disappear over time. A secondary finding is that short-term relationships between the chosen factors and price appear to be caused by particular market events (such as hacks / security breaches), and are not consistent from one time interval to another in the effect of the factor upon the price. In addition, for the first time, wavelet coherence is used to explore the relationships between different cryptocurrencies.
7 CFR 1005.61 - Computation of uniform prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... month, the market administrator shall compute a uniform butterfat price, a uniform skim milk price, and...) and (a)(2) of this section. (b) Uniform skim milk price. The uniform skim milk price per hundredweight... paragraph (a) of this section times 3.5 pounds of butterfat; and (2) Multiply the uniform skim milk price...
76 FR 77271 - Competitive Product Postal Price Changes
Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
2011-12-12
... Rate packaging, and Commercial Plus Cubic pricing. Changes to the price structure include the following... Price Cubic pricing is reduced from 250,000 to 150,000 pieces, and can use soft packaging; and (3) Open and Distribute pricing for specified trays and flat tubs is to be introduced in January. \\2\\ If...
Metal prices in the United States through 2010
,
2013-01-01
This report, which updates and revises the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (1999) publication, “Metal Prices in the United States Through 1998,” presents an extended price history for a wide range of metals available in a single document. Such information can be useful for the analysis of mineral commodity issues, as well as for other purposes. The chapter for each mineral commodity includes a graph of annual current and constant dollar prices for 1970 through 2010, where available; a list of significant events that affected prices; a brief discussion of the metal and its history; and one or more tables that list current dollar prices. In some cases, the metal prices presented herein are for some alternative form of an element or, instead of a price, a value, such as the value for an import as appraised by the U.S. Customs Service. Also included are the prices for steel, steel scrap, and iron ore—steel because of its importance to the elements used to alloy with it, and steel scrap and iron ore because of their use in steelmaking. A few minor metals, such as calcium, potassium, sodium, strontium, and thorium, for which price histories were insufficient, were excluded. The annual prices given may be averages for the year, yearend prices, or some other price as appropriate for a particular commodity. Certain trade journals have been the source of much of this price information—American Metal Market, ICIS Chemical Business, Engineering and Mining Journal, Industrial Minerals, Metal Bulletin, Mining Journal, Platts Metals Week, Roskill Information Services Ltd. commodity reports, and Ryan’s Notes. Price information also is available in minerals information publications of the USGS (1880–1925, 1996–present) and the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1926–95), such as Mineral Commodity Summaries, Mineral Facts and Problems, Mineral Industry Surveys, and Minerals Yearbook. In addition to prices themselves, these journals and publications contain information relevant to
7 CFR 1955.113 - Price (housing).
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 14 2010-01-01 2009-01-01 true Price (housing). 1955.113 Section 1955.113 Agriculture... § 1955.113 Price (housing). Real property will be offered or listed for its present market value, as adjusted by any administrative price reductions provided for in this section. Market value will be based...
Space-time modeling of timber prices
Mo Zhou; Joseph Buongriorno
2006-01-01
A space-time econometric model was developed for pine sawtimber timber prices of 21 geographically contiguous regions in the southern United States. The correlations between prices in neighboring regions helped predict future prices. The impulse response analysis showed that although southern pine sawtimber markets were not globally integrated, local supply and demand...
An annual quasidifference approach to water price elasticity
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bell, David R.; Griffin, Ronald C.
2008-08-01
The preferred price specification for retail water demand estimation has not been fully settled by prior literature. Empirical consistency of price indices is necessary to enable testing of competing specifications. Available methods of unbiasing the price index are summarized here. Using original rate information from several hundred Texas utilities, new indices of marginal and average price change are constructed. Marginal water price change is shown to explain consumption variation better than average water price change, based on standard information criteria. Annual change in quantity consumed per month is estimated with differences in climate variables and the new quasidifference marginal price index. As expected, the annual price elasticity of demand is found to vary with daily high and low temperatures and the frequency of precipitation.
2016-01-01
Background: The price of food has long been considered one of the major factors that affects food choices. However, the price metric (e.g., the price of food per calorie or the price of food per gram) that individuals predominantly use when making food choices is unclear. Understanding which price metric is used is especially important for studying individuals with severe budget constraints because food price then becomes even more important in food choice. Objective: We assessed which price metric is used by low-income individuals in deciding what to eat. Methods: With the use of data from NHANES and the USDA Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies, we created an agent-based model that simulated an environment representing the US population, wherein individuals were modeled as agents with a specific weight, age, and income. In our model, agents made dietary food choices while meeting their budget limits with the use of 1 of 3 different metrics for decision making: energy cost (price per calorie), unit price (price per gram), and serving price (price per serving). The food consumption patterns generated by our model were compared to 3 independent data sets. Results: The food choice behaviors observed in 2 of the data sets were found to be closest to the simulated dietary patterns generated by the price per calorie metric. The behaviors observed in the third data set were equidistant from the patterns generated by price per calorie and price per serving metrics, whereas results generated by the price per gram metric were further away. Conclusions: Our simulations suggest that dietary food choice based on price per calorie best matches actual consumption patterns and may therefore be the most salient price metric for low-income populations. PMID:27655757
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... reduction. This right to a price reduction is limited to that resulting from defects in data relating to... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 2 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price Reduction for... PROVISIONS AND CONTRACT CLAUSES Text of Provisions and Clauses 52.214-27 Price Reduction for Defective...
Pricing end-of-life components
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Vadde, Srikanth; Kamarthi, Sagar V.; Gupta, Surendra M.
2005-11-01
The main objective of a product recovery facility (PRF) is to disassemble end-of-life (EOL) products and sell the reclaimed components for reuse and recovered materials in second-hand markets. Variability in the inflow of EOL products and fluctuation in demand for reusable components contribute to the volatility in inventory levels. To stay profitable the PRFs ought to manage their inventory by regulating the price appropriately to minimize holding costs. This work presents two deterministic pricing models for a PRF bounded by environmental regulations. In the first model, the demand is price dependent and in the second, the demand is both price and time dependent. The models are valid for single component with no inventory replenishment sale during the selling horizon . Numerical examples are presented to illustrate the models.
State cigarette minimum price laws - United States, 2009.
2010-04-09
Cigarette price increases reduce the demand for cigarettes and thereby reduce smoking prevalence, cigarette consumption, and youth initiation of smoking. Excise tax increases are the most effective government intervention to increase the price of cigarettes, but cigarette manufacturers use trade discounts, coupons, and other promotions to counteract the effects of these tax increases and appeal to price-sensitive smokers. State cigarette minimum price laws, initiated by states in the 1940s and 1950s to protect tobacco retailers from predatory business practices, typically require a minimum percentage markup to be added to the wholesale and/or retail price. If a statute prohibits trade discounts from the minimum price calculation, these laws have the potential to counteract discounting by cigarette manufacturers. To assess the status of cigarette minimum price laws in the United States, CDC surveyed state statutes and identified those states with minimum price laws in effect as of December 31, 2009. This report summarizes the results of that survey, which determined that 25 states had minimum price laws for cigarettes (median wholesale markup: 4.00%; median retail markup: 8.00%), and seven of those states also expressly prohibited the use of trade discounts in the minimum retail price calculation. Minimum price laws can help prevent trade discounting from eroding the positive effects of state excise tax increases and higher cigarette prices on public health.
Creating a Student Price Index. Lesson Plan.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Lewin, Roland
This lesson plan gives students a hands-on understanding of a price index, how it is composed, what it is used for, and some of its limitations. Students then can make the connection to some of the popular price indices such as the Consumer Price Index and the Producer Price Index. The lesson states a purpose; cites learning objectives; suggests…
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 31 Money and Finance: Treasury 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Sales price. 56.2 Section 56.2 Money and Finance: Treasury Regulations Relating to Money and Finance DOMESTIC GOLD AND SILVER OPERATIONS SALE OF SILVER § 56.2 Sales price. Sales of silver will be at prices offered through the competitive...
25 CFR 141.16 - Price marking.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... AND ZUNI RESERVATIONS General Business Practices § 141.16 Price marking. The price of each article offered for sale shall be marked on the article, its containers or in any other manner that is plain and visible to the customer and that affords the customer a reasonable opportunity to learn the price of the...
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... submission of cost or pricing data or information other than cost or pricing data. 215.403-5 Section 215.403... DEFENSE CONTRACTING METHODS AND CONTRACT TYPES CONTRACTING BY NEGOTIATION Contract Pricing 215.403-5 Instructions for submission of cost or pricing data or information other than cost or pricing data. When the...
Multi-attribute Regret-Based Dynamic Pricing
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jumadinova, Janyl; Dasgupta, Prithviraj
In this paper, we consider the problem of dynamic pricing by a set of competing sellers in an information economy where buyers differentiate products along multiple attributes, and buyer preferences can change temporally. Previous research in this area has either focused on dynamic pricing along a limited number of (e.g. binary) attributes, or, assumes that each seller has access to private information such as preference distribution of buyers, and profit/price information of other sellers. However, in real information markets, private information about buyers and sellers cannot be assumed to be available a priori. Moreover, due to the competition between sellers, each seller faces a tradeoff between accuracy and rapidity of the pricing mechanism. In this paper, we describe a multi-attribute dynamic pricing algorithm based on minimax regret that can be used by a seller's agent called a pricebot, to maximize the seller's utility. Our simulation results show that the minimax regret based dynamic pricing algorithm performs significantly better than other algorithms for rapidly and dynamically tracking consumer attributes without using any private information from either buyers or sellers.
Journal pricing issues: an economic perspective.
Hafner, A W; Podsadecki, T J; Whitely, W P
1990-01-01
Scientific journal prices have increased markedly in the past two decades, outpacing inflation by severalfold. Such increases challenge the librarian's ability to manage acquisitions resources effectively and threaten the mission of the health sciences library as a resource for present and future scientific information needs. Explanations for serial price increases vary with the point of view considered. Publishers, librarians, faculty, and consumers of scientific information perceive the situation differently. This paper provides an economic analysis of each group's views. Particular emphasis is given to the aspects of journal publishing and pricing that foster price increases. In addition, the paper examines the problems of dual-pricing structures and narrowly focused journals that cater to subspecialties of medicine. Suggested responses to subscription rate increases are offered to curtail further increases and to avoid the potential detrimental effects of reduced library collections. Since one of the underpinnings of education is threatened by reductions in library collections, actions must be taken by publishers, librarians, faculty, and professional associations to ameliorate the present situation and to limit additional increases in serial prices. PMID:2203496
Do stock prices drive people crazy?
Lin, Chung-Liang; Chen, Chin-Shyan; Liu, Tsai-Ching
2015-03-01
This is the first research to examine a potential relation between stock market volatility and mental disorders. Using data on daily incidences of mental disorders in Taiwan over 4000 days from 1998 through 2009 to assess the time-series relation between stock price movements and mental disorders, we observe that stock price fluctuation clearly affects the hospitalization of mental disorders. We find that during a 12-year follow-up period, a low stock price index, a daily fall in the stock price index and consecutive daily falls in the stock price index are all associated with greater of mental disorders hospitalizations. A 1000-point fall in the TAIEX (Taiwan Stock Exchange Capitalization Weighted Stock Index) increases the number of daily mental disorders hospitalizations by 4.71%. A 1% fall in the TAIEX in one single day increases daily hospitalizations for mental disorders by 0.36%. When the stock price index falls one consecutive day, it causes a daily increase of approximately 0.32% hospitalizations due to mental disorders on that day. Stock price index is found to be significant for both gender and all age groups. In addition, daily change is significant for both gender and middle-age groups, whereas accumulated change is significant for males and people aged 45-64. Stockholdings can help people accumulate wealth, but they can also increase mental disorders hospitalizations. In other words, stock price fluctuations do drive people crazy. Published by Oxford University Press in association with The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine © The Author 2014; all rights reserved.
Fish is food--the FAO's fish price index.
Tveterås, Sigbjørn; Asche, Frank; Bellemare, Marc F; Smith, Martin D; Guttormsen, Atle G; Lem, Audun; Lien, Kristin; Vannuccini, Stefania
2012-01-01
World food prices hit an all-time high in February 2011 and are still almost two and a half times those of 2000. Although three billion people worldwide use seafood as a key source of animal protein, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations-which compiles prices for other major food categories-has not tracked seafood prices. We fill this gap by developing an index of global seafood prices that can help to understand food crises and may assist in averting them. The fish price index (FPI) relies on trade statistics because seafood is heavily traded internationally, exposing non-traded seafood to price competition from imports and exports. Easily updated trade data can thus proxy for domestic seafood prices that are difficult to observe in many regions and costly to update with global coverage. Calculations of the extent of price competition in different countries support the plausibility of reliance on trade data. Overall, the FPI shows less volatility and fewer price spikes than other food price indices including oils, cereals, and dairy. The FPI generally reflects seafood scarcity, but it can also be separated into indices by production technology, fish species, or region. Splitting FPI into capture fisheries and aquaculture suggests increased scarcity of capture fishery resources in recent years, but also growth in aquaculture that is keeping pace with demand. Regionally, seafood price volatility varies, and some prices are negatively correlated. These patterns hint that regional supply shocks are consequential for seafood prices in spite of the high degree of seafood tradability.
Cryptocurrency price drivers: Wavelet coherence analysis revisited
2018-01-01
Cryptocurrencies have experienced recent surges in interest and price. It has been discovered that there are time intervals where cryptocurrency prices and certain online and social media factors appear related. In addition it has been noted that cryptocurrencies are prone to experience intervals of bubble-like price growth. The hypothesis investigated here is that relationships between online factors and price are dependent on market regime. In this paper, wavelet coherence is used to study co-movement between a cryptocurrency price and its related factors, for a number of examples. This is used alongside a well-known test for financial asset bubbles to explore whether relationships change dependent on regime. The primary finding of this work is that medium-term positive correlations between online factors and price strengthen significantly during bubble-like regimes of the price series; this explains why these relationships have previously been seen to appear and disappear over time. A secondary finding is that short-term relationships between the chosen factors and price appear to be caused by particular market events (such as hacks / security breaches), and are not consistent from one time interval to another in the effect of the factor upon the price. In addition, for the first time, wavelet coherence is used to explore the relationships between different cryptocurrencies. PMID:29668765
Crowdsourcing Black Market Prices For Prescription Opioids
Freifeld, Clark; Brownstein, John S; Menone, Christopher Mark; Surratt, Hilary L; Poppish, Luke; Green, Jody L; Lavonas, Eric J; Dart, Richard C
2013-01-01
Background Prescription opioid diversion and abuse are major public health issues in the United States and internationally. Street prices of diverted prescription opioids can provide an indicator of drug availability, demand, and abuse potential, but these data can be difficult to collect. Crowdsourcing is a rapid and cost-effective way to gather information about sales transactions. We sought to determine whether crowdsourcing can provide accurate measurements of the street price of diverted prescription opioid medications. Objective To assess the possibility of crowdsourcing black market drug price data by cross-validation with law enforcement officer reports. Methods Using a crowdsourcing research website (StreetRx), we solicited data about the price that site visitors paid for diverted prescription opioid analgesics during the first half of 2012. These results were compared with a survey of law enforcement officers in the Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS) System, and actual transaction prices on a “dark Internet” marketplace (Silk Road). Geometric means and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for comparing prices per milligram of drug in US dollars. In a secondary analysis, we compared prices per milligram of morphine equivalent using standard equianalgesic dosing conversions. Results A total of 954 price reports were obtained from crowdsourcing, 737 from law enforcement, and 147 from the online marketplace. Correlations between the 3 data sources were highly linear, with Spearman rho of 0.93 (P<.001) between crowdsourced and law enforcement, and 0.98 (P<.001) between crowdsourced and online marketplace. On StreetRx, the mean prices per milligram were US$3.29 hydromorphone, US$2.13 buprenorphine, US$1.57 oxymorphone, US$0.97 oxycodone, US$0.96 methadone, US$0.81 hydrocodone, US$0.52 morphine, and US$0.05 tramadol. The only significant difference between data sources was morphine, with a Drug Diversion price of US
Crowdsourcing black market prices for prescription opioids.
Dasgupta, Nabarun; Freifeld, Clark; Brownstein, John S; Menone, Christopher Mark; Surratt, Hilary L; Poppish, Luke; Green, Jody L; Lavonas, Eric J; Dart, Richard C
2013-08-16
Prescription opioid diversion and abuse are major public health issues in the United States and internationally. Street prices of diverted prescription opioids can provide an indicator of drug availability, demand, and abuse potential, but these data can be difficult to collect. Crowdsourcing is a rapid and cost-effective way to gather information about sales transactions. We sought to determine whether crowdsourcing can provide accurate measurements of the street price of diverted prescription opioid medications. To assess the possibility of crowdsourcing black market drug price data by cross-validation with law enforcement officer reports. Using a crowdsourcing research website (StreetRx), we solicited data about the price that site visitors paid for diverted prescription opioid analgesics during the first half of 2012. These results were compared with a survey of law enforcement officers in the Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance (RADARS) System, and actual transaction prices on a "dark Internet" marketplace (Silk Road). Geometric means and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for comparing prices per milligram of drug in US dollars. In a secondary analysis, we compared prices per milligram of morphine equivalent using standard equianalgesic dosing conversions. A total of 954 price reports were obtained from crowdsourcing, 737 from law enforcement, and 147 from the online marketplace. Correlations between the 3 data sources were highly linear, with Spearman rho of 0.93 (P<.001) between crowdsourced and law enforcement, and 0.98 (P<.001) between crowdsourced and online marketplace. On StreetRx, the mean prices per milligram were US$3.29 hydromorphone, US$2.13 buprenorphine, US$1.57 oxymorphone, US$0.97 oxycodone, US$0.96 methadone, US$0.81 hydrocodone, US$0.52 morphine, and US$0.05 tramadol. The only significant difference between data sources was morphine, with a Drug Diversion price of US$0.67/mg (95% CI 0.59-0.75) and a Silk
Two Stochastic Phases of Tick-wise Price Fluctuation and the Price Prediction Generator
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Tanaka-Yamawaki, Mieko; Tokuoka, Seiji
2007-07-01
We report in this paper the existence of two different stochastic phases in the tick-wise price fluctuations. Based on this observation, we improve our old method of developing the evolutional strategy to predict the direction of the tick-wise price movements. We obtain a stable predictive power even in the region where the old method had a difficulty.
How market structure drives commodity prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Bin; Wong, K. Y. Michael; Chan, Amos H. M.; So, Tsz Yan; Heimonen, Hermanni; Wei, Junyi; Saad, David
2017-11-01
We introduce an agent-based model, in which agents set their prices to maximize profit. At steady state the market self-organizes into three groups: excess producers, consumers and balanced agents, with prices determined by their own resource level and a couple of macroscopic parameters that emerge naturally from the analysis, akin to mean-field parameters in statistical mechanics. When resources are scarce prices rise sharply below a turning point that marks the disappearance of excess producers. To compare the model with real empirical data, we study the relationship between commodity prices and stock-to-use ratios in a range of commodities such as agricultural products and metals. By introducing an elasticity parameter to mitigate noise and long-term changes in commodities data, we confirm the trend of rising prices, provide evidence for turning points, and indicate yield points for less essential commodities.
Trends in U.S. food prices, 1950-2007.
Christian, Thomas; Rashad, Inas
2009-03-01
The potential effect that food prices may have on the health of the U.S. population needs to be further explored, particularly in light of the rising food prices currently being observed. Declining food prices over time have been singled out as a main contributor, for example, to the rising trend in obesity. In this paper we use data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the American Chamber of Commerce Researchers Association, the Consumer Expenditure Survey, and the United States Department of Agriculture to analyze trends in various types of food prices, to create a food price index, and to estimate the price of a calorie. Results may be used by future researchers in estimating the health implications of these trends. We find that while the general trend in food prices has been declining, that of restaurant meal prices and prices of fruits and vegetables has risen over time. It is doubtful that the decline in food prices has been sufficiently large to account for the large increase in caloric intake that is said to have contributed to the obesity epidemic in the U.S.
Congestion pricing : a primer : overview
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
2008-10-01
This Overview primer was produced to explain the concept of congestion pricing and its benefits, to present examples of congestion-pricing approaches implemented in the United States and abroad, and to briefly discuss federal-aid policy and programs ...
DOT National Transportation Integrated Search
1981-04-01
The purpose of the conference was to provide practical guidance to policy makers and transit operators on improved pricing policies and strategies. Topics covered include: trends and policies in future transit pricing; conventional and paratransit in...
5 CFR 591.213 - What prices does OPM collect?
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... time of the survey. The price includes any sales, excise, or general business tax passed on to the...-business prices, or area-wide distress sale prices. (2) OPM prices automobiles at dealers and obtains the sticker (i.e., non-negotiated) price for the model and specified options. The prices are the manufacturer...
Modeling spot markets for electricity and pricing electricity derivatives
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ning, Yumei
Spot prices for electricity have been very volatile with dramatic price spikes occurring in restructured market. The task of forecasting electricity prices and managing price risk presents a new challenge for market players. The objectives of this dissertation are: (1) to develop a stochastic model of price behavior and predict price spikes; (2) to examine the effect of weather forecasts on forecasted prices; (3) to price electricity options and value generation capacity. The volatile behavior of prices can be represented by a stochastic regime-switching model. In the model, the means of the high-price and low-price regimes and the probabilities of switching from one regime to the other are specified as functions of daily peak load. The probability of switching to the high-price regime is positively related to load, but is still not high enough at the highest loads to predict price spikes accurately. An application of this model shows how the structure of the Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland market changed when market-based offers were allowed, resulting in higher price spikes. An ARIMA model including temperature, seasonal, and weekly effects is estimated to forecast daily peak load. Forecasts of load under different assumptions about weather patterns are used to predict changes of price behavior given the regime-switching model of prices. Results show that the range of temperature forecasts from a normal summer to an extremely warm summer cause relatively small increases in temperature (+1.5%) and load (+3.0%). In contrast, the increases in prices are large (+20%). The conclusion is that the seasonal outlook forecasts provided by NOAA are potentially valuable for predicting prices in electricity markets. The traditional option models, based on Geometric Brownian Motion are not appropriate for electricity prices. An option model using the regime-switching framework is developed to value a European call option. The model includes volatility risk and allows changes
Why Are Product Prices in Online Markets Not Converging?
Mizuno, Takayuki; Watanabe, Tsutomu
2013-01-01
Why are product prices in online markets dispersed in spite of very small search costs? To address this question, we construct a unique dataset from a Japanese price comparison site, which records price quotes offered by e-retailers as well as customers’ clicks on products, which occur when they proceed to purchase the product. The novelty of our approach is that we seek to extract useful information on the source of price dispersion from the shape of price distributions rather than focusing merely on the standard deviation or the coefficient of variation of prices, as previous studies have done. We find that the distribution of prices retailers quote for a particular product at a particular point in time (divided by the lowest price) follows an exponential distribution, showing the presence of substantial price dispersion. For example, 20 percent of all retailers quote prices that are more than 50 percent higher than the lowest price. Next, comparing the probability that customers click on a retailer with a particular rank and the probability that retailers post prices at a particular rank, we show that both decline exponentially with price rank and that the exponents associated with the probabilities are quite close. This suggests that the reason why some retailers set prices at a level substantially higher than the lowest price is that they know that some customers will choose them even at that high price. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that price dispersion in online markets stems from heterogeneity in customers’ preferences over retailers; that is, customers choose a set of candidate retailers based on their preferences, which are heterogeneous across customers, and then pick a particular retailer among the candidates based on the price ranking. PMID:24015219
Why are product prices in online markets not converging?
Mizuno, Takayuki; Watanabe, Tsutomu
2013-01-01
Why are product prices in online markets dispersed in spite of very small search costs? To address this question, we construct a unique dataset from a Japanese price comparison site, which records price quotes offered by e-retailers as well as customers' clicks on products, which occur when they proceed to purchase the product. The novelty of our approach is that we seek to extract useful information on the source of price dispersion from the shape of price distributions rather than focusing merely on the standard deviation or the coefficient of variation of prices, as previous studies have done. We find that the distribution of prices retailers quote for a particular product at a particular point in time (divided by the lowest price) follows an exponential distribution, showing the presence of substantial price dispersion. For example, 20 percent of all retailers quote prices that are more than 50 percent higher than the lowest price. Next, comparing the probability that customers click on a retailer with a particular rank and the probability that retailers post prices at a particular rank, we show that both decline exponentially with price rank and that the exponents associated with the probabilities are quite close. This suggests that the reason why some retailers set prices at a level substantially higher than the lowest price is that they know that some customers will choose them even at that high price. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that price dispersion in online markets stems from heterogeneity in customers' preferences over retailers; that is, customers choose a set of candidate retailers based on their preferences, which are heterogeneous across customers, and then pick a particular retailer among the candidates based on the price ranking.
A statistical analysis of product prices in online markets
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mizuno, T.; Watanabe, T.
2010-08-01
We empirically investigate fluctuations in product prices in online markets by using a tick-by-tick price data collected from a Japanese price comparison site, and find some similarities and differences between product and asset prices. The average price of a product across e-retailers behaves almost like a random walk, although the probability of price increase/decrease is higher conditional on the multiple events of price increase/decrease. This is quite similar to the property reported by previous studies about asset prices. However, we fail to find a long memory property in the volatility of product price changes. Also, we find that the price change distribution for product prices is close to an exponential distribution, rather than a power law distribution. These two findings are in a sharp contrast with the previous results regarding asset prices. We propose an interpretation that these differences may stem from the absence of speculative activities in product markets; namely, e-retailers seldom repeat buy and sell of a product, unlike traders in asset markets.
Differential Pricing of Undergraduate Education.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Yanikoski, Richard A.; Wilson, Richard F.
1984-01-01
The concept of differential pricing and its current application in undergraduate education are examined, particularly differentiating tuition by program at the upper-division level. Differential pricing is proposed as a policy that can benefit both students and institutions. (Author/MLW)
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Hansen, Janet S.
1984-01-01
Setting prices for undergraduate education and assessing their effects on consumers and institutions is complicated by widespread price discounting. Student aid programs, credit, subsidized employment, and tax policy can reduce the actual costs paid by students and their families. (MSE)
Features of the Correlation Structure of Price Indices
Gao, Xiangyun; An, Haizhong; Zhong, Weiqiong
2013-01-01
What are the features of the correlation structure of price indices? To answer this question, 5 types of price indices, including 195 specific price indices from 2003 to 2011, were selected as sample data. To build a weighted network of price indices each price index is represented by a vertex, and a positive correlation between two price indices is represented by an edge. We studied the features of the weighted network structure by applying economic theory to the analysis of complex network parameters. We found that the frequency of the price indices follows a normal distribution by counting the weighted degrees of the nodes, and we identified the price indices which have an important impact on the network's structure. We found out small groups in the weighted network by the methods of k-core and k-plex. We discovered structure holes in the network by calculating the hierarchy of the nodes. Finally, we found that the price indices weighted network has a small-world effect by calculating the shortest path. These results provide a scientific basis for macroeconomic control policies. PMID:23593399
Learning monopolies with delayed feedback on price expectations
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Matsumoto, Akio; Szidarovszky, Ferenc
2015-11-01
We call the intercept of the price function with the vertical axis the maximum price and the slope of the price function the marginal price. In this paper it is assumed that a monopolistic firm has full information about the marginal price and its own cost function but is uncertain on the maximum price. However, by repeated interaction with the market, the obtained price observations give a basis for an adaptive learning process of the maximum price. It is also assumed that the price observations have fixed delays, so the learning process can be described by a delayed differential equation. In the cases of one or two delays, the asymptotic behavior of the resulting dynamic process is examined, stability conditions are derived. Three main results are demonstrated in the two delay learning processes. First, it is possible to stabilize the equilibrium which is unstable in the one delay model. Second, complex dynamics involving chaos, which is impossible in the one delay model, can emerge. Third, alternations of stability and instability (i.e., stability switches) occur repeatedly.
Studies on price indexes and innovation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Carreon-Rodriguez, Victor G.
This thesis develops two studies on price indexes and innovation. The first one analyzes the problems on the computation of price indexes when there are improvements in the goods' quality. These problems arise because we use price indexes that measure the prices of the goods that consumers buy rather than the prices of the services that consumers enjoy. In order to see this, I compute a true price for gasoline that is based on the services that it provides. We ask for the cost of moving one ton at a speed of 40 mph for a distance of 100 miles. This true price is compared with the official price for gasoline. The average annual bias (the rise in the official price relative to the true price) is 3.2% per year. We also compute the hours of work required to cover that cost. We find that in 1925 there were needed almost 1.5 hours of work, while by 1992 there were just needed about 8 minutes to move one ton as specified above. The second one develops a model of Cournot competition in innovation. This model introduces two new features. First, firm's investment in research and development is divided into two pieces, expenditures in human capital and expenditures in all other inputs (called R&D for simplicity). Second, the government also allocates resources to research and development, which affect the stock of knowledge available to the firms. Some interesting results arise from this model. First, investments in human capital and in R&D are increasing in the past government's investment. Second, investments per firm are decreasing in the number of firms in the industry, but the totals are larger if some conditions on the elasticities are satisfied. Third, the welfare analysis tells us that if there are entry barriers, each firm is overinvesting in both inputs. On the other hand, if there is free entry, there are too many firms engaged in the innovative race. Finally, we perform an empirical analysis and we find that there are lagged effects of the government's investment
New Hampshire's Stumpage and Roadside Prices: Characteristics and Trends
Susan B. Remington; Donald F. Dennis; Donald F. Dennis
1986-01-01
Reports average stumpage and roadside prices and their relative rates of change for timber and logs in New Hampshire for 1964 to 1983. Stumpage and roadside prices increased overall from 1964 to 1983. Roadside prices increased at a slower rate than stumpage prices. Real sawtimber prices increased for all species except hemlock during the period. Red oak prices...
Food prices and body fatness among youths.
Grossman, Michael; Tekin, Erdal; Wada, Roy
2014-01-01
We examine the effect of food prices on clinical measures of obesity, including body mass index (BMI) and percentage body fat (PBF) measures derived from bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), among youths ages 12 through 18 in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. This is the first study to consider clinically measured levels of body composition rather than BMI to investigate the effects of food prices on obesity outcomes among youths classified by gender and race/ethnicity. Our findings suggest that increases in the real price per calorie of food for home consumption and the real price of fast-food restaurant food lead to improvements in obesity outcomes among youths. We also find that a rise in the real price of fruits and vegetables leads to increased obesity. Finally, our results indicate that measures of PBF derived from BIA and DXA are no less sensitive and in some cases more sensitive to the prices just mentioned than BMI, and serve an important role in demonstrating that rising food prices (except fruit and vegetable prices) are indeed associated with reductions in obesity rather than with reductions in body size proportions alone. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Monthly Petroleum Product Price Report, October 1981
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Not Available
1981-01-01
Data are reported on the prices of petroleum products for the period January 1980 through October 1981. The following products are included in the survey: gasoline, diesel fuels, residual fuels, aviation fuels, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gases heating oils, and No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils. This report provides Congress and the public with information on monthly national weighted average prices for refined petroleum products. The data published are the primary source of price data for refined products for the refining, reselling, and retailing sectors necessary for the Department of Energy (DOE) to execute its role in monitoring prices. Inmore » addition, the data provide the information necessary for Congress, DOE, and the public to perform analyses and projections related to energy supplies, demands, and prices. Price data in this publication were collected from separate surveys. Average prices are derived from a survey of refiners, large resellers and/or retailers, and independent gas plant operators. Data from this monthly survey are available from July 1975. Average No. 2 heating oil prices were derived from a sample survey of refiners, resellers, and retailers who sell heating oil. The geographic coverage for this report is the 50 States and the District of Columbia.« less
Does drug price-regulation affect healthcare expenditures?
Ben-Aharon, Omer; Shavit, Oren; Magnezi, Racheli
2017-09-01
Increasing health costs in developed countries are a major concern for decision makers. A variety of cost containment tools are used to control this trend, including maximum price regulation and reimbursement methods for health technologies. Information regarding expenditure-related outcomes of these tools is not available. To evaluate the association between different cost-regulating mechanisms and national health expenditures in selected countries. Price-regulating and reimbursement mechanisms for prescription drugs among OECD countries were reviewed. National health expenditure indices for 2008-2012 were extracted from OECD statistical sources. Possible associations between characteristics of different systems for regulation of drug prices and reimbursement and health expenditures were examined. In most countries, reimbursement mechanisms are part of publicly financed plans. Maximum price regulation is composed of reference-pricing, either of the same drug in other countries, or of therapeutic alternatives within the country, as well as value-based pricing (VBP). No association was found between price regulation or reimbursement mechanisms and healthcare costs. However, VBP may present a more effective mechanism, leading to reduced costs in the long term. Maximum price and reimbursement mechanism regulations were not found to be associated with cost containment of national health expenditures. VBP may have the potential to do so over the long term.
Monthly petroleum product price report, November 1981
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Not Available
1982-03-03
This report provides Congress and the public with information on monthly national weighted average prices for refined petroleum products (motor gasoline, diesel fuels, residual fuel oils, aviation fuels, kerosene, petrochemical feedstocks, heating oils, and liquefied petroleum gases). The data published are the primary source of price data for refined products for the refining, reselling, and retailing sectors necessary for the Department of Energy to execute its role in monitoring prices. In addition, the data provide the information necessary for Congress, DOE, and the public to perform analyses and projections related to energy supplies, demands, and prices. Price data in thismore » publication were collected from separate surveys. Average prices are derived from a survey of refiners, large resellers and/or retailers, and independent gas plant operators. Data from this monthly survey are available from July 1975. Average No. 2 heating oil prices were derived from a sample survey of refiners, resellers, and retailers who sell heating oil. The geographic coverage for this report is the 50 states and the District of Columbia.« less
Monthly petroleum product price report, December 1981
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Not Available
1982-03-30
This report provides Congress and the public with information on monthly national weighted average prices for refined petroleum products (motor gasoline, diesel fuels, residual fuel oils, aviation fuels, kerosene, petrochemical feedstocks, heating oils, and liquefied petroleum gases). The data published are the primary source of price data for refined products for the refining, reselling, and retailing sectors necessary for the Department of Energy to execute its role in monitoring prices. In addition, the data provide the information necessary for Congress, DOE, and the public to perform analyses and projections related to energy supplies, demands, and prices. Price data in thismore » publication were collected from separate surveys. Average prices are derived from a survey of refiners, large resellers and/or retailers, and independent gas plant operators. Data from this monthly survey are available from July 1975. Average No. 2 heating oil prices were derived from a sample survey of refiners, resellers, and retailers who sell heating oil. The geographic coverage for this report is the 50 states and the District of Columbia.« less
Gruber, Jonathan; Sen, Anindya; Stabile, Mark
2003-09-01
A central parameter for evaluating tax policies is the price elasticity of demand for cigarettes. But in many countries this parameter is difficult to estimate reliably due to widespread smuggling, which significantly biases estimates using legal sales data. An excellent example is Canada, where widespread smuggling in the early 1990s, in response to large tax increases, biases upwards the response of legal cigarette sales to price. We surmount this problem through two approaches: excluding the provinces and years where smuggling was greatest; and using household level expenditure data on smoking. These two approaches yield a tightly estimated elasticity in the range of -0.45 to -0.47. We also show that the sensitivity of smoking to price is much larger among lower income Canadians. In the context of recent behavioral models of smoking, whereby higher taxes reduce unwanted smoking among price sensitive populations, this finding suggests that cigarette taxes may not be as regressive as previously suggested. Finally, we show that price increases on cigarettes do not increase, and may actually decrease, consumption of alcohol; as a result, smuggling of cigarettes may have raised consumption of alcohol as well.
Appliance Efficiency Standards and Price Discrimination
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Spurlock, Cecily Anna
2013-05-08
I explore the effects of two simultaneous changes in minimum energy efficiency and ENERGY STAR standards for clothes washers. Adapting the Mussa and Rosen (1978) and Ronnen (1991) second-degree price discrimination model, I demonstrate that clothes washer prices and menus adjusted to the new standards in patterns consistent with a market in which firms had been price discriminating. In particular, I show evidence of discontinuous price drops at the time the standards were imposed, driven largely by mid-low efficiency segments of the market. The price discrimination model predicts this result. On the other hand, in a perfectly competition market, pricesmore » should increase for these market segments. Additionally, new models proliferated in the highest efficiency market segment following the standard changes. Finally, I show that firms appeared to use different adaptation strategies at the two instances of the standards changing.« less
[Competition and prices in the Mexican pharmaceutical market].
Molina-Salazar, Raúl E; González-Marín, Eloy; Carbajal-de Nova, Carolina
2008-01-01
The forms of market competition define prices. The pharmaceutical market contains submarkets with different levels of competition; on the one hand are the innovating products with patents, and on the other, generic products with or without trade names. Innovating medicines generally have monopolistic prices, but when the patents expire prices drop because of competition from therapeutic alternatives. The trade name makes it easier to maintain monopolistic prices. In Mexico, medicine prices in the private market are high--according to aggregated estimates and prices for specific medicines--which reflect the limitations of pharmaceutical market competition and the power of the trade name. The public segment enjoys competitive prices using the WHO strategy for essential medicines on the basis of the Essential List.
Pricing medicines: theory and practice, challenges and opportunities.
Gregson, Nigel; Sparrowhawk, Keiron; Mauskopf, Josephine; Paul, John
2005-02-01
The pricing of medicines has become one of the most hotly debated topics of recent times, with the pharmaceutical industry seemingly being attacked from all quarters. From a company perspective, determining the price for each new product is more crucial than ever, given the present dearth of new drug introductions. But how are pricing strategies developed in practice? What is value-based pricing and how are financial models of return on investment constructed? What are the challenges faced in setting the price for a particular product, and how will scientific and environmental trends provide future pricing challenges or opportunities?
Cigarette Price-Minimization Strategies by U.S. Smokers
Xu, Xin; Pesko, Michael F.; Tynan, Michael A.; Gerzoff, Robert B.; Malarcher, Ann M.; Pechacek, Terry F.
2015-01-01
Background Smokers may react to cigarette excise tax increases by engaging in price-minimization strategies (i.e., finding ways to reduce the cost of cigarette smoking) rather than by quitting or reducing their cigarette use, thereby reducing the public health benefits of such tax increases. Purpose To evaluate the state and national prevalence of five common cigarette price-minimization strategies and the size of price reductions obtained from these strategies. Methods Using data from the 2009–2010 National Adult Tobacco Survey, the prevalence of five common price-minimization strategies by type of strategy and by smoker’s cigarette consumption level were estimated. The price reductions associated with these price-minimization strategies also were evaluated. Analyses took place in November 2012. Results Approximately 55.4% of U.S. adult smokers used at least one of five price-minimization strategies in the previous year, with an average reduction of $1.27 per pack (22.0%). Results varied widely by state. Conclusions Cigarette price-minimization strategies are practiced widely among current smokers, and resulting price reductions are relatively large. Policies that decrease opportunities to effectively apply cigarette price-minimization strategies would increase the public health gains of cigarette excise tax increases. PMID:23597810
Pricing as a means of controlling alcohol consumption.
Sharma, Anurag; Sinha, Kompal; Vandenberg, Brian
2017-09-01
Reducing the affordability of alcohol, by increasing its price, is the most effective strategy for controlling alcohol consumption and reducing harm. We review meta-analyses and systematic reviews of alcohol tax/price effects from the past decade, and recent evaluations of tax/price policies in the UK, Canada and Australia. While the magnitudes of price effects vary by sub-group and alcoholic beverage type, it has been consistently shown that price increases lead to reductions in alcohol consumption. There remains, however, a lack of consensus on the most appropriate taxation and pricing policy in many countries because of concerns about effects by different consumption level and income level and disagreement on policy design between parts of the alcoholic beverage industries. Recent developments in the research highlight the importance of obtaining accurate alcohol price data, reducing bias in estimating price responsiveness, and examining the impact on the heaviest drinkers. There is a need for further research focusing on the substitution effects of taxation and pricing policies, estimation of the true tax pass-through rates, and empirical analysis of the supply-side response (from alcohol producers and retailers) to various alcohol pricing strategies. © The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1989
John S. Vissage
1992-01-01
In 1989, the average delivered price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood was $49.92, an increase of less than 2 percent since 1988. The average delivered price for a green ton of chipped residues increased about 3 percent to $21.70. The total pulpwood expenditure for Midsouth pulpmills increased about 6 percent to $1,658.5 million in 1989. In terms of 1980 dollars,...
7 CFR 1126.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat...; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the...
7 CFR 1032.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1126.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat...; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the...
7 CFR 1030.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, nonfat solids, protein and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1033.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1032.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1033.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1126.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat...; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the...
7 CFR 1032.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1126.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat...; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the...
7 CFR 1030.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, nonfat solids, protein and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1033.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1033.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1126.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price; (c) The nonfat...; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by combining the...
7 CFR 1032.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1032.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1030.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, nonfat solids, protein and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1030.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, nonfat solids, protein and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1030.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, nonfat solids, protein and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
7 CFR 1033.62 - Announcement of producer prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... publicly the following prices and information: (a) The producer price differential; (b) The protein price... cell adjustment rate; (g) The average butterfat, protein, nonfat solids, and other solids content of producer milk; and (h) The statistical uniform price for milk containing 3.5 percent butterfat, computed by...
5 CFR 591.209 - What is a price index?
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... Allowances § 591.209 What is a price index? (a) The price index is the COLA area price divided by the DC area price and multiplied by 100. (b) Example: COLA Area Average Price for Item A = $1.233 DC Area Average...
5 CFR 591.209 - What is a price index?
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... Allowances § 591.209 What is a price index? (a) The price index is the COLA area price divided by the DC area price and multiplied by 100. (b) Example: COLA Area Average Price for Item A = $1.233 DC Area Average...
5 CFR 591.209 - What is a price index?
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... Allowances § 591.209 What is a price index? (a) The price index is the COLA area price divided by the DC area price and multiplied by 100. (b) Example: COLA Area Average Price for Item A = $1.233 DC Area Average...
5 CFR 591.209 - What is a price index?
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-01-01
... Allowances § 591.209 What is a price index? (a) The price index is the COLA area price divided by the DC area price and multiplied by 100. (b) Example: COLA Area Average Price for Item A = $1.233 DC Area Average...
Prediction of future asset prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Seong, Ng Yew; Hin, Pooi Ah; Ching, Soo Huei
2014-12-01
This paper attempts to incorporate trading volumes as an additional predictor for predicting asset prices. Denoting r(t) as the vector consisting of the time-t values of the trading volume and price of a given asset, we model the time-(t+1) asset price to be dependent on the present and l-1 past values r(t), r(t-1), ....., r(t-1+1) via a conditional distribution which is derived from a (2l+1)-dimensional power-normal distribution. A prediction interval based on the 100(α/2)% and 100(1-α/2)% points of the conditional distribution is then obtained. By examining the average lengths of the prediction intervals found by using the composite indices of the Malaysia stock market for the period 2008 to 2013, we found that the value 2 appears to be a good choice for l. With the omission of the trading volume in the vector r(t), the corresponding prediction interval exhibits a slightly longer average length, showing that it might be desirable to keep trading volume as a predictor. From the above conditional distribution, the probability that the time-(t+1) asset price will be larger than the time-t asset price is next computed. When the probability differs from 0 (or 1) by less than 0.03, the observed time-(t+1) increase in price tends to be negative (or positive). Thus the above probability has a good potential of being used as a market indicator in technical analysis.
Cancer Drugs: An International Comparison of Postlicensing Price Inflation.
Savage, Philip; Mahmoud, Sarah; Patel, Yogin; Kantarjian, Hagop
2017-06-01
The cost of cancer drugs forms a rising proportion of health care budgets worldwide. A number of studies have examined international comparisons of initial cost, but there is little work on postlicensing price increases. To examine this, we compared cancer drug prices at initial sale and subsequent price inflation in the United States and United Kingdom and also reviewed relevant price control mechanisms. The 10 top-selling cancer drugs were selected, and their prices at initial launch and in 2015 were compared. Standard nondiscounted prices were obtained from the relevant annual copies of the RED BOOK and the British National Formulary. At initial marketing, prices were on average 42% higher in the United States than in the United Kingdom. After licensing in the United States, all 10 drugs had price rises averaging an overall annual 8.8% (range, 1.4% to 24.1%) increase. In comparison, in the United Kingdom, six drugs had unchanged prices, two had decreased prices, and two had modest price increases. The overall annual increase in the United Kingdom was 0.24%. Cancer drug prices are rising substantially, both at their initial marketing price and, in the United States, at postlicensing prices. In the United Kingdom, the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme, an agreement between the government and the pharmaceutical industry, controls health care costs while allowing a return on investment and funds for research. The increasing costs of cancer drugs are approaching the limits of sustainability, and a similar government-industry agreement may allow stability for both health care provision and the pharmaceutical industry in the United States.
Incentive pricing and cost recovery at the basin scale.
Ward, Frank A; Pulido-Velazquez, Manuel
2009-01-01
Incentive pricing programs have potential to promote economically efficient water use patterns and provide a revenue source to compensate for environmental damages. However, incentive pricing may impose disproportionate costs and aggravate poverty where high prices are levied for basic human needs. This paper presents an analysis of a two-tiered water pricing system that sets a low price for subsistence needs, while charging a price equal to marginal cost, including environmental cost, for discretionary uses. This pricing arrangement can promote efficient and sustainable water use patterns, goals set by the European Water Framework Directive, while meeting subsistence needs of poor households. Using data from the Rio Grande Basin of North America, a dynamic nonlinear program, maximizes the basin's total net economic and environmental benefits subject to several hydrological and institutional constraints. Supply costs, environmental costs, and resource costs are integrated in a model of a river basin's hydrology, economics, and institutions. Three programs are compared: (1) Law of the River, in which water allocations and prices are determined by rules governing water transfers; (2) marginal cost pricing, in which households pay the full marginal cost of supplying treated water; (3) two-tiered pricing, in which households' subsistence water needs are priced cheaply, while discretionary uses are priced at efficient levels. Compared to the Law of the River and marginal cost pricing, two-tiered pricing performs well for efficiency and adequately for sustainability and equity. Findings provide a general framework for formulating water pricing programs that promote economically and environmentally efficient water use programs while also addressing other policy goals.
Pricing Films, Filmstrips and Records.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Epstein, Connie C.
1984-01-01
Examines pricing practices of major producers of educational materials: Weston Woods, Listening Library, Random House Educational Media, Live Oak Media, S&S Communications Group, Phoenix/BFA, Benchmark, and Churchill Films. Royalties, production and manufacturing costs, list prices, recoveries to producers, and marketing are noted. (EJS)
Local house prices and mental health.
Joshi, Nayan Krishna
2016-03-01
This paper examines the impact of local (county-level) house prices on individual self-reported mental health using individual level data from the United States Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System between 2005 and 2011. Exploiting a fixed-effects model that relies on within-county variations, relative to the corresponding changes in other counties, I find that while individuals are likely to experience worse self-reported mental health when local house prices decline, this association is most pronounced for individuals who are least likely to be homeowners. This finding is not consistent with a prediction from a pure wealth mechanism but rather with the hypothesis that house prices act as an economic barometer. I also demonstrate that the association between self-reported mental health and local house prices is not driven by unemployment or foreclosure. The primary result-that lower local house prices have adverse impact on self-reported mental health of homeowners and renters-is consistent with studies using data from the United Kingdom.
48 CFR 570.110 - Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... competition. For price analysis of offered rental rates, the contracting officer may use a market survey, an... comparison, or other relevant market research data. For price analysis of offered tenant improvement costs...
48 CFR 570.110 - Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... competition. For price analysis of offered rental rates, the contracting officer may use a market survey, an... comparison, or other relevant market research data. For price analysis of offered tenant improvement costs...
48 CFR 570.110 - Cost or pricing data and information other than cost or pricing data.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... competition. For price analysis of offered rental rates, the contracting officer may use a market survey, an... comparison, or other relevant market research data. For price analysis of offered tenant improvement costs...
Cornelsen, Laura; Green, Rosemary; Turner, Rachel; Dangour, Alan D; Shankar, Bhavani; Mazzocchi, Mario; Smith, Richard D
2015-12-01
Recent years have seen considerable interest in examining the impact of food prices on food consumption and subsequent health consequences. Fiscal policies targeting the relative price of unhealthy foods are frequently put forward as ways to address the obesity epidemic. Conversely, various food subsidy interventions are used in attempts to reduce levels of under-nutrition. Information on price elasticities is essential for understanding how such changes in food prices affect food consumption. It is crucial to know not only own-price elasticities but also cross-price elasticities, as food substitution patterns may have significant implications for policy recommendations. While own-price elasticities are common in analyses of the impact of food price changes on health, cross-price effects, even though generally acknowledged, are much less frequently included in analyses, especially in the public health literature. This article systematically reviews the global evidence on cross-price elasticities and provides combined estimates for seven food groups in low-income, middle-income and high-income countries alongside previously estimated own-price elasticities. Changes in food prices had the largest own-price effects in low-income countries. Cross-price effects were more varied and depending on country income level were found to be reinforcing, undermining or alleviating own-price effects. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
48 CFR 970.1504-2 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2014-10-01 2014-10-01 false Price negotiation. 970... SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS DOE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATING CONTRACTS Contracting by Negotiation 970.1504-2 Price negotiation. (a) Management and operating contract prices (fee) and DOE obligations to support contract...
48 CFR 970.1504-2 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2012-10-01 2012-10-01 false Price negotiation. 970... SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS DOE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATING CONTRACTS Contracting by Negotiation 970.1504-2 Price negotiation. (a) Management and operating contract prices (fee) and DOE obligations to support contract...
48 CFR 970.1504-2 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2013-10-01 2013-10-01 false Price negotiation. 970... SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS DOE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATING CONTRACTS Contracting by Negotiation 970.1504-2 Price negotiation. (a) Management and operating contract prices (fee) and DOE obligations to support contract...
48 CFR 970.1504-2 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2011-10-01 2011-10-01 false Price negotiation. 970... SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS DOE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATING CONTRACTS Contracting by Negotiation 970.1504-2 Price negotiation. (a) Management and operating contract prices (fee) and DOE obligations to support contract...
48 CFR 970.1504-2 - Price negotiation.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 5 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price negotiation. 970... SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS DOE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATING CONTRACTS Contracting by Negotiation 970.1504-2 Price negotiation. (a) Management and operating contract prices (fee) and DOE obligations to support contract...
48 CFR 217.7404-2 - Price ceiling.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price ceiling. 217.7404-2 Section 217.7404-2 Federal Acquisition Regulations System DEFENSE ACQUISITION REGULATIONS SYSTEM... Contract Actions 217.7404-2 Price ceiling. UCAs shall include a not-to-exceed price. ...
Outpatient Provider Concentration and Commercial Colonoscopy Prices
Pozen, Alexis
2015-01-01
The objective was to evaluate the magnitude of various contributors to outpatient commercial colonoscopy prices, including market- and provider-level factors, especially market share. We used adjudicated fee-for-service facility claims from a large commercial insurer for colonoscopies occurring in hospital outpatient department or ambulatory surgery center from October 2005 to December 2012. Claims were matched to provider- and market-level data. Linear fixed effects regressions of negotiated colonoscopy price were run on provider, system, and market characteristics. Markets were defined as counties. There were 178 433 claims from 169 providers (104 systems). The mean system market share was 76% (SD = 0.34) and the mean real (deflated) price was US$1363 (SD = 374), ranging from US$169 to US$2748. For every percentage point increase in a system or individual facility’s bed share, relative price increased by 2 to 4 percentage points; this result was stable across a number of specifications. Market population and price were also consistently positively related, though this relation was small in magnitude. No other factor explained price as strongly as market share. Price variation for colonoscopy was driven primarily by market share, of particular concern as the number of mergers increases in wake of the recession and the Affordable Care Act. Whether variation is justified by better quality care requires further research to determine whether quality is subsumed in prices. PMID:25870183
14 CFR 1260.145 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-01-01
... 14 Aeronautics and Space 5 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Cost and price analysis. 1260.145 Section... price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be accomplished in various ways...
38 CFR 49.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 38 Pensions, Bonuses, and Veterans' Relief 2 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Cost and price analysis... price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be accomplished in various ways...
40 CFR 30.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 40 Protection of Environment 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Cost and price analysis. 30.45 Section... price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be accomplished in various ways...
The importance of time cost in pricing outpatient care.
Heshmat, S
1988-01-01
The purpose of this article is to discuss the component of the full price charged to patients using outpatient care. The full price of a visit to a physician is equal to out-of-pocket payment (money price), and time costs. In particular, the article discusses the concept of time price (marginal value of time for a patient), and presents a specific example to illustrate the concept of time price elasticity. The concepts and information presented in this article can help marketing managers in setting pricing strategy that would explicitly consider time price.
The volatility of stock market prices.
Shiller, R J
1987-01-02
If the volatility of stock market prices is to be understood in terms of the efficient markets hypothesis, then there should be evidence that true investment value changes through time sufficiently to justify the price changes. Three indicators of change in true investment value of the aggregate stock market in the United States from 1871 to 1986 are considered: changes in dividends, in real interest rates, and in a direct measure of intertemporal marginal rates of substitution. Although there are some ambiguities in interpreting the evidence, dividend changes appear to contribute very little toward justifying the observed historical volatility of stock prices. The other indicators contribute some, but still most of the volatility of stock market prices appears unexplained.
Non-equilibrium price theories
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Helbing, Dirk; Kern, Daniel
2000-11-01
We propose two theories for the formation of stock prices under the condition that the number of available stocks is fixed. Both theories consider the balance equations for cash and several kinds of stocks. They also take into account interest rates, dividends, and transaction costs. The proposed theories have the advantage that they do not require iterative procedures to determine the price, which would be inefficient for simulations with many agents.
Midsouth Pulpwood Prices, 1991
Patrick E. Miller
1993-01-01
The average delivered price for a cord of Midsouth roundwood in 1991 was $56.39, an increase of 6.5 percent since 1990. Softwood roundwood averaged $58.24 and hardwoods, $50.48 per standard cord, up 2.8 and 7.9 percent, respectively. Chipped residue prices were $26.52 for softwood and $21.0l for hardwood per green ton. The expenditure for wood fiber in the Midsouth...
Prices and availability of pharmaceuticals: evidence from nine countries.
Danzon, Patricia M; Furukawa, Michael F
2003-01-01
This study compares average price levels for pharmaceuticals in eight countries--Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and the United Kingdom--relative to the United States. Our most comprehensive indexes, adjusted for U.S. manufacturer discounts, show Japan's prices to be higher than U.S. prices, and other countries' prices ranging from 6 percent to 33 percent lower than U.S. prices. The decline of the Canadian dollar and rise of the U.K. pound contribute to the finding of lower Canadian prices and higher U.K. prices in 1999 than in 1992. Our findings suggest that U.S.-foreign price differentials are roughly in line with income and smaller for drugs than for other medical services.
Pearson, Amber L; Winter, Pieta R; McBreen, Ben; Stewart, Georgia; Roets, Rianda; Nutsford, Daniel; Bowie, Christopher; Donnellan, Niamh; Wilson, Nick
2014-01-01
Inadequate fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption is an important dietary risk factor for disease internationally. High F&V prices can be a barrier to dietary intake and so to improve understanding of this topic we surveyed prices and potential competition between F&V outlet types. Over a three week early autumn period in 2013, prices were collected bi-weekly for 18 commonly purchased F&Vs from farmers' markets (FM) selling local produce (n = 3), other F&V markets (OFVM) (n = 5), supermarkets that neighbored markets (n = 8), and more distant supermarkets (n = 8), (in urban Wellington and Christchurch areas of New Zealand). Prices from an online supermarket were also collected. A total of 3120 prices were collected. Most F&Vs (13/18) were significantly cheaper at OFVMs than supermarkets. Over half of the F&Vs (10/18) were significantly cheaper at nearby compared to distant supermarkets, providing evidence of a moderate 'halo effect' in price reductions in supermarkets that neighbored markets. Weekend (vs midweek) prices were also significantly cheaper at nearby (vs distant) supermarkets, supporting evidence for a 'halo effect'. Ideal weekly 'food basket' prices for a two adult, two child family were: OFVMs (NZ$76), online supermarket ($113), nearby supermarkets ($124), distant supermarkets ($127), and FMs ($138). This represents a savings of $49 per week (US$26) by using OFVMs relative to (non-online) supermarkets. Similarly, a shift from non-online supermarkets to the online supermarket would generate a $13 saving. In these locations general markets appear to be providing some substantially lower prices for fruit and vegetables than supermarkets. They also appear to be depressing prices in neighboring supermarkets. These results, when supplemented by other needed research, may help inform the case for interventions to improve access to fruit and vegetables, particularly for low-income populations.
24 CFR 84.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... 24 Housing and Urban Development 1 2010-04-01 2010-04-01 false Cost and price analysis. 84.45....45 Cost and price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be accomplished in various...
49 CFR 19.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 49 Transportation 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Cost and price analysis. 19.45 Section 19.45... Requirements Procurement Standards § 19.45 Cost and price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price...
32 CFR 32.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 32 National Defense 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Cost and price analysis. 32.45 Section 32.45... price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be accomplished in various ways...
Price differentiation and transparency in the global pharmaceutical marketplace.
Ridley, David B
2005-01-01
Pharmaceutical manufacturers have increased the availability of their products and sometimes increased their own financial returns by charging lower prices outside of the US and by discounting to lower-income patients in the US. Examples include discounted HIV-AIDS drugs in developing countries and pharmaceutical manufacturers' discount cards in the US. Representatives of some international organisations argue that the price reductions are insufficient to make the medications widely available to lower-income patients. The WHO advocates both differential pricing and price transparency. While its efforts are well meaning, this paper identifies six concerns about its methods of comparing the price of a given molecule across manufacturers and across countries. More significantly, the WHO efforts to increase transparency are likely to lead to less price differentiation and less access to innovative pharmaceuticals. An important reason why manufacturers are reluctant to charge lower prices in lower-income countries is that they fear that such low prices will undermine the prices they charge to higher-income consumers. International organisations should not facilitate transparency but should dissuade governments from making price comparisons and basing their prices on those of lower-income countries. Furthermore, they should endeavour to keep low-priced and free drugs in the hands of the low-income consumers for which they were intended.
State energy price and expenditure report 1994
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
NONE
1997-06-01
The State Energy Price and Expenditure Report (SEPER) presents energy price and expenditure estimates individually for the 50 States and the District of Columbia and in aggregate for the United States. The price and expenditure estimates developed in the State Energy Price and Expenditure Data System (SEPEDS) are provided by energy source and economic sector and are published for the years 1970 through 1994. Consumption estimates used to calculate expenditures and the documentation for those estimates are taken from the State Energy Data Report 1994, Consumption Estimates (SEDR), published in October 1996. Expenditures are calculated by multiplying the price estimatesmore » by the consumption estimates, which are adjusted to remove process fuel; intermediate petroleum products; and other consumption that has no direct fuel costs, i.e., hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, solar, and photovoltaic energy sources. Documentation is included describing the development of price estimates, data sources, and calculation methods. 316 tabs.« less
High prices for generics in Australia - more competition might help.
Bulfone, Liliana
2009-05-01
It is commonly believed that dispensed prices of medicines in Australia are substantially lower than those in other developed countries, particularly the US. This article reports the results of an analysis comparing dispensed prices for the most commonly prescribed and the highest cost items in Australia with dispensed prices in the US. Although a large majority of items are less expensive in Australia than in the US, Australian prices are higher for a substantial number of products, particularly generic drugs. This article examines various policies affecting the pricing of generics in Australia. It is postulated that the main cause for higher prices for a substantial number of generic products is the lack of price competition. This results from government policy which ensures that a price reduction by one company is communicated immediately to all competitors in that market along with an invitation to match the reduced price. The dominant strategy for all suppliers is to only reduce their price in response to a reduction in price by a competitor. The result is a lack of differentiation in pricing across brands of a medicine on the Schedule of Pharmaceutical Benefits. The government could improve the structure of the generics market and encourage greater competition by ceasing to disclose competitor firms' offers to other competitors. The government could conduct pricing reviews of each generic product relatively infrequently (eg, only once annually or every 18 months). At the time of the pricing review, the government would request confidential offers on price for a generic from all players in the market. Brands should then all be listed under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) at the offered price. Prices offered by the individual supplier would apply until the next pricing review. The PBS would continue to subsidise up to the price of the lowest priced brand, with brand premiums applying to all brands priced higher than the benchmark price. Such an
Improved structural pricing model for the fair market price of Sukuk Ijarah in Indonesia
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Rosadi, D.; Muslim
2017-12-01
Shariah financial products are currently developing in Indonesia financial market. One of the most important products is called as Sukuk which is commonly referred to as "sharia compliant" bonds. The type of Sukuk that have been widely traded in Indonesia until now are Sukuk Ijarah and Sukuk Mudharabah. In [1], we discuss various models for the price of the fixed-non-callable Sukuk Ijarah and provide the empirical studies using data from Indonesia Bonds market. We found that the structural model considered in [1] cannot model the market price empirically well. In this paper, we consider the improved model and show that it performs well for modelling the fair market price of Sukuk Ijarah.
Lagi, Marco; Bar-Yam, Yavni; Bertrand, Karla Z; Bar-Yam, Yaneer
2015-11-10
Recent increases in basic food prices are severely affecting vulnerable populations worldwide. Proposed causes such as shortages of grain due to adverse weather, increasing meat consumption in China and India, conversion of corn to ethanol in the United States, and investor speculation on commodity markets lead to widely differing implications for policy. A lack of clarity about which factors are responsible reinforces policy inaction. Here, for the first time to our knowledge, we construct a dynamic model that quantitatively agrees with food prices. The results show that the dominant causes of price increases are investor speculation and ethanol conversion. Models that just treat supply and demand are not consistent with the actual price dynamics. The two sharp peaks in 2007/2008 and 2010/2011 are specifically due to investor speculation, whereas an underlying upward trend is due to increasing demand from ethanol conversion. The model includes investor trend following as well as shifting between commodities, equities, and bonds to take advantage of increased expected returns. Claims that speculators cannot influence grain prices are shown to be invalid by direct analysis of price-setting practices of granaries. Both causes of price increase, speculative investment and ethanol conversion, are promoted by recent regulatory changes-deregulation of the commodity markets, and policies promoting the conversion of corn to ethanol. Rapid action is needed to reduce the impacts of the price increases on global hunger.
Reducing tobacco use and access through strengthened minimum price laws.
McLaughlin, Ian; Pearson, Anne; Laird-Metke, Elisa; Ribisl, Kurt
2014-10-01
Higher prices reduce consumption and initiation of tobacco products. A minimum price law that establishes a high statutory minimum price and prohibits the industry's discounting tactics for tobacco products is a promising pricing strategy as an alternative to excise tax increases. Although some states have adopted minimum price laws on the basis of statutorily defined price "markups" over the invoice price, existing state laws have been largely ineffective at increasing the retail price. We analyzed 3 new variations of minimum price laws that hold great potential for raising tobacco prices and reducing consumption: (1) a flat rate minimum price law similar to a recent enactment in New York City, (2) an enhanced markup law, and (3) a law that incorporates both elements.
Reducing Tobacco Use and Access Through Strengthened Minimum Price Laws
Pearson, Anne; Laird-Metke, Elisa; Ribisl, Kurt
2014-01-01
Higher prices reduce consumption and initiation of tobacco products. A minimum price law that establishes a high statutory minimum price and prohibits the industry’s discounting tactics for tobacco products is a promising pricing strategy as an alternative to excise tax increases. Although some states have adopted minimum price laws on the basis of statutorily defined price “markups” over the invoice price, existing state laws have been largely ineffective at increasing the retail price. We analyzed 3 new variations of minimum price laws that hold great potential for raising tobacco prices and reducing consumption: (1) a flat rate minimum price law similar to a recent enactment in New York City, (2) an enhanced markup law, and (3) a law that incorporates both elements. PMID:25121820
25 CFR 140.22 - Inspection of traders' prices.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-04-01
... 25 Indians 1 2010-04-01 2010-04-01 false Inspection of traders' prices. 140.22 Section 140.22... § 140.22 Inspection of traders' prices. It is the duty of the superintendent to see that the prices... statement of transportation charges, retail price of articles sold by them, the amount of Indian accounts...
43 CFR 12.945 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 43 Public Lands: Interior 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Cost and price analysis. 12.945 Section 12... Requirements § 12.945 Cost and price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be...
48 CFR 16.403 - Fixed-price incentive contracts.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... relationship of total final negotiated cost to total target cost. The final price is subject to a price ceiling, negotiated at the outset. The two forms of fixed-price incentive contracts, firm target and successive targets, are further described in 16.403-1 and 16.403-2 below. (b) Application. A fixed-price incentive...
48 CFR 16.403 - Fixed-price incentive contracts.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
2011-10-01
... relationship of total final negotiated cost to total target cost. The final price is subject to a price ceiling, negotiated at the outset. The two forms of fixed-price incentive contracts, firm target and successive targets, are further described in 16.403-1 and 16.403-2 below. (b) Application. A fixed-price incentive...
Financial derivative pricing under probability operator via Esscher transfomation
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
Achi, Godswill U., E-mail: achigods@yahoo.com
2014-10-24
The problem of pricing contingent claims has been extensively studied for non-Gaussian models, and in particular, Black- Scholes formula has been derived for the NIG asset pricing model. This approach was first developed in insurance pricing{sup 9} where the original distortion function was defined in terms of the normal distribution. This approach was later studied6 where they compared the standard Black-Scholes contingent pricing and distortion based contingent pricing. So, in this paper, we aim at using distortion operators by Cauchy distribution under a simple transformation to price contingent claim. We also show that we can recuperate the Black-Sholes formula usingmore » the distribution. Similarly, in a financial market in which the asset price represented by a stochastic differential equation with respect to Brownian Motion, the price mechanism based on characteristic Esscher measure can generate approximate arbitrage free financial derivative prices. The price representation derived involves probability Esscher measure and Esscher Martingale measure and under a new complex valued measure φ (u) evaluated at the characteristic exponents φ{sub x}(u) of X{sub t} we recuperate the Black-Scholes formula for financial derivative prices.« less
Financial derivative pricing under probability operator via Esscher transfomation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Achi, Godswill U.
2014-10-01
The problem of pricing contingent claims has been extensively studied for non-Gaussian models, and in particular, Black- Scholes formula has been derived for the NIG asset pricing model. This approach was first developed in insurance pricing9 where the original distortion function was defined in terms of the normal distribution. This approach was later studied6 where they compared the standard Black-Scholes contingent pricing and distortion based contingent pricing. So, in this paper, we aim at using distortion operators by Cauchy distribution under a simple transformation to price contingent claim. We also show that we can recuperate the Black-Sholes formula using the distribution. Similarly, in a financial market in which the asset price represented by a stochastic differential equation with respect to Brownian Motion, the price mechanism based on characteristic Esscher measure can generate approximate arbitrage free financial derivative prices. The price representation derived involves probability Esscher measure and Esscher Martingale measure and under a new complex valued measure φ (u) evaluated at the characteristic exponents φx(u) of Xt we recuperate the Black-Scholes formula for financial derivative prices.
48 CFR 232.501-3 - Contract price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Contract price. 232.501-3... 232.501-3 Contract price. (b) The contracting officer may approve progress payments when the contract price exceeds the funds obligated under the contract, provided the contract limits the Government's...
48 CFR 32.501-3 - Contract price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 1 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Contract price. 32.501-3... REQUIREMENTS CONTRACT FINANCING Progress Payments Based on Costs 32.501-3 Contract price. (a) For the purpose of making progress payments and determining the limitation on progress payments, the contract price...
Introducing Nonlinear Pricing into Consumer Choice Theory.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
DeSalvo, Joseph S.; Huq, Mobinul
2002-01-01
Describes and contrasts nonlinear and linear pricing in consumer choice theory. Discusses the types of nonlinear pricing: block-declining tariff, two-part tariff, three-part tariff, and quality discounts or premia. States that understanding nonlinear pricing enhances student comprehension of consumer choice theory. Suggests teaching the concept in…
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... be granted, and whether the price is fair and reasonable. (i) Identification of the law or regulation establishing the price offered. If the price is controlled under law by periodic rulings, reviews, or similar... offeror shall submit, at a minimum, information on prices at which the same item or similar items have...
Sadjadi, Seyed Jafar; Asadi, Hashem; Sadeghian, Ramin; Sahebi, Hadi
2018-01-01
This paper studies the Retailer Stackelberg game in a supply chain consisting of two manufacturers and one retailer where they compete simultaneously under three factors including price, service and simple price discount contract. It is assumed that the second manufacturer provides service directly to his customers, and the retailer provides service for the first product's customers, while the retailer buys the first product under price discount from the first manufacturer. The analysis of the optimal equilibrium solutions and the results of the numerical examples show that if a manufacturer chooses the appropriate range of discount rate, he will gain more profit than when there is no discount given to the retailer. This situation can be considered as an effective tool for the coordination of the first manufacturer and the retailer to offer discount by manufacturer and to provide the service by the retailer. We obtain equilibrium solution of Retailer Stackelberg game and analyze the numerical examples under two cases: a) the manufacturers sell their products to the retailer without price discount contract. b) The first manufacturer sells his products to the retailer with the simple price discount contract. The preliminary results show that the service and the price discount contract can improve the performance of supply chain.
Sadjadi, Seyed Jafar; Sadeghian, Ramin; Sahebi, Hadi
2018-01-01
This paper studies the Retailer Stackelberg game in a supply chain consisting of two manufacturers and one retailer where they compete simultaneously under three factors including price, service and simple price discount contract. It is assumed that the second manufacturer provides service directly to his customers, and the retailer provides service for the first product’s customers, while the retailer buys the first product under price discount from the first manufacturer. The analysis of the optimal equilibrium solutions and the results of the numerical examples show that if a manufacturer chooses the appropriate range of discount rate, he will gain more profit than when there is no discount given to the retailer. This situation can be considered as an effective tool for the coordination of the first manufacturer and the retailer to offer discount by manufacturer and to provide the service by the retailer. We obtain equilibrium solution of Retailer Stackelberg game and analyze the numerical examples under two cases: a) the manufacturers sell their products to the retailer without price discount contract. b) The first manufacturer sells his products to the retailer with the simple price discount contract. The preliminary results show that the service and the price discount contract can improve the performance of supply chain. PMID:29649315
29 CFR 95.45 - Cost and price analysis.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-07-01
... 29 Labor 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 true Cost and price analysis. 95.45 Section 95.45 Labor Office of... Procurement Standards § 95.45 Cost and price analysis. Some form of cost or price analysis shall be made and documented in the procurement files in connection with every procurement action. Price analysis may be...
42 CFR 447.505 - Determination of best price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-10-01
..., discounts, or other price concessions that adjust prices either directly or indirectly— (1) Prices to... excludes: (1) Any prices on or after October 1, 1992, charged to the IHS, the DVA, a State home receiving... Part D of title XVIII, by any MA-PD plan under Part C of such title with respect to covered Part D...
42 CFR 447.505 - Determination of best price.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-10-01
..., discounts, or other price concessions that adjust prices either directly or indirectly— (1) Prices to... excludes: (1) Any prices on or after October 1, 1992, charged to the IHS, the DVA, a State home receiving... Part D of title XVIII, by any MA-PD plan under Part C of such title with respect to covered Part D...
Determinants of branded prescription medicine prices in OECD countries.
Kanavos, Panos G; Vandoros, Sotiris
2011-07-01
This paper investigates the determinants of the prices of branded prescription medicines across different regulatory settings and health care systems, taking into account their launch date, patent status, market dynamics and the regulatory context in which they diffuse. By using volume-weighted price indices, this paper analyzes price levels for a basket of prescription medicines and their differences in 15 OECD countries, including the United States and key European countries, the impact of distribution margins and generic entry on public prices and to what extent innovation, by means of introducing newer classes of medicines, contributes to price formation across countries. In doing so, the paper seeks to understand the factors that contribute to the existing differences in prices across countries, whether at an ex-factory or a retail level. The evidence shows that retail prices for branded prescription medicines in the United States are higher than those in key European and other OECD countries, but not as high as widely thought. Large differences in prices are mainly observed at an ex-factory level, but these are not the prices that consumers and payers pay. Cross-country differences in retail prices are actually not as high as expected and, when controlling for exchange rates, these differences can be even smaller. Product age has a significant effect on prices in all settings after having controlled for other factors. Price convergence is observed across countries for newer prescription medicines compared with older medicines. There is no evidence that originator brand prices fall after generic entry in the United States, a phenomenon known as the 'generics paradox'. Finally, distribution and taxes are important determinants of retail prices in several of the study countries. To the extent that remuneration of the distribution chain and taxation are directly and proportionately linked to product prices this is likely to persist over time.
Tests for Long-Run Relationships in Hardwood Lumber Prices
William G. Luppold; Jeffrey P. Prestemon
2003-01-01
Hardwood lumber prices are unique because of the large number of marketable species and variability of prices across species. Previous research showed that long-run fashion decisions regarding species selection may be influenced by price, so the interaction between fashion and species price may act to keep prices (hence, demand) of different hardwood species together...
Overview of external reference pricing systems in Europe
Rémuzat, Cécile; Urbinati, Duccio; Mzoughi, Olfa; El Hammi, Emna; Belgaied, Wael; Toumi, Mondher
2015-01-01
Background and objectives External reference pricing (ERP) is a price regulation tool widely used by policy makers in the European Union (EU) Member States (MS) to contain drug cost, although in theory, it may contribute to modulate prices up and down. The objective of this article was to summarise and discuss the main findings of part of a large project conducted for the European Commission (‘External reference pricing of medicinal products: simulation-based considerations for cross-country coordination’; see www.ec.europa.eu/health/healthcare/docs/erp_reimbursement_medicinal_products_en.pdf) that aimed to provide an overview of ERP systems, both on processes and potential issues in 31 European countries (28 EU MS, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland). Methods A systematic structured literature review was conducted to identify and characterise the use of ERP in the selected countries, to describe its impact on the prices of pharmaceuticals, and to discuss the possible cross-country coordination issues in EU MS. This research was complemented with a consultation of competent authorities’ and international organisations’ representatives to address the main issues or uncertainties identified through the literature review. Results All selected countries applied ERP, except the United Kingdom and Sweden. Twenty-three countries used ERP as the main systematic criterion for pricing. In the majority of European countries, ERP was based on legislated pricing rules with different levels of accuracy. ERP was applied either for all marketed drugs or for specific categories of medicines; it was mainly used for publicly reimbursed medicines. The number of reference countries included in the basket varied from 1 to 31. There was a great variation in the calculation methods used to compute the price; 15 countries used the average price, 7 countries used the lowest price, and 7 countries used other calculation methods. Reported limitations of ERP application included the lack
Overview of external reference pricing systems in Europe.
Rémuzat, Cécile; Urbinati, Duccio; Mzoughi, Olfa; El Hammi, Emna; Belgaied, Wael; Toumi, Mondher
2015-01-01
External reference pricing (ERP) is a price regulation tool widely used by policy makers in the European Union (EU) Member States (MS) to contain drug cost, although in theory, it may contribute to modulate prices up and down. The objective of this article was to summarise and discuss the main findings of part of a large project conducted for the European Commission ('External reference pricing of medicinal products: simulation-based considerations for cross-country coordination'; see www.ec.europa.eu/health/healthcare/docs/erp_reimbursement_medicinal_products_en.pdf) that aimed to provide an overview of ERP systems, both on processes and potential issues in 31 European countries (28 EU MS, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland). A systematic structured literature review was conducted to identify and characterise the use of ERP in the selected countries, to describe its impact on the prices of pharmaceuticals, and to discuss the possible cross-country coordination issues in EU MS. This research was complemented with a consultation of competent authorities' and international organisations' representatives to address the main issues or uncertainties identified through the literature review. All selected countries applied ERP, except the United Kingdom and Sweden. Twenty-three countries used ERP as the main systematic criterion for pricing. In the majority of European countries, ERP was based on legislated pricing rules with different levels of accuracy. ERP was applied either for all marketed drugs or for specific categories of medicines; it was mainly used for publicly reimbursed medicines. The number of reference countries included in the basket varied from 1 to 31. There was a great variation in the calculation methods used to compute the price; 15 countries used the average price, 7 countries used the lowest price, and 7 countries used other calculation methods. Reported limitations of ERP application included the lack of reliable sources of price information, price
The value of price transparency in residential solar photovoltaic markets
DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)
O'Shaughnessy, Eric; Margolis, Robert
Installed prices for residential solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have declined significantly in recent years. However price dispersion and limited customer access to PV quotes prevents some prospective customers from obtaining low price offers. This study shows that improved customer access to prices - also known as price transparency - is a potential policy lever for further PV price reductions. We use customer search and strategic pricing theory to show that PV installation companies face incentives to offer lower prices in markets with more price transparency. We test this theoretical framework using a unique residential PV quote dataset. Our results showmore » that installers offer lower prices to customers that are expected to receive more quotes. Our study provides a rationale for policies to improve price transparency in residential PV markets.« less
The value of price transparency in residential solar photovoltaic markets
O'Shaughnessy, Eric; Margolis, Robert
2018-04-05
Installed prices for residential solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have declined significantly in recent years. However price dispersion and limited customer access to PV quotes prevents some prospective customers from obtaining low price offers. This study shows that improved customer access to prices - also known as price transparency - is a potential policy lever for further PV price reductions. We use customer search and strategic pricing theory to show that PV installation companies face incentives to offer lower prices in markets with more price transparency. We test this theoretical framework using a unique residential PV quote dataset. Our results showmore » that installers offer lower prices to customers that are expected to receive more quotes. Our study provides a rationale for policies to improve price transparency in residential PV markets.« less
Assessment of Prices of Natural Gas Futures Contracts As A Predictor of Realized Spot Prices, An
2005-01-01
This article compares realized Henry Hub spot market prices for natural gas during the three most recent winters with futures prices as they evolve from April through the following February, when trading for the March contract ends.
Guan, Xiaodong; Yang, Mingchun; Man, Chunxia; Tian, Ye; Shi, Luwen
2018-04-30
In an effort to relieve the pressure of drug shortages, the Chinese government implemented Low-price Medicines (LPM) policy to raise the price cap in July 2014. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the implementation of this policy on drug price in China. Price data of 491 LPM, including 218 low-price chemical medicines (LPCM) and 273 low-price traditional Chinese medicines (LPTCM), were collected from 699 hospitals. We used interrupted time series design to identify the variation of monthly Laspeyres Indexes (LI) and Paasche Indexes (PI) for LPM, LPCM, and LPTCM. The result demonstrated that although LPM expenditures increased, the proportion of LPM expenditures accounting for all medicine expenditures fell from 3.6% to 3.2%. After the implementation of LPM policy, there was a significant increasing trend in LPM-PI, LPCM-PI, and LPTCM-PI. The trend in LPM-LI and LPCM-LI was found from descending to rising. However, for LPTCM, the trend in the LI remained to decrease after the policy implementation. Despite the LPM policy had an increasing impact on the LPM drug price, the proportion of LPM expenditures accounting for all medicine expenditures did not increase. More efforts are needed in the future to promote the rational drug use in China. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
7 CFR 1170.8 - Price reporting specifications.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR
2012-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2012-01-01 2012-01-01 false Price reporting specifications. 1170.8 Section 1170.8... Agreements and Orders; Milk), DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DAIRY PRODUCT MANDATORY REPORTING § 1170.8 Price...) Specifications for Cheddar Cheese Prices: (1) Variety: Cheddar cheese. (2) Style: 40-pound blocks or 500-pound...
7 CFR 1170.8 - Price reporting specifications.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
2014-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2014-01-01 2013-01-01 true Price reporting specifications. 1170.8 Section 1170.8... AGREEMENTS AND ORDERS; MILK), DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DAIRY PRODUCT MANDATORY REPORTING § 1170.8 Price...) Specifications for Cheddar Cheese Prices: (1) Variety: Cheddar cheese. (2) Style: 40-pound blocks or 500-pound...
7 CFR 1170.8 - Price reporting specifications.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR
2013-01-01
... 7 Agriculture 9 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 false Price reporting specifications. 1170.8 Section 1170.8... AGREEMENTS AND ORDERS; MILK), DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE DAIRY PRODUCT MANDATORY REPORTING § 1170.8 Price...) Specifications for Cheddar Cheese Prices: (1) Variety: Cheddar cheese. (2) Style: 40-pound blocks or 500-pound...
48 CFR 652.216-71 - Price Adjustment.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
2010-10-01
... 48 Federal Acquisition Regulations System 4 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Price Adjustment. 652.216... SOLICITATION PROVISIONS AND CONTRACT CLAUSES Texts of Provisions and Clauses 652.216-71 Price Adjustment. As prescribed in 616.203-4, insert a clause substantially the same as follows: Price Adjustment (AUG 1999) (a...
76 FR 29013 - Change in Postal Prices
Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
2011-05-19
... POSTAL REGULATORY COMMISSION [Docket No. CP2009-61; Order No. 729] Change in Postal Prices AGENCY... Postal Service filed notice that prices under Parcel Select & Parcel Return Service Contract 2 filed in... approved by the Commission. Id. \\1\\ Notice of United States Postal Service of Change in Prices Pursuant to...
Creating New Pricing Models for Electronic Publishing.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Boelio, David B.; Knight, Nancy H.
Establishing pricing policies for electronic publishing that are fair and flexible is of vital importance to the information industry. The pricing of most information available electronically is far less efficient and market-sensitive than it could be. Some of the new approaches to pricing, emphasizing a usage-based metric providing qualitative…
How Market Structure Drives Commodity Prices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Bin; Wong, K. Y. Michael; Chan, Amos H. M.; So, Tsz Yan; Heimonen, Hermanni; Saad, David
To understand how market structure drives commodity price trends with respect to resource availability we introduce an agent-based model, in which agents set their prices to maximize profit. At steady state the market self-organizes into three groups: excess producers, consumers and balanced agents. When resources are scarce prices rise sharply below a turning point marking the disappearance of excess producers. By introducing an elasticity parameter to mitigate noise and long-term changes in commodities data, we confirm the trend of rising prices, provide evidence for turning points, and indicate yield points for less essential commodities. This work is supported by Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (Grant Numbers 604512, 605813, and 16322616) and the Leverhulme Trust RPG-2013-48.
Information pricing based on trusted system
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Liu, Zehua; Zhang, Nan; Han, Hongfeng
2018-05-01
Personal information has become a valuable commodity in today's society. So our goal aims to develop a price point and a pricing system to be realistic. First of all, we improve the existing BLP system to prevent cascading incidents, design a 7-layer model. Through the cost of encryption in each layer, we develop PI price points. Besides, we use association rules mining algorithms in data mining algorithms to calculate the importance of information in order to optimize informational hierarchies of different attribute types when located within a multi-level trusted system. Finally, we use normal distribution model to predict encryption level distribution for users in different classes and then calculate information prices through a linear programming model with the help of encryption level distribution above.
Crude oil prices: Speculation versus fundamentals
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kolodziej, Marek Krzysztof
Beginning in 2004, the price of crude oil fluctuates rapidly over a wide range. Large and rapid price increases have recessionary consequences and dampen long-term infrastructural investment. I investigate whether price changes are driven by market fundamentals or speculation. With regard to market fundamentals, I revisit econometric evidence for the importance of demand shocks, as proxied by dry maritime cargo rates, on oil prices. When I eliminate transportation costs from both sides of the equation, disaggregate OPEC and non-OPEC production, and allow for more than one cointegrating relation, I find that previous specifications are inconsistent with arguments that demand shocks play an important role. Instead, results confirm the importance of OPEC supply shocks. I investigate two channels by which speculation may affect oil prices; the direct effect of trader behavior and changes in oil from a commodity to a financial asset. With regard to trader behavior, I find evidence that trader positions are required to explain the spread between spot and futures prices of crude oil on the New York Mercantile Exchange. The inclusion of trader positions clarifies the process of equilibrium error correction, such that there is bidirectional causality between prices and trader positions. This creates the possibility of speculative bubbles. With regard to oil as a commodity and/or financial asset, I use a Kalman Filter model to estimate the time-varying partial correlation between returns to investments in equity and oil markets. This correlation changes from negative to positive at the onset of the 2008 financial crisis. The low interest rates used to rescue the economy depress convenience yields, which reduces the benefits of holding oil as a commodity. Instead, oil becomes a financial asset (on net) as the oil market changed from contango to backwardation. Contradicting simple political narratives, my research suggests that both market fundamentals and speculation drive