75 FR 17579 - Aminopyralid; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-04-07

... exposure through drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include occupational exposure... from drinking water. The Agency used screening level water exposure models in the dietary exposure analysis and risk assessment for aminopyralid in drinking water. These simulation models take into account...

SCREENING MODELS TO PREDICT PROBABILITY OF CONTAMINATION BY PATHOGENIC VIRUSES IN DRINKING WATER AQUIFERS

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act's 1996 Amendments broadened the definition of public water systems (PWS) to include systems which serve drinking water to as few as 25 individuals. Implementation of the proposed Ground Water Rule for Pathogens will place an increased burden on utiliti...

78 FR 3328 - Fluroxypyr; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-01-16

... drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include occupational exposure. Section 408(b)(2)(C... from drinking water. The Agency used screening level water exposure models in the dietary exposure analysis and risk assessment for fluroxypyr in drinking water. These simulation models take into account...

[Study on the optimization of monitoring indicators of drinking water quality during health supervision].

PubMed

Ye, Bixiong; E, Xueli; Zhang, Lan

2015-01-01

To optimize non-regular drinking water quality indices (except Giardia and Cryptosporidium) of urban drinking water. Several methods including drinking water quality exceed the standard, the risk of exceeding standard, the frequency of detecting concentrations below the detection limit, water quality comprehensive index evaluation method, and attribute reduction algorithm of rough set theory were applied, redundancy factor of water quality indicators were eliminated, control factors that play a leading role in drinking water safety were found. Optimization results showed in 62 unconventional water quality monitoring indicators of urban drinking water, 42 water quality indicators could be optimized reduction by comprehensively evaluation combined with attribute reduction of rough set. Optimization of the water quality monitoring indicators and reduction of monitoring indicators and monitoring frequency could ensure the safety of drinking water quality while lowering monitoring costs and reducing monitoring pressure of the sanitation supervision departments.

40 CFR 142.15 - Reports by States.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

...) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTATION Primary Enforcement Responsibility § 142.15... primary drinking water regulations, including violations of the public notification requirements under... requirements of national primary drinking water regulations; (3) Notification of any new variance or exemption...

The Safe Drinking Water Act First 180 Days

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lehr, Jay H.

1975-01-01

The Safe Drinking Water Act protects our drinking and ground water resources. The Water Advisory Council interprets and implements the law. Implementation principles include high priorities for public health, cost considerations, state and local participation, environmental impact, decentralized decision making, and use of federal and state…

77 FR 26954 - 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2012-05-08

... for which there is reliable information.'' This includes exposure through drinking water and in... exposure from drinking water. The Agency used screening level water exposure models in the dietary exposure analysis and risk assessment for NAA in drinking water. These simulation models take into account data on...

78 FR 29049 - Streptomycin; Pesticide Tolerances for Emergency Exemptions

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-05-17

... exposures for which there is reliable information.'' This includes exposure through drinking water and in... commodities. 2. Dietary exposure from drinking water. The Agency used screening level water exposure models in the dietary exposure analysis and risk assessment for streptomycin in drinking water. These simulation...

Fluorescence Sensors for Early Detection of Nitrification in Drinking Water Distribution Systems – Interference Corrections (Abstract)

EPA Science Inventory

Nitrification event detection in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) remains an ongoing challenge for many drinking water utilities, including Dallas Water Utilities (DWU) and the City of Houston (CoH). Each year, these utilities experience nitrification eve...

Fluorescence Sensors for Early Detection of Nitrification in Drinking Water Distribution Systems – Interference Corrections (Poster)

EPA Science Inventory

Nitrification event detection in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) remains an ongoing challenge for many drinking water utilities, including Dallas Water Utilities (DWU) and the City of Houston (CoH). Each year, these utilities experience nitrification eve...

Developing Fluorescence Sensor Systems for Early Detection of Nitrification Events in Chloraminated Drinking Water Distribution Systems

EPA Science Inventory

Detection of nitrification events in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems remains an ongoing challenge for many drinking water utilities, including Dallas Water Utilities (DWU) and the City of Houston (CoH). Each year, these utilities experience nitrification events ...

77 FR 27451 - Permitting Guidance for Oil and Gas Hydraulic Fracturing Activities Using Diesel Fuels-Draft...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2012-05-10

... authority. The draft guidance includes EPA's interpretation of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and...., Washington, DC 20460. Hand Delivery: Office of Water (OW) Docket, EPA/DC, EPA West, Room 3334, 1301... Injection Control Program, Drinking Water Protection Division, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (MC...

Pollution of water sources and removal of pollutants by advanced drinking-water treatment in China.

PubMed

Wang, L; Wang, B

2000-01-01

The pollution of water resources and drinking water sources in China is described in this paper with basic data. About 90% of surface waters and over 60% of drinking water sources in urban areas have been polluted to different extents. The main pollutants present in drinking water sources are organic substances, ammonia nitrogen, phenols, pesticides and pathogenic micro-organisms, some of which cannot be removed effectively by the traditional water treatment processes like coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination, and the product water usually does not meet Chinese national drinking water standards, when polluted source water is treated. In some drinking-water plants in China, advanced treatment processes including activated carbon filtration and adsorption, ozonation, biological activated carbon and membrane separation have been employed for further treatment of the filtrate from a traditional treatment system producing unqualified drinking water, to make final product water meet the WHO guidelines and some developed countries' standards, as well as the Chinese national standards for drinking water. Some case studies of advanced water treatment plants are described in this paper as well.

U. S. drinking-water regulations: Treatment technologies and cost

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Lykins, B.W. Jr.; Clark, R.M.

The Safe Drinking Water Act and its Amendments have imposed a large number of new regulations on the US drinking-water industry. A major set of regulations currently under consideration will control disinfectants and disinfection by-products. Included in the development of these regulations is an Information Collection Rule and an Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule. These rules will require monitoring for microorganisms such as Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and viruses. Certain surface-water systems may be required to remove microbiological contaminants above levels currently required by the Surface Water Treatment Rule. Also included in these rules will be monitoring requirements for disinfection by-products andmore » evaluation of precursor removal technologies. As various regulations are promulgated, regulators and those associated with the drinking-water industry need to be cognizant of the potential impact of treatment to control one contaminant or group of contaminants on control of other contaminants. Compliance with drinking-water regulations mandated under the Safe Drinking Water Act and its amendments has been estimated to cost about $1.6 billion.« less

GEOCHEMISTRY OF SULFUR IN IRON CORROSION SCALES FOUND IN DRINKING WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

Iron-sulfur geochemistry is important in many natural and engineered environments, including drinking water systems. In the anaerobic environment beneath scales of corroding iron drinking water distribution system pipes, sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) produce sulfide from natu...

Drinking Water

MedlinePlus

... safest water supplies in the world, but drinking water quality can vary from place to place. It depends on the condition of the source water and the treatment it receives. Treatment may include ...

Jarrib Baleha--a pilot nutrition intervention to increase water intake and decrease soft drink consumption among school children in Beirut.

PubMed

Abi Haidar, Gina; Lahham Salameh, Nina; Afifi, Rema A

2011-01-01

The Global School-based Student Health Survey (2005) indicated that in Lebanon, 33% of students in grades 7-9 drink carbonated soft drinks two or more times per day. Observational evidence suggests that students do not drink enough water. A pilot project called Jarrib Baleha ['try without it'] was implemented with 110 students in grades 3 and 4 in two schools in Lebanon to promote drinking water instead of soft drinks. Specific objectives included increasing knowledge about the benefits of water and the harms of soft drinks, increasing confidence in choosing water over soft drinks, and increasing actual water drinking behavior while decreasing soft drink consumption. Four 50-minute theory-informed, interactive and participatory sessions were implemented --by a graduate student in partial fulfillment of requirements for a MPH degree--over a period of two weeks. The intervention sessions--based on the Health Belief Model--took place during a class period. Process evaluation measured satisfaction of the students with the sessions. Impact evaluation measured changes in knowledge, attitudes including self-efficacy, and behavior, using a self-administered questionnaire completed prior to and after the intervention. Bivariate analysis using crosstabs was carried out to compare pretest and posttest scores on knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. Comparison of the knowledge index between pretest and posttest indicated that, overall, knowledge increased from 6.0769 to 9.1500 (p = 0.000). Compared to pretest, students at posttest also felt more confident to drink less soft drinks and more water (p < 0.05), to drink water when thirsty (p < 0.05), and to choose water over soft drinks when going to a restaurant (p < 0.05). The percentage of students drinking 6 or more cups of water increased from 27.7% to 59.1% (p = 0.000); and those drinking less than one can of soft drink/day increased from 25.5% to 57.6% (p = 0.000). These results are encouraging and suggest the Jarrib Baleha intervention could be implemented on a wider scale with students from both public and private schools. A more robust evaluation design is recommended. A comprehensive approach to school-based nutrition is also suggested.

U.S. DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS: TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND COST.

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act and its Amendments have imposed a large number of new regulations on the U.S. drinking water industry. A major set of regulations currently under consideration will control disinfectants and disinfection by-products. Included in the development of th...

Chemical Contamination of California Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Russell, Hanafi H.; Jackson, Richard J.; Spath, David P.; Book, Steven A.

1987-01-01

Drinking water contamination by toxic chemicals has become widely recognized as a public health concern since the discovery of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane in California's Central Valley in 1979. Increased monitoring since then has shown that other pesticides and industrial chemicals are present in drinking water. Contaminants of drinking water also include naturally occurring substances such as asbestos and even the by-products of water chlorination. Public water systems, commercially bottled and vended water and mineral water are regulated, and California is also taking measures to prevent water pollution by chemicals through various new laws and programs. PMID:3321714

Chemical contamination of California drinking water.

PubMed

Russell, H H; Jackson, R J; Spath, D P; Book, S A

1987-11-01

Drinking water contamination by toxic chemicals has become widely recognized as a public health concern since the discovery of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane in California's Central Valley in 1979. Increased monitoring since then has shown that other pesticides and industrial chemicals are present in drinking water. Contaminants of drinking water also include naturally occurring substances such as asbestos and even the by-products of water chlorination. Public water systems, commercially bottled and vended water and mineral water are regulated, and California is also taking measures to prevent water pollution by chemicals through various new laws and programs.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceutical products and by-products, from resource to drinking water.

PubMed

Mompelat, S; Le Bot, B; Thomas, O

2009-07-01

Among all emerging substances in water, pharmaceutical products (PPs) and residues are a lot of concern. These last two years, the number of studies has increased drastically, however much less for water resources and drinking water than for wastewater. This literature review based on recent works, deals with water resources (surface or groundwater), focusing on characteristics, occurrence and fate of numerous PPs studied, and drinking water including water quality. Through this review, it appears that the pharmaceutical risk must be considered even in drinking water where concentrations are very low. Moreover, there is a lack of research for by-products (metabolites and transformation products) characterization, occurrence and fate in all water types and especially in drinking water.

An Assessment of Potential Exposure and Risk from Estrogens in Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Caldwell, Daniel J.; Mastrocco, Frank; Nowak, Edward; Johnston, James; Yekel, Harry; Pfeiffer, Danielle; Hoyt, Marilyn; DuPlessie, Beth M.; Anderson, Paul D.

2010-01-01

Background Detection of estrogens in the environment has raised concerns in recent years because of their potential to affect both wildlife and humans. Objectives We compared exposures to prescribed and naturally occurring estrogens in drinking water to exposures to naturally occurring background levels of estrogens in the diet of children and adults and to four independently derived acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) to determine whether drinking water intakes are larger or smaller than dietary intake or ADIs. Methods We used the Pharmaceutical Assessment and Transport Evaluation (PhATE) model to predict concentrations of estrogens potentially present in drinking water. Predicted drinking water concentrations were combined with default water intake rates to estimate drinking water exposures. Predicted drinking water intakes were compared to dietary intakes and also to ADIs. We present comparisons for individual estrogens as well as combined estrogens. Results In the analysis we estimated that a child’s exposures to individual prescribed estrogens in drinking water are 730–480,000 times lower (depending upon estrogen type) than exposure to background levels of naturally occurring estrogens in milk. A child’s exposure to total estrogens in drinking water (prescribed and naturally occurring) is about 150 times lower than exposure from milk. Adult margins of exposure (MOEs) based on total dietary exposure are about 2 times smaller than those for children. Margins of safety (MOSs) for an adult’s exposure to total prescribed estrogens in drinking water vary from about 135 to > 17,000, depending on ADI. MOSs for exposure to total estrogens in drinking water are about 2 times lower than MOSs for prescribed estrogens. Depending on the ADI that is used, MOSs for young children range from 28 to 5,120 for total estrogens (including both prescribed and naturally occurring sources) in drinking water. Conclusions The consistently large MOEs and MOSs strongly suggest that prescribed and total estrogens that may potentially be present in drinking water in the United States are not causing adverse effects in U.S. residents, including sensitive subpopulations. PMID:20194073

Safety of packaged water distribution limited by household recontamination in rural Cambodia.

PubMed

Holman, Emily J; Brown, Joe

2014-06-01

Packaged water treatment schemes represent a growing model for providing safer water in low-income settings, yet post-distribution recontamination of treated water may limit this approach. This study evaluates drinking water quality and household water handling practices in a floating village in Tonlé Sap Lake, Cambodia, through a pilot cross-sectional study of 108 households, approximately half of which used packaged water as the main household drinking water source. We hypothesized that households purchasing drinking water from local packaged water treatment plants would have microbiologically improved drinking water at the point of consumption. We found no meaningful difference in microbiological drinking water quality between households using packaged, treated water and those collecting water from other sources, including untreated surface water, however. Households' water storage and handling practices and home hygiene may have contributed to recontamination of drinking water. Further measures to protect water quality at the point-of-use may be required even if water is treated and packaged in narrow-mouthed containers.

Summary of water-quality data for City of Albuquerque drinking-water supply wells, 1988-97

USGS Publications Warehouse

Bexfield, Laura M.; Lindberg, William E.; Anderholm, Scott K.

1999-01-01

The City of Albuquerque has collected and analyzed more than 5,000 water-quality samples from 113 water-supply wells in the Albuquerque area, including many drinking-water supply wells, since May of 1988. As a result, a large water-quality data base has been compiled that includes data for major ions, nutrients, trace elements, carbon, volatile organic compounds, radiological constituents, and bacteria. These data are intended to improve the understanding and management of the ground-water resources of the region, rather than demonstrate compliance with Federal and State drinking-water standards. This report gives summary statistics for selected physical properties and chemical constituents for ground water from wells used by the City of Albuquerque for drinking-water supply between 1988 and 1997. Maps are provided to show the general spatial distribution of selected parameters and water types around the region. Although the values of some parameters vary substantially across the city, median values for all parameters included in this report are less than their respective maximum contaminant levels in each drinking-water supply well. The dominant water types are sodium plus potassium / carbonate plus bicarbonate in the western part of the city and calcium / carbonate plus bicarbonate in the eastern part of the city.

77 FR 3621 - Rimsulfuron; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2012-01-25

... drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include occupational exposure. Section 408(b)(2)(C... PCT were assumed for all food commodities. 2. Dietary exposure from drinking water. The Agency used... in drinking water. These simulation models take into account data on the physical, chemical, and fate...

Behaviour and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water treatment: a review.

PubMed

Rahman, Mohammad Feisal; Peldszus, Sigrid; Anderson, William B

2014-03-01

This article reviews perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) characteristics, their occurrence in surface water, and their fate in drinking water treatment processes. PFASs have been detected globally in the aquatic environment including drinking water at trace concentrations and due, in part, to their persistence in human tissue some are being investigated for regulation. They are aliphatic compounds containing saturated carbon-fluorine bonds and are resistant to chemical, physical, and biological degradation. Functional groups, carbon chain length, and hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity are some of the important structural properties of PFASs that affect their fate during drinking water treatment. Full-scale drinking water treatment plant occurrence data indicate that PFASs, if present in raw water, are not substantially removed by most drinking water treatment processes including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, biofiltration, oxidation (chlorination, ozonation, AOPs), UV irradiation, and low pressure membranes. Early observations suggest that activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, and high pressure membrane filtration may be effective in controlling these contaminants. However, branched isomers and the increasingly used shorter chain PFAS replacement products may be problematic as it pertains to the accurate assessment of PFAS behaviour through drinking water treatment processes since only limited information is available for these PFASs. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Drinking water and health research: a look to the future in the United States and globally.

PubMed

Sobsey, Mark D

2006-01-01

Drinking water supplies continue to be a major source of human disease and death globally because many of them remain unsafe and vulnerable. Greater efforts are needed to address the key issues and questions which influence the provision of safe drinking water. Efforts are needed to re-evaluate and set new and better priorities for drinking water research and practice. More stakeholders need to be included in the processes of identifying key issues and setting priorities for safe drinking water. The overall approach to drinking water research and the provision of safe drinking water needs to become more rational and scientific, and become more visionary and anticipatory of the ever-present and emerging risks to drinking water safety. Collectively, we need to do a better job of making safe water available, accessible and affordable for all. One such approach to safe water for all is household water treatment and safe storage, which is being promoted globally by the World Health Organization and many other stakeholders and partners to reduce the global burden of waterborne disease.

Encouraging consumption of water in school and child care settings: access, challenges, and strategies for improvement.

PubMed

Patel, Anisha I; Hampton, Karla E

2011-08-01

Children and adolescents are not consuming enough water, instead opting for sugar-sweetened beverages (sodas, sports and energy drinks, milks, coffees, and fruit-flavored drinks with added sugars), 100% fruit juice, and other beverages. Drinking sufficient amounts of water can lead to improved weight status, reduced dental caries, and improved cognition among children and adolescents. Because children spend most of their day at school and in child care, ensuring that safe, potable drinking water is available in these settings is a fundamental public health measure. We sought to identify challenges that limit access to drinking water; opportunities, including promising practices, to increase drinking water availability and consumption; and future research, policy efforts, and funding needed in this area.

Fecal contamination of drinking water in Kericho District, Western Kenya: role of source and household water handling and hygiene practices.

PubMed

Too, Johana Kiplagat; Kipkemboi Sang, Willy; Ng'ang'a, Zipporah; Ngayo, Musa Otieno

2016-08-01

Inadequate protection of water sources, and poor household hygienic and handling practices have exacerbated fecal water contamination in Kenya. This study evaluated the rate and correlates of thermotolerant coliform (TTC) household water contamination in Kericho District, Western Kenya. Culture and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques were used to characterize TTCs. The disk diffusion method was used for antibiotic susceptibility profiling of pathogenic Escherichia coli. Out of the 103 households surveyed, 48 (46.6%) had TTC contaminated drinking water (TTC levels of >10 cfu/100 mL). Five of these households were contaminated with pathogenic E. coli, including 40% enteroaggregative E. coli, 40% enterotoxigenic E. coli, and 20% enteropathogenic E. coli. All these pathogenic E. coli strains were multidrug resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, ampicillin, tetracycline and ampicillin/sulbactam. Rural household locality, drinking water hand contact, water storage container cleaning practice, hand washing before water withdrawal, water source total coliforms <10 cfu/100 mL, temperature, and free chlorine levels were associated with TTC contamination of household drinking water. Significant proportions of household drinking water in Kericho District are contaminated with TTCs including with pathogenic multidrug-resistant E. coli. Source and household hygiene and practices contribute significantly to drinking water contamination.

Water Resilience

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The Drinking Water and Wastewater Resiliency site provides tools and resources for drinking water and wastewater utilities in the full spectrum of emergency management which includes prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.

Methods for the Determination of Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water. Training Manual.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Office of Water Program Operations (EPA), Cincinnati, OH. National Training and Operational Technology Center.

This training manual, intended for chemists and technicians with little or no experience in chemical procedures required to monitor drinking water, covers analytical methods for inorganic and organic chemical contaminants listed in the interim primary drinking water regulations. Topics include methods for heavy metals, nitrate, and organic…

Metabolic profiles in serum of mouse after chronic exposure to drinking water.

PubMed

Zhang, Yan; Wu, Bing; Zhang, Xuxiang; Li, Aimin; Cheng, Shupei

2011-08-01

The toxicity of Nanjing drinking water on mouse (Mus musculus) was detected by (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomic method. Three groups of mice were fed with drinking water (produced by Nanjing BHK Water Plant), 3.8 μg/L benzo(a)pyrene as contrast, and clean water as control, respectively, for 90 days. It was observed that the levels of lactate, alanine, and creatinine in the mice fed with drinking water were increased and that of valine was decreased. The mice of drinking water group were successfully separated from control. The total concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates (PAEs), and other organic pollutants in the drinking water were 0.23 μg/L, 4.57 μg/L, and 0.34 μg/L, respectively. In this study, Nanjing drinking water was found to induce distinct perturbations of metabolic profiles on mouse including disorders of glucose-alanine cycle, branched-chain amino acid and energy metabolism, and dysfunction of kidney. This study suggests that metabonomic method is feasible and sensitive to evaluate potential toxic effects of drinking water.

[The occurrence of aeromonads in a drinking water supply system].

PubMed

Stelzer, W; Jacob, J; Feuerpfeil, I; Schulze, E

1992-01-01

This study concerns with the occurrence of aeromonads, coliforms and colony counts in a drinking water supply. Aeromonas contents were detected in the range of 15.0 to greater than 2,400/100 ml in the raw water samples of the man made lake. After the drinking water treatment process including fast sand filtration and chlorination aeromonads indicated in comparison to total coliforms and colony counts early and significant an after-growth of maximal 240 aeromonads/100 ml in the peripheric drinking water supply. Drinking water samples characterized by a higher water temperature resulted in the highest contents of aeromonads. The Aeromonas-Species Aeromonas sobria and Aeromonas hydrophila were isolated most frequently with 56.9 and 37.4 percent, respectively. The role of aeromonads as an indicator of after-growth in drinking water supplies is discussed.

Drinking water quality management: a holistic approach.

PubMed

Rizak, S; Cunliffe, D; Sinclair, M; Vulcano, R; Howard, J; Hrudey, S; Callan, P

2003-01-01

A growing list of water contaminants has led to some water suppliers relying primarily on compliance monitoring as a mechanism for managing drinking water quality. While such monitoring is a necessary part of drinking water quality management, experiences with waterborne disease threats and outbreaks have shown that compliance monitoring for numerical limits is not, in itself, sufficient to guarantee the safety and quality of drinking water supplies. To address these issues, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) has developed a Framework for Management of Drinking Water Quality (the Framework) for incorporation in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, the primary reference on drinking water quality in Australia. The Framework was developed specifically for drinking water supplies and provides a comprehensive and preventive risk management approach from catchment to consumer. It includes holistic guidance on a range of issues considered good practice for system management. The Framework addresses four key areas: Commitment to Drinking Water Quality Management, System Analysis and System Management, Supporting Requirements, and Review. The Framework represents a significantly enhanced approach to the management and regulation of drinking water quality and offers a flexible and proactive means of optimising drinking water quality and protecting public health. Rather than the primary reliance on compliance monitoring, the Framework emphasises prevention, the importance of risk assessment, maintaining the integrity of water supply systems and application of multiple barriers to assure protection of public health. Development of the Framework was undertaken in collaboration with the water industry, regulators and other stakeholder, and will promote a common and unified approach to drinking water quality management throughout Australia. The Framework has attracted international interest.

Differences in dissolved organic matter between reclaimed water source and drinking water source.

PubMed

Hu, Hong-Ying; Du, Ye; Wu, Qian-Yuan; Zhao, Xin; Tang, Xin; Chen, Zhuo

2016-05-01

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) significantly affects the quality of reclaimed water and drinking water. Reclaimed water potable reuse is an effective way to augment drinking water source and de facto reuse exists worldwide. Hence, when reclaimed water source (namely secondary effluent) is blended with drinking water source, understanding the difference in DOM between drinking water source (dDOM) and reclaimed water source (rDOM) is essential. In this study, composition, transformation, and potential risk of dDOM from drinking water source and rDOM from secondary effluent were compared. Generally, the DOC concentration of rDOM and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) content in reclaimed water source were higher but rDOM exhibited a lower aromaticity. Besides, rDOM comprises a higher proportion of hydrophilic fractions and more low-molecular weight compounds, which are difficult to be removed during coagulation. Although dDOM exhibited higher specific disinfection byproducts formation potential (SDBPFP), rDOM formed more total disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during chlorination including halomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) due to high DOC concentration. Likewise, in consideration of DOC basis, rDOM contained more absolute assimilable organic carbon (AOC) despite showing a lower specific AOC (normalized AOC per unit of DOC). Besides, rDOM exhibited higher biotoxicity including genotoxicity and endocrine disruption. Therefore, rDOM presents a greater potential risk than dDOM does. Reclaimed water source needs to be treated carefully when it is blended with drinking water source. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Updating national standards for drinking-water: a Philippine experience.

PubMed

Lomboy, M; Riego de Dios, J; Magtibay, B; Quizon, R; Molina, V; Fadrilan-Camacho, V; See, J; Enoveso, A; Barbosa, L; Agravante, A

2017-04-01

The latest version of the Philippine National Standards for Drinking-Water (PNSDW) was issued in 2007 by the Department of Health (DOH). Due to several issues and concerns, the DOH decided to make an update which is relevant and necessary to meet the needs of the stakeholders. As an output, the water quality parameters are now categorized into mandatory, primary, and secondary. The ten mandatory parameters are core parameters which all water service providers nationwide are obligated to test. These include thermotolerant coliforms or Escherichia coli, arsenic, cadmium, lead, nitrate, color, turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids, and disinfectant residual. The 55 primary parameters are site-specific and can be adopted as enforceable parameters when developing new water sources or when the existing source is at high risk of contamination. The 11 secondary parameters include operational parameters and those that affect the esthetic quality of drinking-water. In addition, the updated PNSDW include new sections: (1) reporting and interpretation of results and corrective actions; (2) emergency drinking-water parameters; (3) proposed Sustainable Development Goal parameters; and (4) standards for other drinking-water sources. The lessons learned and insights gained from the updating of standards are likewise incorporated in this paper.

Effectiveness of table top water pitcher filters to remove arsenic from drinking water.

PubMed

Barnaby, Roxanna; Liefeld, Amanda; Jackson, Brian P; Hampton, Thomas H; Stanton, Bruce A

2017-10-01

Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a serious threat to the health of hundreds of millions of people worldwide. In the United States ~3 million individuals drink well water that contains arsenic levels above the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10μg/L. Several technologies are available to remove arsenic from well water including anion exchange, adsorptive media and reverse osmosis. In addition, bottled water is an alternative to drinking well water contaminated with arsenic. However, there are several drawbacks associated with these approaches including relatively high cost and, in the case of bottled water, the generation of plastic waste. In this study, we tested the ability of five tabletop water pitcher filters to remove arsenic from drinking water. We report that only one tabletop water pitcher filter tested, ZeroWater®, reduced the arsenic concentration, both As 3+ and As 5+ , from 1000μg/L to < 3μg/L, well below the MCL. Moreover, the amount of total dissolved solids or competing ions did not affect the ability of the ZeroWater® filter to remove arsenic below the MCL. Thus, the ZeroWater® pitcher filter is a cost effective and short-term solution to remove arsenic from drinking water and its use reduces plastic waste associated with bottled water. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Effectiveness of Table Top Water Pitcher Filters to Remove Arsenic from Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Barnaby, Roxanna; Liefeld, Amanda; Jackson, Brian P.; Hampton, Thomas H.; Stanton, Bruce A.

2017-01-01

Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a serious threat to the health of hundreds of millions of people worldwide. In the United States ~3 million individuals drink well water that contains arsenic levels above the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 μg/L. Several technologies are available to remove arsenic from well water including anion exchange, adsorptive media and reverse osmosis. In addition, bottled water is an alternative to drinking well water contaminated with arsenic. However, there are several drawbacks associated with these approaches including relatively high cost and, in the case of bottled water, the generation of plastic waste. In this study, we tested the ability of five tabletop water pitcher filters to remove arsenic from drinking water. We report that only one tabletop water pitcher filter tested, ZeroWater®, reduced the arsenic concentration, both As3+ and As5+, from 1,000 μg/L to < 3 μg/L, well below the MCL. Moreover, the amount of total dissolved solids or competing ions did not affect the ability of the ZeroWater® filter to remove arsenic below the MCL. Thus, the ZeroWater® pitcher filter is a cost effective and short-term solution to remove arsenic from drinking water and its use reduces plastic waste associated with bottled water. PMID:28719869

Public perception of drinking water safety in South Africa 2002–2009: a repeated cross-sectional study

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background In low and middle income countries, public perceptions of drinking water safety are relevant to promotion of household water treatment and to household choices over drinking water sources. However, most studies of this topic have been cross-sectional and not considered temporal variation in drinking water safety perceptions. The objective of this study is to explore trends in perceived drinking water safety in South Africa and its association with disease outbreaks, water supply and household characteristics. Methods This repeated cross-sectional study draws on General Household Surveys from 2002–2009, a series of annual nationally representative surveys of South African households, which include a question about perceived drinking water safety. Trends in responses to this question were examined from 2002–2009 in relation to reported cholera cases. The relationship between perceived drinking water safety and organoleptic qualities of drinking water, supply characteristics, and socio-economic and demographic household characteristics was explored in 2002 and 2008 using hierarchical stepwise logistic regression. Results The results suggest that perceived drinking water safety has remained relatively stable over time in South Africa, once the expansion of improved supplies is controlled for. A large cholera outbreak in 2000–02 had no apparent effect on public perception of drinking water safety in 2002. Perceived drinking water safety is primarily related to water taste, odour, and clarity rather than socio-economic or demographic characteristics. Conclusion This suggests that household perceptions of drinking water safety in South Africa follow similar patterns to those observed in studies in developed countries. The stability over time in public perception of drinking water safety is particularly surprising, given the large cholera outbreak that took place at the start of this period. PMID:22834485

Public perception of drinking water safety in South Africa 2002-2009: a repeated cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Wright, Jim A; Yang, Hong; Rivett, Ulrike; Gundry, Stephen W

2012-07-27

In low and middle income countries, public perceptions of drinking water safety are relevant to promotion of household water treatment and to household choices over drinking water sources. However, most studies of this topic have been cross-sectional and not considered temporal variation in drinking water safety perceptions. The objective of this study is to explore trends in perceived drinking water safety in South Africa and its association with disease outbreaks, water supply and household characteristics. This repeated cross-sectional study draws on General Household Surveys from 2002-2009, a series of annual nationally representative surveys of South African households, which include a question about perceived drinking water safety. Trends in responses to this question were examined from 2002-2009 in relation to reported cholera cases. The relationship between perceived drinking water safety and organoleptic qualities of drinking water, supply characteristics, and socio-economic and demographic household characteristics was explored in 2002 and 2008 using hierarchical stepwise logistic regression. The results suggest that perceived drinking water safety has remained relatively stable over time in South Africa, once the expansion of improved supplies is controlled for. A large cholera outbreak in 2000-02 had no apparent effect on public perception of drinking water safety in 2002. Perceived drinking water safety is primarily related to water taste, odour, and clarity rather than socio-economic or demographic characteristics. This suggests that household perceptions of drinking water safety in South Africa follow similar patterns to those observed in studies in developed countries. The stability over time in public perception of drinking water safety is particularly surprising, given the large cholera outbreak that took place at the start of this period.

Encouraging Consumption of Water in School and Child Care Settings: Access, Challenges, and Strategies for Improvement

PubMed Central

Hampton, Karla E.

2011-01-01

Children and adolescents are not consuming enough water, instead opting for sugar-sweetened beverages (sodas, sports and energy drinks, milks, coffees, and fruit-flavored drinks with added sugars), 100% fruit juice, and other beverages. Drinking sufficient amounts of water can lead to improved weight status, reduced dental caries, and improved cognition among children and adolescents. Because children spend most of their day at school and in child care, ensuring that safe, potable drinking water is available in these settings is a fundamental public health measure. We sought to identify challenges that limit access to drinking water; opportunities, including promising practices, to increase drinking water availability and consumption; and future research, policy efforts, and funding needed in this area. PMID:21680941

Evaluation of human enteric viruses in surface water and drinking water resources in southern Ghana.

PubMed

Gibson, Kristen E; Opryszko, Melissa C; Schissler, James T; Guo, Yayi; Schwab, Kellogg J

2011-01-01

An estimated 884 million people worldwide do not have access to an improved drinking water source, and the microbial quality of these sources is often unknown. In this study, a combined tangential flow, hollow fiber ultrafiltration (UF), and real-time PCR method was applied to large volume (100 L) groundwater (N = 4), surface water (N = 9), and finished (i.e., receiving treatment) drinking water (N = 6) samples for the evaluation of human enteric viruses and bacterial indicators. Human enteric viruses including norovirus GI and GII, adenovirus, and polyomavirus were detected in five different samples including one groundwater, three surface water, and one drinking water sample. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli assessed for each sample before and after UF revealed a lack of correlation between bacterial indicators and the presence of human enteric viruses.

Evaluation of Human Enteric Viruses in Surface Water and Drinking Water Resources in Southern Ghana

PubMed Central

Gibson, Kristen E.; Opryszko, Melissa C.; Schissler, James T.; Guo, Yayi; Schwab, Kellogg J.

2011-01-01

An estimated 884 million people worldwide do not have access to an improved drinking water source, and the microbial quality of these sources is often unknown. In this study, a combined tangential flow, hollow fiber ultrafiltration (UF), and real-time PCR method was applied to large volume (100 L) groundwater (N = 4), surface water (N = 9), and finished (i.e., receiving treatment) drinking water (N = 6) samples for the evaluation of human enteric viruses and bacterial indicators. Human enteric viruses including norovirus GI and GII, adenovirus, and polyomavirus were detected in five different samples including one groundwater, three surface water, and one drinking water sample. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli assessed for each sample before and after UF revealed a lack of correlation between bacterial indicators and the presence of human enteric viruses. PMID:21212196

The association between domestic animal presence and ownership and household drinking water contamination among peri-urban communities of Kisumu, Kenya.

PubMed

Barnes, Amber N; Anderson, John D; Mumma, Jane; Mahmud, Zahid Hayat; Cumming, Oliver

2018-01-01

Household drinking water can be contaminated by diarrheagenic enteropathogens at numerous points between the source and actual consumption. Interventions to prevent this contamination have focused on preventing exposure to human waste through interventions to improve drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). In many cases though, the infectious agent may be of zoonotic rather than human origin suggesting that unsafely managed animal waste may contribute to the contamination of household drinking water and the associated diarrheal disease burden. A cross-sectional household survey of 800 households was conducted across three informal peri-urban neighborhoods of Kisumu, Kenya, collecting stored drinking water samples, administering a household survey including water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure and behaviors, and recording domestic animal presence and ownership. We used multivariate logistic regression to assess the association of traditional WASH factors and domestic animal presence and ownership on microbial contamination of household drinking water. The majority of households sampled had fecally contaminated drinking water (67%), defined by the presence of any colony forming units of the fecal indicator bacteria enterococci. After adjustment for potential confounders, including socio-economic status and water and sanitation access, both household animal ownership (aOR 1.31; CI 1.00-1.73, p = 0.05) and the presence of animal waste in the household compound (aOR 1.38; CI 1.01, 1.89, p = 0.04) were found to be significantly associated with household drinking water contamination. None of the conventional WASH variables were found to be significantly associated with household drinking water contamination in the study population. Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategies to reduce diarrheal disease should consider the promotion of safe animal contact alongside more traditional interventions focusing on the management of human waste. Future research on fecal contamination of unsafe household drinking water should utilize host-specific markers to determine whether the source is human or animal to prepare targeted public health messages.

The association between domestic animal presence and ownership and household drinking water contamination among peri-urban communities of Kisumu, Kenya

PubMed Central

Mumma, Jane; Mahmud, Zahid Hayat

2018-01-01

Introduction Household drinking water can be contaminated by diarrheagenic enteropathogens at numerous points between the source and actual consumption. Interventions to prevent this contamination have focused on preventing exposure to human waste through interventions to improve drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). In many cases though, the infectious agent may be of zoonotic rather than human origin suggesting that unsafely managed animal waste may contribute to the contamination of household drinking water and the associated diarrheal disease burden. Methods A cross-sectional household survey of 800 households was conducted across three informal peri-urban neighborhoods of Kisumu, Kenya, collecting stored drinking water samples, administering a household survey including water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure and behaviors, and recording domestic animal presence and ownership. We used multivariate logistic regression to assess the association of traditional WASH factors and domestic animal presence and ownership on microbial contamination of household drinking water. Results The majority of households sampled had fecally contaminated drinking water (67%), defined by the presence of any colony forming units of the fecal indicator bacteria enterococci. After adjustment for potential confounders, including socio-economic status and water and sanitation access, both household animal ownership (aOR 1.31; CI 1.00–1.73, p = 0.05) and the presence of animal waste in the household compound (aOR 1.38; CI 1.01, 1.89, p = 0.04) were found to be significantly associated with household drinking water contamination. None of the conventional WASH variables were found to be significantly associated with household drinking water contamination in the study population. Conclusions Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategies to reduce diarrheal disease should consider the promotion of safe animal contact alongside more traditional interventions focusing on the management of human waste. Future research on fecal contamination of unsafe household drinking water should utilize host-specific markers to determine whether the source is human or animal to prepare targeted public health messages. PMID:29874284

77 FR 19109 - Bacillus Pumilus Strain GHA 180; Exemption From the Requirement of a Tolerance

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2012-03-30

... Organization, Bacillus species are often detected in drinking water even after going through disinfection... exposure through drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include occupational exposure... exposure to the pesticide through food, drinking water, and through other exposures that occur as a result...

Pesticides and their breakdown products in Lake Waxahachie, Texas, and in finished drinking water from the lake

USGS Publications Warehouse

Ging, Patricia B.

2002-01-01

Since 1991, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program has collected pesticide data from streams and aquifers throughout the Nation (Gilliom and others, 1995). However, little published information on pesticides in public drinking water is available. The NAWQA Program usually collects data on the sources of drinking water but not on the finished drinking water. Therefore, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), in conjunction with the NAWQA Program, has initiated a nationwide pilot project to collect information on concentrations of pesticides and their breakdown products in finished drinking water, in source waters such as reservoirs, and in the basins that contribute water to the reservoirs. The pilot project was designed to collect water samples from finished drinking-water supplies and the associated source water from selected reservoirs that receive runoff from a variety of land uses. Lake Waxahachie, in Ellis County in north-central Texas, was chosen to represent a reservoir receiving water that includes runoff from cotton cropland. This fact sheet presents the results of pesticide sampling of source water from Lake Waxahachie and in finished drinking water from the lake. Analyses are compared to indicate differences in pesticide detections and concentrations between lake water and finished drinking water.

DISINFECTION OF WATER: DRINKING WATER, RECREATIONAL WATER, AND WASTEWATER

EPA Science Inventory

This chapter describes and categorizes the methodology used for disinfection of drinking water, recreational water and wastewater including wastewater sludges. It largely is a literature summary and references articles covering the years of 1939 through 1999, with a few reference...

An Evaluation of the NIDS (registered trademark) ACE (trademark) Test

DTIC Science & Technology

2014-06-30

included chemicals commonly used for drinking water disinfection (chlorine and chloramine), byproducts of cyanobacteria blooms (geosmin and 2...duration field toxicity test for Army drinking water . One component of the ESB the ACE Test) is an enzymatic assay designed to detect neurotoxicants...adverse health effects is the presence of toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) in drinking water . The current field water test kit – the water quality

Simultaneous detection of perchlorate and bromate using rapid high-performance ion exchange chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and perchlorate removal in drinking water.

PubMed

West, Danielle M; Mu, Ruipu; Gamagedara, Sanjeewa; Ma, Yinfa; Adams, Craig; Eichholz, Todd; Burken, Joel G; Shi, Honglan

2015-06-01

Perchlorate and bromate occurrence in drinking water causes health concerns due to their effects on thyroid function and carcinogenicity, respectively. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to advance a sensitive method for simultaneous rapid detection of perchlorate and bromate in drinking water system, (2) to systematically study the occurrence of these two contaminants in Missouri drinking water treatment systems, and (3) to examine effective sorbents for minimizing perchlorate in drinking water. A rapid high-performance ion exchange chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPIC-MS/MS) method was advanced for simultaneous detection of perchlorate and bromate in drinking water. The HPIC-MS/MS method was rapid, required no preconcentration of the water samples, and had detection limits for perchlorate and bromate of 0.04 and 0.01 μg/L, respectively. The method was applied to determine perchlorate and bromate concentrations in total of 23 selected Missouri drinking water treatment systems during differing seasons. The water systems selected include different source waters: groundwater, lake water, river water, and groundwater influenced by surface water. The concentrations of perchlorate and bromate were lower than or near to method detection limits in most of the drinking water samples monitored. The removal of perchlorate by various adsorbents was studied. A cationic organoclay (TC-99) exhibited effective removal of perchlorate from drinking water matrices.

40 CFR 141.804 - Aircraft water system operations and maintenance plan.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

...) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule... must include the following requirements for procedures for disinfection and flushing of aircraft water system. (i) The air carrier must conduct disinfection and flushing of the aircraft water system in...

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), an emerging drinking water contaminant: a critical review of recent literature.

PubMed

Post, Gloria B; Cohn, Perry D; Cooper, Keith R

2012-07-01

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is an anthropogenic contaminant that differs in several ways from most other well-studied organic chemicals found in drinking water. PFOA is extremely resistant to environmental degradation processes and thus persists indefinitely. Unlike most other persistent and bioaccumulative organic pollutants, PFOA is water-soluble, does not bind well to soil or sediments, and bioaccumulates in serum rather than in fat. It has been detected in finished drinking water and drinking water sources impacted by releases from industrial facilities and waste water treatment plants, as well as in waters with no known point sources. However, the overall occurrence and population exposure from drinking water is not known. PFOA persists in humans with a half-life of several years and is found in the serum of almost all U.S. residents and in populations worldwide. Exposure sources include food, food packaging, consumer products, house dust, and drinking water. Continued exposure to even relatively low concentrations in drinking water can substantially increase total human exposure, with a serum:drinking water ratio of about 100:1. For example, ongoing exposures to drinking water concentrations of 10 ng/L, 40 ng/L, 100 ng/L, or 400 ng/L are expected to increase mean serum levels by about 25%, 100%, 250%, and 1000%, respectively, from the general population background serum level of about 4 ng/mL. Infants are potentially a sensitive subpopulation for PFOA's developmental effects, and their exposure through breast milk from mothers who use contaminated drinking water and/or from formula prepared with contaminated drinking water is higher than in adults exposed to the same drinking water concentration. Numerous health endpoints are associated with human PFOA exposure in the general population, communities with contaminated drinking water, and workers. As is the case for most such epidemiology studies, causality for these effects is not proven. Unlike most other well-studied drinking water contaminants, the human dose-response curve for several effects appears to be steepest at the lower exposure levels, including the general population range, with no apparent threshold for some endpoints. There is concordance in animals and humans for some effects, while humans and animals appear to react differently for other effects such as lipid metabolism. PFOA was classified as "likely to be carcinogenic in humans" by the USEPA Science Advisory Board. In animal studies, developmental effects have been identified as more sensitive endpoints for toxicity than carcinogenicity or the long-established hepatic effects. Notably, exposure to an environmentally relevant drinking water concentration caused adverse effects on mammary gland development in mice. This paper reviews current information relevant to the assessment of PFOA as an emerging drinking water contaminant. This information suggests that continued human exposure to even relatively low concentrations of PFOA in drinking water results in elevated body burdens that may increase the risk of health effects. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

40 CFR 141.806 - Reporting requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... Section 141.806 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.806 Reporting... and routine disinfection and flushing frequency must be included in the aircraft water system...

Stability of florfenicol in drinking water.

PubMed

Hayes, John M; Eichman, Jonathan; Katz, Terry; Gilewicz, Rosalia

2003-01-01

Florfenicol, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, is being developed for veterinary application as an oral concentrate intended for dilution with drinking water. When a drug product is dosed via drinking water in a farm setting, a number of variables, including pH, chlorine content, hardness of the water used for dilution, and container material, may affect its stability, leading to a decrease in drug potency. The stability of florfenicol after dilution of Florfenicol Drinking Water Concentrate Oral Solution, 23 mg/mL, with drinking water was studied. A stability-indicating, validated liquid chromatographic method was used to evaluate florfenicol stability at 25 degrees C at 5, 10, and 24 h after dilution. The results indicate that florfenicol is stable under a range of simulated field conditions, including various pipe materials and conditions of hard or soft and chlorinated or nonchlorinated water at low or high pH. Significant degradation (> 10%) was observed only for isolated combinations in galvanized pipes. Analysis indicated that the florfenicol concentration in 8 of the 12 water samples stored in galvanized pipes remained above 90% of the initial concentration (100 mg/L) for 24 h after dilution.

Safe Drinking Water Information System Federal Version (SDWIS/FED)

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

SDWIS/FED is EPA’s national database that manages and collects public water system information from states, including reports of drinking water standard violations, reporting and monitoring violations, and other basic information.

Development, application, and sensitivity analysis of a water quality index for drinking water management in small systems.

PubMed

Scheili, A; Rodriguez, Manuel J; Sadiq, R

2015-11-01

The aim of this study was to produce a drinking water assessment tool for operators of small distribution systems. A drinking water quality index (DWQI) was developed and applied to small systems based on the water quality index of the Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment. The drinking water quality index was adapted to specific needs by creating four drinking water quality scenarios. First, the temporal and spatial dimensions of drinking water quality variability were taken into account. The DWQI was designed to express global drinking water quality according to different monitoring frequencies. Daily, monthly, and seasonal assessment was also considered. With the data made available, it was possible to use the index as a spatial monitoring tool and express water quality in different points in the distribution system. Moreover, adjustments were made to prioritize the type of contaminant to monitor. For instance, monitoring contaminants with acute health effects led to a scenario based on daily measures, including easily accessible and affordable water quality parameters. On the other hand, contaminants with chronic effects, especially disinfection by-products, were considered in a seasonal monitoring scenario where disinfection by-product reference values were redefined according to their seasonal variability. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to validate the index. Globally, the DWQI developed is adapted to the needs of small systems. In fact, expressing drinking water quality using the DWQI contributes to the identification of problematic periods and segments in the distribution system. Further work may include this index in the development of a customized decision-making tool for small-system operators and managers.

Problems with provision: barriers to drinking water quality and public health in rural Tasmania, Australia.

PubMed

Whelan, Jessica J; Willis, Karen

2007-01-01

Access to safe drinking water is essential to human life and wellbeing, and is a key public health issue. However, many communities in rural and regional parts of Australia are unable to access drinking water that meets national standards for protecting human health. The aim of this research was to identify the key issues in and barriers to the provision and management of safe drinking water in rural Tasmania, Australia. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key local government employees and public health officials responsible for management of drinking water in rural Tasmania. Participants were asked about their core public health duties, regulatory responsibilities, perceptions and management of risk, as well as the key barriers that may be affecting the provision of safe drinking water. This research highlights the effect of rural locality on management and safety of fresh water in protecting public health. The key issues contributing to problems with drinking water provision and quality identified by participants included: poor and inadequate water supply infrastructure; lack of resources and staffing; inadequate catchment monitoring; and the effect of competing land uses, such as forestry, on water supply quality. This research raises issues of inequity in the provision of safe drinking water in rural communities. It highlights not only the increasing need for greater funding by state and commonwealth government for basic services such as drinking water, but also the importance of an holistic and integrated approach to managing drinking water resources in rural Tasmania.

[Microorganisms surviving in drinking water systems and related problems].

PubMed

Aulicino, F A; Pastoni, F

2004-01-01

Drinking water in distribution systems may show abnormal values of some parameters, such as turbidity, and may support particular phenomena, such as bacterial regrowth or presence of Viable Not Culturable (VNC) bacteria. Turbidity can provide shelter for opportunistic microorganisms and pathogens. The Milwaukee outbreak (400,000 people) is one example of waterborne disease caused by the presence of pathogens (Cryptosporidium) in drinking water characterized by high and intermittent levels of turbidity. Bacterial regrowth in drinking water distribution systems may cause high increments of microorganisms such as heterotrophic bacteria, coliforms and pathogens. Microorganisms isolated from biofilm including Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Legionella may have a significant health hazard especially in hospital areas. The presence of VNC bacteria in drinking water may represent a problem for their discussed role in infectious diseases, but also for the possibility of a considerable underestimation of true microbial concentrations in drinking waters. To study this kind of problems is necessary to apply suitable methods for drinking water analyses.

Occurrence of thyroid hormone activities in drinking water from eastern China: contributions of phthalate esters.

PubMed

Shi, Wei; Hu, Xinxin; Zhang, Fengxian; Hu, Guanjiu; Hao, Yingqun; Zhang, Xiaowei; Liu, Hongling; Wei, Si; Wang, Xinru; Giesy, John P; Yu, Hongxia

2012-02-07

Thyroid hormone is essential for the development of humans. However, some synthetic chemicals with thyroid disrupting potentials are detectable in drinking water. This study investigated the presence of thyroid active chemicals and their toxicity potential in drinking water from five cities in eastern China by use of an in vitro CV-1 cell-based reporter gene assay. Waters were examined from several phases of drinking water processing, including source water, finished water from waterworks, tap water, and boiled tap water. To identify the responsible compounds, concentrations and toxic equivalents of a list of phthalate esters were quantitatively determined. None of the extracts exhibited thyroid receptor (TR) agonist activity. Most of the water samples exhibited TR antagonistic activities. None of the boiled water displayed the TR antagonistic activity. Dibutyl phthalate accounted for 84.0-98.1% of the antagonist equivalents in water sources, while diisobutyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate also contributed. Approximately 90% of phthalate esters and TR antagonistic activities were removable by waterworks treatment processes, including filtration, coagulation, aerobic biodegradation, chlorination, and ozonation. Boiling water effectively removed phthalate esters from tap water. Thus, this process was recommended to local residents to reduce certain potential thyroid related risks through drinking water.

What's Wrong with the Tap? Examining Perceptions of Tap Water and Bottled Water at Purdue University

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Saylor, Amber; Prokopy, Linda Stalker; Amberg, Shannon

2011-09-01

The environmental impacts of bottled water prompted us to explore drinking water choices at Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, IN. A random sample of 2,045 Purdue University students, staff, and faculty was invited to participate in an online survey. The survey assessed current behaviors as well as perceived barriers and benefits to drinking tap water versus bottled water. 677 surveys were completed for a response rate of 33.1%. We then conducted qualitative interviews with a purposive sample of university undergraduates ( n = 21) to obtain contextual insights into the survey results and the beliefs of individuals with a variety of drinking water preferences. This study revealed that women drink disproportionately more bottled water then men while undergraduate students drink more than graduate students, staff and faculty. The study also uncovered a widespread belief that recycling eliminates the environmental impacts of bottled water. Important barriers to drinking tap water at Purdue include: perceived risks from tap water and the perceived safety of bottled water, preferring the taste of bottled water, and the convenience of drinking bottled water. The qualitative interviews revealed that drinking water choices can be influenced by several factors—especially whether individuals trust tap water to be clean—but involve varying levels of complexity. The implications of these results for social marketing strategies to promote tap water are discussed.

What's wrong with the tap? Examining perceptions of tap water and bottled water at Purdue University.

PubMed

Saylor, Amber; Prokopy, Linda Stalker; Amberg, Shannon

2011-09-01

The environmental impacts of bottled water prompted us to explore drinking water choices at Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, IN. A random sample of 2,045 Purdue University students, staff, and faculty was invited to participate in an online survey. The survey assessed current behaviors as well as perceived barriers and benefits to drinking tap water versus bottled water. 677 surveys were completed for a response rate of 33.1%. We then conducted qualitative interviews with a purposive sample of university undergraduates (n = 21) to obtain contextual insights into the survey results and the beliefs of individuals with a variety of drinking water preferences. This study revealed that women drink disproportionately more bottled water then men while undergraduate students drink more than graduate students, staff and faculty. The study also uncovered a widespread belief that recycling eliminates the environmental impacts of bottled water. Important barriers to drinking tap water at Purdue include: perceived risks from tap water and the perceived safety of bottled water, preferring the taste of bottled water, and the convenience of drinking bottled water. The qualitative interviews revealed that drinking water choices can be influenced by several factors-especially whether individuals trust tap water to be clean-but involve varying levels of complexity. The implications of these results for social marketing strategies to promote tap water are discussed.

Heavy metals in drinking water: Occurrences, implications, and future needs in developing countries.

PubMed

Chowdhury, Shakhawat; Mazumder, M A Jafar; Al-Attas, Omar; Husain, Tahir

2016-11-01

Heavy metals in drinking water pose a threat to human health. Populations are exposed to heavy metals primarily through water consumption, but few heavy metals can bioaccumulate in the human body (e.g., in lipids and the gastrointestinal system) and may induce cancer and other risks. To date, few thousand publications have reported various aspects of heavy metals in drinking water, including the types and quantities of metals in drinking water, their sources, factors affecting their concentrations at exposure points, human exposure, potential risks, and their removal from drinking water. Many developing countries are faced with the challenge of reducing human exposure to heavy metals, mainly due to their limited economic capacities to use advanced technologies for heavy metal removal. This paper aims to review the state of research on heavy metals in drinking water in developing countries; understand their types and variability, sources, exposure, possible health effects, and removal; and analyze the factors contributing to heavy metals in drinking water. This study identifies the current challenges in developing countries, and future research needs to reduce the levels of heavy metals in drinking water. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Disinfectant Penetration into Nitrifying Drinking Water Distribution System Biofilm Using Microelectrodes

EPA Science Inventory

Nitrification within drinking water distribution systems reduces water quality, causes difficulties maintaining adequate disinfectant residual, and poses public health concerns including exposure to nitrite, nitrate, and opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms. Monochloramine is...

Methods for Environments and Contaminants: Drinking Water

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System Federal Version (SDWIS/FED) includes information on populations served and violations of maximum contaminant levels or required treatment techniques by the nation’s 160,000 public water systems.

78 FR 75257 - Flutriafol; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-12-11

... for which there is reliable information.'' This includes exposure through drinking water and in...), modeled drinking water estimates, and DEEM\\TM\\ ver. 7.81 default processing factors. ii. Chronic exposure... residues adjusted to account for the residues of concern for risk assessment, 100 PCT, modeled drinking...

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in a water supply system and related human health risk assessment.

PubMed

de Jesus Gaffney, Vanessa; Almeida, Cristina M M; Rodrigues, Alexandre; Ferreira, Elisabete; Benoliel, Maria João; Cardoso, Vitor Vale

2015-04-01

A monitoring study of 31 pharmaceuticals along Lisbon's drinking water supply system was implemented, which comprised the analysis of 250 samples including raw water (surface water and groundwater), and drinking water. Of the 31 pharmaceutical compounds, only sixteen were quantified in the analyzed samples, with levels ranging from 0.005 to 46 ng/L in raw water samples and 0.09-46 ng/L in drinking water samples. The human health risk assessment performed showed that appreciable risks to the consumer's health arising from exposure to trace levels of pharmaceuticals in drinking water are extremely unlikely, as RQs values were all below 0.001. Also, pharmaceuticals were selected as indicators to be used as a tool to control the quality of raw water and the treatment efficiency in the drinking water treatment plants. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Integrated risk assessment and screening analysis of drinking water safety of a conventional water supply system.

PubMed

Sun, F; Chen, J; Tong, Q; Zeng, S

2007-01-01

Management of drinking water safety is changing towards an integrated risk assessment and risk management approach that includes all processes in a water supply system from catchment to consumers. However, given the large number of water supply systems in China and the cost of implementing such a risk assessment procedure, there is a necessity to first conduct a strategic screening analysis at a national level. An integrated methodology of risk assessment and screening analysis is thus proposed to evaluate drinking water safety of a conventional water supply system. The violation probability, indicating drinking water safety, is estimated at different locations of a water supply system in terms of permanganate index, ammonia nitrogen, turbidity, residual chlorine and trihalomethanes. Critical parameters with respect to drinking water safety are then identified, based on which an index system is developed to prioritize conventional water supply systems in implementing a detailed risk assessment procedure. The evaluation results are represented as graphic check matrices for the concerned hazards in drinking water, from which the vulnerability of a conventional water supply system is characterized.

Drinking water system treatment and contamination in Shatila Refugee Camp in Beirut, Lebanon.

PubMed

Khoury, S; Graczyk, T; Burnham, G; Jurdi, M; Goldman, L

2016-11-02

Drinking water at Shatila Palestinian Refugee Camp in Beirut, Lebanon is of poor quality and unpredictably intermittent quantity. We aimed to characterize drinking water sources and contamination at Shatila and determine how drinking water can be managed to reduce community health burdens. We interviewed the Popular Committee, well owners, water vendors, water shopkeepers and preschool administrators about drinking water sources, treatment methods and the population served. Water samples from the sources and intermediaries were analysed for thermotolerant faecal coliforms (FCs), Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum and microsporidia, using immunofluorescent antibody detection for G. lamblia and C. parvum, and chromotrope-2 stain for microsporidia. All drinking water sources were contaminated with FCs and parasites. FC counts (cfu/mL) were as follows: wells (35-300), water vendors (2-178), shops (30-300) and preschools (230-300). Responsible factors identified included: unskilled operators; improper maintenance of wells and equipment; lack of proper water storage and handling; and misperception of water quality. These factors must be addressed to improve water quality at Shatila and other refugee camps.

Impact of Hydraulic Well Restoration on Native Bacterial Communities in Drinking Water Wells

PubMed Central

Karwautz, Clemens; Lueders, Tillmann

2014-01-01

The microbial monitoring of drinking water production systems is essential to assure water quality and minimize possible risks. However, the comparative impact of microbes from the surrounding aquifer and of those established within drinking water wells on water parameters remains poorly understood. High pressure jetting is a routine method to impede well clogging by fine sediments and also biofilms. In the present study, bacterial communities were investigated in a drinking water production system before, during, and after hydraulic purging. Variations were observed in bacterial communities between different wells of the same production system before maintenance, despite them having practically identical water chemistries. This may have reflected the distinct usage practices of the different wells, and also local aquifer heterogeneity. Hydraulic jetting of one well preferentially purged a subset of the dominating taxa, including lineages related to Diaphorobacter, Nitrospira, Sphingobium, Ralstonia, Alkanindiges, Janthinobacterium, and Pseudomonas spp, suggesting their tendency for growth in well-associated biofilms. Lineages of potential drinking water concern (i.e. Legionellaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Acinetobacter spp.) reacted distinctly to hydraulic jetting. Bacterial diversity was markedly reduced in drinking water 2 weeks after the cleaning procedure. The results of the present study provide a better understanding of drinking water wells as a microbial habitat, as well as their role in the microbiology of drinking water systems. PMID:25273229

Neonicotinoid pesticides in drinking water in agricultural regions of southern Ontario, Canada.

PubMed

Sultana, Tamanna; Murray, Craig; Kleywegt, Sonya; Metcalfe, Chris D

2018-07-01

Because of the persistence and solubility of neonicotinoid insecticides (NNIs), there is concern that these compounds may contaminate sources of drinking water. The objective of this project was to evaluate the distribution of NNIs in raw and treated drinking water from selected municipalities that draw their water from the lower Great Lakes in areas of southern Ontario, Canada where there is high intensity agriculture. Sites were monitored using Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS) and by collecting grab samples at six drinking water treatment plants. Thiamethoxam, clothianidin and imidacloprid were detected in both POCIS and grab samples of raw water. The frequency of detection of NNIs was much lower in treated drinking water, but some compounds were still detected at estimated concentrations in the low ng L -1 range. Thiamethoxam was detected in one grab sample of raw drinking water at a mean concentration of 0.28 μg L -1 , which is above the guidelines for drinking water recommended in some jurisdictions, including the European Union directive on pesticide levels <0.1 μg L -1 in water intended for human consumption. Further work is required to determine whether contamination of sources of drinking water with this class of insecticides is a global problem in agricultural regions. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Impact of hydraulic well restoration on native bacterial communities in drinking water wells.

PubMed

Karwautz, Clemens; Lueders, Tillmann

2014-01-01

The microbial monitoring of drinking water production systems is essential to assure water quality and minimize possible risks. However, the comparative impact of microbes from the surrounding aquifer and of those established within drinking water wells on water parameters remains poorly understood. High pressure jetting is a routine method to impede well clogging by fine sediments and also biofilms. In the present study, bacterial communities were investigated in a drinking water production system before, during, and after hydraulic purging. Variations were observed in bacterial communities between different wells of the same production system before maintenance, despite them having practically identical water chemistries. This may have reflected the distinct usage practices of the different wells, and also local aquifer heterogeneity. Hydraulic jetting of one well preferentially purged a subset of the dominating taxa, including lineages related to Diaphorobacter, Nitrospira, Sphingobium, Ralstonia, Alkanindiges, Janthinobacterium, and Pseudomonas spp, suggesting their tendency for growth in well-associated biofilms. Lineages of potential drinking water concern (i.e. Legionellaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, and Acinetobacter spp.) reacted distinctly to hydraulic jetting. Bacterial diversity was markedly reduced in drinking water 2 weeks after the cleaning procedure. The results of the present study provide a better understanding of drinking water wells as a microbial habitat, as well as their role in the microbiology of drinking water systems.

Water, Water Everywhere, But is it Safe to Drink?

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been associated with adverse human health effects, including bladder cancer, early term miscarriage, and birth defects. While it is vitally important to kill harmful pathogens in water, it is also important to minimize harmful ...

Testing large volume water treatment and crude oil ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Report EPA’s Homeland Security Research Program (HSRP) partnered with the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to build the Water Security Test Bed (WSTB) at the INL test site outside of Idaho Falls, Idaho. The WSTB was built using an 8-inch (20 cm) diameter cement-mortar lined drinking water pipe that was previously taken out of service. The pipe was exhumed from the INL grounds and oriented in the shape of a small drinking water distribution system. Effluent from the pipe is captured in a lagoon. The WSTB can support drinking water distribution system research on a variety of drinking water treatment topics including biofilms, water quality, sensors, and homeland security related contaminants. Because the WSTB is constructed of real drinking water distribution system pipes, research can be conducted under conditions similar to those in a real drinking water system. In 2014, WSTB pipe was experimentally contaminated with Bacillus globigii spores, a non-pathogenic surrogate for the pathogenic B. anthracis, and then decontaminated using chlorine dioxide. In 2015, the WSTB was used to perform the following experiments: • Four mobile disinfection technologies were tested for their ability to disinfect large volumes of biologically contaminated “dirty” water from the WSTB. B. globigii spores acted as the biological contaminant. The four technologies evaluated included: (1) Hayward Saline C™ 6.0 Chlorination System, (2) Advanced Oxidation Process (A

Formation, precursors, control, and occurrence of nitrosamines in drinking water: a review.

PubMed

Krasner, Stuart W; Mitch, William A; McCurry, Daniel L; Hanigan, David; Westerhoff, Paul

2013-09-01

This review summarizes major findings over the last decade related to nitrosamines in drinking water, with a particular focus on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), because it is among the most widely detected nitrosamines in drinking waters. The reaction of inorganic dichloramine with amine precursors is likely the dominant mechanism responsible for NDMA formation in drinking waters. Even when occurrence surveys found NDMA formation in chlorinated drinking waters, it is unclear whether chloramination resulted from ammonia in the source waters. NDMA formation has been associated with the use of quaternary amine-based coagulants and anion exchange resins, and wastewater-impaired source waters. Specific NDMA precursors in wastewater-impacted source waters may include tertiary amine-containing pharmaceuticals or other quaternary amine-containing constituents of personal care products. Options for nitrosamine control include physical removal of precursors by activated carbon or precursor deactivation by application of oxidants, particularly ozone or chlorine, upstream of chloramination. Although NDMA has been the most prevalent nitrosamine detected in worldwide occurrence surveys, it may account for only ≈ 5% of all nitrosamines in chloraminated drinking waters. Other significant contributors to total nitrosamines are poorly characterized. However, high levels of certain low molecular weight nitrosamines have been detected in certain Chinese waters suspected to be impaired by industrial effluents. The review concludes by identifying research needs that should be addressed over the next decade. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Continental United States Military Housing Inspections Southeast

DTIC Science & Technology

2015-09-24

and safety, including focus on mold, asbestos , radon, lead-based paint, drinking water quality, and pest management. We conducted this inspection in...electrical system safety inspections. In addition, we inspected to EPA standards governing safe drinking water and toxic substances, radon, asbestos , and...inspections focused on mold, asbestos , radon, lead-based paint, drinking water quality, and pest management. We evaluated the associated plans and

Gene expression profiles in liver of mouse after chronic exposure to drinking water.

PubMed

Wu, Bing; Zhang, Yan; Zhao, Dayong; Zhang, Xuxiang; Kong, Zhiming; Cheng, Shupei

2009-10-01

cDNA micorarray approach was applied to hepatic transcriptional profile analysis in male mouse (Mus musculus, ICR) to assess the potential health effects of drinking water in Nanjing, China. Mice were treated with continuous exposure to drinking water for 90 days. Hepatic gene expression was analyzed with Affymetrix Mouse Genome 430A 2.0 arrays, and pathway analysis was carried out by Molecule Annotation System 2.0 and KEGG pathway database. A total of 836 genes were found to be significantly altered (1.5-fold, P < or = 0.05), including 294 up-regulated genes and 542 down-regulated genes. According to biological pathway analysis, drinking water exposure resulted in aberration of gene expression and biological pathways linked to xenobiotic metabolism, signal transduction, cell cycle and oxidative stress response. Further, deregulation of several genes associated with carcinogenesis or tumor progression including Ccnd1, Egfr, Map2k3, Mcm2, Orc2l and Smad2 was observed. Although transcription changes in identified genes are unlikely to be used as a sole indicator of adverse health effects, the results of this study could enhance our understanding of early toxic effects of drinking water exposure and support future studies on drinking water safety.

Drinking Water Infrastructure and Environmental Disparities: Evidence and Methodological Considerations

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Potable drinking water is essential to public health; however, few studies have investigated income or racial disparities in water infrastructure or drinking water quality. There were many case reports documenting a lack of piped water or serious water quality problems in low income and minority communities, including tribal lands, Alaskan Native villages, colonias along the United States–Mexico border, and small communities in agricultural areas. Only 3 studies compared the demographic characteristics of communities by the quality of their drinking water, and the results were mixed in these studies. Further assessments were hampered by difficulties linking specific water systems to the sociodemographic characteristics of communities, as well as little information about how well water systems operated and the effectiveness of governmental oversight. PMID:21836110

Drinking water infrastructure and environmental disparities: evidence and methodological considerations.

PubMed

VanDerslice, James

2011-12-01

Potable drinking water is essential to public health; however, few studies have investigated income or racial disparities in water infrastructure or drinking water quality. There were many case reports documenting a lack of piped water or serious water quality problems in low income and minority communities, including tribal lands, Alaskan Native villages, colonias along the United States-Mexico border, and small communities in agricultural areas. Only 3 studies compared the demographic characteristics of communities by the quality of their drinking water, and the results were mixed in these studies. Further assessments were hampered by difficulties linking specific water systems to the sociodemographic characteristics of communities, as well as little information about how well water systems operated and the effectiveness of governmental oversight.

Frequent water drinking by Zanzibar red colobus (Procolobus kirkii) in a mangrove forest refuge.

PubMed

Nowak, Katarzyna

2008-11-01

Isolated populations of Procolobus kirkii on Uzi Island, Zanzibar, use Rhizophora mucronata-dominated mangrove forest for refuge. Three groups, observed over 14 months, spent up to 85% of total observation time in mangroves with brief excursions to adjacent upland coral rag forest, habitat degraded by human cutting. A large proportion of monkeys' diets consisted of plant parts of five mangrove species. Water drinking was common and 326 water-drinking events were recorded at a rate of up to 0.87 drinks hr(-1). Groups used different strategies to obtain water including licking dew, drinking from treeholes, licking rain off leaves and tree trunks, and drinking from coral rock crevices with Cercopithecus mitis albogularis. Drinking frequency increased with time spent in and consumption of mangroves. Strategies for obtaining water were group-specific and likely the result of learning. Drinking appeared to be an acquired behavior in movement-restricted groups living in a habitat with low plant species diversity and limited salty foods. Copyright 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Nitrate in drinking water and colorectal cancer risk: A nationwide population-based cohort study.

PubMed

Schullehner, Jörg; Hansen, Birgitte; Thygesen, Malene; Pedersen, Carsten B; Sigsgaard, Torben

2018-07-01

Nitrate in drinking water may increase risk of colorectal cancer due to endogenous transformation into carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. Epidemiological studies are few and often challenged by their limited ability of estimating long-term exposure on a detailed individual level. We exploited population-based health register data, linked in time and space with longitudinal drinking water quality data, on an individual level to study the association between long-term drinking water nitrate exposure and colorectal cancer (CRC) risk. Individual nitrate exposure was calculated for 2.7 million adults based on drinking water quality analyses at public waterworks and private wells between 1978 and 2011. For the main analyses, 1.7 million individuals with highest exposure assessment quality were included. Follow-up started at age 35. We identified 5,944 incident CRC cases during 23 million person-years at risk. We used Cox proportional hazards models to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) of nitrate exposure on the risk of CRC, colon and rectal cancer. Persons exposed to the highest level of drinking water nitrate had an HR of 1.16 (95% CI: 1.08-1.25) for CRC compared with persons exposed to the lowest level. We found statistically significant increased risks at drinking water levels above 3.87 mg/L, well below the current drinking water standard of 50 mg/L. Our results add to the existing evidence suggesting increased CRC risk at drinking water nitrate concentrations below the current drinking water standard. A discussion on the adequacy of the drinking water standard in regards to chronic effects is warranted. © 2018 UICC.

78 FR 18336 - Public Water System Supervision Program Approval for the State of Michigan

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-03-26

... comply with the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, including the Ground Water Rule, the Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule, the Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, the Lead... following offices: Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Office of Drinking Water and Municipal...

Single particle ICP-MS characterization of titanium dioxide, silver, and gold nanoparticles during drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Donovan, Ariel R; Adams, Craig D; Ma, Yinfa; Stephan, Chady; Eichholz, Todd; Shi, Honglan

2016-02-01

One of the most direct means for human exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) released into the environment is drinking water. Therefore, it is critical to understand the occurrence and fate of NPs in drinking water systems. The objectives of this study were to develop rapid and reliable analytical methods and apply them to investigate the fate and transportation of NPs during drinking water treatments. Rapid single particle ICP-MS (SP-ICP-MS) methods were developed to characterize and quantify titanium-containing, titanium dioxide, silver, and gold NP concentration, size, size distribution, and dissolved metal element concentration in surface water and treated drinking water. The effectiveness of conventional drinking water treatments (including lime softening, alum coagulation, filtration, and disinfection) to remove NPs from surface water was evaluated using six-gang stirrer jar test simulations. The selected NPs were nearly completely (97 ± 3%) removed after lime softening and alum coagulation/activated carbon adsorption treatments. Additionally, source and drinking waters from three large drinking water treatment facilities utilizing similar treatments with the simulation test were collected and analyzed by the SP-ICP-MS methods. Ti-containing particles and dissolved Ti were present in the river water samples, but Ag and Au were not present. Treatments used at each drinking water treatment facility effectively removed over 93% of the Ti-containing particles and dissolved Ti from the source water. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Perceptions about availability and adequacy of drinking water in a large California school district.

PubMed

Patel, Anisha I; Bogart, Laura M; Uyeda, Kimberly E; Rabin, Alexa; Schuster, Mark A

2010-03-01

Concerns about the influence of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on obesity have led experts to recommend that water be freely available in schools. We explored perceptions about the adequacy of drinking water provision in a large California school district to develop policies and programs to encourage student water consumption. From March to September 2007, we used semistructured interviews to ask 26 California key stakeholders - including school administrators and staff, health and nutrition agency representatives, and families - about school drinking water accessibility; attitudes about, facilitators of, and barriers to drinking water provision; and ideas for increasing water consumption. Interviews were analyzed to determine common themes. Although stakeholders said that water was available from school drinking fountains, they expressed concerns about the appeal, taste, appearance, and safety of fountain water and worried about the affordability and environmental effect of bottled water sold in schools. Stakeholders supported efforts to improve free drinking water availability in schools, but perceived barriers (eg, cost) and mistaken beliefs that regulations and beverage contracts prohibit serving free water may prevent schools from doing so. Some schools provide water through cold-filtered water dispensers and self-serve water coolers. This is the first study to explore stakeholder perceptions about the adequacy of drinking water in US schools. Although limited in scope, our study suggests that water available in at least some schools may be inadequate. Collaborative efforts among schools, communities, and policy makers are needed to improve school drinking water provision.

Effect of bromide in a surface water intake on the formation of brominated trihalomethanes at a public water system treatment plant

EPA Science Inventory

This project is a collaborative drinking water research study. EPA is evaluating water samples collected by PWS operators in order to investigate relationships between bromide in source water and the formation of brominated DBPs in finished drinking water. This study will includ...

Extreme weather events: Should drinking water quality management systems adapt to changing risk profiles?

PubMed

Khan, Stuart J; Deere, Daniel; Leusch, Frederic D L; Humpage, Andrew; Jenkins, Madeleine; Cunliffe, David

2015-11-15

Among the most widely predicted and accepted consequences of global climate change are increases in both the frequency and severity of a variety of extreme weather events. Such weather events include heavy rainfall and floods, cyclones, droughts, heatwaves, extreme cold, and wildfires, each of which can potentially impact drinking water quality by affecting water catchments, storage reservoirs, the performance of water treatment processes or the integrity of distribution systems. Drinking water guidelines, such as the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, provide guidance for the safe management of drinking water. These documents present principles and strategies for managing risks that may be posed to drinking water quality. While these principles and strategies are applicable to all types of water quality risks, very little specific attention has been paid to the management of extreme weather events. We present a review of recent literature on water quality impacts of extreme weather events and consider practical opportunities for improved guidance for water managers. We conclude that there is a case for an enhanced focus on the management of water quality impacts from extreme weather events in future revisions of water quality guidance documents. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Correlations of water quality parameters with mutagenicity of chlorinated drinking water samples.

PubMed

Schenck, Kathleen M; Sivaganesan, Mano; Rice, Glenn E

2009-01-01

Adverse health effects that may result from chronic exposure to mixtures of disinfection by-products (DBPs) present in drinking waters may be linked to both the types and concentrations of DBPs present. Depending on the characteristics of the source water and treatment processes used, both types and concentrations of DBPs found in drinking waters vary substantially. The composition of a drinking-water mixture also may change during distribution. This study evaluated the relationships between mutagenicity, using the Ames assay, and water quality parameters. The study included information on treatment, mutagenicity data, and water quality data for source waters, finished waters, and distribution samples collected from five full-scale drinking water treatment plants, which used chlorine exclusively for disinfection. Four of the plants used surface water sources and the fifth plant used groundwater. Correlations between mutagenicity and water quality parameters are presented. The highest correlation was observed between mutagenicity and the total organic halide concentrations in the treated samples.

REMOVAL OF RADIUM FROM DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This report summarizes processes for removal of radium from drinking water. Ion exchange, including strong acid and weak acid resin, is discussed. Both processes remove better than 95 percent of the radium from the water. Weak acid ion exchange does not add sodium to the water...

[Experience of the implementation of the method of the integral assessment of drinking water on indicators of chemical harmlessness in St. Petersburg].

PubMed

Mel'tser, A V; Erastova, N V; Kiselev, A V

2013-01-01

Providing population with quality drinking water--one of the priority tasks of the state policy aimed at maintaining the health of citizens. Hygienic rating of the drinking water quality envisages requirements to assurance its safety in the epidemiological and radiation relations, harmlessness of chemical composition and good organoleptic properties. There are numerous data proving the relationship between the chemical composition of drinking water and human health, and therefore the issue of taking a hygienically sound measures to improve the efficiency of water treatment has more and more priority. High water quality--the result of complex solution of tasks, including an integral approach to assessment of the quality of drinking water the use of hygienically sound decisions in the modernization of water treatment systems. The results of the integral assessment of drinking water on the properties of harmlessness have shown its actuality in the development and implementation of management decisions. The use of the spatial characteristics of integrated indices permits to visualize changes in the quality of drinking water in all stages of production and transportation from the position of health risks, evaluate the effectiveness of technological solutions and set priorities for investing.

DETERMINATION OF NEWLY IDENTIFIED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWDSC) is investigating the occurrence of 39 newly identified disinfection by-products (DBPs)-which were not included in the Information Collection Rule (ICR)-in drinking waters. Halomethanes (HMs), haloacetonitriles (HANs),...

Climate change and drinking water production in The Netherlands: a flexible approach.

PubMed

Ramaker, T A B; Meuleman, A F M; Bernhardi, L; Cirkel, G

2005-01-01

Climate change increases water system dynamics through temperature changes, changes in precipitation patterns, evaporation, water quality and water storage in ice packs. Water system dependent economical stakeholders, such as drinking water companies in The Netherlands, have to cope with consequences of climate change, e.g. floods and water shortages in river systems, upconing brackish ground water, salt water intrusion, increasing peak demands and microbiological activity. In the past decades, however, both water systems and drinking water production have become more and more inflexible; water systems have been heavily regulated and the drinking water supply has grown into an inflexible, but cheap and reliable, system. Flexibility and adaptivity are solutions to overcome climate change related consequences. Flexible adaptive strategies for drinking water production comprise new sources for drinking water production, application of storage concepts in the short term, and a redesign of large centralised systems, including flexible treatment plants, in the long term. Transition to flexible concepts will take decades because investment depreciation periods of assets are long. This implies that long-term strategies within an indicated time path have to be developed. These strategies must be based on thorough knowledge of current assets to seize opportunities for change.

[Investigation on contamination of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in drinking water and environmental water in Shanghai].

PubMed

Zhang, Xiao-Ping; He, Yan-Yan; Zhu, Qian; Ma, Xiao-Jiang; Cai, Li

2010-12-30

To understand the contamination status of Cryptosporidium sp. and Giardia lamblia in drinking water, source water and environmental water in Shanghai. All water samples collected from drinking water, source water and environmental water were detected by a procedure of micromembrane filtration, immune magnetic separation (IMS), and immunofluorescent assay (IFA). Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were not found in 156 samples of the drinking water including finished water, tap water, or pipe water for directly drinking in communities. Among 70 samples either source water of water plants (15 samples), environmental water from Huangpu River(25), canal water around animal sheds(15), exit water from waste-water treatment plants(9), or waste water due to daily life(6), Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 1(6.7%), 2(8.0%), 7(46.7%), 1(11.1%), and 1(16.7%) samples, respectively; and Giardia cysts were detected in 1(6.7%), 3(12.0%), 6 (40.0%), 2(22.2%), and 2(33.3%), respectively. The positive rate of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts was 17.1% (12/70) and 20.0% (14/70), respectively. No Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts have been detected in drinking water, but found in source water and environmental water samples in Shanghai.

Data on fluoride concentration in drinking water resources in Iran: A case study of Fars province; Larestan region.

PubMed

Dehghani, Mohammad Hadi; Haghighat, Gholam Ali; Yousefi, Mahmood

2018-08-01

Fluoride is a natural element among minerals, geochemical sediments and natural water systems which is entered to body chain by drinking water. Groundwater is the main and the best source of drinking water in southern areas of Iran especially in the cities of Lar and Gerash (Fars province). So due to the health significance fluoride including dental and skeletal fluorosis, fertility, abortion and thyroid diseases, etc., measuring has high importance in the water resources of this region of Iran. Fluoride concentration was 0.35-3.46 mg/L and 78.26% drinking water sources contains fluoride concentration above the WHO guideline.

Desalinated drinking water in the GCC countries - The need to address consumer perceptions.

PubMed

Shomar, Basem; Hawari, Jalal

2017-10-01

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries consist of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. These countries depend mainly on seawater desalination to meet their water needs. Although great emphasis is given to characterize desalinated water for its physicochemical and microbial properties, e.g. presence of metals, other organic contaminants and for bacteria, sensorial characteristics including smell, taste and color have not received the same attention. This is possibly attributed to the fact that inhabitants of GCC States do not use desalinated tap water for drinking consumption, rather they depend on locally produced or imported bottled water where color, taste and odor are not problematic. To address the consumer needs and perceptions of drinking desalinated water in GCC countries, water quality standards and guidelines, should respond to the public concern about other sensorial characteristics (organoleptic properties) including taste, odor, and trigeminal sensations. Often the root causes of color and smell in water are attributed to the presence of organic and inorganic contaminants and to bacterial growth which is frequently accompanied by the production of metabolites and byproducts that are obnoxious. The unpleasant sensorial problems associated with desalinated drinking tap water may constitute the driving force for most people in GCC countries to depend on bottled water. To encourage people in the GCC countries to consume desalinated tap water, it is essential that water testing include measurements of physicochemical properties, biofilm presence and organoleptic parameters to improve overall water quality. This review highlights the contribution of organoleptics for consumers of desalinated tap water. It extends water quality research to be addressed by standards for organoleptic parameters in desalinated drinking water. Accordingly, consumer awareness and outreach campaigns should be implemented to encourage people to drink tap water in the GCC countries. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Reduction in cryptosporidiosis associated with introduction of enhanced filtration of drinking water at Loch Katrine, Scotland.

PubMed

Pollock, K G J; Young, D; Robertson, C; Ahmed, S; Ramsay, C N

2014-01-01

Previous evidence has suggested an association between cryptosporidiosis and consumption of unfiltered drinking water from Loch Katrine in Scotland. Before September 2007, the water was only micro-strained and chlorinated; however, since that time, coagulation and rapid gravity filtration have been installed. In order to determine risk factors associated with cryptosporidiosis, including drinking water, we analysed data on microbiologically confirmed cases of cryptosporidiosis from 2004 to 2010. We identified an association between the incidence of cryptosporidiosis and unfiltered Loch Katrine drinking water supplied to the home (odds ratio 1.86, 95% confidence interval 1.11-3.11, P = 0.019). However, while filtration appears to be associated with initially reduced rates of cryptosporidiosis, evidence suggests it may paradoxically make those consumers more susceptible to other transmission routes in the long-term. These findings support implementation of similar treatment for other unfiltered drinking-water supplies, as a means of reducing cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking water.

Detection of zinc oxide and cerium dioxide nanoparticles during drinking water treatment by rapid single particle ICP-MS methods.

PubMed

Donovan, Ariel R; Adams, Craig D; Ma, Yinfa; Stephan, Chady; Eichholz, Todd; Shi, Honglan

2016-07-01

Nanoparticles (NPs) entering water systems are an emerging concern as NPs are more frequently manufactured and used. Single particle inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS) methods were validated to detect Zn- and Ce-containing NPs in surface and drinking water using a short dwell time of 0.1 ms or lower, ensuring precision in single particle detection while eliminating the need for sample preparation. Using this technique, information regarding NP size, size distribution, particle concentration, and dissolved ion concentrations was obtained simultaneously. The fates of Zn- and Ce-NPs, including those found in river water and added engineered NPs, were evaluated by simulating a typical drinking water treatment process. Lime softening, alum coagulation, powdered activated carbon sorption, and disinfection by free chlorine were simulated sequentially using river water. Lime softening removed 38-53 % of Zn-containing and ZnO NPs and >99 % of Ce-containing and CeO2 NPs. Zn-containing and ZnO NP removal increased to 61-74 % and 77-79 % after alum coagulation and disinfection, respectively. Source and drinking water samples were collected from three large drinking water treatment facilities and analyzed for Zn- and Ce-containing NPs. Each facility had these types of NPs present. In all cases, particle concentrations were reduced by a minimum of 60 % and most were reduced by >95 % from source water to finished drinking water. This study concludes that uncoated ZnO and CeO2 NPs may be effectively removed by conventional drinking water treatments including lime softening and alum coagulation.

Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review.

PubMed

Bain, Robert; Cronk, Ryan; Hossain, Rifat; Bonjour, Sophie; Onda, Kyle; Wright, Jim; Yang, Hong; Slaymaker, Tom; Hunter, Paul; Prüss-Ustün, Annette; Bartram, Jamie

2014-08-01

To estimate exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water as indicated by levels of Escherichia coli (E. coli) or thermotolerant coliform (TTC) in water sources. We estimated coverage of different types of drinking water source based on household surveys and censuses using multilevel modelling. Coverage data were combined with water quality studies that assessed E. coli or TTC including those identified by a systematic review (n = 345). Predictive models for the presence and level of contamination of drinking water sources were developed using random effects logistic regression and selected covariates. We assessed sensitivity of estimated exposure to study quality, indicator bacteria and separately considered nationally randomised surveys. We estimate that 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water which suffers from faecal contamination, of these 1.1 billion drink water that is of at least 'moderate' risk (>10 E. coli or TTC per 100 ml). Data from nationally randomised studies suggest that 10% of improved sources may be 'high' risk, containing at least 100 E. coli or TTC per 100 ml. Drinking water is found to be more often contaminated in rural areas (41%, CI: 31%-51%) than in urban areas (12%, CI: 8-18%), and contamination is most prevalent in Africa (53%, CI: 42%-63%) and South-East Asia (35%, CI: 24%-45%). Estimates were not sensitive to the exclusion of low quality studies or restriction to studies reporting E. coli. Microbial contamination is widespread and affects all water source types, including piped supplies. Global burden of disease estimates may have substantially understated the disease burden associated with inadequate water services. © 2014 The Authors. Tropical Medicine and International Health published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review

PubMed Central

Bain, Robert; Cronk, Ryan; Hossain, Rifat; Bonjour, Sophie; Onda, Kyle; Wright, Jim; Yang, Hong; Slaymaker, Tom; Hunter, Paul; Prüss-Ustün, Annette; Bartram, Jamie

2014-01-01

Objectives To estimate exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water as indicated by levels of Escherichia coli (E. coli) or thermotolerant coliform (TTC) in water sources. Methods We estimated coverage of different types of drinking water source based on household surveys and censuses using multilevel modelling. Coverage data were combined with water quality studies that assessed E. coli or TTC including those identified by a systematic review (n = 345). Predictive models for the presence and level of contamination of drinking water sources were developed using random effects logistic regression and selected covariates. We assessed sensitivity of estimated exposure to study quality, indicator bacteria and separately considered nationally randomised surveys. Results We estimate that 1.8 billion people globally use a source of drinking water which suffers from faecal contamination, of these 1.1 billion drink water that is of at least ‘moderate’ risk (>10 E. coli or TTC per 100 ml). Data from nationally randomised studies suggest that 10% of improved sources may be ‘high’ risk, containing at least 100 E. coli or TTC per 100 ml. Drinking water is found to be more often contaminated in rural areas (41%, CI: 31%–51%) than in urban areas (12%, CI: 8–18%), and contamination is most prevalent in Africa (53%, CI: 42%–63%) and South-East Asia (35%, CI: 24%–45%). Estimates were not sensitive to the exclusion of low quality studies or restriction to studies reporting E. coli. Conclusions Microbial contamination is widespread and affects all water source types, including piped supplies. Global burden of disease estimates may have substantially understated the disease burden associated with inadequate water services. PMID:24811893

[Spatial and seasonal characterization of the drinking water from various sources in a peri-urban town of Salta].

PubMed

Rodriguez-Alvarez, María S; Moraña, Liliana B; Salusso, María M; Seghezzo, Lucas

Drinking water monitoring plans are important to characterize both treated and untreated water used for drinking purposes. Access to drinking water increased in recent years as a response to the Millennium Development Goals set for 2015. The new Sustainable Development Goals aim to ensure universal access to safe drinking water by 2030. Within the framework of these global goals, it is crucial to monitor local drinking water systems. In this paper, treated and untreated water from different sources currently consumed in a specific town in Salta, northern Argentina, was thoroughly assessed. Monitoring extended along several seasons and included the physical, chemical and microbiological variables recommended by the Argentine Food Code. On the one hand, treated water mostly complies with these standards, with some non-compliances detected during the rainy season. Untreated water, on the other hand, never meets microbiological standards and is unfit for human consumption. Monitoring seems essential to detect anomalies and help guarantee a constant provision of safe drinking water. New treatment plants are urgently needed to expand the water grid to the entire population. Copyright © 2017 Asociación Argentina de Microbiología. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.

Laboratory investigation of drinking water sources of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh.

PubMed

Thakur, S D; Panda, A K

2012-06-01

A total of 70 drinking water sources including piped water supply (n = 36), ground water sources (n = 24, hand pumps and bore wells) and natural water sources (n = 10, springs/step-wells) from various parts of district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh were investigated for their suitability for drinking purpose by presumptive coliform test. Three samples were collected from each source during different parts of the year. Piped water sources (91.7%) were most contaminated followed by natural water sources (90%) and ground water sources (62.5%). 70.5% of the total water samples (n = 210) were positive for coliforms. All the three samples from 8.3% (n = 3), 37.5% (n = 9) and 10% (n = 1) piped water, ground water and natural sources respectively, were negative for coliform organisms. A variety of organisms including Proteus, Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pasteurella, Enterobacter and Serratia liquefaciens were isolated from water samples positive for coliforms in presumptive coliform test. Thermo-tolerant coliform organisms; Escherichia coli, Citrobacter, Klebsiella and Enterobacter were 71.2% (n = 52) of the total bacterial isolations. These findings suggest absence of adequate treatment and disinfection of the water sources supplying drinking water in district Kangra.

Contaminated drinking water and rural health perspectives in Rajasthan, India: an overview of recent case studies.

PubMed

Suthar, Surindra

2011-02-01

Access to safe drinking water is an important issue of health and development at national, regional, and local levels. The concept of safe drinking water assumes greater significance in countries like India where the majority of the population lives in villages with bare infrastructures and poor sanitation facilities. This review presents an overview of drinking water quality in rural habitations of northern Rajasthan, India. Although fluoride is an endemic problem to the groundwater of this region, recently, other anthropogenic chemicals has also been reported in the local groundwater. Recent case studies indicate that about 95% of sites of this region contain a higher fluoride level in groundwater than the maximum permissible limit as decided by the Bureau of Indian Standards. Nitrate (as NO3-) contamination has appeared as another anthropogenic threat to some intensively cultivable rural habitations of this region. Biological contamination has appeared as another issue of unsafe drinking water resources in rural areas of the state. Recent studies have claimed a wide variety of pathogenic bacteria including members of the family Enterobacteriaceae in local drinking water resources. Overall, the quality of drinking water in this area is not up to the safe level, and much work is still required to establish a safe drinking water supply program in this area.

40 CFR 141.807 - Recordkeeping requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... Section 141.807 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.807 Recordkeeping... carrier must keep records of any disinfection and flushing for at least 5 years and must include the...

40 CFR 141.807 - Recordkeeping requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... Section 141.807 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.807 Recordkeeping... carrier must keep records of any disinfection and flushing for at least 5 years and must include the...

40 CFR 141.807 - Recordkeeping requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... Section 141.807 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.807 Recordkeeping... carrier must keep records of any disinfection and flushing for at least 5 years and must include the...

40 CFR 141.807 - Recordkeeping requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... Section 141.807 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.807 Recordkeeping... carrier must keep records of any disinfection and flushing for at least 5 years and must include the...

40 CFR 141.807 - Recordkeeping requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... Section 141.807 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Aircraft Drinking Water Rule § 141.807 Recordkeeping... carrier must keep records of any disinfection and flushing for at least 5 years and must include the...

Total Coliform Rule (TCR) Federal Register Notice

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This document provides the FR notice to 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142 Drinking Water: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Total Coliforms (Including Fecal Coliforms and E. Coli); Final Rule (26 pp, 5 M).

Water in Your Community. What We Take from Our Environment. Science and Technology Education in Philippine Society.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Philippines Univ., Quezon City. Inst. for Science and Mathematics Education Development.

This module (recommended for grades 5 or 6) provides information on water in the community. Topics considered include: safe water (showing how clear water may be unsafe to drink); water sources; drinking water and wells; clean water underground; how water gets from the ground to the faucet inside a home; the groundwater of seaside and inland…

When climate change is a fact! Adaptive strategies for drinking water production in a changing natural environment.

PubMed

Meuleman, A F M; Cirkel, G; Zwolsman, G J J

2007-01-01

Climate change increases water system dynamics through temperature changes, changes in precipitation patterns, evaporation, and water quality and water storage in ice packs. Water system dependent economical stakeholders, such as drinking water companies in the Netherlands, have to cope with consequences of climate change, e.g. floods and water shortages in river systems, upcoming of brackish ground water, salt water intrusion, increasing peak demands and microbiological activity due to temperature rise. In the past decades, however, both water systems and drinking water production have become more and more inflexible; water systems have been heavily regulated aiming at maximum security and economic functions and the drinking water supply in the Netherlands has grown into an inflexible, but cheap and reliable, system. At a water catchment scale, flexibility and adaptation are solutions to overcome climate change related consequences. Flexible adaptive strategies for drinking water production comprise new sources for drinking water production, application of storage concepts in the short term, and a redesign of large centralized systems, including flexible treatment plants, in the long term. Transition to flexible concepts will take decades because investment depreciation periods of assets are long. These strategies must be based on thorough knowledge of current assets to seize opportunities for change.

A Review of Nitrates in Drinking Water: Maternal Exposure and Adverse Reproductive and Developmental Outcomes

PubMed Central

Manassaram, Deana M.; Backer, Lorraine C.; Moll, Deborah M.

2006-01-01

In this review we present an update on maternal exposure to nitrates in drinking water in relation to possible adverse reproductive and developmental effects, and also discuss nitrates in drinking water in the United States. The current standard for nitrates in drinking water is based on retrospective studies and approximates a level that protects infants from methemoglobinemia, but no safety factor is built into the standard. The current standard applies only to public water systems. Drinking water source was related to nitrate exposure (i.e., private systems water was more likely than community system water to have nitrate levels above the maximum contaminant limit). Animal studies have found adverse reproductive effects resulting from higher doses of nitrate or nitrite. The epidemiologic evidence of a direct exposure–response relationship between drinking water nitrate level and adverse reproductive effect is still not clear. However, some reports have suggested an association between exposure to nitrates in drinking water and spontaneous abortions, intrauterine growth restriction, and various birth defects. Uncertainties in epidemiologic studies include the lack of individual exposure assessment that would rule out confounding of the exposure with some other cause. Nitrates may be just one of the contaminants in drinking water contributing to adverse outcomes. We conclude that the current literature does not provide sufficient evidence of a causal relationship between exposure to nitrates in drinking water and adverse reproductive effects. Future studies incorporating individual exposure assessment about users of private wells—the population most at risk—should be considered. PMID:16507452

Why Do Some First Nations Communities Have Safe Water and Others Not? Socioeconomic Determinants of Drinking Water Risk

PubMed Central

Brown, Brandon; Wachowiak-Smolíková, Renata; Spence, Nicholas D.; Wachowiak, Mark P.; Walters, Dan F.

2016-01-01

Securing safe and adequate drinking water is an ongoing issue for many Canadian First Nations communities despite nearly 15 years of reports, studies, policy changes, financial commitments, and regulations. The federal drinking water evaluation scheme is narrowly scoped, ignoring community level social factors, which may play a role in access to safe water in First Nations. This research used the 2006 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada First Nations Drinking Water System Risk Survey data and the Community Well-Being Index, including labour force, education, housing, and income, from the 2006 Census. Bivariate analysis was conducted using the Spearman’s correlation, Kendall’s tau correlation, and Pearson’s correlation. Multivariable analysis was conducted using an ordinal (proportional or cumulative odds) regression model. Results showed that the regression model was significant. Community socioeconomic indicators had no relationship with drinking water risk characterization in both the bivariate and multivariable models, with the sole exception of labour force, which had a significantly positive effect on drinking water risk rankings. Socioeconomic factors were not important in explaining access to safe drinking water in First Nations communities. Improvements in the quality of safe water data as well as an examination of other community processes are required to address this pressing policy issue. PMID:27157172

Why Do Some First Nations Communities Have Safe Water and Others Not? Socioeconomic Determinants of Drinking Water Risk.

PubMed

Brown, Brandon; Wachowiak-Smolíková, Renata; Spence, Nicholas D; Wachowiak, Mark P; Walters, Dan F

2016-09-01

Securing safe and adequate drinking water is an ongoing issue for many Canadian First Nations communities despite nearly 15 years of reports, studies, policy changes, financial commitments, and regulations. The federal drinking water evaluation scheme is narrowly scoped, ignoring community level social factors, which may play a role in access to safe water in First Nations. This research used the 2006 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada First Nations Drinking Water System Risk Survey data and the Community Well-Being Index, including labour force, education, housing, and income, from the 2006 Census. Bivariate analysis was conducted using the Spearman's correlation, Kendall's tau correlation, and Pearson's correlation. Multivariable analysis was conducted using an ordinal (proportional or cumulative odds) regression model. Results showed that the regression model was significant. Community socioeconomic indicators had no relationship with drinking water risk characterization in both the bivariate and multivariable models, with the sole exception of labour force, which had a significantly positive effect on drinking water risk rankings. Socioeconomic factors were not important in explaining access to safe drinking water in First Nations communities. Improvements in the quality of safe water data as well as an examination of other community processes are required to address this pressing policy issue.

Review of epidemiological studies on drinking water hardness and cardiovascular diseases.

PubMed

Monarca, Silvano; Donato, Francesco; Zerbini, Ilaria; Calderon, Rebecca L; Craun, Gunther F

2006-08-01

Major risk factors do not entirely explain the worldwide variability of morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular disease. Environmental exposures, including drinking water minerals may affect cardiovascular disease risks. We conducted a qualitative review of the epidemiological studies of cardiovascular disease and drinking water hardness and calcium and magnesium levels. Many but not all ecological studies found an inverse (i.e., protective) association between cardiovascular disease mortality and water hardness, calcium, or magnesium levels; but results are not consistent. Some case-control studies and one cohort study found either a reduced cardiovascular disease mortality risk with increased drinking water magnesium levels or an increased risk with low magnesium levels. However, the analytical studies provide little evidence that cardiovascular risks are associated with drinking water hardness or calcium levels. Information from epidemiological and other studies supports the hypothesis that a low intake of magnesium may increase the risk of dying from, and possibly developing, cardiovascular disease or stroke. Thus, not removing magnesium from drinking water, or in certain situations increasing the magnesium intake from water, may be beneficial, especially for populations with an insufficient dietary intake of the mineral.

Drinking water quality in Indigenous communities in Canada and health outcomes: a scoping review.

PubMed

Bradford, Lori E A; Okpalauwaekwe, Udoka; Waldner, Cheryl L; Bharadwaj, Lalita A

2016-01-01

Many Indigenous communities in Canada live with high-risk drinking water systems and drinking water advisories and experience health status and water quality below that of the general population. A scoping review of research examining drinking water quality and its relationship to Indigenous health was conducted. The study was undertaken to identify the extent of the literature, summarize current reports and identify research needs. A scoping review was designed to identify peer-reviewed literature that examined challenges related to drinking water and health in Indigenous communities in Canada. Key search terms were developed and mapped on five bibliographic databases (MEDLINE/PubMED, Web of Knowledge, SciVerse Scopus, Taylor and Francis online journal and Google Scholar). Online searches for grey literature using relevant government websites were completed. Sixteen articles (of 518; 156 bibliographic search engines, 362 grey literature) met criteria for inclusion (contained keywords; publication year 2000-2015; peer-reviewed and from Canada). Studies were quantitative (8), qualitative (5) or mixed (3) and included case, cohort, cross-sectional and participatory designs. In most articles, no definition of "health" was given (14/16), and the primary health issue described was gastrointestinal illness (12/16). Challenges to the study of health and well-being with respect to drinking water in Indigenous communities included irregular funding, remote locations, ethical approval processes, small sample sizes and missing data. Research on drinking water and health outcomes in Indigenous communities in Canada is limited and occurs on an opportunistic basis. There is a need for more research funding, and inquiry to inform policy decisions for improvements of water quality and health-related outcomes in Indigenous communities. A coordinated network looking at First Nations water and health outcomes, a database to store and create access to research findings, increased funding and time frames for funding, and more decolonizing and community-based participatory research aimed at understanding the relationship between drinking water quality and health outcomes in First Nations communities in Canada are needed.

Does drinking water influence hospital-admitted sialolithiasis on an epidemiological level in Denmark?

PubMed Central

Schrøder, Stine; Homøe, Preben; Wagner, Niels; Vataire, Anne-Lise; Lundager Madsen, Hans Erik; Bardow, Allan

2015-01-01

Objectives Sialolithiasis, or salivary stones, is not a rare disease of the major salivary glands. However, the aetiology and incidence remain largely unknown. Since sialoliths are comprised mainly of calcium phosphate salts, we hypothesise that drinking water calcium levels and other elements in drinking water could play a role in sialolithiasis. Owing to substantial intermunicipality differences in drinking water composition, Denmark constitutes a unique environment for testing such relations. Design An epidemiological study based on patient data extracted from the National Patient Registry and drinking water data from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland retrieved as weighted data on all major drinking water constituents for each of the 3364 waterworks in Denmark. All patient cases with International Statistical Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) codes for sialolithiasis registered between the years 2000 and 2010 were included in the study (n=3014) and related to the drinking water composition on a municipality level (n=98). Primary and secondary outcome measures Multiple regression analysis using iterative search and testing among all demographic and drinking water variables with sialolithiasis incidence as the outcome in search of possible relations among the variables tested. Results The nationwide incidence of hospital-admitted sialolithiasis was 5.5 cases per 100 000 citizens per year in Denmark. Strong relations were found between the incidence of sialolithiasis and the drinking water concentration of calcium, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate, however, in separate models (p<0.001). Analyses also confirmed correlations between drinking water calcium and magnesium and their concentration in saliva whereas this was not the case for hydrogen carbonate. Conclusions Differences in drinking water calcium and magnesium may play a role in the incidence of sialolithiasis. These findings are of interest because many countries have started large-scale desalination programmes of drinking water. PMID:25941183

Fluoride concentration level in rural area in Poldasht city and daily fluoride intake based on drinking water consumption with temperature.

PubMed

Mohammadi, Ali Akbar; Yousefi, Mahmood; Mahvi, Amir Hossein

2017-08-01

Long-term exposure to high level of fluoride can caused several adverse effects on human health including dental and skeletal fluorosis. We investigated all the drinking water source located in rural areas of Poldasht city, west Azerbaijan Province, North West Iran between 2014 and 2015. Fluoride concentration of water samples was measured by SPADNS method. We found that in the villages of Poldasht the average of fluoride concentration in drinking water sources (well, and the river) was in the range mg/l 0.28-10.23. The average daily received per 2 l of drinking water is in the range mg/l 0.7-16.6 per day per person. Drinking water demands cause fluorosis in the villages around the area residents and based on the findings of this study writers are announced suggestions below in order to take care of the health of area residents.

Agricultural Compounds in Water and Birth Defects.

PubMed

Brender, Jean D; Weyer, Peter J

2016-06-01

Agricultural compounds have been detected in drinking water, some of which are teratogens in animal models. The most commonly detected agricultural compounds in drinking water include nitrate, atrazine, and desethylatrazine. Arsenic can also be an agricultural contaminant, although arsenic often originates from geologic sources. Nitrate has been the most studied agricultural compound in relation to prenatal exposure and birth defects. In several case-control studies published since 2000, women giving birth to babies with neural tube defects, oral clefts, and limb deficiencies were more likely than control mothers to be exposed to higher concentrations of drinking water nitrate during pregnancy. Higher concentrations of atrazine in drinking water have been associated with abdominal defects, gastroschisis, and other defects. Elevated arsenic in drinking water has also been associated with birth defects. Since these compounds often occur as mixtures, it is suggested that future research focus on the impact of mixtures, such as nitrate and atrazine, on birth defects.

Monitoring of Harmful Algal Blooms through Drinking Water Treatment Facilities Located on Lake Erie in the 2014 and 2015 Bloom Seasons

EPA Science Inventory

A number of drinking water treatment plants on Lake Erie have supplied water samples on a monthly basis for analysis related to the occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs). General water quality parameters including total organic carbon (TOC), orthophosphate, and chlorophyll-A ...

COMPARISON OF MEMBRANE FILTER, MULTIPLE-FERMENTATION-TUBE, AND PRESENCE-ABSENCE TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING TOTAL COLIFORMS IN SMALL COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

Methods for detecting total coliform bacteria in drinking water were compared using 1483 different drinking water samples from 15 small community water systems in Vermont and New Hampshire. The methods included the membrane filter (MF) technique, a ten tube fermentation tube tech...

[Parasitic zoonoses transmitted by drinking water. Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis].

PubMed

Exner, M; Gornik, V

2004-07-01

Nowadays, the parasitic zoonose organisms Giardia lamblia und Cryptosporidium spp. are among the most relevant pathogens of drinking water-associated disease outbreaks. These pathogens are transmitted via a fecal-oral route; in both cases the dose of infection is low. Apart from person-to-person or animal-to-person transmissions, the consumption of contaminated food and water are further modes of transmission. The disease is mainly characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. In industrialized countries, the prevalence rate of giardiasis is 2-5 % and of cryptosporidiosis 1-3%. Throughout the world, a large number of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis outbreaks associated with drinking water were published; in 2001 the first case in Germany was identified. Giardia and Cryptosporidium are detected in surface water and sporadically in unprotected groundwater. Use of these waters for drinking water abstraction makes high demands on the technology of the treatment process: because of the disinfectant resistance of the parasites, safe elimination methods are needed, which even at high contamination levels of source water guarantee safe drinking water. Further measures for prevention and control are implementation of the HACCP concept, which includes the whole chain of procedures of drinking water supply from catchment via treatment to tap and a quality management system.

Chlorinated river and lake water extract caused oxidative damage, DNA migration and cytotoxicity in human cells.

PubMed

Yuan, Jing; Wu, Xin-Jiang; Lu, Wen-Qing; Cheng, Xiao-Li; Chen, Dan; Li, Xiao-Yan; Liu, Ai-Lin; Wu, Jian-Jun; Xie, Hong; Stahl, Thorsten; Mersch-Sundermann, Volker

2005-01-01

Consumption of chlorinated drinking water is suspected to be associated with adverse health effects, including mutations and cancer. In the present study, the genotoxic potential of water from Donghu lake, Yangtze river and Hanjiang river in Wuhan, an 8-million metropolis in China, was investigated using HepG2 cells and the alkaline version of the comet assay. It could be shown that all water extracts caused dose-dependent DNA migration in concentrations corresponding to dried extracts of 0.167-167 ml chlorinated drinking water per ml medium. To explore whether the intracellular redox status is regulated by chlorinated drinking water, we determined lipid peroxidation (LPO) and depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH). The malondialdehyde (thiobarbituric acid (TBA)-reactive aldehydes) concentration increased after chlorinated drinking water treatment of HepG2 cells in a dose-dependent manner, the GSH content decreased. The activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) increased in chlorinated drinking water treated HepG2 cells indicating cytotoxicity. In accordance with former studies which dealt with in vivo and in vitro micronucleus induction the present study shows that chlorinated drinking water from polluted raw water may entail genetic risks.

Diversity and Significance of Mold Species in Norwegian Drinking Water▿

PubMed Central

Hageskal, Gunhild; Knutsen, Ann Kristin; Gaustad, Peter; de Hoog, G. Sybren; Skaar, Ida

2006-01-01

In order to determine the occurrence, distribution, and significance of mold species in groundwater- and surface water-derived drinking water in Norway, molds isolated from 273 water samples were identified. Samples of raw water, treated water, and water from private homes and hospital installations were analyzed by incubation of 100-ml membrane-filtered samples on dichloran-18% glycerol agar. The total count (number of CFU per 100 ml) of fungal species and the species diversity within each sample were determined. The identification of mold species was based on morphological and molecular methods. In total, 94 mold species belonging to 30 genera were identified. The mycobiota was dominated by species of Penicillium, Trichoderma, and Aspergillus, with some of them occurring throughout the drinking water system. Several of the same species as isolated from water may have the potential to cause allergic reactions or disease in humans. Other species are common contaminants of food and beverages, and some may cause unwanted changes in the taste or smell of water. The present results indicate that the mycobiota of water should be considered when the microbiological safety and quality of drinking water are assessed. In fact, molds in drinking water should possibly be included in the Norwegian water supply and drinking water regulations. PMID:17028226

Support Documents for EPA’s Second Review of Existing Drinking Water Standards

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The support documents for the Six-Year Review 2 of existing National Primary Drinking Water Standards contain extensive information including protocol for the review, and chemical contaminant health effects among others

Support Documents for EPA’s Third Review of Existing Drinking Water Standards

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The support documents for the Six-Year Review 3 of existing National Primary Drinking Water Standards contain extensive information including protocol for the review, and chemical contaminant health effects among others

A WATERSHED APPROACH TO DRINKING WATER QUALITY

EPA Science Inventory

The purpose of this presentation is to describe emerging technologies and strategies managing watersheds with the goal of protecting drinking water sources. Included are discussions on decentralized wastewater treatment, whole organism biomonitor detection systems, treatment of...

Introduction to Microcystins

EPA Science Inventory

This is a workshop presentation to serve as an introduce to microcystins. Subject material will include the state of science, implications for drinking water treatment plants and current regulatory implications. This workshop is intended for the drinking water lab practitioners...

3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water: Telling

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Lead in drinking water in schools or childcare facilities programs should include communicating with parents, teachers, and the public. Transparency and a communication strategy are a key piece to developing a lead testing program.

Aircraft Drinking Water Rule Public Meetings and Summaries

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

In developing the Aircraft Drinking Water Rule, EPA used a collaborative process to obtain a broad range of views including the airlines, flight attendants, passengers, pilots, airports, laboratories, public health officials and environmental organizations

GIS-based analysis of drinking-water supply structures: a module for microbial risk assessment.

PubMed

Kistemann, T; Herbst, S; Dangendorf, F; Exner, M

2001-05-01

Water-related infections constitute an important health impact world-wide. A set of tools serving for Microbial Risk Assessment (MRA) of waterborne diseases should comprise the entire drinking-water management system and take into account the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept which provides specific Critical Control Points (CCPs) reflecting each step of drinking-water provision. A Geographical Information System (GIS) study concerning water-supply structure (WSS) was conducted in the Rhein-Berg District (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). As a result, suitability of the existing water databases HYGRIS (hydrological basis geo-information system) and TEIS (drinking-water recording and information system) for the development of a WSS-GIS module could be demonstrated. Spatial patterns within the integrated raw and drinking-water data can easily be uncovered by GIS-specific options. The application of WSS-GIS allows a rapid visualization and analysis of drinking-water supply structure and offers huge advantages concerning microbial monitoring of raw and drinking water as well as recognition and investigation of incidents and outbreaks. Increasing requests regarding health protection and health reporting, demands for a better outbreak management and water-related health impacts of global climate change are major challenges of future water management to be tackled with methods including spatial analysis. GIS is assumed to be a very useful tool to meet these requirements.

Relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure to bisphenol A.

PubMed

Arnold, Scott M; Clark, Kathryn E; Staples, Charles A; Klecka, Gary M; Dimond, Steve S; Caspers, Norbert; Hentges, Steven G

2013-03-01

A comprehensive search of studies describing bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in drinking water and source waters (i.e., surface water and groundwater) was conducted to evaluate the relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure and risk. Data from 65 papers were evaluated from North America (31), Europe (17), and Asia (17). The fraction of drinking water measurements reported as less than the detection limit is high; 95%, 48%, and 41%, for North America, Europe, and Asia, respectively. The maximum quantified (in excess of the detection limit) BPA concentrations from North America, Europe, and Asia are 0.099 μg/l, 0.014 μg/l, and 0.317 μg/l. The highest quantified median and 95th percentile concentrations of BPA in Asian drinking water are 0.026 μg/l and 0.19 μg/l, while high detection limits restricted the determination of representative median and 95th percentile concentrations in North America and Europe. BPA in drinking water represents a minor component of overall human exposure, and compared with the lowest available oral toxicity benchmark of 16 μg/kg-bw/day (includes an uncertainty factor of 300) gives margins of safety >1100. Human biomonitoring data indicate that ingestion of drinking water represents <2.8% of the total intake of BPA.

Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health--a review.

PubMed

Azizullah, Azizullah; Khattak, Muhammad Nasir Khan; Richter, Peter; Häder, Donat-Peter

2011-02-01

Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country. Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated. Human activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of water quality. Microbial and chemical pollutants are the main factors responsible exclusively or in combination for various public health problems. This review discusses a detailed layout of drinking water quality in Pakistan with special emphasis on major pollutants, sources of pollution and the consequent health problems. The data presented in this review are extracted from various studies published in national and international journals. Also reports released by the government and non-governmental organizations are included. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Trace analysis of trimethoprim and sulfonamide, macrolide, quinolone, and tetracycline antibiotics in chlorinated drinking water using liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

USGS Publications Warehouse

Ye, Z.; Weinberg, H.S.; Meyer, M.T.

2007-01-01

A multirun analytical method has been developed and validated for trace determination of 24 antibiotics including 7 sulfonamides, 3 macrolides, 7 quinolones, 6 tetracyclines, and trimethoprim in chlorine-disinfected drinking water using a single solid-phase extraction method coupled to liquid chromatography with positive electrospray tandem mass spectrometry detection. The analytes were extracted by a hydrophilic-lipophilic balanced resin and eluted with acidified methanol (0.1% formic acid), resulting in analyte recoveries generally above 90%. The limits of quantitation were mostly below 10 ng/L in drinking water. Since the concentrated sample matrix typically caused ion suppression during electrospray ionization, the method of standard addition was used for quantitation. Chlorine residuals in drinking water can react with some antibiotics, but ascorbic acid was found to be an effective chlorine quenching agent without affecting the analysis and stability of the antibiotics in water. A preliminary occurrence study using this method revealed the presence of some antibiotics in drinking waters, including sulfamethoxazole (3.0-3.4 ng/L), macrolides (1.4-4.9 ng/L), and quinolones (1.2-4.0 ng/L). ?? 2007 American Chemical Society.

Assessment of the water chemical quality improvement based on human health risk indexes: Application to a drinking water treatment plant incorporating membrane technologies.

PubMed

López-Roldán, Ramón; Rubalcaba, Alicia; Martin-Alonso, Jordi; González, Susana; Martí, Vicenç; Cortina, Jose Luis

2016-01-01

A methodology has been developed in order to evaluate the potential risk of drinking water for the health of the consumers. The methodology used for the assessment considered systemic and carcinogenic effects caused by oral ingestion of water based on the reference data developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS) for chemical contaminants. The exposure includes a hypothetical dose received by drinking this water according to the analysed contaminants. An assessment of the chemical quality improvement of produced water in the Drinking Water Treatment Plant (DWTP) after integration of membrane technologies was performed. Series of concentration values covering up to 261 chemical parameters over 5 years (2008-2012) of raw and treated water in the Sant Joan Despí DWTP, at the lower part of the Llobregat River basin (NE Spain), were used. After the application of the methodology, the resulting global indexes were located below the thresholds except for carcinogenic risk in the output of DWTP, where the index was slightly above the threshold during 2008 and 2009 before the upgrade of the treatment works including membrane technologies was executed. The annual evolution of global indexes showed a reduction in the global values for all situations: HQ systemic index based on RAIS dropped from 0.64 to 0.42 for surface water and from 0.61 to 0.31 for drinking water; the R carcinogenic index based on RAIS was negligible for input water and varied between 4.2×10(-05) and 7.4×10(-06) for drinking water; the W systemic index based on the WHO data varied between 0.41 and 0.16 for surface water and between 0.61 and 0.31 for drinking water. A specific analysis for the indexes associated with trihalomethanes (THMs) showed the same pattern. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure and quality in rural healthcare facilities in Rwanda.

PubMed

Huttinger, Alexandra; Dreibelbis, Robert; Kayigamba, Felix; Ngabo, Fidel; Mfura, Leodomir; Merryweather, Brittney; Cardon, Amelie; Moe, Christine

2017-08-03

WHO and UNICEF have proposed an action plan to achieve universal water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) coverage in healthcare facilities (HCFs) by 2030. The WASH targets and indicators for HCFs include: an improved water source on the premises accessible to all users, basic sanitation facilities, a hand washing facility with soap and water at all sanitation facilities and patient care areas. To establish viable targets for WASH in HCFs, investigation beyond 'access' is needed to address the state of WASH infrastructure and service provision. Patient and caregiver use of WASH services is largely unaddressed in previous studies despite being critical for infection control. The state of WASH services used by staff, patients and caregivers was assessed in 17 rural HCFs in Rwanda. Site selection was non-random and predicated upon piped water and power supply. Direct observation and semi-structured interviews assessed drinking water treatment, presence and condition of sanitation facilities, provision of soap and water, and WASH-related maintenance and record keeping. Samples were collected from water sources and treated drinking water containers and analyzed for total coliforms, E. coli, and chlorine residual. Drinking water treatment was reported at 15 of 17 sites. Three of 18 drinking water samples collected met the WHO guideline for free chlorine residual of >0.2 mg/l, 6 of 16 drinking water samples analyzed for total coliforms met the WHO guideline of <1 coliform/100 mL and 15 of 16 drinking water samples analyzed for E. coli met the WHO guideline of <1 E. coli/100 mL. HCF staff reported treating up to 20 L of drinking water per day. At all sites, 60% of water access points (160 of 267) were observed to be functional, 32% of hand washing locations (46 of 142) had water and soap and 44% of sanitary facilities (48 of 109) were in hygienic condition and accessible to patients. Regular maintenance of WASH infrastructure consisted of cleaning; no HCF had on-site capacity for performing repairs. Quarterly evaluations of HCFs for Rwanda's Performance Based Financing system included WASH indicators. All HCFs met national policies for water access, but WHO guidelines for environmental standards including water quality were not fully satisfied. Access to WASH services at the HCFs differed between staff and patients and caregivers.

A Comprehensive Investigation of Copper Pitting Corrosion in a Drinking Water Distribution System

EPA Science Inventory

Copper pipe pitting is a complicated corrosion process for which exact causes and solutions are uncertain. This paper presents the findings of a comprehensive investigation of a cold water copper pitting corrosion problem in a drinking water distribution system, including a refi...

Amendments to the Drinking Water Infrastructure Grants Program as Required by the Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The WIIN Act has expanded the activities that qualify for Drinking Water Infrastructure Grant Tribal Set-Aside (DWIG-TSA) funding to include training and operator certification for operators of PWSs serving American Indians and Alaskan Natives.

Wastewater to Drinking Water: Are Emerging Contaminants Making it Through?

EPA Science Inventory

Lake Mead serves as the primary drinking water source for Las Vegas, Nevada and surrounding communities. Besides snow-melt from the Rockies water levels in the lake are supplemented by the inflow of treated wastewater from communities along the Colorado River, including Las Vegas...

Integration of population census and water point mapping data-A case study of Cambodia, Liberia and Tanzania.

PubMed

Yu, Weiyu; Wardrop, Nicola A; Bain, Robert; Wright, Jim A

2017-07-01

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 has expanded the Millennium Development Goals' focus from improved drinking-water to safely managed water services. This expanded focus to include issues such as water quality requires richer monitoring data and potentially integration of datasets from different sources. Relevant data sets include water point mapping (WPM), the survey of boreholes, wells and other water points, census and household survey data. This study examined inconsistencies between population census and WPM datasets for Cambodia, Liberia and Tanzania, and identified potential barriers to integrating the two datasets to meet monitoring needs. Literatures on numbers of people served per water point were used to convert WPM data to population served by water source type per area and compared with census reports. For Cambodia and Tanzania, discrepancies with census data suggested incomplete WPM coverage. In Liberia, where the data sets were consistent, WPM-derived data on functionality, quantity and quality of drinking water were further combined with census area statistics to generate an enhanced drinking-water access measure for protected wells and springs. The process revealed barriers to integrating census and WPM data, including exclusion of water points not used for drinking by households, matching of census and WPM source types; temporal mismatches between data sources; data quality issues such as missing or implausible data values, and underlying assumptions about population served by different water point technologies. However, integration of these two data sets could be used to identify and rectify gaps in WPM coverage. If WPM databases become more complete and the above barriers are addressed, it could also be used to develop more realistic measures of household drinking-water access for monitoring. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

A Legacy of Wildfire-associated Nutrient Releases to Drinking Water Supplies: Treatment Challenges and Adaptations Opportunities

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Emelko, M.; Silins, U.; Stone, M.

2016-12-01

Wildfire remains the most catastrophic agent of landscape disturbance in many forested source water regions. Notably, while wildfire impacts on water have been well studied, little if any of that work has specifically focused on drinking water treatability impacts, which will have both significant regional differences and similarities. Wildfire effects on water quality, particularly nutrient concentrations and character/forms, can be significant. The longevity and downstream propagation of these effects, as well as the geochemical mechanisms regulating them have been largely undocumented at larger river basin scales. This work demonstrates that fine sediment in gravel-bed rivers is a significant, long-term source of in-stream bioavailable P that contributes to a legacy of wildfire impacts on downstream water quality, aquatic ecology, and drinking water treatability in some ecoregions. The short- and mid-term impacts include increases in primary productivity and dissolved organic carbon, associated changes in carbon character, and increased potential for the formation of disinfection byproducts during drinking water treatment. The longer term impacts also may include increases in potentially toxic algal blooms and the production of taste and odor compounds. These documented impacts, as well as strategies for assessing the risk of wildfire-associated water service disruptions and infrastructure and land management-associated opportunities for adaptation to and mitigation of wildfire risk to drinking water supply will be discussed.

Purchase of drinking water is associated with increased child morbidity and mortality among urban slum-dwelling families in Indonesia.

PubMed

Semba, Richard D; de Pee, Saskia; Kraemer, Klaus; Sun, Kai; Thorne-Lyman, Andrew; Moench-Pfanner, Regina; Sari, Mayang; Akhter, Nasima; Bloem, Martin W

2009-07-01

In developing countries, poor families in urban slums often do not receive municipal services including water. The objectives of our study were to characterize families who purchased drinking water and to examine the relation between purchasing drinking water and child morbidity and mortality in urban slums of Indonesia, using data collected between 1999 and 2003. Of 143,126 families, 46.8% purchased inexpensive drinking water from street vendors, 47.4% did not purchase water, i.e., had running or spring/well water within household, and 5.8% purchased more expensive water in the previous 7 days. Families that purchased inexpensive drinking water had less educated parents, a more crowded household, a father who smoked, and lower socioeconomic level compared with the other families. Among children of families that purchased inexpensive drinking water, did not purchase drinking water, or purchased more expensive water, the prevalence was, respectively, for diarrhea in last 7 days (11.2%, 8.1%, 7.7%), underweight (28.9%, 24.1%, 24.1%), stunting (35.6%, 30.5%, 30.5%), wasting (12.0%, 10.5%, 10.9%), family history of infant mortality (8.0%, 5.6%, 5.1%), and of under-five child mortality (10.4%, 7.1%, 6.4%) (all P<0.0001). Use of inexpensive drinking water was associated with under-five child mortality (Odds Ratio [O.R.] 1.32, 95% Confidence Interval [C.I.] 1.20-1.45, P<0.0001) and diarrhea (O.R. 1.43, 95% C.I. 1.29-1.60, P<0.0001) in multivariate logistic regression models, adjusting for potential confounders. Purchase of inexpensive drinking water was common and associated with greater child malnutrition, diarrhea, and infant and under-five child mortality in the family. Greater efforts must be made to ensure access to safe drinking water, a basic human right and target of the Millennium Development Goals, in urban slums.

Drinking Water Quality of Water Vending Machines in Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Hashim, N. H.; Yusop, H. M.

2016-07-01

An increased in demand from the consumer due to their perceptions on tap water quality is identified as one of the major factor on why they are mentally prepared to pay for the price of the better quality drinking water. The thought that filtered water quality including that are commercially available in the market such as mineral and bottled drinking water and from the drinking water vending machine makes they highly confident on the level of hygiene, safety and the mineral content of this type of drinking water. This study was investigated the vended water quality from the drinking water vending machine in eight locations in Parit Raja are in terms of pH, total dissolve solids (TDS), turbidity, mineral content (chromium, arsenic, cadmium, lead and nickel), total organic carbon (TOC), pH, total colony-forming units (CFU) and total coliform. All experiments were conducted in one month duration in triplicate samples for each sampling event. The results indicated the TDS and all heavy metals in eight vended water machines in Parit Raja area were found to be below the Food Act 1983, Regulation 360C (Standard for Packaged Drinking Water and Vended water, 2012) and Malaysian Drinking Water Quality, Ministry of Health 1983. No coliform was presence in any of the vended water samples. pH was found to be slightly excess the limit provided while turbidity was found to be 45 to 95 times more higher than 0.1 NTU as required by the Malaysian Food Act Regulation. The data obtained in this study would suggest the important of routine maintenance and inspection of vended water provider in order to maintain a good quality, hygienic and safety level of vended water.

Influence of water quality on the embodied energy of drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Santana, Mark V E; Zhang, Qiong; Mihelcic, James R

2014-01-01

Urban water treatment plants rely on energy intensive processes to provide safe, reliable water to users. Changes in influent water quality may alter the operation of a water treatment plant and its associated energy use or embodied energy. Therefore the objective of this study is to estimate the effect of influent water quality on the operational embodied energy of drinking water, using the city of Tampa, Florida as a case study. Water quality and water treatment data were obtained from the David L Tippin Water Treatment Facility (Tippin WTF). Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) was conducted to calculate treatment chemical embodied energy values. Statistical methods including Pearson's correlation, linear regression, and relative importance were used to determine the influence of water quality on treatment plant operation and subsequently, embodied energy. Results showed that influent water quality was responsible for about 14.5% of the total operational embodied energy, mainly due to changes in treatment chemical dosages. The method used in this study can be applied to other urban drinking water contexts to determine if drinking water source quality control or modification of treatment processes will significantly minimize drinking water treatment embodied energy.

DEVELOPMENT OF APTAMERS TO WATERBORNE PARASITES

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendment of 1996 mandates that the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) evaluate public health risks associated with drinking water contaminants to include waterborne parasites, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Additionally, the Agency est...

MUTAGENICITY IN SALMONELLA OF HALONITROMETHANES: A RECENTLY RECOGNIZED CLASS OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Halonitromethanes (HNMs) are a recently identified class of disinfection by-products in drinking water. They include chloronitromethane (CHN), dichloronitromethane (DCNM), trichloronitromethane (TCNM), bromonitromethane (BNM), dibromonitromethane (DBNM), tribromonitromethane (TBN...

Pathogens in drinking water: Are there any new ones

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Reasoner, D.J.

1993-01-01

Since 1976 three newly recognized human pathogens have become familiar to the drinking water industry as waterborne disease agents. These are: the legionnaires disease agent, Legionella pneumophila and related species; and two protozoan pathogens, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum, both of which form highly disinfectant resistant cysts that are shed in the feces of infected individuals. The question frequently arises - are there other emerging waterborne pathogens that may pose a human health problem that the drinking water industry will have to deal with. The paper will review the current state of knowledge of the occurrence and incidence of pathogensmore » and opportunistic pathogens other than Legionella, Giardia and Cryptosporidium in treated and untreated drinking water. Bacterial agents that will be reviewed include Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Campylobacter, Mycobacterium, Yersinia and Plesiomonas. Aspects of detection of these agents including detection methods and feasibility of monitoring will be addressed.« less

[Criticism and recommendations for improvements of the drinking water regulation and of the European Community guideline 80/778/EWG].

PubMed

Müller, H E

1990-10-01

The prevention of possible outbreaks as they occurred hundred years ago is still the object of the control of drinking water by the EC-guideline and the Drinking Water Regulations, respectively. At that time, the principle of faecal indicator bacteria was developed and it proved very useful. Now, however, drinking water is no longer supplied by wells but by plants. In comparison with the situation during the last century the relative risks of infectious diseases by faecal organisms are now drastically lower. An intelligent strategy of prevention of drinking water epidemics has to take into consideration that enteropathogens have become too rare so that it is hardly possible to detect them by the frequently occurring faecal markers E. coli and total coliforms. The alternative is the control of the "good manufacturing practices" (GMP) during the processing of drinking water. The colony counts seem to be better markers than the coliforms. Today, more than 90 per cent of infections by drinking water are due to legionellas and ubiquitous mycobacteria occurring in warm water. Therefore, warm water has to be included in the normal control. Furthermore, legionellae and ubiquitous mycobacteria should be tested regularly. Against that, the investigation of total coliforms and/or faecal streptococci seems superfluous. Finally, the future safety of drinking water demands the investigation of at least two additional chemical contaminants, i.e. asbestos and radon, whereas the cyanide test does not appear necessary.

REMOVAL OF ARSENIC FROM DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES BY IRON REMOVAL PROCESS

EPA Science Inventory

This design manual is an in-depth presentation of the steps required to design and operate a water treatment plant for removal of arsenic in the As (V) form from drinking water using an iron removal process. The manual also discusses the capital and operating costs including many...

40 CFR 141.205 - Content of the public notice.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... speaking consumers, the public water system must include in the public notice the same information as in... 40 Protection of Environment 23 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Content of the public notice. 141.205... (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Public Notification of Drinking Water Violations...

40 CFR 141.205 - Content of the public notice.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... speaking consumers, the public water system must include in the public notice the same information as in... 40 Protection of Environment 22 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Content of the public notice. 141.205... (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Public Notification of Drinking Water Violations...

New policies and measures for saving a great manmade reservoir providing drinking water for 20 million people in the Republic of Korea.

PubMed

Ahn, K H

2000-01-01

Water quality of the Paldang reservoir, the largest drinking water supply source in the Republic Korea provides raw water for about 20 million people living in Seoul Metropolitan area. Water quality has been deteriorating mainly due to improperly treated livestock waste and domestic wastewater discharged from motels, restaurants, and private homes. A recent survey conducted by the Ministry of Environment (MOE) showed that the water quality of this reservoir has been identified as Class III must contain less than 6 ppm of BOD, which will require advanced purification treatment before it can be used as drinking water. The MOE also announced that this water source would no longer be potable unless wastewater in the catchment is treated efficiently. To protect drinking water resources, the MOE has set up comprehensive management. These programmes include new regulations, measures, land use planning and economic incentives.

Water management for development of water quality in the Ruhr River basin.

PubMed

Klopp, R

2000-01-01

On the Ruhr, a small river running through hilly country and with a mean flow of 76 m3/s, 27 water works use the method of artificial groundwater recharge to produce 350 million m3 of drinking water annually. On the basis of a special act, the Ruhr River Association is responsible for water quality and water quantity management in the Ruhr basin. The present 94 municipal sewage treatment plants ensure that the raw water is sufficiently good to be turned into drinking water. In the Ruhr's lower reaches, where dry weather results in a 20% share of the entire water flow being treated wastewater, comparatively high concentration of substances of domestic or industrial origin are likely, including substances which municipal wastewater treatment measures cannot entirely remove. These substances include ammonium, coliform bacteria or pathogens, boron and organic trace substances. Although water treatment measures have greatly contributed to the considerable improvement of the Ruhr's water quality in the last few decades, it is desirable to continue to aim at a high standard of drinking water production technologies since the Ruhr is a surface water body influenced by anthropogenic factors. However, in the case of substances infiltrating into drinking water, legislation is required if a reduction of pollution appears to be necessary.

New Perspectives in Monitoring Drinking Water Microbial Quality

PubMed Central

Figueras, Ma José; Borrego, Juan J.

2010-01-01

The safety of drinking water is evaluated by the results obtained from faecal indicators during the stipulated controls fixed by the legislation. However, drinking-water related illness outbreaks are still occurring worldwide. The failures that lead to these outbreaks are relatively common and typically involve preceding heavy rain and inadequate disinfection processes. The role that classical faecal indicators have played in the protection of public health is reviewed and the turning points expected for the future explored. The legislation for protecting the quality of drinking water in Europe is under revision, and the planned modifications include an update of current indicators and methods as well as the introduction of Water Safety Plans (WSPs), in line with WHO recommendations. The principles of the WSP approach and the advances signified by the introduction of these preventive measures in the future improvement of dinking water quality are presented. The expected impact that climate change will have in the quality of drinking water is also critically evaluated. PMID:21318002

Evaluation of Polymerase Chain Reaction for Detecting Coliform Bacteria in Drinking Water Sources.

PubMed

Isfahani, Bahram Nasr; Fazeli, Hossein; Babaie, Zeinab; Poursina, Farkhondeh; Moghim, Sharareh; Rouzbahani, Meisam

2017-01-01

Coliform bacteria are used as indicator organisms for detecting fecal pollution in water. Traditional methods including microbial culture tests in lactose-containing media and enzyme-based tests for the detection of β-galactosidase; however, these methods are time-consuming and less specific. The aim of this study was to evaluate polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detecting coliform. Totally, 100 of water samples from Isfahan drinking water source were collected. Coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli were detected in drinking water using LacZ and LamB genes in PCR method performed in comparison with biochemical tests for all samples. Using phenotyping, 80 coliform isolates were found. The results of the biochemical tests illustrated 78.7% coliform bacteria and 21.2% E. coli . PCR results for LacZ and LamB genes were 67.5% and 17.5%, respectively. The PCR method was shown to be an effective, sensitive, and rapid method for detecting coliform and E. coli in drinking water from the Isfahan drinking water sources.

Petroleum contaminated water and health symptoms: a cross-sectional pilot study in a rural Nigerian community.

PubMed

Kponee, Kalé Zainab; Chiger, Andrea; Kakulu, Iyenemi Ibimina; Vorhees, Donna; Heiger-Bernays, Wendy

2015-11-06

The oil-rich Niger Delta suffers from extensive petroleum contamination. A pilot study was conducted in the region of Ogoniland where one community, Ogale, has drinking water wells highly contaminated with a refined oil product. In a 2011 study, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) sampled Ogale drinking water wells and detected numerous petroleum hydrocarbons, including benzene at concentrations as much as 1800 times higher than the USEPA drinking water standard. UNEP recommended immediate provision of clean drinking water, medical surveillance, and a prospective cohort study. Although the Nigerian government has provided emergency drinking water, other UNEP recommendations have not been implemented. We aimed to (i) follow up on UNEP recommendations by investigating health symptoms associated with exposure to contaminated water; and (ii) assess the adequacy and utilization of the government-supplied emergency drinking water. We recruited 200 participants from Ogale and a reference community, Eteo, and administered questionnaires to investigate water use, perceived water safety, and self-reported health symptoms. Our multivariate regression analyses show statistically significant associations between exposure to Ogale drinking water and self-reported health symptoms consistent with petroleum exposure. Participants in Ogale more frequently reported health symptoms related to neurological effects (OR = 2.8), hematological effects (OR = 3.3), and irritation (OR = 2.7). Our results are the first from a community relying on drinking water with such extremely high concentrations of benzene and other hydrocarbons. The ongoing exposure and these pilot study results highlight the need for more refined investigation as recommended by UNEP.

Assessment of the contamination of drinking water supply wells by pesticides from surface water resources using a finite element reactive transport model and global sensitivity analysis techniques

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Malaguerra, Flavio; Albrechtsen, Hans-Jørgen; Binning, Philip John

2013-01-01

SummaryA reactive transport model is employed to evaluate the potential for contamination of drinking water wells by surface water pollution. The model considers various geologic settings, includes sorption and degradation processes and is tested by comparison with data from a tracer experiment where fluorescein dye injected in a river is monitored at nearby drinking water wells. Three compounds were considered: an older pesticide MCPP (Mecoprop) which is mobile and relatively persistent, glyphosate (Roundup), a newer biodegradable and strongly sorbing pesticide, and its degradation product AMPA. Global sensitivity analysis using the Morris method is employed to identify the dominant model parameters. Results show that the characteristics of clay aquitards (degree of fracturing and thickness), pollutant properties and well depths are crucial factors when evaluating the risk of drinking water well contamination from surface water. This study suggests that it is unlikely that glyphosate in streams can pose a threat to drinking water wells, while MCPP in surface water can represent a risk: MCPP concentration at the drinking water well can be up to 7% of surface water concentration in confined aquifers and up to 10% in unconfined aquifers. Thus, the presence of confining clay aquitards may not prevent contamination of drinking water wells by persistent compounds in surface water. Results are consistent with data on pesticide occurrence in Denmark where pesticides are found at higher concentrations at shallow depths and close to streams.

Perspectives of low cost arsenic remediation of drinking water in Pakistan and other countries.

PubMed

Malik, Amir Haider; Khan, Zahid Mehmood; Mahmood, Qaisar; Nasreen, Sadia; Bhatti, Zulfiqar Ahmed

2009-08-30

Arsenic concentrations above acceptable standards for drinking water have been detected in many countries and this should therefore is a global issue. The presence of arsenic in subsurface aquifers and drinking water systems is a potentially serious human health hazard. The current population growth in Pakistan and other developing countries will have direct bearing on the water sector for meeting the domestic, industrial and agricultural needs. Pakistan is about to exhaust its available water resources and is on the verge of becoming a water deficit country. Water pollution is a serious menace in Pakistan, as almost 70% of its surface waters as well as its groundwater reserves have contaminated by biological, organic and inorganic pollutants. In some areas of Pakistan, a number of shallow aquifers and tube wells are contaminated with arsenic at levels which are above the recommended USEPA arsenic level of 10 ppb (10 microg L(-1)). Adverse health effects including human mortality from drinking water are well documented and can be attributed to arsenic contamination. The present paper reviews appropriate and low cost methods for the elimination of arsenic from drinking waters. It is recommended that a combination of low cost chemical treatment like ion exchange, filtration and adsorption along with bioremediation may be useful option for arsenic removal from drinking water.

Radium and Other Radiological Chemicals: Drinking Water Treatment Strategies

EPA Science Inventory

Radium and Other Radiological Chemicals: Drinking Water Treatment Technologies Topics include: Introduction to Rad Chemistry, Summary of the Rad, Regulations Treatment Technology, and Disposal. The introductions cover atoms, ions, radium and uranium and the removal of radioac...

Organic Carbon as Inhibitor to SVOC and Metal Migration

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) authorizes the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program to protect underground drinking water (USDW) sources from contamination caused by underground injection wells, including regulation of stormwater drainage drywells for parking lot and ro...

Overview of EPA Research on Drinking Water Distribution System Nitrification

EPA Science Inventory

Results from USEPA research investigating drinking water distribution system nitrification will be presented. The two research areas include: (1) monochloramine disinfection kinetics of Nitrosomonas europaea using Propidium Monoazide Quantitative Real-time PCR (PMA-qPCR) and (2...

EFFECT OF BACTERIAL SULFATE REDUCTION ON IRON-CORROSION SCALES

EPA Science Inventory

Iron-sulfur geochemistry is important in many natural and engineered environments including drinking water systems. In the anaerobic environment beneath scales of corroding iron drinking water distribution system pipes, sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) produce sulfide from natura...

Global occurrence of Torque teno virus in water systems.

PubMed

Charest, A J; Plummer, J D; Long, S C; Carducci, A; Verani, M; Sidhu, J P S

2015-09-01

Bacterial indicator organisms are used globally to assess the microbiological safety of waters. However, waterborne viral outbreaks have occurred in drinking water systems despite negative bacterial results. Using viral markers may therefore provide more accurate health risk assessment data. In this study, fecal, wastewater, stormwater, surface water (fresh and salt), groundwater, and drinking water samples were analyzed for the presence or concentration of traditional indicators, innovative indicators and viral markers. Samples were obtained in the United States, Italy, and Australia and results compared to those reported for studies conducted in Asia and South America as well. Indicators included total coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci, male-specific coliphages, somatic coliphages and microviradae. Viral markers included adenovirus, polyomavirus, and a potential new surrogate, Torque teno virus (TTV). TTV was more frequently found in wastewaters (38-100%) and waters influenced by waste discharges (25%) than in surface waters used as drinking water sources (5%). TTV was also specific to human rather than animal feces. While TTV numbers were strongly correlated to other viral markers in wastewaters, suggesting its utility as a fecal contamination marker, data limitations and TTV presence in treated drinking waters demonstrates that additional research is needed on this potential viral indicator.

An experimental study on the influence of water stagnation and temperature change on water quality in a full-scale domestic drinking water system.

PubMed

Zlatanović, Lj; van der Hoek, J P; Vreeburg, J H G

2017-10-15

The drinking water quality changes during the transport through distribution systems. Domestic drinking water systems (DDWSs), which include the plumbing between the water meter and consumer's taps, are the most critical points in which water quality may be affected. In distribution networks, the drinking water temperature and water residence time are regarded as indicators of the drinking water quality. This paper describes an experimental research on the influence of stagnation time and temperature change on drinking water quality in a full-scale DDWS. Two sets of stagnation experiments, during winter and summer months, with various stagnation intervals (up to 168 h of stagnation) were carried out. Water and biofilms were sampled at two different taps, a kitchen and a shower tap. Results from this study indicate that temperature and water stagnation affect both chemical and microbial quality in DDWSs, whereas microbial parameters in stagnant water appear to be driven by the temperature of fresh water. Biofilm formed in the shower pipe contained more total and intact cells than the kitchen pipe biofilm. Alphaproteobacteria were found to dominate in the shower biofilm (78% of all Proteobacteria), while in the kitchen tap biofilm Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria were evenly distributed. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Occurrence and Control of Genotoxins in Drinking Water: A Monitoring Proposal

PubMed Central

Ceretti, Elisabetta; Moretti, Massimo; Zerbini, Ilaria; Villarini, Milena; Zani, Claudia; Monarca, Silvano; Feretti, Donatella

2016-01-01

Many studies have shown the presence of numerous organic genotoxins and carcinogens in drinking water. These toxic substances derive not only from pollution, but also from the disinfection treatments, particularly when water is obtained from surface sources and then chlorinated. Most of the chlorinated compounds in drinking water are nonvolatile and are difficult to characterize. Thus, it has been proposed to study such complex mixtures using short-term genotoxicity tests predictive of carcinogenic activity. Mutagenicity of water before and after disinfection has mainly been studied by the Salmonella/microsome (Ames test); in vitro genotoxicity tests have also been performed in yeasts and mammalian cells; in situ monitoring of genotoxins has also been performed using complete organisms such as aquatic animals or plants (in vivo). The combination of bioassay data together with results of chemical analyses would give us a more firm basis for the assessment of human health risks related to the consumption of drinking water. Tests with different genetic end-points complement each other with regard to sensitivity toward environmental genotoxins and are useful in detecting low genotoxicity levels which are expected in drinking water samples. Significance for public health The provision of a safe drinking water is an important public health problem. Many studies have shown the presence of numerous genotoxins and carcinogens in drinking water. These toxic substances derive not only from pollution, but also from the disinfection treatments, particularly when water is obtained from surface sources and then chlorinated. The potential health risks of disinfection by-products (DBPs) from drinking water include cancer and adverse reproductive outcomes. People are exposed to disinfected drinking/shower/bathing water as a mixture of at least 600 identified DBPs and other toxic compounds via dermal, inhalation, and ingestion routes. Many of these substances are present in trace concentration, hardly detectable by chemical standard analysis. The monitoring of environmental genotoxins by short-term bioassays could allow a better evaluation of the global human exposure to water genotoxins and could help health officers and drinking water managers to reduce genotoxic hazards and distribute high quality drinking water. PMID:28083525

Key scientific issues in developing drinking water guidelines for perfluoroalkyl acids: Contaminants of emerging concern.

PubMed

Post, Gloria B; Gleason, Jessie A; Cooper, Keith R

2017-12-01

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a group of synthetic organic chemicals with industrial and commercial uses, are of current concern because of increasing awareness of their presence in drinking water and their potential to cause adverse health effects. PFAAs are distinctive among persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) contaminants because they are water soluble and do not break down in the environment. This commentary discusses scientific and risk assessment issues that impact the development of drinking water guidelines for PFAAs, including choice of toxicological endpoints, uncertainty factors, and exposure assumptions used as their basis. In experimental animals, PFAAs cause toxicity to the liver, the immune, endocrine, and male reproductive systems, and the developing fetus and neonate. Low-dose effects include persistent delays in mammary gland development (perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOA) and suppression of immune response (perfluorooctane sulfonate; PFOS). In humans, even general population level exposures to some PFAAs are associated with health effects such as increased serum lipids and liver enzymes, decreased vaccine response, and decreased birth weight. Ongoing exposures to even relatively low drinking water concentrations of long-chain PFAAs substantially increase human body burdens, which remain elevated for many years after exposure ends. Notably, infants are a sensitive subpopulation for PFAA's developmental effects and receive higher exposures than adults from the same drinking water source. This information, as well as emerging data from future studies, should be considered in the development of health-protective and scientifically sound guidelines for PFAAs in drinking water.

Key scientific issues in developing drinking water guidelines for perfluoroalkyl acids: Contaminants of emerging concern

PubMed Central

Gleason, Jessie A.; Cooper, Keith R.

2017-01-01

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a group of synthetic organic chemicals with industrial and commercial uses, are of current concern because of increasing awareness of their presence in drinking water and their potential to cause adverse health effects. PFAAs are distinctive among persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) contaminants because they are water soluble and do not break down in the environment. This commentary discusses scientific and risk assessment issues that impact the development of drinking water guidelines for PFAAs, including choice of toxicological endpoints, uncertainty factors, and exposure assumptions used as their basis. In experimental animals, PFAAs cause toxicity to the liver, the immune, endocrine, and male reproductive systems, and the developing fetus and neonate. Low-dose effects include persistent delays in mammary gland development (perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOA) and suppression of immune response (perfluorooctane sulfonate; PFOS). In humans, even general population level exposures to some PFAAs are associated with health effects such as increased serum lipids and liver enzymes, decreased vaccine response, and decreased birth weight. Ongoing exposures to even relatively low drinking water concentrations of long-chain PFAAs substantially increase human body burdens, which remain elevated for many years after exposure ends. Notably, infants are a sensitive subpopulation for PFAA’s developmental effects and receive higher exposures than adults from the same drinking water source. This information, as well as emerging data from future studies, should be considered in the development of health-protective and scientifically sound guidelines for PFAAs in drinking water. PMID:29261653

Health risks due to radon in drinking water

USGS Publications Warehouse

Hopke, P.K.; Borak, T.B.; Doull, J.; Cleaver, J.E.; Eckerman, K.F.; Gundersen, L.C.S.; Harley, N.H.; Hess, C.T.; Kinner, N.E.; Kopecky, K.J.; Mckone, T.E.; Sextro, R.G.; Simon, S.L.

2000-01-01

Following more than a decade of scientific debate about the setting of a standard for 222Rn in drinking water, Congress established a timetable for the promulgation of a standard in the 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act. As a result of those Amendments, the EPA contracted with the National Academy of Sciences to undertake a risk assessment for exposure to radon in drinking water. In addition, the resulting committee was asked to address several other scientific issues including the national average ambient 222Rn concentration and the increment of 222Rn to the indoor- air concentration arising from the use of drinking water in a home. A new dosimetric analysis of the cancer risk to the stomach from ingestion was performed. The recently reported risk estimates developed by the BEIR VI Committee for inhalation of radon decay products were adopted. Because the 1996 Amendments permit states to develop programs in which mitigation of air- producing health-risk reductions equivalent to that which would be achieved by treating the drinking water, the scientific issues involved in such 'multimedia mitigation programs' were explored.

Analysis of the bacterial communities associated with different drinking water treatment processes.

PubMed

Zeng, Dan-Ning; Fan, Zhen-Yu; Chi, Liang; Wang, Xia; Qu, Wei-Dong; Quan, Zhe-Xue

2013-09-01

A drinking water plant was surveyed to determine the bacterial composition of different drinking water treatment processes (DWTP). Water samples were collected from different processing steps in the plant (i.e., coagulation, sedimentation, sand filtration, and chloramine disinfection) and from distantly piped water. The samples were pyrosequensed using sample-specific oligonucleotide barcodes. The taxonomic composition of the microbial communities of different DWTP and piped water was dominated by the phylum Proteobacteria. Additionally, a large proportion of the sequences were assigned to the phyla Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. The piped water exhibited increasing taxonomic diversity, including human pathogens such as the Mycobacterium, which revealed a threat to the safety of drinking water. Surprisingly, we also found that a sister group of SAR11 (LD12) persisted throughout the DWTP, which was always detected in freshwater aquatic systems. Moreover, Polynucleobacter, Rhodoferax, and a group of Actinobacteria, hgcI clade, were relatively consistent throughout the processes. It is concluded that smaller-size microorganisms tended to survive against the present treatment procedure. More improvement should be made to ensure the long-distance transmission drinking water.

Mechanisms of post-supply contamination of drinking water in Bagamoyo, Tanzania.

PubMed

Harris, Angela R; Davis, Jennifer; Boehm, Alexandria B

2013-09-01

Access to household water connections remains low in sub-Saharan Africa, representing a public health concern. Previous studies have shown water stored in the home to be more contaminated than water at the source; however, the mechanisms of post-supply contamination remain unclear. Using water quality measurements and structured observations of households in Bagamoyo, Tanzania, this study elucidates the causal mechanisms of the microbial contamination of drinking water after collection from a communal water source. The study identifies statistically significant loadings of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) occurring immediately after filling the storage container at the source and after extraction of the water from the container in the home. Statistically significant loadings of FIB also occur with various water extraction methods, including decanting from the container and use of a cup or ladle. Additionally, pathogenic genes of Escherichia coli were detected in stored drinking water but not in the source from which it was collected, highlighting the potential health risks of post-supply contamination. The results of the study confirm that storage containers and extraction utensils introduce microbial contamination into stored drinking water, and suggest that further research is needed to identify methods of water extraction that prevent microbial contamination of drinking water.

Relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure to bisphenol A

PubMed Central

Arnold, Scott M; Clark, Kathryn E; Staples, Charles A; Klecka, Gary M; Dimond, Steve S; Caspers, Norbert; Hentges, Steven G

2013-01-01

A comprehensive search of studies describing bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in drinking water and source waters (i.e., surface water and groundwater) was conducted to evaluate the relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure and risk. Data from 65 papers were evaluated from North America (31), Europe (17), and Asia (17). The fraction of drinking water measurements reported as less than the detection limit is high; 95%, 48%, and 41%, for North America, Europe, and Asia, respectively. The maximum quantified (in excess of the detection limit) BPA concentrations from North America, Europe, and Asia are 0.099 μg/l, 0.014 μg/l, and 0.317 μg/l. The highest quantified median and 95th percentile concentrations of BPA in Asian drinking water are 0.026 μg/l and 0.19 μg/l, while high detection limits restricted the determination of representative median and 95th percentile concentrations in North America and Europe. BPA in drinking water represents a minor component of overall human exposure, and compared with the lowest available oral toxicity benchmark of 16 μg/kg-bw/day (includes an uncertainty factor of 300) gives margins of safety >1100. Human biomonitoring data indicate that ingestion of drinking water represents <2.8% of the total intake of BPA. PMID:22805988

Sources of drinking water in a pediatric population.

PubMed

Jadav, Urvi G; Acharya, Bhavini S; Velasquez, Gisela M; Vance, Bradley J; Tate, Robert H; Quock, Ryan L

2014-01-01

The purpose of this study was to determine the primary sources of water used for consumption and cooking by the patients of a university-based pediatric dental practice. A simple, prewritten questionnaire-consisting of seven questions and available in English and Spanish-was conducted verbally with the caregivers of 123 pediatric patients during a designated timeframe. Analysis of responses included descriptive statistics and a chi-square test for a single proportion. Nonfiltered tap water accounted for the primary drinking water source in only 10 percent of the respondents. Firty-two percent of the respondents selected bottled water as the primary source of drinking water, and 24 percent selected vended water stations as a primary drinking water source. Nonfiltered tap water was much more likely to be utilized in cooking (58 percent). The majority of the patients in this study's pediatric dental practice do not consume fluoridated tap water. With the vast majority of the patients primarily consuming bottled or vended water, these patients are likely missing out on the caries-protective effects of water fluoridation.

Rapid analysis of perchlorate in drinking water at parts per billion levels using microchip electrophoresis.

PubMed

Gertsch, Jana C; Noblitt, Scott D; Cropek, Donald M; Henry, Charles S

2010-05-01

A microchip capillary electrophoresis (MCE) system has been developed for the determination of perchlorate in drinking water. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) recently proposed a health advisory limit for perchlorate in drinking water of 15 parts per billion (ppb), a level requiring large, sophisticated instrumentation, such as ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (IC-MS), for detection. An inexpensive, portable system is desired for routine online monitoring applications of perchlorate in drinking water. Here, we present an MCE method using contact conductivity detection for perchlorate determination. The method has several advantages, including reduced analysis times relative to IC, inherent portability, high selectivity, and minimal sample pretreatment. Resolution of perchlorate from more abundant ions was achieved using zwitterionic, sulfobetaine surfactants, N-hexadecyl-N,N-dimethyl-3-ammonio-1-propane sulfonate (HDAPS) and N-tetradecyl-N,N-dimethyl-3-ammonio-1-propane sulfonate (TDAPS). The system performance and the optimization of the separation chemistry, including the use of these surfactants to resolve perchlorate from other anions, are discussed in this work. The system is capable of detection limits of 3.4 +/- 1.8 ppb (n = 6) in standards and 5.6 +/- 1.7 ppb (n = 6) in drinking water.

Power Plant Bromide Discharges and Downstream Drinking Water Systems in Pennsylvania.

PubMed

Good, Kelly D; VanBriesen, Jeanne M

2017-10-17

Coal-fired power plants equipped with wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems have been implicated in increasing bromide levels and subsequent increases in disinfection byproducts at downstream drinking water plants. Bromide was not included as a regulated constituent in the recent steam electric effluent limitations guidelines and standards (ELGs) since the U.S. EPA analysis suggested few drinking water facilities would be affected by bromide discharges from power plants. The present analysis uses a watershed approach to identify Pennsylvania drinking water intakes downstream of wet FGD discharges and to assess the potential for bromide discharge effects. Twenty-two (22) public drinking water systems serving 2.5 million people were identified as being downstream of at least one wet FGD discharge. During mean August conditions (generally low-flow, minimal dilution) in receiving rivers, the median predicted bromide concentrations contributed by wet FGD at Pennsylvania intake locations ranged from 5.2 to 62 μg/L for the Base scenario (including only natural bromide in coal) and from 16 to 190 μg/L for the Bromide Addition scenario (natural plus added bromide for mercury control); ranges depend on bromide loads and receiving stream dilution capacity.

Development of California Public Health Goals (PHGs) for chemicals in drinking water.

PubMed

Howd, R A; Brown, J P; Morry, D W; Wang, Y Y; Bankowska, J; Budroe, J D; Campbell, M; DiBartolomeis, M J; Faust, J; Jowa, L; Lewis, D; Parker, T; Polakoff, J; Rice, D W; Salmon, A G; Tomar, R S; Fan, A M

2000-01-01

As part of a program for evaluation of environmental contaminants in drinking water, risk assessments are being conducted to develop Public Health Goals (PHGs) for chemicals in drinking water, based solely on public health considerations. California's Safe Drinking Water Act of 1996 mandated the development of PHGs for over 80 chemicals by 31 December 1999. The law allowed these levels to be set higher or lower than federal maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), including a level of zero if data are insufficient to determine a specific level. The estimated safe levels and toxicological rationale for the first 26 of these chemicals are described here. The chemicals include alachlor, antimony, benzo[a]pyrene, chlordane, copper, cyanide, dalapon, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, 2,4-D, diethylhexylphthalate, dinoseb, endothall, ethylbenzene, fluoride, glyphosate, lead, nitrate, nitrite, oxamyl, pentachlorophenol, picloram, trichlorofluoromethane, trichlorotrifluoroethane, uranium and xylene(s). These risk assessments are to be considered by the State of California in revising and developing state MCLs for chemicals in drinking water (which must not exceed federal MCLs). The estimates are also notable for incorporation or consideration of newer guidelines and principles for risk assessment extrapolations.

A Comparative Analysis of Vibrio cholerae Contamination in Point-of-Drinking and Source Water in a Low-Income Urban Community, Bangladesh.

PubMed

Ferdous, Jannatul; Sultana, Rebeca; Rashid, Ridwan B; Tasnimuzzaman, Md; Nordland, Andreas; Begum, Anowara; Jensen, Peter K M

2018-01-01

Bangladesh is a cholera endemic country with a population at high risk of cholera. Toxigenic and non-toxigenic Vibrio cholerae ( V. cholerae ) can cause cholera and cholera-like diarrheal illness and outbreaks. Drinking water is one of the primary routes of cholera transmission in Bangladesh. The aim of this study was to conduct a comparative assessment of the presence of V. cholerae between point-of-drinking water and source water, and to investigate the variability of virulence profile using molecular methods of a densely populated low-income settlement of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Water samples were collected and tested for V. cholerae from "point-of-drinking" and "source" in 477 study households in routine visits at 6 week intervals over a period of 14 months. We studied the virulence profiles of V. cholerae positive water samples using 22 different virulence gene markers present in toxigenic O1/O139 and non-O1/O139 V. cholerae using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 1,463 water samples were collected, with 1,082 samples from point-of-drinking water in 388 households and 381 samples from 66 water sources. V. cholerae was detected in 10% of point-of-drinking water samples and in 9% of source water samples. Twenty-three percent of households and 38% of the sources were positive for V. cholerae in at least one visit. Samples collected from point-of-drinking and linked sources in a 7 day interval showed significantly higher odds ( P < 0.05) of V. cholerae presence in point-of-drinking compared to source [OR = 17.24 (95% CI = 7.14-42.89)] water. Based on the 7 day interval data, 53% (17/32) of source water samples were negative for V. cholerae while linked point-of-drinking water samples were positive. There were significantly higher odds ( p < 0.05) of the presence of V. cholerae O1 [OR = 9.13 (95% CI = 2.85-29.26)] and V. cholerae O139 [OR = 4.73 (95% CI = 1.19-18.79)] in source water samples than in point-of-drinking water samples. Contamination of water at the point-of-drinking is less likely to depend on the contamination at the water source. Hygiene education interventions and programs should focus and emphasize on water at the point-of-drinking, including repeated cleaning of drinking vessels, which is of paramount importance in preventing cholera.

Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water---United States, 2007--2008.

PubMed

Brunkard, Joan M; Ailes, Elizabeth; Roberts, Virginia A; Hill, Vincent; Hilborn, Elizabeth D; Craun, Gunther F; Rajasingham, Anu; Kahler, Amy; Garrison, Laurel; Hicks, Lauri; Carpenter, Joe; Wade, Timothy J; Beach, Michael J; Yoder Msw, Jonathan S

2011-09-23

Since 1971, CDC, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists have collaborated on the Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) for collecting and reporting data related to occurrences and causes of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water. This surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and health effects of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. Data presented summarize 48 outbreaks that occurred during January 2007--December 2008 and 70 previously unreported outbreaks. WBDOSS includes data on outbreaks associated with drinking water, recreational water, water not intended for drinking (WNID) (excluding recreational water), and water use of unknown intent (WUI). Public health agencies in the states, U.S. territories, localities, and Freely Associated States are primarily responsible for detecting and investigating outbreaks and reporting them voluntarily to CDC by a standard form. Only data on outbreaks associated with drinking water, WNID (excluding recreational water), and WUI are summarized in this report. Outbreaks associated with recreational water are reported separately. A total of 24 states and Puerto Rico reported 48 outbreaks that occurred during 2007--2008. Of these 48 outbreaks, 36 were associated with drinking water, eight with WNID, and four with WUI. The 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks caused illness among at least 4,128 persons and were linked to three deaths. Etiologic agents were identified in 32 (88.9%) of the 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks; 21 (58.3%) outbreaks were associated with bacteria, five (13.9%) with viruses, three (8.3%) with parasites, one (2.8%) with a chemical, one (2.8%) with both bacteria and viruses, and one (2.8%) with both bacteria and parasites. Four outbreaks (11.1%) had unidentified etiologies. Of the 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks, 22 (61.1%) were outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI), 12 (33.3%) were outbreaks of acute respiratory illness (ARI), one (2.8%) was an outbreak associated with skin irritation, and one (2.8%) was an outbreak of hepatitis. All outbreaks of ARI were caused by Legionella spp. A total of 37 deficiencies were identified in the 36 outbreaks associated with drinking water. Of the 37 deficiencies, 22 (59.5%) involved contamination at or in the source water, treatment facility, or distribution system; 13 (35.1%) occurred at points not under the jurisdiction of a water utility; and two (5.4%) had unknown/insufficient deficiency information. Among the 21 outbreaks associated with source water, treatment, or distribution system deficiencies, 13 (61.9%) were associated with untreated ground water, six (28.6%) with treatment deficiencies, one (4.8%) with a distribution system deficiency, and one (4.8%) with both a treatment and a distribution system deficiency. No outbreaks were associated with untreated surface water. Of the 21 outbreaks, 16 (76.2%) occurred in public water systems (drinking water systems under the jurisdiction of EPA regulations and water utility management), and five (23.8%) outbreaks occurred in individual systems (all of which were associated with untreated ground water). Among the 13 outbreaks with deficiencies not under the jurisdiction of a water system, 12 (92.3%) were associated with the growth of Legionella spp. in the drinking water system, and one (7.7%) was associated with a plumbing deficiency. In the two outbreaks with unknown deficiencies, one was associated with a public water supply, and the other was associated with commercially bottled water. The 70 previously unreported outbreaks included 69 Legionella outbreaks during 1973--2000 that were not reportable previously to WBDOSS and one previously unreported outbreak from 2002. More than half of the drinking water--associated outbreaks reported during the 2007--2008 surveillance period were associated with untreated or inadequately treated ground water, indicating that contamination of ground water remains a public health problem. The majority of these outbreaks occurred in public water systems that are subject to EPA's new Ground Water Rule (GWR), which requires the majority of community water systems to complete initial sanitary surveys by 2012. The GWR focuses on identification of deficiencies, protection of wells and springs from contamination, and providing disinfection when necessary to protect against bacterial and viral agents. In addition, several drinking water--associated outbreaks that were related to contaminated ground water appeared to occur in systems that were potentially under the influence of surface water. Future efforts to collect data systematically on contributing factors associated with drinking water outbreaks and deficiencies, including identification of ground water under the direct influence of surface water and the criteria used for their classification, would be useful to better assess risks associated with ground water. During 2007--2008, Legionella was the most frequently reported etiology among drinking water--associated outbreaks, following the pattern observed since it was first included in WBDOSS in 2001. However, six (50%) of the 12 drinking water--associated Legionella outbreaks were reported from one state, highlighting the substantial variance in outbreak detection and reporting across states and territories. The addition of published and CDC-investigated legionellosis outbreaks to the WBDOSS database clarifies that Legionella is not a new public health issue. During 2009, Legionella was added to EPA's Contaminant Candidate List for the first time. CDC and EPA use WBDOSS surveillance data to identify the types of etiologic agents, deficiencies, water systems, and sources associated with waterborne disease outbreaks and to evaluate the adequacy of current technologies and practices for providing safe drinking water. Surveillance data also are used to establish research priorities, which can lead to improved water quality regulation development. Approximately two thirds of the outbreaks associated with untreated ground water reported during the 2007--2008 surveillance period occurred in public water systems. When fully implemented, the GWR that was promulgated in 2006 is expected to result in decreases in ground water outbreaks, similar to the decreases observed in surface water outbreaks after enactment of the Surface Water Treatment Rule in 1974 and its subsequent amendments. One third of drinking water--associated outbreaks occurred in building premise plumbing systems outside the jurisdiction of water utility management and EPA regulations; Legionella spp. accounted for >90% of these outbreaks, indicating that greater attention is needed to reduce the risk for legionellosis in building plumbing systems. Finally, a large communitywide drinking water outbreak occurred in 2008 in a public water system associated with a distribution system deficiency, underscoring the importance of maintaining and upgrading drinking water distribution system infrastructure to provide safe water and protect public health.

DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS AND OTHER EMERGING CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Although drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been studied for the last 30 years, significant, new concerns have arisen. These concerns include adverse reproductive and developmental effects recently observed in human populations, concerns that the types of cancer...

PROVING SOLUTIONS FOR A BETTER TOMORROW: A PROGRESS REPORT ON U.S. EPA'S DRINKING WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATIONS IN ECUADOR, MEXICO AND CHINA (EPA/600/F-98/008)

EPA Science Inventory

This publication describes the progress of USEPA's Drinking Water Treatment Demonstration projects currently underway in Ecuador, Mexico and China. Material includes descriptions of problems faced and approaches used to improve water quality.

Monitoring for contaminants of emerging concern in drinking water using POCIS passive samplers.

PubMed

Metcalfe, Chris; Hoque, M Ehsanul; Sultana, Tamanna; Murray, Craig; Helm, Paul; Kleywegt, Sonya

2014-03-01

Contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) have been detected in drinking water world-wide. The source of most of these compounds is generally attributed to contamination from municipal wastewater. Traditional water sampling methods (grab or composite) often require the concentration of large amounts of water in order to detect trace levels of these contaminants. The Polar Organic Compounds Integrative Sampler (POCIS) is a passive sampling technology that has been developed to concentrate trace levels of CEC to provide time-weighted average concentrations for individual compounds in water. However, few studies to date have evaluated whether POCIS is suitable for monitoring contaminants in drinking water. In this study, the POCIS was evaluated as a monitoring tool for CEC in drinking water over a period of 2 and 4 weeks with comparisons to typical grab samples. Seven "indicator compounds" which included carbamazepine, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen, gemfibrozil, estrone and sucralose, were monitored in five drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in Ontario. All indicator compounds were detected in raw water samples from the POCIS in comparison to six from grab samples. Similarly, four compounds were detected in grab samples of treated drinking water, whereas six were detected in the POCIS. Sucralose was the only compound that was detected consistently at all five plants. The POCIS technique provided integrative exposures of CECs in drinking water at lower detection limits, while episodic events were captured via traditional sampling methods. There was evidence that the accumulation of target compounds by POCIS is a dynamic process, with adsorption and desorption on the sorbent occurring in response to ambient levels of the target compounds in water. CECs in treated drinking water were present at low ng L(-1) concentrations, which are not considered to be a threat to human health.

Haloacetic acids in drinking water and risk for stillbirth.

PubMed

King, W D; Dodds, L; Allen, A C; Armson, B A; Fell, D; Nimrod, C

2005-02-01

Trihalomethanes (THMs) occurring in public drinking water sources have been investigated in several epidemiological studies of fetal death and results support a modest association. Other classes of disinfection by-products found in drinking water have not been investigated. To investigate the effects of haloacetic acid (HAA) compounds in drinking water on stillbirth risk. A population based case-control study was conducted in Nova Scotia and Eastern Ontario, Canada. Estimates of daily exposure to total and specific HAAs were based on household water samples and questionnaire information on water consumption at home and work. The analysis included 112 stillbirth cases and 398 live birth controls. In analysis without adjustment for total THM exposure, a relative risk greater than 2 was observed for an intermediate exposure category for total HAA and dichloroacetic acid measures. After adjustment for total THM exposure, the risk estimates for intermediate exposure categories were diminished, the relative risk associated with the highest category was in the direction of a protective effect, and all confidence intervals included the null value. No association was observed between HAA exposures and stillbirth risk after controlling for THM exposures.

Groundwater Risk Management Handbook

DTIC Science & Technology

2008-01-01

restoration of groundwater to drinking water quality may not always be achievable due to technology limitations and, therefore, has developed a...extent (horizontal and vertical) of groundwater contamination • Future plans for groundwater use in the area, including local water resource planning...exposure (e.g., drinking water supplied by public water system and groundwater beneath the site is restricted for potable purposes) • Land use

Unintended consequences of regulating drinking water in rural Canadian communities: examples from Atlantic Canada.

PubMed

Kot, Megan; Castleden, Heather; Gagnon, Graham A

2011-09-01

Studies that explore social capital and political will [corrected] in the context of safe drinking water provision in [corrected] Canada are limited. This paper presents findings from a study that examines the capacity of rural Canadian communities to attain regulatory compliance for drinking water. Interviews were conducted with water operators and managers in ten rural communities across Atlantic Canada to identify the burden of compliance arising from the implementation of, and adherence to, drinking water regulations. This research identifies the operator as being particularly burdened by regulatory compliance, often resulting in negative consequences including job stress and a strained relationship with the community they serve. Findings indicate that while regulations are vital to ensuring safe drinking water, not all communities have the resources in place to rise to the challenge of compliance. As a result, some communities are being negatively impacted by these regulations, rather than benefit from their intended positive effect. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diversity, Physiochemical and Phylogenetic Analyses of Bacteria Isolated from Various Drinking Water Sources.

PubMed

Eid, Neveen H; Al Doghaither, Huda A; Kumosani, Taha A; Gull, Munazza

2017-01-01

To evaluate the indigenous bacterial strains of drinking water from the most commercial water types including bottled and filtered water that are currently used in Saudi Arabia. Thirty randomly selected commercial brands of bottled water were purchased from Saudi local markets. Moreover, samples from tap water and filtered water were collected in sterilized glass bottles and stored at 4°C. Biochemical analyses including pH, temperature, lactose fermentation test (LAC), indole test (IND), methyl red test (MR), Voges-Proskauer test (VP), urease test (URE), catalase test (CAT), aerobic and anaerobic test (Ae/An) were measured. Molecular identification and comparative sequence analyses were done by full length 16S rRNA gene sequences using gene bank databases and phylogenetic trees were constructed to see the closely related similarity index between bacterial strains. Among 30 water samples tested, 18 were found positive for bacterial growth. Molecular identification of four selected bacterial strains indicated the alarming presence of pathogenic bacteria Bacillus spp . in most common commercial types of drinking water used in Saudi Arabia. The lack of awareness about good sanitation, poor personal hygienic practices and failure of safe water management and supply are the important factors for poor drinking water quality in these sources, need to be addressed.

Drinking water quality in Indigenous communities in Canada and health outcomes: a scoping review

PubMed Central

Bradford, Lori E. A.; Bharadwaj, Lalita A.; Okpalauwaekwe, Udoka; Waldner, Cheryl L.

2016-01-01

Background Many Indigenous communities in Canada live with high-risk drinking water systems and drinking water advisories and experience health status and water quality below that of the general population. A scoping review of research examining drinking water quality and its relationship to Indigenous health was conducted. Objective The study was undertaken to identify the extent of the literature, summarize current reports and identify research needs. Design A scoping review was designed to identify peer-reviewed literature that examined challenges related to drinking water and health in Indigenous communities in Canada. Key search terms were developed and mapped on five bibliographic databases (MEDLINE/PubMED, Web of Knowledge, SciVerse Scopus, Taylor and Francis online journal and Google Scholar). Online searches for grey literature using relevant government websites were completed. Results Sixteen articles (of 518; 156 bibliographic search engines, 362 grey literature) met criteria for inclusion (contained keywords; publication year 2000–2015; peer-reviewed and from Canada). Studies were quantitative (8), qualitative (5) or mixed (3) and included case, cohort, cross-sectional and participatory designs. In most articles, no definition of “health” was given (14/16), and the primary health issue described was gastrointestinal illness (12/16). Challenges to the study of health and well-being with respect to drinking water in Indigenous communities included irregular funding, remote locations, ethical approval processes, small sample sizes and missing data. Conclusions Research on drinking water and health outcomes in Indigenous communities in Canada is limited and occurs on an opportunistic basis. There is a need for more research funding, and inquiry to inform policy decisions for improvements of water quality and health-related outcomes in Indigenous communities. A coordinated network looking at First Nations water and health outcomes, a database to store and create access to research findings, increased funding and time frames for funding, and more decolonizing and community-based participatory research aimed at understanding the relationship between drinking water quality and health outcomes in First Nations communities in Canada are needed. PMID:27478143

Environmental health sciences center task force review on halogenated organics in drinking water.

PubMed

Deinzer, M; Schaumburg, F; Klein, E

1978-06-01

The disinfection of drinking water by chlorination has in recent years come under closer scrutiny because of the potential hazards associated with the production of stable chlorinated organic chemicals. Organic chemical contaminants are common to all water supplies and it is now well-established that chlorinated by-products are obtained under conditions of disinfection, or during tertiary treatment of sewage whose products can ultimately find their way into drinking water supplies. Naturally occurring humic substances which are invariably present in drinking waters are probably the source of chloroform and other halogenated methanes, and chloroform has shown up in every water supply investigated thus far.The Environmental Protection Agency is charged with the responsibility of assessing the public health effects resulting from the consumption of contaminated drinking water. It has specifically undertaken the task of determining whether organic contaminants or their chlorinated derivatives have a special impact, and if so, what alternatives there are to protect the consumer against bacterial and viral diseases that are transmitted through infected drinking waters. The impetus to look at these chemicals is not entirely without some prima facie evidence of potential trouble. Epidemiological studies suggested a higher incidence of cancer along the lower Mississippi River where the contamination from organic chemicals is particularly high. The conclusions from these studies have, to be sure, not gone unchallenged.The task of assessing the effects of chemicals in the drinking water is a difficult one. It includes many variables, including differences in water supplies and the temporal relationship between contamination and consumption of the finished product. It must also take into account the relative importance of the effects from these chemicals in comparison to those from occupational exposure, ingestion of contaminated foods, inhalation of polluted air, and many others. The susceptibility of different age, genetic, and ethnic groups within the population must also be carefully considered. The present review discusses: the reasons for disinfection; the general occurrence of chlorinated organics in drinking water; the chemistry in the synthesis of chlorinated organics under aqueous conditions; and alternatives to chlorine for disinfection.

Environmental health sciences center task force review on halogenated organics in drinking water

PubMed Central

Deinzer, M.; Schaumburg, F.; Klein, E.

1978-01-01

The disinfection of drinking water by chlorination has in recent years come under closer scrutiny because of the potential hazards associated with the production of stable chlorinated organic chemicals. Organic chemical contaminants are common to all water supplies and it is now well-established that chlorinated by-products are obtained under conditions of disinfection, or during tertiary treatment of sewage whose products can ultimately find their way into drinking water supplies. Naturally occurring humic substances which are invariably present in drinking waters are probably the source of chloroform and other halogenated methanes, and chloroform has shown up in every water supply investigated thus far. The Environmental Protection Agency is charged with the responsibility of assessing the public health effects resulting from the consumption of contaminated drinking water. It has specifically undertaken the task of determining whether organic contaminants or their chlorinated derivatives have a special impact, and if so, what alternatives there are to protect the consumer against bacterial and viral diseases that are transmitted through infected drinking waters. The impetus to look at these chemicals is not entirely without some prima facie evidence of potential trouble. Epidemiological studies suggested a higher incidence of cancer along the lower Mississippi River where the contamination from organic chemicals is particularly high. The conclusions from these studies have, to be sure, not gone unchallenged. The task of assessing the effects of chemicals in the drinking water is a difficult one. It includes many variables, including differences in water supplies and the temporal relationship between contamination and consumption of the finished product. It must also take into account the relative importance of the effects from these chemicals in comparison to those from occupational exposure, ingestion of contaminated foods, inhalation of polluted air, and many others. The susceptibility of different age, genetic, and ethnic groups within the population must also be carefully considered. The present review discusses: the reasons for disinfection; the general occurrence of chlorinated organics in drinking water; the chemistry in the synthesis of chlorinated organics under aqueous conditions; and alternatives to chlorine for disinfection. PMID:17539149

Health hazards and mitigation of chronic poisoning from arsenic in drinking water: Taiwan experiences.

PubMed

Chen, Chien-Jen

2014-01-01

There are two endemic areas of long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking water in Taiwan. Residents in the southwestern and northeastern endemic areas started using high-arsenic artesian well water in the early 1910s and late 1940s, respectively. Public water supply system using surface water was implemented in southwestern and northeastern endemic areas in the 1970s and 1990s, respectively. Systemic health hazards of long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking water have been intensively investigated since the 1960s, especially after 1985 in Taiwan. Several diseases have been well documented to be associated with chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water showing a dose-response relation. They include characteristic skin lesions like hyperpigmentation or depigmentation, hyperkeratosis in palms and soles, and Bowen disease, peripheral vascular disease (specifically blackfoot disease), ischemic heart disease, cerebral infarction, microvascular diseases, abnormal peripheral microcirculation, carotid atherosclerosis, QT prolongation and increased dispersion in electrocardiography, hypertension, goiter, diabetes mellitus, cataract (specifically posterior subcapsular lens opacity), pterygium, slow neural conduction, retarded neurobehavioral development, erectile dysfunction, and cancers of the skin, lung, urinary bladder, kidney, and liver. The method of choice to mitigate arsenic poisoning through drinking water is to use safe drinking water from uncontaminated sources.

Identification and Assessment of Potential Water Quality Impact Factors for Drinking-Water Reservoirs

PubMed Central

Gu, Qing; Deng, Jinsong; Wang, Ke; Lin, Yi; Li, Jun; Gan, Muye; Ma, Ligang; Hong, Yang

2014-01-01

Various reservoirs have been serving as the most important drinking water sources in Zhejiang Province, China, due to the uneven distribution of precipitation and severe river pollution. Unfortunately, rapid urbanization and industrialization have been continuously challenging the water quality of the drinking-water reservoirs. The identification and assessment of potential impacts is indispensable in water resource management and protection. This study investigates the drinking water reservoirs in Zhejiang Province to better understand the potential impact on water quality. Altogether seventy-three typical drinking reservoirs in Zhejiang Province encompassing various water storage levels were selected and evaluated. Using fifty-two reservoirs as training samples, the classification and regression tree (CART) method and sixteen comprehensive variables, including six sub-sets (land use, population, socio-economy, geographical features, inherent characteristics, and climate), were adopted to establish a decision-making model for identifying and assessing their potential impacts on drinking-water quality. The water quality class of the remaining twenty-one reservoirs was then predicted and tested based on the decision-making model, resulting in a water quality class attribution accuracy of 81.0%. Based on the decision rules and quantitative importance of the independent variables, industrial emissions was identified as the most important factor influencing the water quality of reservoirs; land use and human habitation also had a substantial impact on water quality. The results of this study provide insights into the factors impacting the water quality of reservoirs as well as basic information for protecting reservoir water resources. PMID:24919129

Identification and assessment of potential water quality impact factors for drinking-water reservoirs.

PubMed

Gu, Qing; Deng, Jinsong; Wang, Ke; Lin, Yi; Li, Jun; Gan, Muye; Ma, Ligang; Hong, Yang

2014-06-10

Various reservoirs have been serving as the most important drinking water sources in Zhejiang Province, China, due to the uneven distribution of precipitation and severe river pollution. Unfortunately, rapid urbanization and industrialization have been continuously challenging the water quality of the drinking-water reservoirs. The identification and assessment of potential impacts is indispensable in water resource management and protection. This study investigates the drinking water reservoirs in Zhejiang Province to better understand the potential impact on water quality. Altogether seventy-three typical drinking reservoirs in Zhejiang Province encompassing various water storage levels were selected and evaluated. Using fifty-two reservoirs as training samples, the classification and regression tree (CART) method and sixteen comprehensive variables, including six sub-sets (land use, population, socio-economy, geographical features, inherent characteristics, and climate), were adopted to establish a decision-making model for identifying and assessing their potential impacts on drinking-water quality. The water quality class of the remaining twenty-one reservoirs was then predicted and tested based on the decision-making model, resulting in a water quality class attribution accuracy of 81.0%. Based on the decision rules and quantitative importance of the independent variables, industrial emissions was identified as the most important factor influencing the water quality of reservoirs; land use and human habitation also had a substantial impact on water quality. The results of this study provide insights into the factors impacting the water quality of reservoirs as well as basic information for protecting reservoir water resources.

Adenovirus, MS2 and PhiX174 interactions with drinking water biofilms developed on PVC, cement and cast iron.

PubMed

Helmi, K; Menard-Szczebara, F; Lénès, D; Jacob, P; Jossent, J; Barbot, C; Delabre, K; Arnal, C

2010-01-01

Biofilms colonizing pipe surfaces of drinking water distribution systems could provide habitat and shelter for pathogenic viruses present in the water phase. This study aims (i) to develop a method to detect viral particles present in a drinking water biofilm and (ii) to study viral interactions with drinking water biofilms. A pilot scale system was used to develop drinking water biofilms on 3 materials (7 cm(2) discs): PVC, cast iron and cement. Biofilms were inoculated with viral model including MS2, PhiX174 or adenovirus. Five techniques were tested to recover virus from biofilms. The most efficient uses beef extract and glycine at pH = 9. After sonication and centrifugation, the pH of the supernatant is neutralized prior to viral analysis. The calculated recovery rates varied from 29.3 to 74.6% depending on the virus (MS2 or PhiX174) and the material. Applying this protocol, the interactions of virus models (MS2 and adenovirus) with drinking water biofilms were compared. Our results show that adsorption of viruses to biofilms depends on their isoelectric points, the disc material and the hydrodynamic conditions. Applying hydrodynamic conditions similar to those existing in drinking water networks resulted in a viral adsorption corresponding to less than 1% of the initial viral load.

Water and health.

PubMed

Guidotti, T L; Conway, J B

1984-10-01

The systems protecting the quality of drinking water in the United States are deteriorating. Many urban water and sewer systems are obsolete. Industrial wastes are imposing a burden on wastewater treatment facilities. In the U.S., outbreaks of water-borne disease are primarily limited to enteritis associated with viruses or Giardia. Issues in the contamination of drinking water by toxic substances include disposal practices, accidental contamination, agricultural runoff and chlorination byproducts. Physicians must support stringent enforcement of water quality standards.

CYANOBACTERIA AND CYANOTOXINS IN WATER SUPPLY RESERVOIRS – TO DEVELOP AND VALIDATE A MICROARRAY TO TEST FOR CYANOBACTERIA AND CYANOTOXIN GENES IN DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS AS AN AID TO RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLIES

EPA Science Inventory

The objective of this study is to develop a microarray to test for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin genes in drinking water reservoirs as an aid to risk assessment and manages of water supplies. The microarray will include probes recognizing important freshwater cyanobacterial tax...

Tastes associated with products in contact with drinking water.

PubMed

Marchesan, M; Morran, J

2004-01-01

Over the past 9 years the Australian Water Quality Centre (AWQC) has conducted testing in accordance with Australian and New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4020--"Products for use in contact with drinking water" (1999). A test included as part of this standard is taste of water extracts. This test assesses the ability of products to impart discernible taste to drinking water using panellists trained in accordance with Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater--Flavour Profile Analysis 2170 B (1999). Over 1000 products from companies worldwide, have been assessed at the AWQC in accordance with AS/NZS 4020 including pipes, valves, tap fittings and numerous other products used in contact with water. The products must not impart any discernible taste to obtain compliance and be deemed suitable for use in contact with drinking water. This study compiles the products assessed and the types of tastes obtained from both chlorinated and non-chlorinated extracts. In particular the study focuses on taste associated with polyethylene pipes, coatings and valves, which in some instances have been problematic. Analysis revealed that most taste problems occur when chlorinated water has been used in extraction experiments and this is in line with consumer complaints regarding taste imparted by plumbing products. The collation of this data provides a valuable assessment for manufacturers, the water industry and consumers.

Recent advances in drinking water disinfection: successes and challenges.

PubMed

Ngwenya, Nonhlanhla; Ncube, Esper J; Parsons, James

2013-01-01

Drinking water is the most important single source of human exposure to gastroenteric diseases, mainly as a result of the ingestion of microbial contaminated water. Waterborne microbial agents that pose a health risk to humans include enteropathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Therefore, properly assessing whether these hazardous agents enter drinking water supplies, and if they do, whether they are disinfected adequately, are undoubtedly aspects critical to protecting public health. As new pathogens emerge, monitoring for relevant indicator microorganisms (e.g., process microbial indicators, fecal indicators, and index and model organisms) is crucial to ensuring drinking water safety. Another crucially important step to maintaining public health is implementing Water Safety Plans (WSPs), as is recommended by the current WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Good WSPs include creating health-based targets that aim to reduce microbial risks and adverse health effects to which a population is exposed through drinking water. The use of disinfectants to inactivate microbial pathogens in drinking water has played a central role in reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and is considered to be among the most successful interventions for preserving and promoting public health. Chlorine-based disinfectants are the most commonly used disinfectants and are cheap and easy to use. Free chlorine is an effective disinfectant for bacteria and viruses; however, it is not always effective against C. parvum and G. lamblia. Another limitation of using chlorination is that it produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which pose potential health risks of their own. Currently, most drinking water regulations aggressively address DBP problems in public water distribution systems. The DBPs of most concern include the trihalomethanes (THMs), the haloacetic acids (HAAs), bromate, and chlorite. However, in the latest edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, it is recommended that water disinfection should never be compromised by attempting to control DBPs. The reason for this is that the risks of human illness and death from pathogens in drinking water are much greater than the risks from exposure to disinfectants and disinfection by-products. Nevertheless, if DBP levels exceed regulatory limits, strategies should focus on eliminating organic impurities that foster their formation, without compromising disinfection. As alternatives to chlorine, disinfectants such as chloramines, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and UV disinfection are gaining popularity. Chlorine and each of these disinfectants have individual advantage and disadvantage in terms of cost, efficacy-stability, ease of application, and nature of disinfectant by-products (DBPs). Based on efficiency, ozone is the most efficient disinfectant for inactivating bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. In contrast, chloramines are the least efficient and are not recommended for use as primary disinfectants. Chloramines are favored for secondary water disinfection, because they react more slowly than chlorine and are more persistent in distribution systems. In addition, chloramines produce lower DBP levels than does chlorine, although microbial activity in the distribution system may produce nitrate from monochloramine, when it is used as a residual disinfectant, Achieving the required levels of water quality, particularly microbial inactivation levels, while minimizing DBP formation requires the application of proper risk and disinfection management protocols. In addition, the failure of conventional treatment processes to eliminate critical waterborne pathogens in drinking water demand that improved and/or new disinfection technologies be developed. Recent research has disclosed that nanotechnology may offer solutions in this area, through the use of nanosorbents, nanocatalysts, bioactive nanoparticles, nanostructured catalytic membranes, and nanoparticle-enhanced filtration.

An Evolving Choice in a Diverse Water Market: A Quality Comparison of Sachet Water with Community and Household Water Sources in Ghana.

PubMed

Guzmán, Danice; Stoler, Justin

2018-06-11

Packaged water, particularly bagged sachet water, has become an important drinking water source in West Africa as local governments struggle to provide safe drinking water supplies. In Ghana, sachet water has become an important primary water source in urban centers, and a growing literature has explored various dimensions of this industry, including product quality. There is very little data on sachet water quality outside of large urban centers, where smaller markets often mean less producer competition and less government regulation. This study analyzes the microbiological quality of sachet water alongside samples of other common water sources at point-of-collection (POC) and point-of-use (POU) in 42 rural, peri-urban, and small-town Ghanaian communities using the IDEXX Colilert ® 18. Levels of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli detected in sachet water samples were statistically and significantly lower than levels detected in all other water sources at POU, including public taps and standpipes, and statistically similar or significantly lower at POC. In diverse waterscapes where households regularly patch together their water supply from different sources, sachet water appears to be an evolving alternative for safe drinking water despite many caveats, including higher unit costs and limited opportunities to recycle the plastic packaging.

Detection of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Source and Drinking Water Samples from a First Nations Community in Canada

PubMed Central

Fernando, Dinesh M.; Tun, Hein Min; Poole, Jenna; Patidar, Rakesh; Li, Ru; Mi, Ruidong; Amarawansha, Geethani E. A.; Fernando, W. G. Dilantha; Khafipour, Ehsan; Farenhorst, Annemieke

2016-01-01

ABSTRACT Access to safe drinking water is now recognized as a human right by the United Nations. In developed countries like Canada, access to clean water is generally not a matter of concern. However, one in every five First Nations reserves is under a drinking water advisory, often due to unacceptable microbiological quality. In this study, we analyzed source and potable water from a First Nations community for the presence of coliform bacteria as well as various antibiotic resistance genes. Samples, including those from drinking water sources, were found to be positive for various antibiotic resistance genes, namely, ampC, tet(A), mecA, β-lactamase genes (SHV-type, TEM-type, CTX-M-type, OXA-1, and CMY-2-type), and carbapenemase genes (KPC, IMP, VIM, NDM, GES, and OXA-48 genes). Not surprisingly, substantial numbers of total coliforms, including Escherichia coli, were recovered from these samples, and this result was also confirmed using Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. These findings deserve further attention, as the presence of coliforms and antibiotic resistance genes potentially puts the health of the community members at risk. IMPORTANCE In this study, we highlight the poor microbiological quality of drinking water in a First Nations community in Canada. We examined the coliform load as well as the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in these samples. This study examined the presence of antibiotic-resistant genes in drinking water samples from a First Nations Community in Canada. We believe that our findings are of considerable significance, since the issue of poor water quality in First Nations communities in Canada is often ignored, and our findings will help shed some light on this important issue. PMID:27235436

Detection of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Source and Drinking Water Samples from a First Nations Community in Canada.

PubMed

Fernando, Dinesh M; Tun, Hein Min; Poole, Jenna; Patidar, Rakesh; Li, Ru; Mi, Ruidong; Amarawansha, Geethani E A; Fernando, W G Dilantha; Khafipour, Ehsan; Farenhorst, Annemieke; Kumar, Ayush

2016-08-01

Access to safe drinking water is now recognized as a human right by the United Nations. In developed countries like Canada, access to clean water is generally not a matter of concern. However, one in every five First Nations reserves is under a drinking water advisory, often due to unacceptable microbiological quality. In this study, we analyzed source and potable water from a First Nations community for the presence of coliform bacteria as well as various antibiotic resistance genes. Samples, including those from drinking water sources, were found to be positive for various antibiotic resistance genes, namely, ampC, tet(A), mecA, β-lactamase genes (SHV-type, TEM-type, CTX-M-type, OXA-1, and CMY-2-type), and carbapenemase genes (KPC, IMP, VIM, NDM, GES, and OXA-48 genes). Not surprisingly, substantial numbers of total coliforms, including Escherichia coli, were recovered from these samples, and this result was also confirmed using Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. These findings deserve further attention, as the presence of coliforms and antibiotic resistance genes potentially puts the health of the community members at risk. In this study, we highlight the poor microbiological quality of drinking water in a First Nations community in Canada. We examined the coliform load as well as the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in these samples. This study examined the presence of antibiotic-resistant genes in drinking water samples from a First Nations Community in Canada. We believe that our findings are of considerable significance, since the issue of poor water quality in First Nations communities in Canada is often ignored, and our findings will help shed some light on this important issue. Copyright © 2016, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Fault tree analysis for integrated and probabilistic risk analysis of drinking water systems.

PubMed

Lindhe, Andreas; Rosén, Lars; Norberg, Tommy; Bergstedt, Olof

2009-04-01

Drinking water systems are vulnerable and subject to a wide range of risks. To avoid sub-optimisation of risk-reduction options, risk analyses need to include the entire drinking water system, from source to tap. Such an integrated approach demands tools that are able to model interactions between different events. Fault tree analysis is a risk estimation tool with the ability to model interactions between events. Using fault tree analysis on an integrated level, a probabilistic risk analysis of a large drinking water system in Sweden was carried out. The primary aims of the study were: (1) to develop a method for integrated and probabilistic risk analysis of entire drinking water systems; and (2) to evaluate the applicability of Customer Minutes Lost (CML) as a measure of risk. The analysis included situations where no water is delivered to the consumer (quantity failure) and situations where water is delivered but does not comply with water quality standards (quality failure). Hard data as well as expert judgements were used to estimate probabilities of events and uncertainties in the estimates. The calculations were performed using Monte Carlo simulations. CML is shown to be a useful measure of risks associated with drinking water systems. The method presented provides information on risk levels, probabilities of failure, failure rates and downtimes of the system. This information is available for the entire system as well as its different sub-systems. Furthermore, the method enables comparison of the results with performance targets and acceptable levels of risk. The method thus facilitates integrated risk analysis and consequently helps decision-makers to minimise sub-optimisation of risk-reduction options.

The effect of water temperature and voluntary drinking on the post rehydration sweating.

PubMed

Hosseinlou, Abdollah; Khamnei, Saeed; Zamanlu, Masumeh

2013-01-01

During heat stress and dehydration, thermoregulation is partly suppressed to save body fluid and circulation. Drinking induces the recovery of thermoregulatory responses including sweating. Our objective is to investigate the effect of water temperature and voluntary drinking on the extent of the drinking-induced sweating. Six healthy subjects 23.7 ± 0.6 yr old and 80.7 ± 5.7 kg wt were dehydrated by performing mild exercise (ergometer cycling) in a hot and humid chamber (38-40°C, 20-28% relative humidity). After dehydration, subjects were allowed to drink water with temperatures of 5, 16, 26, 58°C on four separate days. The sweating rate was measured on the forehead area before and after drinking. Also, blood samples were collected during the experiments and plasma osmolality was measured. Sweating increased markedly just a few minutes after the onset of drinking. The rate of this response was lower in ingested water temperature of 5°C (0.43 ± 0.03 g, p = 0.000). Different intake occurred with different water temperatures (respectively 4.2, 6.4, 3.1, 1.8 ml/kg). Water at 16°C induced higher intake (6.4 ml/kg) together with lower sweating (0.54 ± 0.03 g), which can result in optimum level of hydration. Conclusion- When dehydrated subjects drink water with different temperatures, there are different sweating responses together with different voluntary intakes. According to our results, consuming 16°C water, cool tap water, could be suggested in dehydration.

A Comparative Analysis of Vibrio cholerae Contamination in Point-of-Drinking and Source Water in a Low-Income Urban Community, Bangladesh

PubMed Central

Ferdous, Jannatul; Sultana, Rebeca; Rashid, Ridwan B.; Tasnimuzzaman, Md.; Nordland, Andreas; Begum, Anowara; Jensen, Peter K. M.

2018-01-01

Bangladesh is a cholera endemic country with a population at high risk of cholera. Toxigenic and non-toxigenic Vibrio cholerae (V. cholerae) can cause cholera and cholera-like diarrheal illness and outbreaks. Drinking water is one of the primary routes of cholera transmission in Bangladesh. The aim of this study was to conduct a comparative assessment of the presence of V. cholerae between point-of-drinking water and source water, and to investigate the variability of virulence profile using molecular methods of a densely populated low-income settlement of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Water samples were collected and tested for V. cholerae from “point-of-drinking” and “source” in 477 study households in routine visits at 6 week intervals over a period of 14 months. We studied the virulence profiles of V. cholerae positive water samples using 22 different virulence gene markers present in toxigenic O1/O139 and non-O1/O139 V. cholerae using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 1,463 water samples were collected, with 1,082 samples from point-of-drinking water in 388 households and 381 samples from 66 water sources. V. cholerae was detected in 10% of point-of-drinking water samples and in 9% of source water samples. Twenty-three percent of households and 38% of the sources were positive for V. cholerae in at least one visit. Samples collected from point-of-drinking and linked sources in a 7 day interval showed significantly higher odds (P < 0.05) of V. cholerae presence in point-of-drinking compared to source [OR = 17.24 (95% CI = 7.14–42.89)] water. Based on the 7 day interval data, 53% (17/32) of source water samples were negative for V. cholerae while linked point-of-drinking water samples were positive. There were significantly higher odds (p < 0.05) of the presence of V. cholerae O1 [OR = 9.13 (95% CI = 2.85–29.26)] and V. cholerae O139 [OR = 4.73 (95% CI = 1.19–18.79)] in source water samples than in point-of-drinking water samples. Contamination of water at the point-of-drinking is less likely to depend on the contamination at the water source. Hygiene education interventions and programs should focus and emphasize on water at the point-of-drinking, including repeated cleaning of drinking vessels, which is of paramount importance in preventing cholera. PMID:29616005

Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with drinking water and water not intended for drinking--United States, 2003-2004.

PubMed

Liang, Jennifer L; Dziuban, Eric J; Craun, Gunther F; Hill, Vincent; Moore, Matthew R; Gelting, Richard J; Calderon, Rebecca L; Beach, Michael J; Roy, Sharon L

2006-12-22

Since 1971, CDC, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists have maintained a collaborative Waterborne Disease and Outbreaks Surveillance System for collecting and reporting data related to occurrences and causes of waterborne disease and outbreaks (WBDOs). This surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and effects of WBDOs in the United States. Data presented summarize 36 WBDOs that occurred during January 2003-December 2004 and nine previously unreported WBDOs that occurred during 1982-2002. The surveillance system includes data on WBDOs associated with drinking water, water not intended for drinking (excluding recreational water), and water of unknown intent. Public health departments in the states, territories, localities, and Freely Associated States (i.e., the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau, formerly parts of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) are primarily responsible for detecting and investigating WBDOs and voluntarily reporting them to CDC by using a standard form. During 2003-2004, a total of 36 WBDOs were reported by 19 states; 30 were associated with drinking water, three were associated with water not intended for drinking, and three were associated with water of unknown intent. The 30 drinking water-associated WBDOs caused illness among an estimated 2,760 persons and were linked to four deaths. Etiologic agents were identified in 25 (83.3%) of these WBDOs: 17 (68.0%) involved pathogens (i.e., 13 bacterial, one parasitic, one viral, one mixed bacterial/parasitic, and one mixed bacterial/parasitic/viral), and eight (32.0%) involved chemical/toxin poisonings. Gastroenteritis represented 67.7% of the illness related to drinking water-associated WBDOs; acute respiratory illness represented 25.8%, and dermatitis represented 6.5%. The classification of deficiencies contributing to WBDOs has been revised to reflect the categories of concerns associated with contamination at or in the source water, treatment facility, or distribution system (SWTD) that are under the jurisdiction of water utilities, versus those at points not under the jurisdiction of a water utility or at the point of water use (NWU/POU), which includes commercially bottled water. A total of 33 deficiencies were cited in the 30 WBDOs associated with drinking water: 17 (51.5%) NWU/POU, 14 (42.4%) SWTD, and two (6.1%) unknown. The most frequently cited NWU/POU deficiencies involved Legionella spp. in the drinking water system (n = eight [47.1%]). The most frequently cited SWTD deficiencies were associated with distribution system contamination (n = six [42.9%]). Contaminated ground water was a contributing factor in seven times as many WBDOs (n = seven) as contaminated surface water (n = one). Approximately half (51.5%) of the drinking water deficiencies occurred outside the jurisdiction of a water utility in situations not currently regulated by EPA. The majority of the WBDOs in which deficiencies were not regulated by EPA were associated with Legionella spp. or chemicals/toxins. Problems in the distribution system were the most commonly identified deficiencies under the jurisdiction of a water utility, underscoring the importance of preventing contamination after water treatment. The substantial proportion of WBDOs involving contaminated ground water provides support for the Ground Water Rule (finalized in October 2006), which specifies when corrective action is required for public ground water systems. CDC and EPA use surveillance data to identify the types of water systems, deficiencies, and etiologic agents associated with WBDOs and to evaluate the adequacy of current technologies and practices for providing safe drinking water. Surveillance data also are used to establish research priorities, which can lead to improved water-quality regulation development. The growing proportion of drinking water deficiencies that are not addressed by current EPA rules emphasizes the need to address risk factors for water contamination in the distribution system and at points not under the jurisdiction of water utilities.

Livestock ownership and microbial contamination of drinking-water: Evidence from nationally representative household surveys in Ghana, Nepal and Bangladesh.

PubMed

Wardrop, Nicola A; Hill, Allan G; Dzodzomenyo, Mawuli; Aryeetey, Genevieve; Wright, Jim A

2018-01-01

Current priorities for diarrhoeal disease prevention include use of sanitation and safe water. There have been few attempts to quantify the importance of animal faeces in drinking-water contamination, despite the presence of potentially water-borne zoonotic pathogens in animal faeces. This study aimed to quantify the relationship between livestock ownership and point-of-consumption drinking-water contamination. Data from nationally representative household surveys in Nepal, Bangladesh, and Ghana, each with associated water quality assessments, were used. Multinomial regression adjusting for confounders was applied to assess the relationship between livestock ownership and the level of drinking-water contamination with E. coli. Ownership of five or more large livestock (e.g. cattle) was significantly associated with drinking-water contamination in Ghana (RRR=7.9, 95% CI=1.6 to 38.9 for medium levels of contamination with 1-31cfu/100ml; RRR=5.2, 95% CI=1.1-24.5 for high levels of contamination with >31cfu/100ml) and Bangladesh (RRR=2.4, 95% CI=1.3-4.5 for medium levels of contamination; non-significant for high levels of contamination). Ownership of eight or more poultry (chickens, guinea fowl, ducks or turkeys) was associated with drinking-water contamination in Bangladesh (RRR=1.5, 95% CI=1.1-2.0 for medium levels of contamination, non-significant for high levels of contamination). These results suggest that livestock ownership is a significant risk factor for the contamination of drinking-water at the point of consumption. This indicates that addressing human sanitation without consideration of faecal contamination from livestock sources will not be sufficient to prevent drinking-water contamination. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of organic wastewater contaminants, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products in selected water supplies, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, June 2004

USGS Publications Warehouse

Zimmerman, Marc J.

2005-01-01

In June 2004, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Barnstable County Department of Health and Environment, sampled water from 14 wastewater sources and drinking-water supplies on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, for the presence of organic wastewater contaminants, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. The geographic distribution of sampling locations does not represent the distribution of drinking-water supplies on Cape Cod. The environmental presence of the analyte compounds is mostly unregulated; many of the compounds are suspected of having adverse ecological and human health effects. Of the 85 different organic analyte compounds, 43 were detected, with 13 detected in low concentrations (less than 1 microgram per liter) from drinking-water supplies thought to be affected by wastewater because of previously detected high nitrate concentrations. (Phenol and d-limonene, detected in equipment blanks at unacceptably high concentrations, are not included in counts of detections in this report.) Compounds detected in the drinking-water supplies included the solvent, tetrachloroethylene; the analgesic, acetaminophen; the antibiotic, sulfamethoxazole; and the antidepressant, carbamazapine. Nitrate nitrogen, an indicator of wastewater, was detected in water supplies in concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 8.8 milligrams per liter.

Summary Report: Pilot Study of an Innovative Biological Treatment Process for the Removal of Ammonia from a Small Drinking Water System

EPA Science Inventory

The use of biologically active filtration to oxidize ammonia as a full-scale drinking water treatment process has not been thoroughly considered in the United States. A number of concerns with biological water treatment exist including the potential release of excessive numbers o...

Evaluation of Polymerase Chain Reaction for Detecting Coliform Bacteria in Drinking Water Sources

PubMed Central

Isfahani, Bahram Nasr; Fazeli, Hossein; Babaie, Zeinab; Poursina, Farkhondeh; Moghim, Sharareh; Rouzbahani, Meisam

2017-01-01

Background: Coliform bacteria are used as indicator organisms for detecting fecal pollution in water. Traditional methods including microbial culture tests in lactose-containing media and enzyme-based tests for the detection of β-galactosidase; however, these methods are time-consuming and less specific. The aim of this study was to evaluate polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detecting coliform. Materials and Methods: Totally, 100 of water samples from Isfahan drinking water source were collected. Coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli were detected in drinking water using LacZ and LamB genes in PCR method performed in comparison with biochemical tests for all samples. Results: Using phenotyping, 80 coliform isolates were found. The results of the biochemical tests illustrated 78.7% coliform bacteria and 21.2% E. coli. PCR results for LacZ and LamB genes were 67.5% and 17.5%, respectively. Conclusion: The PCR method was shown to be an effective, sensitive, and rapid method for detecting coliform and E. coli in drinking water from the Isfahan drinking water sources. PMID:29142893

Willingness to pay for safe drinking water: Evidence from Parral, Mexico.

PubMed

Vásquez, William F; Mozumder, Pallab; Hernández-Arce, Jesús; Berrens, Robert P

2009-08-01

A referendum-format contingent valuation (CV) survey is used to elicit household willingness to pay responses for safe and reliable drinking water in Parral, Mexico. Households currently adopt a variety of averting and private investment choices (e.g., bottled water consumption, home-based water treatment, and installation of water storage facilities) to adapt to the existing water supply system. These revealed behaviors indicate the latent demand for safer and more reliable water services, which is corroborated by the CV survey evidence. Validity findings include significant scope sensitivity in WTP for water services. Further, results indicate that households are willing to pay from 1.8% to 7.55% of reported household income above their current water bill for safe and reliable drinking water services, depending upon the assumptions about response uncertainty.

Water quality and health in northern Canada: stored drinking water and acute gastrointestinal illness in Labrador Inuit.

PubMed

Wright, Carlee J; Sargeant, Jan M; Edge, Victoria L; Ford, James D; Farahbakhsh, Khosrow; Shiwak, Inez; Flowers, Charlie; Harper, Sherilee L

2017-07-12

One of the highest self-reported incidence rates of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) in the global peer-reviewed literature occurs in Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic. This high incidence of illness could be due, in part, to the consumption of contaminated water, as many northern communities face challenges related to the quality of municipal drinking water. Furthermore, many Inuit store drinking water in containers in the home, which could increase the risk of contamination between source and point-of-use (i.e., water recontamination during storage). To examine this risk, this research characterized drinking water collection and storage practices, identified potential risk factors for water contamination between source and point-of-use, and examined possible associations between drinking water contamination and self-reported AGI in the Inuit community of Rigolet, Canada. The study included a cross-sectional census survey that captured data on types of drinking water used, household practices related to drinking water (e.g., how it was collected and stored), physical characteristics of water storage containers, and self-reported AGI. Additionally, water samples were collected from all identified drinking water containers in homes and analyzed for presence of Escherichia coli and total coliforms. Despite municipally treated tap water being available in all homes, 77.6% of households had alternative sources of drinking water stored in containers, and of these containers, 25.2% tested positive for total coliforms. The use of transfer devices and water dippers (i.e., smaller bowls or measuring cups) for the collection and retrieval of water from containers were both significantly associated with increased odds of total coliform presence in stored water (OR transfer device  = 3.4, 95% CI 1.2-11.7; OR dipper  = 13.4, 95% CI 3.8-47.1). Twenty-eight-day period prevalence of self-reported AGI during the month before the survey was 17.2% (95% CI 13.0-22.5), which yielded an annual incidence rate of 2.4 cases per person per year (95% CI 1.8-3.1); no water-related risk factors were significantly associated with AGI. Considering the high prevalence of, and risk factors associated with, indicator bacteria in drinking water stored in containers, potential exposure to waterborne pathogens may be minimized through interventions at the household level.

TREATABILITY DATABASE FOR DRINKING WATER CHEMICALS (CCL)

EPA Science Inventory

The Treatability Data Base will assemble referenced data on the control of contaminants in drinking water. It will be an interactive data base, housed in an EPA, web-accessible site. It may be used for many purposes, including: identifying an effective treatment process or a se...

A REVIEW OF EPIDEMIOOGICAL STUDIES ON DRINKING WATER HARDNESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES

EPA Science Inventory

Major risk factors do not entirely explain the worldwide variability of morbidity and mortality due to

cardiovascular disease. Several environmental factors, including the hardness of drinking water may

affect cardiovascular disease risks. We conducted a qualitative...

Microbiological Contamination of Drinking Water Associated with Subsequent Child Diarrhea

PubMed Central

Luby, Stephen P.; Halder, Amal K.; Huda, Tarique Md.; Unicomb, Leanne; Sirajul Islam, M.; Arnold, Benjamin F.; Johnston, Richard B.

2015-01-01

We used a prospective, longitudinal cohort enrolled as part of a program evaluation to assess the relationship between drinking water microbiological quality and child diarrhea. We included 50 villages across rural Bangladesh. Within each village field-workers enrolled a systematic random sample of 10 households with a child under the age of 3 years. Community monitors visited households monthly and recorded whether children under the age of 5 years had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days. Every 3 months, a research assistant visited the household and requested a water sample from the source or container used to provide drinking water to the child. Laboratory technicians measured the concentration of Escherichia coli in the water samples using membrane filtration. Of drinking water samples, 59% (2,273/3,833) were contaminated with E. coli. Of 12,192 monthly follow-up visits over 2 years, mothers reported that their child had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days in 1,156 (9.5%) visits. In a multivariable general linear model, the log10 of E. coli contamination of the preceding drinking water sample was associated with an increased prevalence of child diarrhea (prevalence ratio = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.23). These data provide further evidence of the health benefits of improved microbiological quality of drinking water. PMID:26438031

Diverse manganese(II)-oxidizing bacteria are prevalent in drinking water systems.

PubMed

Marcus, Daniel N; Pinto, Ameet; Anantharaman, Karthik; Ruberg, Steven A; Kramer, Eva L; Raskin, Lutgarde; Dick, Gregory J

2017-04-01

Manganese (Mn) oxides are highly reactive minerals that influence the speciation, mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of a wide variety of organic and inorganic compounds. Although Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria are known to catalyze the formation of Mn oxides, little is known about the organisms responsible for Mn oxidation in situ, especially in engineered environments. Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria are important in drinking water systems, including in biofiltration and water distribution systems. Here, we used cultivation dependent and independent approaches to investigate Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria in drinking water sources, a treatment plant and associated distribution system. We isolated 29 strains of Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria and found that highly similar 16S rRNA gene sequences were present in all culture-independent datasets and dominant in the studied drinking water treatment plant. These results highlight a potentially important role for Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria in drinking water systems, where biogenic Mn oxides may affect water quality in terms of aesthetic appearance, speciation of metals and oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds. Deciphering the ecology of these organisms and the factors that regulate their Mn(II)-oxidizing activity could yield important insights into how microbial communities influence the quality of drinking water. © 2016 Society for Applied Microbiology and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL AWARENESS AND EXPERIENCE ON DRINKING WATER POLICIES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Yamamura, Sombo; Ohnuki, Maromi; Nagaoka, Hiroshi

Recently increased number of elementary school pupils brings drinks from home for their hydration at school and this phenomenon indicates the change of the role of water supply at schools. In order to investigate the potential causes and the structure of the problem, an online survey targeting mothers of grade-schoolers was carried out, taking account of psychological factors of mothers as well as their decision making process. In the questionnaire preparation, latent variables and observable variables were assumed. The identified results include: difference exists on people's choice of drinking water; more parents in western Japan wish pupils bring drinks and some parents in eastern Japan wish the same. Covariance structure analysis identified a causalmodel; in which parents' frustration to schools associated with decreased reliability to tap water cause parents' advice to pupils take drink from home. Policy makers are expected to make the most of the result of analysis.

Analysis of cyanobacterial metabolites in surface and raw drinking waters reveals more than microcystin.

PubMed

Beversdorf, Lucas J; Rude, Kayla; Weirich, Chelsea A; Bartlett, Sarah L; Seaman, Mary; Kozik, Christine; Biese, Peter; Gosz, Timothy; Suha, Michael; Stempa, Christopher; Shaw, Christopher; Hedman, Curtis; Piatt, Joseph J; Miller, Todd R

2018-04-16

Freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are becoming increasingly problematic in regions that rely on surface waters for drinking water production. Microcystins (MCs) are toxic peptides produced by multiple cyanobacterial genera with a global occurrence. Cyanobacteria also produce a variety of other toxic and/or otherwise bioactive peptides (TBPs) that have gained less attention including cyanopeptolins (Cpts), anabaenopeptins (Apts), and microginins (Mgn). In this study, we compared temporal and spatial trends of four MCs (MCLR, MCRR, MCYR, MCLA), three Cpts (Cpt1020, Cpt1041, Cpt1007), two Apts (AptF, AptB), and Mgn690 in raw drinking water and at six surface water locations above these drinking water intakes in a eutrophic lake. All four MC congeners and five of six TBPs were detected in lake and raw drinking water. Across all samples, MCLR was the most frequently detected metabolite (100% of samples) followed by MCRR (97%) > Cpt1007 (74%) > MCYR (69%) > AptF (67%) > MCLA (61%) > AptB (54%) > Mgn690 (29%) and Cpt1041 (15%). Mean concentrations of MCs, Apts, and Cpts into two drinking water intakes were 3.9 ± 4.7, 0.14 ± 0.21, and 0.38 ± 0.92, respectively. Mean concentrations in surface water were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in drinking water intakes for MCs but not for Cpts and Apts. Temporal trends in MCs, Cpts, and Apts in the two raw drinking water intakes were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with measures of cell abundance (chlorophyll-a, Microcystis cell density), UV absorbance, and turbidity in surface water. This study expands current information about cyanobacterial TBPs that occur in lakes and that enter drinking water treatment plants and underscores the need to determine the fate of less studied cyanobacterial metabolites during drinking water treatment that may exacerbate toxicity of more well-known cyanobacterial toxins. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An ignored and potential source of taste and odor (T&O) issues-biofilms in drinking water distribution system (DWDS).

PubMed

Zhou, Xinyan; Zhang, Kejia; Zhang, Tuqiao; Li, Cong; Mao, Xinwei

2017-05-01

It is important for water utilities to provide esthetically acceptable drinking water to the public, because our consumers always initially judge the quality of the tap water by its color, taste, and odor (T&O). Microorganisms in drinking water contribute largely to T&O production and drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) are known to harbor biofilms and microorganisms in bulk water, even in the presence of a disinfectant. These microbes include T&O-causing bacteria, fungi, and algae, which may lead to unwanted effects on the organoleptic quality of distributed water. Importantly, the understanding of types of these microbes and their T&O compound-producing mechanisms is needed to prevent T&O formation during drinking water distribution. Additionally, new disinfection strategies and operation methods of DWDS are also needed for better control of T&O problems in drinking water. This review covers: (1) the microbial species which can produce T&O compounds in DWDS; (2) typical T&O compounds in DWDS and their formation mechanisms by microorganisms; (3) several common factors in DWDS which can influence the growth and T&O generation of microbes; and (4) several strategies to control biofilm and T&O compound formation in DWDS. At the end of this review, recommendations were given based on the conclusion of this review.

Suffering for Water, Suffering from Water: Access to Drinking-water and Associated Health Risks in Cameroon

PubMed Central

2010-01-01

Although many African countries, along the equator, receive a great amount of rainfall and possess a dense hydrographic network, access to drinking-water remains a great challenge. In many households, water is used for various purposes, including domestic and crafts activities. According to the World Health Organization, an estimated four billion cases of diarrheoa occurs worldwide, of which 88% are ascribed to unsafe drinking-water. This study aimed at evaluating health risks in the usage of contaminated drinking-water and its relationship with the prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases in Yaoundé, Cameroon. In this cross-sectional epidemiological design, 3,034 households with children aged less than five years were investigated. Households were selected from among 20 representative neighbourhoods out of 105 that made up the city. The study revealed a diarrheoa prevalence of 14.4% (437 diarrheoa cases out of 3,034 children tested). Among various risk factors examined, water-supply modes and quality of drinking-water were statistically associated with diarrheoa cases. Moreover, levels of diarrheoa attacks varied considerably from one neighbourhood to the other. The spatial analysis helped determine neighbourhoods of higher and lower prevalence of diarrheoa in the city. PMID:20941893

Suffering for water, suffering from water: access to drinking-water and associated health risks in Cameroon.

PubMed

Yongsi, H Blaise Nguendo

2010-10-01

Although many African countries, along the equator, receive a great amount of rainfall and possess a dense hydrographic network, access to drinking-water remains a great challenge. In many households, water is used for various purposes, including domestic and crafts activities. According to the World Health Organization, an estimated four billion cases of diarrheoa occurs worldwide, of which 88% are ascribed to unsafe drinking-water. This study aimed at evaluating health risks in the usage of contaminated drinking-water and its relationship with the prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases in Yaound6, Cameroon. In this cross-sectional epidemiological design, 3,034 households with children aged less than five years were investigated. Households were selected from among 20 representative neighbourhoods out of 105 that made up the city. The study revealed a diarrheoa prevalence of 14.4% (437 diarrheoa cases out of 3,034 children tested). Among various risk factors examined, water-supply modes and quality of drinking-water were statistically associated with diarrheoa cases. Moreover, levels of diarrheoa attacks varied considerably from one neighbourhood to the other. The spatial analysis helped determine neighbourhoods of higher and lower prevalence of diarrheoa in the city.

Human Health Risk Assessment Applied to Rural Populations Dependent on Unregulated Drinking Water Sources: A Scoping Review.

PubMed

Ford, Lorelei; Bharadwaj, Lalita; McLeod, Lianne; Waldner, Cheryl

2017-07-28

Safe drinking water is a global challenge for rural populations dependent on unregulated water. A scoping review of research on human health risk assessments (HHRA) applied to this vulnerable population may be used to improve assessments applied by government and researchers. This review aims to summarize and describe the characteristics of HHRA methods, publications, and current literature gaps of HHRA studies on rural populations dependent on unregulated or unspecified drinking water. Peer-reviewed literature was systematically searched (January 2000 to May 2014) and identified at least one drinking water source as unregulated (21%) or unspecified (79%) in 100 studies. Only 7% of reviewed studies identified a rural community dependent on unregulated drinking water. Source water and hazards most frequently cited included groundwater (67%) and chemical water hazards (82%). Most HHRAs (86%) applied deterministic methods with 14% reporting probabilistic and stochastic methods. Publications increased over time with 57% set in Asia, and 47% of studies identified at least one literature gap in the areas of research, risk management, and community exposure. HHRAs applied to rural populations dependent on unregulated water are poorly represented in the literature even though almost half of the global population is rural.

Human Health Risk Assessment Applied to Rural Populations Dependent on Unregulated Drinking Water Sources: A Scoping Review

PubMed Central

Ford, Lorelei; Bharadwaj, Lalita; McLeod, Lianne; Waldner, Cheryl

2017-01-01

Safe drinking water is a global challenge for rural populations dependent on unregulated water. A scoping review of research on human health risk assessments (HHRA) applied to this vulnerable population may be used to improve assessments applied by government and researchers. This review aims to summarize and describe the characteristics of HHRA methods, publications, and current literature gaps of HHRA studies on rural populations dependent on unregulated or unspecified drinking water. Peer-reviewed literature was systematically searched (January 2000 to May 2014) and identified at least one drinking water source as unregulated (21%) or unspecified (79%) in 100 studies. Only 7% of reviewed studies identified a rural community dependent on unregulated drinking water. Source water and hazards most frequently cited included groundwater (67%) and chemical water hazards (82%). Most HHRAs (86%) applied deterministic methods with 14% reporting probabilistic and stochastic methods. Publications increased over time with 57% set in Asia, and 47% of studies identified at least one literature gap in the areas of research, risk management, and community exposure. HHRAs applied to rural populations dependent on unregulated water are poorly represented in the literature even though almost half of the global population is rural. PMID:28788087

Perceptions of drinking water quality and risk and its effect on behaviour: a cross-national study.

PubMed

Doria, Miguel de França; Pidgeon, Nick; Hunter, Paul R

2009-10-15

There is a growing effort to provide drinking water that has the trust of consumers, but the processes underlying the perception of drinking water quality and risks are still not fully understood. This paper intends to explore the factors involved in public perception of the quality and risks of drinking water. This purpose was addressed with a cross-national mixed-method approach, based on quantitative (survey) and qualitative (focus groups) data collected in the UK and Portugal. The data were analysed using several methods, including structural equation models and generalised linear models. Results suggest that perceptions of water quality and risk result from a complex interaction of diverse factors. The estimation of water quality is mostly influenced by satisfaction with organoleptic properties (especially flavour), risk perception, contextual cues, and perceptions of chemicals (lead, chlorine, and hardness). Risk perception is influenced by organoleptics, perceived water chemicals, external information, past health problems, and trust in water suppliers, among other factors. The use of tap and bottled water to drink was relatively well explained by regression analysis. Several cross-national differences were found and the implications are discussed. Suggestions for future research are provided.

Burden of Disease Attributed to Waterborne Transmission of Selected Enteric Pathogens, Australia, 2010.

PubMed

Gibney, Katherine B; O'Toole, Joanne; Sinclair, Martha; Leder, Karin

2017-06-01

AbstractUniversal access to safe drinking water is a global priority. To estimate the annual disease burden of campylobacteriosis, nontyphoidal salmonellosis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, and norovirus attributable to waterborne transmission in Australia, we multiplied regional World Health Organization (WHO) estimates of the proportion of cases attributable to waterborne transmission by estimates of all-source disease burden for each study pathogen. Norovirus was attributed as causing the most waterborne disease cases (479,632; 95% uncertainty interval [UI]: 0-1,111,874) followed by giardiasis and campylobacteriosis. The estimated waterborne disability-adjusted life year (DALY) burden for campylobacteriosis (2,004; 95% UI: 0-5,831) was 7-fold greater than other study pathogens and exceeded the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality (1 × 10 -6 DALY per person per year) by 90-fold. However, these estimates include disease transmitted via either drinking or recreational water exposure. More precise country-specific and drinking water-specific attribution estimates would better define the health burden from drinking water and inform changes to treatment requirements.

Water use on nonirrigated pasture-based dairy farms: Combining detailed monitoring and modeling to set benchmarks.

PubMed

Higham, C D; Horne, D; Singh, R; Kuhn-Sherlock, B; Scarsbrook, M R

2017-01-01

Water use in intensively managed, confinement dairy systems has been widely studied, but few reports exist regarding water use on pasture-based dairy farms. The objective of this study was to quantify the seasonal pattern of water use to develop a prediction model of water use for pasture-based dairy farms. Stock drinking, milking parlor, and total water use was measured on 35 pasture-based, seasonal calving dairy farms in New Zealand over 2 yr. Average stock drinking water was 60 L/cow per day, with peak use in summer. We estimated that, on average, 26% of stock drinking water was lost through leakage from water-distribution systems. Average corrected stock drinking water (equivalent to voluntary water intake) was 36 L/cow per day, and peak water consumption was 72 L/cow per day in summer. Milking parlor water use increased sharply at the start of lactation (July) and plateaued (August) until summer (February), after which it decreased with decreasing milk production. Average milking parlor water use was 58 L/cow per day (between September and February). Water requirements were affected by parlor type, with rotary milking parlor water use greater than herringbone parlor water use. Regression models were developed to predict stock drinking and milking parlor water use. The models included a range of climate, farm, and milk production variables. The main drivers of stock drinking water use were maximum daily temperature, potential evapotranspiration, radiation, and yield of milk and milk components. The main drivers for milking parlor water use were average per cow milk production and milking frequency. These models of water use are similar to those used in confinement dairy systems, where milk yield is commonly used as a variable. The models presented fit the measured data more accurately than other published models and are easier to use on pasture-based dairy farms, as they do not include feed and variables that are difficult to measure on pasture-based farms. Copyright © 2017 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Toxicological and chemical insights into representative source and drinking water in eastern China.

PubMed

Shi, Peng; Zhou, Sicong; Xiao, Hongxia; Qiu, Jingfan; Li, Aimin; Zhou, Qing; Pan, Yang; Hollert, Henner

2018-02-01

Drinking water safety is continuously threatened by the emergence of numerous toxic organic pollutants (TOPs) in environmental waters. In this study, an approach integrating in vitro bioassays and chemical analyses was performed to explore toxicological profiles of representative source and drinking water from waterworks of the Yangtze River (Yz), Taihu Lake (Th), and the Huaihe River (Hh) basins in eastern China. Overall, 34 of 96 TOPs were detected in all water samples, with higher concentrations in both source and drinking water samples of Hh, and pollutant profiles also differed across different river basins. Non-specific bioassays indicated that source water samples of Hh waterworks showed higher genotoxicity and mutagenicity than samples of Yz and Th. An EROD assay demonstrated dioxin-like toxicity which was detected in 5 of 7 source water samples, with toxin concentration levels ranging from 62.40 to 115.51 picograms TCDD equivalents per liter of water (eq./L). PAHs and PCBs were not the main contributors to observed dioxin-like toxicity in detected samples. All source water samples induced estrogenic activities of 8.00-129.00 nanograms 17β-estradiol eq./L, and estrogens, including 17α-ethinylestradiol and estriol, contributed 40.38-84.15% of the observed activities in examined samples. While drinking water treatments efficiently removed TOPs and their toxic effects, and estrogenic activity was still observed in drinking water samples of Hh. Altogether, this study indicated that the representative source water in eastern China, especially that found in Hh, may negatively affect human health, a finding that demonstrates an urgent requirement for advanced drinking water treatments. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

[Investigation on contamination of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water in Jiangsu Province].

PubMed

Bi-Xian, N I; Ming-Xue, S; Xiang-Zhen, X U; Xiao-Ting, W; Yang, D; Xiao-Lin, J

2017-05-17

Objective To know the contamination status of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water of Jiangsu Province, so as to provide the evidence for producing hygiene and safety drinking water. Methods A total of 28 water plants of 13 cities in Jiangsu Province were selected, and the source water (10 L), chlorinated water (100 L) and tap water (100 L) were collected separately in each site. The water samples were then treated by filtration, washing, centrifuging concentration, immune magnetic separation, and immunofluorescent assay, to detect the numbers of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts. Results Totally 84 samples from 13 cities were collected, including 28 source water, 28 chlorinated water and 28 tap water samples. Among the chlorinated water and tap water samples, no Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were found. However, Giardia cysts were detected in 3 (10.71%, 3/28) source water samples (Yancheng, Lianyungang, Changzhou cities), with the density of 1 cyst/10 L of all. Cryptosporidium oocysts were also detected in 3 (10.71%, 3/28) source water samples (Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou cities), with the density of 1 oocyst/10 L of all. Conclusions The source water in partial areas of Jiangsu Province has been contaminated by Giardia and Cryptosporidium . To ensure the safety of drinking, the regulation of source water and surveillance of drinking water should be strengthened.

Pregnant women in Timis County, Romania are exposed primarily to low-level (<10 μg/L) arsenic through residential drinking water consumption

PubMed Central

Neamtiu, Iulia; Bloom, Michael S.; Gati, Gabriel; Goessler, Walter; Surdu, Simona; Pop, Cristian; Braeuer, Simone; Fitzgerald, Edward F.; Baciu, Calin; Lupsa, Ioana Rodica; Anastasiu, Doru; Gurzau, Eugen

2015-01-01

Excessive arsenic content in drinking water poses health risks to millions of people worldwide. Inorganic arsenic (iAs) in groundwater exceeding the 10 μg/l maximum contaminant level (MCL) set by the World Health Organization (WHO) is characteristic for intermediate-depth aquifers over large areas of the Pannonian Basin in Central Europe. In western Romania, near the border with Hungary, Arad, Bihor, and Timis counties use drinking water coming partially or entirely from iAs contaminated aquifers. In nearby Arad and Bihor counties, more than 45,000 people are exposed to iAs over 10 μg/l via public drinking water sources. However, comparable data are unavailable for Timis County. To begin to address this data gap, we determined iAs in 124 public and private Timis County drinking water sources, including wells and taps, used by pregnant women participating in a case-control study of spontaneous loss. Levels in water sources were low overall (median = 3.0; range = < 0.5–175 μg/l), although higher in wells (median = 3.1, range = < 0.5–175) than in community taps (median = 2.7, range = < 0.5–36.4). In a subsample of 20 control women we measured urine biomarkers of iAs exposure, including iAs (arsenite and arsenate), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), and methylarsonic acid (MMA). Median values were higher among 10 women using iAs contaminated drinking water sources compared to 10 women using uncontaminated sources for urine total iAs (6.6 vs. 5.0 μg/l, P = 0.24) and DMA (5.5 vs. 4.2 μg/l, P = 0.31). The results suggested that the origin of urine total iAs (r = 0.35, P = 0.13) and DMA (r = 0.31, P = 0.18) must have been not only iAs in drinking-water but also some other source. Exposure of pregnant women to arsenic via drinking water in Timis County appears to be lower than for surrounding counties; however, it deserves a more definitive investigation as to its origin and the regional distribution of its risk potential. PMID:25697081

Organic Carbon as Inhibitor to SVOC and Metal Migration in Stormwater Drywells Discharging to the Subsurface-SLIDES

EPA Science Inventory

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) authorizes the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program to protect underground drinking water (USDW) sources from contamination caused by underground injection wells, including regulation of stormwater drainage drywells for parking lot and ro...

NEUROSENSORY EFFECTS OF CHRONIC HUMAN EXPOSURE TO ARSENIC ASSOCIATED WITH BODY BURDEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEASURES

EPA Science Inventory

Exposure to arsenic in drinking water is known to produce a variety of health problems including peripheral neuropathy. Auditory, visual and somatosensory impairments have been reported in Mongolian farmers living in the Yellow River Valley where drinking water is contami...

OCCURRENCE AND TOXICITY OF IODINATED DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

Water quality risks of 'improved' water sources: evidence from Cambodia.

PubMed

Shaheed, A; Orgill, J; Ratana, C; Montgomery, M A; Jeuland, M A; Brown, J

2014-02-01

The objective of this study was to investigate the quality of on-plot piped water and rainwater at the point of consumption in an area with rapidly expanding coverage of 'improved' water sources. Cross-sectional study of 914 peri-urban households in Kandal Province, Cambodia, between July-August 2011. We collected data from all households on water management, drinking water quality and factors potentially related to post-collection water contamination. Drinking water samples were taken directly from a subsample of household taps (n = 143), stored tap water (n = 124), other stored water (n = 92) and treated stored water (n = 79) for basic water quality analysis for Escherichia coli and other parameters. Household drinking water management was complex, with different sources used at any given time and across seasons. Rainwater was the most commonly used drinking water source. Households mixed different water sources in storage containers, including 'improved' with 'unimproved' sources. Piped water from taps deteriorated during storage (P < 0.0005), from 520 cfu/100 ml (coefficient of variation, CV: 5.7) E. coli to 1100 cfu/100 ml (CV: 3.4). Stored non-piped water (primarily rainwater) had a mean E. coli count of 1500 cfu/100 ml (CV: 4.1), not significantly different from stored piped water (P = 0.20). Microbial contamination of stored water was significantly associated with observed storage and handling practices, including dipping hands or receptacles in water (P < 0.005), and having an uncovered storage container (P = 0.052). The microbial quality of 'improved' water sources in our study area was not maintained at the point of consumption, possibly due to a combination of mixing water sources at the household level, unsafe storage and handling practices, and inadequately treated piped-to-plot water. These results have implications for refining international targets for safe drinking water access as well as the assumptions underlying global burden of disease estimates, which posit that 'improved' sources pose minimal risks of diarrhoeal diseases. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

A decision support system for drinking water production integrating health risks assessment.

PubMed

Delpla, Ianis; Monteith, Donald T; Freeman, Chris; Haftka, Joris; Hermens, Joop; Jones, Timothy G; Baurès, Estelle; Jung, Aude-Valérie; Thomas, Olivier

2014-07-18

The issue of drinking water quality compliance in small and medium scale water services is of paramount importance in relation to the 98/83/CE European Drinking Water Directive (DWD). Additionally, concerns are being expressed over the implementation of the DWD with respect to possible impacts on water quality from forecast changes in European climate with global warming and further anticipated reductions in north European acid emissions. Consequently, we have developed a decision support system (DSS) named ARTEM-WQ (AwaReness Tool for the Evaluation and Mitigation of drinking Water Quality issues resulting from environmental changes) to support decision making by small and medium plant operators and other water stakeholders. ARTEM-WQ is based on a sequential risk analysis approach that includes consideration of catchment characteristics, climatic conditions and treatment operations. It provides a holistic evaluation of the water system, while also assessing human health risks of organic contaminants potentially present in treated waters (steroids, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, bisphenol-a, polychlorobiphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petrochemical hydrocarbons and disinfection by-products; n = 109). Moreover, the system provides recommendations for improvement while supporting decision making in its widest context. The tool has been tested on various European catchments and shows a promising potential to inform water managers of risks and appropriate mitigative actions. Further improvements should include toxicological knowledge advancement, environmental background pollutant concentrations and the assessment of the impact of distribution systems on water quality variation.

Association between perceptions of public drinking water quality and actual drinking water quality: A community-based exploratory study in Newfoundland (Canada).

PubMed

Ochoo, Benjamin; Valcour, James; Sarkar, Atanu

2017-11-01

Studying public perception on drinking water quality is crucial for managing of water resources, generation of water quality standards, and surveillance of the drinking-water quality. However, in policy discourse, the reliability of public perception concerning drinking water quality and associated health risks is questionable. Does the public perception of water quality equate with the actual water quality? We investigated public perceptions of water quality and the perceived health risks and associated with the actual quality of public water supplies in the same communities. The study was conducted in 45 communities of Newfoundland (Canada) in 2012. First, a telephone survey of 100 households was conducted to examine public perceptions of drinking water quality of their respective public sources. Then we extracted public water quality reports of the same communities (1988-2011) from the provincial government's water resources portal. These reports contained the analysis of 2091 water samples, including levels of Disinfection By-Products (DBPs), nutrients, metals, ions and physical parameters. The reports showed that colour, manganese, total dissolved solids, iron, turbidity, and DBPs were the major detected parameters in the public water. However, the majority of the respondents (>56%) were either completely satisfied or very satisfied with the quality of drinking water. Older, higher educated and high-income group respondents were more satisfied with water quality than the younger, less educated and low-income group respondents. The study showed that there was no association with public satisfaction level and actual water quality of the respective communities. Even, in the communities, supplied by the same water system, the respondents had differences in opinion. Despite the effort by the provincial government to make the water-test results available on its website for years, the study showed existing disconnectedness between public perception of drinking water quality and actual quality. We had little scope to explore the possible explanations, and hence further studies are required to verify the age, gender educational status and income differential about the satisfaction of public service like water supply. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

[Use of drinking mineral waters in children with bronchial asthma and associated biliary tract diseases].

PubMed

Efimenko, N V; Chalaia, E N; Demina, S V

2008-01-01

It is shown that supplementation of therapy of bronchial asthma in children by mineral water (Essentuki No 4) has marked beneficial effect on the functional activity of digestive organs and the respiratory system. It is recommended that drinking mineral waters be included in the course of the resort-and-spa treatment of such patients.

[Study for distribution level of disinfection byproducts in drinking water from six cities in China].

PubMed

Deng, Ying; Wei, Jianrong; E, Xueli; Wang, Wuyi; et al

2008-03-01

To find the distribution level and geographical variations of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. The samples were selected from water utilities in six cities (Daqing, Beijing, Tianjin, Zhengzhou, Changsha and Shenzhen) of China. The water source and technology of water treatment were investigated and the indices including trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in main DBPs and natural organic materials (NOM), pH, chlorine dosage and temperature were determined. In six cities the highest concentrations of TTHMs and THAAs in the distribution system were 92.8 microg/L and 40.0 microg/L, respectively. The concentration of every compound of THMs and HAAs was under the limit of standards for drinking water quality, but the concentrations of 'TTHMs at some samples were higher than the maximum acceptable level (MAC) defined by standards for drinking water quality. The geographical variations of THMs and HAAs in six cities were Zhengzhou > Tianjin > Daqing > Beijing > Shenzhen > Changsha and Changsha > Tianjin > Shenzhen > Daqing > Zhengzhou > Beijing, respectively. The levels of THMs of drinking water at Tianjin and Zhengzhou were higher than the others and the levels of HAAs of drinking water at Changsha, Tianjin and Shenzhen were higher than the others. The seasonal variations of both groups of THMs and HAAs were high in summer and low in winter. The pollution level of DBPs in drinking water from Chinese six cities were low. The concentration of DBPs related to seasonal. THMs distributed mainly to the North and HAAs distributed mainly to the South.

Observations of Drinking Water Access in School Food Service Areas Before Implementation of Federal and State School Water Policy, California, 2011

PubMed Central

Chandran, Kumar; Hampton, Karla E.; Hecht, Kenneth; Grumbach, Jacob M.; Kimura, Amanda T.; Braff-Guajardo, Ellen; Brindis, Claire D.

2012-01-01

Introduction Recent legislation requires schools to provide free drinking water in food service areas (FSAs). Our objective was to describe access to water at baseline and student water intake in school FSAs and to examine barriers to and strategies for implementation of drinking water requirements. Methods We randomly sampled 24 California Bay Area public schools. We interviewed 1 administrator per school to assess knowledge of water legislation and barriers to and ideas for policy implementation. We observed water access and students’ intake of free water in school FSAs. Wellness policies were examined for language about water in FSAs. Results Fourteen of 24 schools offered free water in FSAs; 10 offered water via fountains, and 4 provided water through a nonfountain source. Four percent of students drank free water at lunch; intake at elementary schools (11%) was higher than at middle or junior high schools (6%) and high schools (1%). In secondary schools when water was provided by a nonfountain source, the percentage of students who drank free water doubled. Barriers to implementation of water requirements included lack of knowledge of legislation, cost, and other pressing academic concerns. No wellness policies included language about water in FSAs. Conclusion Approximately half of schools offered free water in FSAs before implementation of drinking water requirements, and most met requirements through a fountain. Only 1 in 25 students drank free water in FSAs. Although schools can meet regulations through installation of fountains, more appealing water delivery systems may be necessary to increase students’ water intake at mealtimes. PMID:22765930

Observations of drinking water access in school food service areas before implementation of federal and state school water policy, California, 2011.

PubMed

Patel, Anisha I; Chandran, Kumar; Hampton, Karla E; Hecht, Kenneth; Grumbach, Jacob M; Kimura, Amanda T; Braff-Guajardo, Ellen; Brindis, Claire D

2012-01-01

Recent legislation requires schools to provide free drinking water in food service areas (FSAs). Our objective was to describe access to water at baseline and student water intake in school FSAs and to examine barriers to and strategies for implementation of drinking water requirements. We randomly sampled 24 California Bay Area public schools. We interviewed 1 administrator per school to assess knowledge of water legislation and barriers to and ideas for policy implementation. We observed water access and students' intake of free water in school FSAs. Wellness policies were examined for language about water in FSAs. Fourteen of 24 schools offered free water in FSAs; 10 offered water via fountains, and 4 provided water through a nonfountain source. Four percent of students drank free water at lunch; intake at elementary schools (11%) was higher than at middle or junior high schools (6%) and high schools (1%). In secondary schools when water was provided by a nonfountain source, the percentage of students who drank free water doubled. Barriers to implementation of water requirements included lack of knowledge of legislation, cost, and other pressing academic concerns. No wellness policies included language about water in FSAs. Approximately half of schools offered free water in FSAs before implementation of drinking water requirements, and most met requirements through a fountain. Only 1 in 25 students drank free water in FSAs. Although schools can meet regulations through installation of fountains, more appealing water delivery systems may be necessary to increase students' water intake at mealtimes.

Exposure to Lithium and Cesium Through Drinking Water and Thyroid Function During Pregnancy: A Prospective Cohort Study

PubMed Central

Harari, Florencia; Bottai, Matteo; Casimiro, Esperanza; Palm, Brita

2015-01-01

Background: Impaired thyroid function is a common side effect of lithium medication. Recent data indicate that lithium exposure through drinking water, although providing much lower doses than the medication, may also affect thyroid hormone levels. However, the effects in susceptible groups like pregnant women are not known. Methods: In a population-based mother–child cohort in the Argentinean Andes (n = 194), an area with varying concentrations of lithium in the drinking water, we assessed lithium exposure repeatedly during pregnancy by measuring the concentrations in blood using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The markers of thyroid function included thyrotropin (TSH), free/total thyroxine (fT4/T4), free/total triiodothyronine (fT3/T3), thyroglobulin, and transthyretin in serum, sampled at the same time. Multiple potential confounders, including exposure to arsenic, cesium, and boron (elevated in water) as well as selenium and iodine (essential for thyroid function) were considered. Results: The lithium concentrations in blood [median 25 μg/L (0.0036 mmol/L); range 1.9–145 μg/L (0.000027–0.021 mmol/L)] correlated significantly with those in urine and drinking water (rs = 0.84, p < 0.001, and rs = 0.40, p < 0.001, respectively). Using linear quantile regression models, we found a positive association between blood lithium (log2 transformed) and TSH concentrations, particularly in the lowest percentiles of TSH (B = 0.20 mIU/L, [95% confidence interval 0.048–0.35] at the fifth percentile). We also found inverse associations of blood lithium with transthyretin, particularly at the highest percentiles, as well as with fT3 and T3, with less obvious variation across percentiles. Unexpectedly, blood cesium concentrations (median 111 μg/L, range 2.5–711 μg/L) were also inversely associated with fT3 and T3, particularly at the highest T3 percentiles, but not with TSH or transthyretin. Arsenic and boron exposure (also through drinking water) did not show any associations with the thyroid parameters. Conclusions: The study supports previous findings that lithium exposure through drinking water may impair thyroid function. The results regarding cesium exposure through drinking water are new. During pregnancy, impaired thyroid function may be detrimental for fetal development. The findings reinforce the need for better control of drinking water, including bottled water, as well as a health-based guideline value. PMID:26332132

Bee guide to complying with the Safe Drinking Water Act. Final report

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Garland, J.G.; Acker, A.M.

This report provides current information on the Safe Drinking Water Act and recent amendments. The report describes the evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act and the responsibilities of base personnel involved in compliance with the Act. It also describes the monitoring requirements, analytical requirements, best available technology for controlling contaminants, and public notification requirements for regulated contaminants. The appendixes include proposed contaminants and state water quality agencies. Each Air Force public water distribution system (PWDS) must comply with the SDWA, and the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs). In the United States and its territories, the provisions of themore » SDWA and the NPDWRs are enforced by the states except in the few instances in which the state has not been delegated primary enforcement responsibility (primacy) by the EPA. States that have primacy may establish drinking water regulations, monitoring schedules, and reporting requirements more stringent than, or in addition to, those in the NPDWRs. Air Force public water systems in these states are required to comply with these additional requirements as well as federal enforcement actions as carried out by the EPA Regional Office.« less

Effect of long-term exposure to fluoride in drinking water on risks of bone fractures.

PubMed

Li, Y; Liang, C; Slemenda, C W; Ji, R; Sun, S; Cao, J; Emsley, C L; Ma, F; Wu, Y; Ying, P; Zhang, Y; Gao, S; Zhang, W; Katz, B P; Niu, S; Cao, S; Johnston, C C

2001-05-01

Findings on the risk of bone fractures associated with long-term fluoride exposure from drinking water have been contradictory. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of bone fracture, including hip fracture, in six Chinese populations with water fluoride concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 7.97 parts per million (ppm). A total of 8266 male and female subjects > or =50 years of age were enrolled. Parameters evaluated included fluoride exposure, prevalence of bone fractures, demographics, medical history, physical activity, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption. The results confirmed that drinking water was the only major source of fluoride exposure in the study populations. A U-shaped pattern was detected for the relationship between the prevalence of bone fracture and water fluoride level. The prevalence of overall bone fracture was lowest in the population of 1.00-1.06 ppm fluoride in drinking water, which was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of the groups exposed to water fluoride levels > or =4.32 and < or =0.34 ppm. The prevalence of hip fractures was highest in the group with the highest water fluoride (4.32-7.97 ppm). The value is significantly higher than the population with 1.00-1.06 ppm water fluoride, which had the lowest prevalence rate. It is concluded that long-term fluoride exposure from drinking water containing > or =4.32 ppm increases the risk of overall fractures as well as hip fractures. Water fluoride levels at 1.00-1.06 ppm decrease the risk of overall fractures relative to negligible fluoride in water; however, there does not appear to be similar protective benefits for the risk of hip fractures.

[Safe drinking water supply to the Vologda Region's population using risk assessment methodology].

PubMed

Kuznetsova, I A; Figurina, T Ia; Shadrina, S Iu

2011-01-01

To supply the population with qualitative potable water is a priority problem in the provision of sanitary-and-epidemiologic well-being and in the prevention of disease in the Vologda Region. The monitoring of the results of laboratory control over the quality of drinking-water and the assessment of health risk enabled a package of measures to be proposed to optimize the conditions of drinking water supply in the Vologda Region. The risk assessment technology used by a state agency for sanitary-and-epidemiological surveillance makes it possible to substantiate a system of actions to organize household water use and to include scientifically grounded proposals into the developed regional and local programs.

Community Analysis and Recovery of Phenol-degrading Bacteria from Drinking Water Biofilters

PubMed Central

Gu, Qihui; Wu, Qingping; Zhang, Jumei; Guo, Weipeng; Wu, Huiqing; Sun, Ming

2016-01-01

Phenol is a ubiquitous organic contaminant in drinking water. Biodegradation plays an important role in the elimination of phenol pollution in the environment, but the information about phenol removal by drinking water biofilters is still lacking. Herein, we study an acclimated bacterial community that can degrade over 80% of 300 mg/L phenol within 3 days. PCR detection of genotypes involved in bacterial phenol degradation revealed that the degradation pathways contained the initial oxidative attack by phenol hydroxylase, and subsequent ring fission by catechol 1,2-dioxygenase. Based on the PCR denatured gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) profiles of bacteria from biological activated carbon (BAC), the predominant bacteria in drinking water biofilters including Delftia sp., Achromobacter sp., and Agrobacterium sp., which together comprised up to 50% of the total microorganisms. In addition, a shift in bacterial community structure was observed during phenol biodegradation. Furthermore, the most effective phenol-degrading strain DW-1 that correspond to the main band in denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) profile was isolated and identified as Acinetobacter sp., according to phylogenetic analyses of the 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequences. The strain DW-1 also produced the most important enzyme, phenol hydroxylase, and it also exhibited a good ability to degrade phenol when immobilized on granular active carbon (GAC). This study indicates that the enrichment culture has great potential application for treatment of phenol-polluted drinking water sources, and the indigenous phenol-degrading microorganism could recover from drinking water biofilters as an efficient resource for phenol removal. Therefore, the aim of this study is to draw attention to recover native phenol-degrading bacteria from drinking water biofilters, and use these native microorganisms as phenolic water remediation in drinking water sources. PMID:27148185

Community Analysis and Recovery of Phenol-degrading Bacteria from Drinking Water Biofilters.

PubMed

Gu, Qihui; Wu, Qingping; Zhang, Jumei; Guo, Weipeng; Wu, Huiqing; Sun, Ming

2016-01-01

Phenol is a ubiquitous organic contaminant in drinking water. Biodegradation plays an important role in the elimination of phenol pollution in the environment, but the information about phenol removal by drinking water biofilters is still lacking. Herein, we study an acclimated bacterial community that can degrade over 80% of 300 mg/L phenol within 3 days. PCR detection of genotypes involved in bacterial phenol degradation revealed that the degradation pathways contained the initial oxidative attack by phenol hydroxylase, and subsequent ring fission by catechol 1,2-dioxygenase. Based on the PCR denatured gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) profiles of bacteria from biological activated carbon (BAC), the predominant bacteria in drinking water biofilters including Delftia sp., Achromobacter sp., and Agrobacterium sp., which together comprised up to 50% of the total microorganisms. In addition, a shift in bacterial community structure was observed during phenol biodegradation. Furthermore, the most effective phenol-degrading strain DW-1 that correspond to the main band in denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) profile was isolated and identified as Acinetobacter sp., according to phylogenetic analyses of the 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequences. The strain DW-1 also produced the most important enzyme, phenol hydroxylase, and it also exhibited a good ability to degrade phenol when immobilized on granular active carbon (GAC). This study indicates that the enrichment culture has great potential application for treatment of phenol-polluted drinking water sources, and the indigenous phenol-degrading microorganism could recover from drinking water biofilters as an efficient resource for phenol removal. Therefore, the aim of this study is to draw attention to recover native phenol-degrading bacteria from drinking water biofilters, and use these native microorganisms as phenolic water remediation in drinking water sources.

Drinking water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness in Atlanta, 1993-2004.

PubMed

Tinker, Sarah C; Moe, Christine L; Klein, Mitchel; Flanders, W Dana; Uber, Jim; Amirtharajah, Appiah; Singer, Philip; Tolbert, Paige E

2010-01-01

The extent to which drinking water turbidity measurements indicate the risk of gastrointestinal illness is not well understood. Despite major advances in drinking water treatment and delivery, infectious disease can still be transmitted through drinking water in the United States, and it is important to have reliable indicators of microbial water quality to inform public health decisions. The objective of our study was to assess the relationship between gastrointestinal illness, quantified through emergency department visits, and drinking water quality, quantified as raw water and filtered water turbidity measured at the treatment plant. We examined the relationship between turbidity levels of raw and filtered surface water measured at eight major drinking water treatment plants in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia, and over 240,000 emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness during 1993-2004 among the population served by these plants. We fit Poisson time-series statistical regression models that included turbidity in a 21-day distributed lag and that controlled for meteorological factors and long-term time trends. For filtered water turbidity, the results were consistent with no association with emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. We observed a modest association between raw water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. Our results suggest that source water quality may contribute modestly to endemic gastrointestinal illness in the study area. The association between turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness was only observed when raw water turbidity was considered; filtered water turbidity may not serve as a reliable indicator of modest pathogen risk at all treatment plants.

OCCURRENCE AND TOXICITY OF IODO-ACID DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo...

ASSESSING EXPOSURE IN EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES TO DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER: REPORT FROM AN INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP

EPA Science Inventory

The inability to accurately assess exposure has been one of the major shortcomings of epidemiologic studies of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. A number of contributing factors include: (1) limited information on the identity, occurrence, toxicity and pharmacok...

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

40 CFR 270.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... milestone events) leading to compliance with the Act and regulations. SDWA means the Safe Drinking Water Act... hazardous waste so as to neutralize such wastes, or so as to recover energy or material resources from the... Underground Injection Control Program under part C of the Safe Drinking Water Act, including an approved...

40 CFR 270.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... milestone events) leading to compliance with the Act and regulations. SDWA means the Safe Drinking Water Act... hazardous waste so as to neutralize such wastes, or so as to recover energy or material resources from the... Underground Injection Control Program under part C of the Safe Drinking Water Act, including an approved...

40 CFR 270.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... milestone events) leading to compliance with the Act and regulations. SDWA means the Safe Drinking Water Act... hazardous waste so as to neutralize such wastes, or so as to recover energy or material resources from the... Underground Injection Control Program under part C of the Safe Drinking Water Act, including an approved...

Warning: Your School May Be Hazardous to Your Health.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Gursky, Daniel

1991-01-01

Many teachers unknowingly breathe air and drink water with low levels of harmful material. Exposure over the years may present significant health risks. This article examines the problems of indoor air pollution, pesticides, asbestos, lead in drinking water, and radon. Each section includes sources for further information. (SM)

Solid-Phase Extraction and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Nitrosamines in Treated Drinking Water and Wastewater

EPA Science Inventory

N-Nitrosamines, including N-dimethylnitrosamine (NDMA), were identified as chlorination byproducts in drinking water in 1989. Nitrosamines are known rodent carcinogens and probable human carcinogens, so that they have been considered disinfection byproducts (DBPs) of public healt...

OCCURRENCE AND TOXICITY OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DBPS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo- prope...

Contingency plan to provide safe drinking water for the city of Milan, Tennessee

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Talbot, J.J.; Brew, P.

1994-12-31

The city of Milan, in western Tennessee, supplies drinking water to approximately 4,000 customers. Environmental investigations conducted by the US Army have detected low concentrations of RDX, a compound used in the manufacture of explosives, in two of the three city water supply wells. The RDX is traceable to the Milan Army Ammunition Plant nearby. The levels of RDX are being monitored and current trends indicate that levels in the wells will exceed the EPA Health Advisory Limits in the near term. In order to ensure an uninterrupted supply of acceptable quality drinking water for the city residents, the Armymore » prepared and is implementing a Contingency Plan. The plan evaluated remedial alternatives to be implemented once a trigger level of RDX is reached, including institutional controls, installation of an RDX treatment system for the water supply system, and construction of a new well field. Institutional controls include: shutting down existing wells; continued monitoring; and promulgation of ground water ordinances. Treatment technologies evaluated include: ultraviolet light and hydrogen peroxide; or removal using granular activated carbon.« less

The role of groundwater governance in emergencies during different phases of natural disasters

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Vrba, Jaroslav

2016-03-01

The establishment of water governance in emergency situations supports timely and effective reaction with regard to the risk and impact of natural disasters on drinking-water supplies and populations. Under such governance, emergency activities of governmental authorities, rescue and aid teams, water stakeholders, local communities and individuals are coordinated with the objective to prevent and/or mitigate disaster impact on water supplies, to reduce human suffering due to drinking-water failure during and in the post-disaster period, and to manage drinking-water services in emergency situations in an equitable manner. The availability of low-vulnerability groundwater resources that have been proven safe and protected by geological features, and with long residence time, can make water-related relief and rehabilitation activities during and after an emergency more rapid and effective. Such groundwater resources have to be included in water governance and their exploration must be coordinated with overall management of drinking-water services in emergencies. This paper discusses institutional and technical capacities needed for building effective groundwater governance policy and drinking-water risk and demand management in emergencies. Disaster-risk mitigation plans are described, along with relief measures and post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction activities, which support gradual renewal of drinking-water services on the level prior to the disaster. The role of groundwater governance in emergencies differs in individual phases of disaster (preparedness, warning, impact/relief, rehabilitation). Suggested activities and actions associated with these phases are summarized and analysed, and a mode of their implementation is proposed.

Contaminants and drinking-water sources in 2001; recent findings of the U. S. Geological Survey

USGS Publications Warehouse

Patterson, G.G.; Focazio, M.J.

2000-01-01

As the Nation's principal earth-science agency, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) studies numerous issues related to contamination of drinking-water sources. The work includes monitoring to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of contaminants; research to determine sources, transport, transformations, and fate of contaminants, and assessments of vulnerability. Much of the work is conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and other Federal, State, Tribal, and local governments, to help provide a scientific basis for resource management and regulation. Examples of recent results are presented for two broad categories of drinking-water projects: occurrence studies, and source-water assessments.

Developing a national framework for safe drinking water--case study from Iceland.

PubMed

Gunnarsdottir, Maria J; Gardarsson, Sigurdur M; Bartram, Jamie

2015-03-01

Safe drinking water is one of the fundaments of society and experience has shown that a holistic national framework is needed for its effective provision. A national framework should include legal requirements on water protection, surveillance on drinking water quality and performance of the water supply system, and systematic preventive management. Iceland has implemented these requirements into legislation. This case study analyzes the success and challenges encountered in implementing the legislation and provide recommendations on the main shortcomings identified through the Icelandic experience. The results of the analysis show that the national framework for safe drinking water is mostly in place in Iceland. The shortcomings include the need for both improved guidance and control by the central government; and for improved surveillance of the water supply system and implementation of the water safety plan by the Local Competent Authorities. Communication to the public and between stakeholders is also insufficient. There is also a deficiency in the national framework regarding small water supply systems that needs to be addressed. Other elements are largely in place or on track. Most of the lessons learned are transferable to other European countries where the legal system around water safety is built on a common foundation from EU directives. The lessons can also provide valuable insights into how to develop a national framework elsewhere. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

[Modern problems of maintenance of hygienic safety of drinking water consumption at the regional level].

PubMed

Tulakin, A V; Tsyplakova, G V; Ampleeva, G P; Kozyreva, O N; Pivneva, O S; Trukhina, G M

Problems of hygienic reliability of the drinking water use in regions of the Russian Federation are observed in the article. The optimization of the water use was shown must be based on the bearing in mind of regional peculiarities of the shaping of water quality of groundwater and surface sources of the water use, taking into account of the effectiveness of regional water protection programs, programs for water treatment, coordination of the activity of economic entities and oversight bodies in the management of water quality on the basis of socio-hygienic monitoring. Regional problems requiring hygienic justification and accounting, include such issues as complex hydrological, hydrogeological, climatic and geographical conditions, pronouncement of the severity of anthropogenic pollution of sources of water supply, natural conditions of the shaping of water quality, efficiency of the water treatment. There is need in the improvement of the problems of the water quality monitoring, including with the use of computer technology, which allows to realize regional hygienic monitoring and spatial-temporal analysis of the water quality, to model the water quality management, to predict conditions of the water use by population in regions taking into account peculiarities of the current health situation. In the article there is shown the practicability of the so-called complex concept of multiple barriers suggesting the combined use of chemical oxidation and physical methods of the preparation of drinking water. It is required the further development of legislation for the protection of water bodies from pollution with the bigging up the status of sanitary protection zones; timely revision of the regulatory framework, establishing sanitary-epidemiological requirements to potable water and drinking water supply. The problem of the provision of the population with safe drinking water requires complex solution within the framework of the implementation of target programs adopted at the Federal and regional levels.

Household's willingness to pay for arsenic safe drinking water in Bangladesh.

PubMed

Khan, Nasreen Islam; Brouwer, Roy; Yang, Hong

2014-10-01

This study examines willingness to pay (WTP) in Bangladesh for arsenic (As) safe drinking water across different As-risk zones, applying a double bound discrete choice value elicitation approach. The study aims to provide a robust estimate of the benefits of As safe drinking water supply, which is compared to the results from a similar study published almost 10 years ago using a single bound estimation procedure. Tests show that the double bound valuation design does not suffer from anchoring or incentive incompatibility effects. Health risk awareness levels are high and households are willing to pay on average about 5 percent of their disposable average annual household income for As safe drinking water. Important factors influencing WTP include the bid amount to construct communal deep tubewell for As safe water supply, the risk zone where respondents live, household income, water consumption, awareness of water source contamination, whether household members are affected by As contamination, and whether they already take mitigation measures. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessing the Association between Thermotolerant Coliforms in Drinking Water and Diarrhea: An Analysis of Individual-Level Data from Multiple Studies.

PubMed

Hodge, James; Chang, Howard H; Boisson, Sophie; Collin, Simon M; Peletz, Rachel; Clasen, Thomas

2016-10-01

Fecally contaminated drinking water is believed to be a major contributor to the global burden of diarrheal disease and a leading cause of mortality among young children. However, recent systematic reviews and results from blinded studies of water quality interventions have raised questions about the risk associated with fecally contaminated water, particularly as measured by thermotolerant coliform (TTC) bacteria, a WHO-approved indicator of drinking water quality. We investigated the association between TTC in drinking water and diarrhea using data from seven previous studies. We obtained individual-level data from available field studies that measured TTC levels in household-drinking water and reported prevalence of diarrhea among household members during the days prior to the visit. The combined data set included diarrhea prevalence for 26,518 individuals and 8,000 water samples from 4,017 households, yielding 45,052 observations. The odds of diarrhea increased for each log10 increase in TTC/100 mL by 18% (95% CI: 11, 26%) for children < 5 years old and 12% (95% CI: 8, 18%) for all ages. For all ages, the odds of diarrhea increased by 21%, 35% and 49% for those whose household water samples were from 11-100, 101-1,000, and > 1,000 TTC/100 mL, respectively compared to < 1 TTC/100 mL. We found no evidence of increased odds of diarrhea with contamination levels below 11 TTC/100 mL, either in adults or children. Our analysis of individual-level data shows increased risk of diarrhea with increasing levels of TTC in drinking water. These results suggest an association between fecally contaminated water and diarrheal disease and provides support for health-based targets for levels of TTC in drinking water and for interventions to improve drinking water quality to prevent diarrhea. Hodge J, Chang HH, Boisson S, Collin SM, Peletz R, Clasen T. 2016. Assessing the association between thermotolerant coliforms in drinking water and diarrhea: an analysis of individual level data from multiple studies. Environ Health Perspect 124:1560-1567; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/EHP156.

Assessing the Association between Thermotolerant Coliforms in Drinking Water and Diarrhea: An Analysis of Individual–Level Data from Multiple Studies

PubMed Central

Hodge, James; Chang, Howard H.; Boisson, Sophie; Collin, Simon M.; Peletz, Rachel; Clasen, Thomas

2016-01-01

Background: Fecally contaminated drinking water is believed to be a major contributor to the global burden of diarrheal disease and a leading cause of mortality among young children. However, recent systematic reviews and results from blinded studies of water quality interventions have raised questions about the risk associated with fecally contaminated water, particularly as measured by thermotolerant coliform (TTC) bacteria, a WHO-approved indicator of drinking water quality. Objectives: We investigated the association between TTC in drinking water and diarrhea using data from seven previous studies. Methods: We obtained individual-level data from available field studies that measured TTC levels in household-drinking water and reported prevalence of diarrhea among household members during the days prior to the visit. Results: The combined data set included diarrhea prevalence for 26,518 individuals and 8,000 water samples from 4,017 households, yielding 45,052 observations. The odds of diarrhea increased for each log10 increase in TTC/100 mL by 18% (95% CI: 11, 26%) for children < 5 years old and 12% (95% CI: 8, 18%) for all ages. For all ages, the odds of diarrhea increased by 21%, 35% and 49% for those whose household water samples were from 11–100, 101–1,000, and > 1,000 TTC/100 mL, respectively compared to < 1 TTC/100 mL. We found no evidence of increased odds of diarrhea with contamination levels below 11 TTC/100 mL, either in adults or children. Conclusions: Our analysis of individual-level data shows increased risk of diarrhea with increasing levels of TTC in drinking water. These results suggest an association between fecally contaminated water and diarrheal disease and provides support for health-based targets for levels of TTC in drinking water and for interventions to improve drinking water quality to prevent diarrhea. Citation: Hodge J, Chang HH, Boisson S, Collin SM, Peletz R, Clasen T. 2016. Assessing the association between thermotolerant coliforms in drinking water and diarrhea: an analysis of individual level data from multiple studies. Environ Health Perspect 124:1560–1567; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/EHP156 PMID:27164618

The microbial quality of drinking water in Manonyane community: Maseru District (Lesotho).

PubMed

Gwimbi, P

2011-09-01

Provision of good quality household drinking water is an important means of improving public health in rural communities especially in Africa; and is the rationale behind protecting drinking water sources and promoting healthy practices at and around such sources. To examine the microbial content of drinking water from different types of drinking water sources in Manonyane community of Lesotho. The community's hygienic practices around the water sources are also assessed to establish their contribution to water quality. Water samples from thirty five water sources comprising 22 springs, 6 open wells, 6 boreholes and 1 open reservoir were assessed. Total coliform and Escherichia coli bacteria were analyzed in water sampled. Results of the tests were compared with the prescribed World Health Organization desirable limits. A household survey and field observations were conducted to assess the hygienic conditions and practices at and around the water sources. Total coliform were detected in 97% and Escherichia coli in 71% of the water samples. The concentration levels of Total coliform and Escherichia coli were above the permissible limits of the World Health Organization drinking water quality guidelines in each case. Protected sources had significantly less number of colony forming units (cfu) per 100 ml of water sample compared to unprotected sources (56% versus 95%, p < 0.05). Similarly in terms of Escherichia coli, protected sources had less counts (7% versus 40%, p < 0.05) compared with those from unprotected sources. Hygiene conditions and practices that seemed to potentially contribute increased total coliform and Escherichia coli counts included non protection of water sources from livestock faeces, laundry practices, and water sources being down slope of pit latrines in some cases. These findings suggest source water protection and good hygiene practices can improve the quality of household drinking water where disinfection is not available. The results also suggest important lines of inquiry and provide support and input for environmental and public health programmes, particularly those related to water and sanitation.

Drinking water: a risk factor for high incidence of esophageal cancer in Anyang, China.

PubMed

Cao, Wenbo; Han, Jianying; Yuan, Yi; Xu, Zhixiang; Yang, Shengli; He, Weixin

2016-06-01

Anyang is known to be a high-incidence area of esophageal cancer (EC) in China. Among a long list of risk factors, the quality of drinking water was evaluated. We have selected 3806 individuals and collected 550 drinking water samples correspondent with this not-matched case-control survey. There are 531 EC patients included based on Population Cancer Registry from 92 townships, of which 3275 controls with long-lived aged over 90 years and free from EC are used as controls in the same regions. Our result suggests that the quality of drinking water is a highly associated risk factor for EC. The residential ecological environment and the quality of water resource positively link with each other. The analysis of water samples also demonstrated that the concentrations of methyl ethylamine, morpholine, N-methylbenzylamine, nitrate and chloride in water from springs and rivers are higher than those in well and tap water (P = 0.001). Micronuclei formation tests show that well water and tap water in these regions have no mutagenicity.

Chlorine dioxide as a post-disinfectant for Dutch drinking water.

PubMed

Wondergem, E; van Dijk-Looijaard, A M

1991-02-01

Chlorine dioxide has some important advantages over chlorine with respect to water quality (no formation of trihalomethanes, no impairment of taste and no odor) and stability when used for oxidation/disinfection of drinking water. In this paper, results are presented of experiments into the consumption and reaction kinetics of chlorine dioxide in a number of (drinking) waters in The Netherlands. It was found that chlorine dioxide consumption is related to the dissolved oxygen content (DOC) of the water and the reaction time. Water samples from a plant that applied ozonation and activated carbon filtration had a very low chlorine dioxide consumption. Other water quality parameters, including pH and CO3(2-), did not have any influence on consumption. The temporary advised Dutch guidelines of 0.2 mg l-1 (dosage) is sufficient for activated carbon treated water. For other Dutch drinking waters, however, none of the 0.2 mg l-1 chlorine dioxide remained after a reaction time of 10 min, as was also found for the water of Dutch pumping stations where chlorine dioxide is at present used for disinfection.

Beverage consumption in an Alaska Native village: a mixed-methods study of behaviour, attitudes and access.

PubMed

Elwan, Deena; de Schweinitz, Peter; Wojcicki, Janet M

2016-01-01

American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/AN) have the highest prevalence of obesity for any racial/ethnic group. Previous studies examining risk factors for obesity have identified excessive sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) and inadequate water consumption as major risk factors for this population group. The historical scarcity of water in rural Alaska may explain consumption patterns including reliance on SSBs and other packaged drinks. Our study was designed to assess SSB, water and other beverage consumption and attitudes towards consumption in Alaska Native children and adults residing in rural Alaska. During summer 2014, 2 focus groups were conducted employing community members in a small rural village more than 200 air miles west of Fairbanks, Alaska. Interviews were completed with shop owners, Early Head Start and Head Start program instructors (n=7). SSB and total beverage intakes were measured using a modified version of the BEVQ-15, (n=69). High rates of SSB consumption (defined as sweetened juice beverages, soda, sweet tea, energy drink or sports drinks) and low rates of water consumption were reported for all age groups in the village. All adolescents and 81% of children reported drinking SSBs at least once per week in the last month, and 48% of adolescents and 29% of younger children reported daily consumption. Fifty-two per cent of adults reported consuming SSBs at least once per week and 20% reported daily consumption. Twenty-five per cent of adolescents reported never drinking water in the past month, and 19% of younger children and 21% of adults did not consume water daily. Alaska Native children and adults living in the Interior Alaska consume high amounts of SSBs including energy drinks and insufficient amounts of water. Interventions targeting beverage consumption are urgently needed for the Alaska Native population in rural Alaska.

College Cafeteria Signage Increases Water Intake but Water Position on the Soda Dispenser Encourages More Soda Consumption.

PubMed

Montuclard, Astrid Linn; Park-Mroch, Jennifer; O'Shea, Amy M J; Wansink, Brian; Irvin, Jill; Laroche, Helena H

2017-10-01

To evaluate the effects of improved water location visibility and water dispenser position on the soda dispenser on undergraduate students' beverage choices. Two focus groups with pilot intervention surveys before and after, adding a small sign above the soda dispensers' water button for 6 weeks in a large US university's all-you-can-eat, prepaid dining hall (measured with chi-square tests and logistic and ordinal logistic regression). Focus groups included 15 students. Survey participants included 357 students before and 301 after the intervention. After the intervention, more students reported ever having drunk water with the meal (66.4% to 77.0%; P = .003) and water consumption frequency increased (P = .005). Postintervention, the odds of drinking water increased by 1.57. Preference for other drinks was the main reason for not drinking water. A total of 59% of students had ever changed their preference from water to soda. The clear indication of the water's location increased students' reported water consumption. Further investigation is needed into how a non-independent water dispenser influences students' beverage choice. Clearly labeled, independent water dispensers are recommended. Copyright © 2017 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. All rights reserved.

Microbiological Contamination of Drinking Water Associated with Subsequent Child Diarrhea.

PubMed

Luby, Stephen P; Halder, Amal K; Huda, Tarique Md; Unicomb, Leanne; Islam, M Sirajul; Arnold, Benjamin F; Johnston, Richard B

2015-11-01

We used a prospective, longitudinal cohort enrolled as part of a program evaluation to assess the relationship between drinking water microbiological quality and child diarrhea. We included 50 villages across rural Bangladesh. Within each village field-workers enrolled a systematic random sample of 10 households with a child under the age of 3 years. Community monitors visited households monthly and recorded whether children under the age of 5 years had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days. Every 3 months, a research assistant visited the household and requested a water sample from the source or container used to provide drinking water to the child. Laboratory technicians measured the concentration of Escherichia coli in the water samples using membrane filtration. Of drinking water samples, 59% (2,273/3,833) were contaminated with E. coli. Of 12,192 monthly follow-up visits over 2 years, mothers reported that their child had diarrhea in the preceding 2 days in 1,156 (9.5%) visits. In a multivariable general linear model, the log10 of E. coli contamination of the preceding drinking water sample was associated with an increased prevalence of child diarrhea (prevalence ratio = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.23). These data provide further evidence of the health benefits of improved microbiological quality of drinking water. © The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Pressure-assisted electrokinetic injection for on-line enrichment in capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry: a sensitive method for measurement of ten haloacetic acids in drinking water.

PubMed

Zhang, Huijuan; Zhu, Jiping; Aranda-Rodriguez, Rocio; Feng, Yong-Lai

2011-11-07

Haloacetic acids (HAAs) are by-products of the chlorination of drinking water containing natural organic matter and bromide. A simple and sensitive method has been developed for determination of ten HAAs in drinking water. The pressure-assisted electrokinetic injection (PAEKI), an on-line enrichment technique, was employed to introduce the sample into a capillary electrophoresis (CE)-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry system (ESI-MS/MS). HAAs were monitored in selected reaction monitoring mode. With 3 min of PAEKI time, the ten major HAAs (HAA10) in drinking water were enriched up to 20,000-fold into the capillary without compromising resolution. A simple solid phase clean-up method has been developed to eliminate the influence of ionic matrices from drinking water on PAEKI. Under conditions optimized for mass spectrometry, PAEKI and capillary electrophoresis, detection limits defined as three times ratio of signal to noise have been achieved in a range of 0.013-0.12 μg L(-1) for ten HAAs in water sample. The overall recoveries for all ten HAAs in drinking water samples were between 76 and 125%. Six HAAs including monochloro- (MCAA), dichloro- (DCAA), trichloro- (TCAA), monobromo- (MBAA), bromochloro- (BCAA), and bromodichloroacetic acids (BDCAA) were found in tap water samples collected. Crown Copyright © 2011. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Drinking water quality standards and standard tests: Worldwide. (Latest citations from the Food Science and Technology Abstracts database). Published Search

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

1993-06-01

The bibliography contains citations concerning standards and standard tests for water quality in drinking water sources, reservoirs, and distribution systems. Standards from domestic and international sources are presented. Glossaries and vocabularies that concern water quality analysis, testing, and evaluation are included. Standard test methods for individual elements, selected chemicals, sensory properties, radioactivity, and other chemical and physical properties are described. Discussions for proposed standards on new pollutant materials are briefly considered. (Contains a minimum of 203 citations and includes a subject term index and title list.)

User preferences and willingness to pay for safe drinking water: Experimental evidence from rural Tanzania.

PubMed

Burt, Zachary; Njee, Robert M; Mbatia, Yolanda; Msimbe, Veritas; Brown, Joe; Clasen, Thomas F; Malebo, Hamisi M; Ray, Isha

2017-01-01

Almost half of all deaths from drinking microbiologically unsafe water occur in Sub-Saharan Africa. Household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) systems, when consistently used, can provide safer drinking water and improve health. Social marketing to increase adoption and use of HWTS depends both on the prices of and preferences for these systems. This study included 556 households from rural Tanzania across two low-income districts with low-quality water sources. Over 9 months in 2012 and 2013, we experimentally evaluated consumer preferences for six "low-cost" HWTS options, including boiling, through an ordinal ranking protocol. We estimated consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for these options, using a modified auction. We allowed respondents to pay for the durable HWTS systems with cash, chickens or mobile money; a significant minority chose chickens as payment. Overall, our participants favored boiling, the ceramic pot filter and, where water was turbid, PuR™ (a combined flocculant-disinfectant). The revealed WTP for all products was far below retail prices, indicating that significant scale-up may need significant subsidies. Our work will inform programs and policies aimed at scaling up HWTS to improve the health of resource-constrained communities that must rely on poor-quality, and sometimes turbid, drinking water sources. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dental fluorosis in populations from Chiang Mai, Thailand with different fluoride exposures – Paper 1: assessing fluorosis risk, predictors of fluorosis and the potential role of food preparation

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background To determine the severity of dental fluorosis in selected populations in Chiang Mai, Thailand with different exposures to fluoride and to explore possible risk indicators for dental fluorosis. Methods Subjects were male and female lifetime residents aged 8–13 years. For each child the fluoride content of drinking and cooking water samples were assessed. Digital images were taken of the maxillary central incisors for later blind scoring for TF index (10% repeat scores). Interview data explored previous cooking and drinking water use, exposure to fluoride, infant feeding patterns and oral hygiene practices. Results Data from 560 subjects were available for analysis (298 M, 262 F). A weighted kappa of 0.80 was obtained for repeat photographic scores. The prevalence of fluorosis (TF 3+) for subjects consuming drinking and cooking water with a fluoride concentration of <0.9 ppm was 10.2%. For subjects consuming drinking and cooking water >0.9 ppm F the prevalence of fluorosis (TF 3+) rose to 37.3%. Drinking and cooking water at age 3, water used for infant formula and water used for preparing infant food all demonstrated an increase in fluorosis severity with increase in water fluoride level (p < 0.001). The probability estimate for the presentation of aesthetically significant fluorosis was 0.53 for exposure to high fluoride drinking (≥0.9 ppm) and cooking water (≥1.6 ppm). Conclusions The consumption of drinking water with fluoride content >0.9 ppm and use of cooking water with fluoride content >1.6 ppm were associated with an increased risk of aesthetically significant dental fluorosis. Fluoride levels in the current drinking and cooking water sources were strongly correlated with fluorosis severity. Further work is needed to explore fluorosis risk in relation to total fluoride intake from all sources including food preparation. PMID:22720834

Dental fluorosis in populations from Chiang Mai, Thailand with different fluoride exposures - paper 1: assessing fluorosis risk, predictors of fluorosis and the potential role of food preparation.

PubMed

McGrady, Michael G; Ellwood, Roger P; Srisilapanan, Patcharawan; Korwanich, Narumanas; Worthington, Helen V; Pretty, Iain A

2012-06-21

To determine the severity of dental fluorosis in selected populations in Chiang Mai, Thailand with different exposures to fluoride and to explore possible risk indicators for dental fluorosis. Subjects were male and female lifetime residents aged 8-13 years. For each child the fluoride content of drinking and cooking water samples were assessed. Digital images were taken of the maxillary central incisors for later blind scoring for TF index (10% repeat scores). Interview data explored previous cooking and drinking water use, exposure to fluoride, infant feeding patterns and oral hygiene practices. Data from 560 subjects were available for analysis (298 M, 262 F). A weighted kappa of 0.80 was obtained for repeat photographic scores. The prevalence of fluorosis (TF 3+) for subjects consuming drinking and cooking water with a fluoride concentration of <0.9 ppm was 10.2%. For subjects consuming drinking and cooking water >0.9 ppm F the prevalence of fluorosis (TF 3+) rose to 37.3%. Drinking and cooking water at age 3, water used for infant formula and water used for preparing infant food all demonstrated an increase in fluorosis severity with increase in water fluoride level (p < 0.001). The probability estimate for the presentation of aesthetically significant fluorosis was 0.53 for exposure to high fluoride drinking (≥0.9 ppm) and cooking water (≥1.6 ppm). The consumption of drinking water with fluoride content >0.9 ppm and use of cooking water with fluoride content >1.6 ppm were associated with an increased risk of aesthetically significant dental fluorosis. Fluoride levels in the current drinking and cooking water sources were strongly correlated with fluorosis severity. Further work is needed to explore fluorosis risk in relation to total fluoride intake from all sources including food preparation.

Antibiotics in Drinking Water in Shanghai and Their Contribution to Antibiotic Exposure of School Children.

PubMed

Wang, Hexing; Wang, Na; Wang, Bin; Zhao, Qi; Fang, Hong; Fu, Chaowei; Tang, Chuanxi; Jiang, Feng; Zhou, Ying; Chen, Yue; Jiang, Qingwu

2016-03-01

A variety of antibiotics have been found in aquatic environments, but antibiotics in drinking water and their contribution to antibiotic exposure in human are not well-explored. For this, representative drinking water samples and 530 urine samples from schoolchildren were selected in Shanghai, and 21 common antibiotics (five macrolides, two β-lactams, three tetracyclines, four fluoquinolones, four sulfonamides, and three phenicols) were measured in water samples and urines by isotope dilution two-dimensional ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Drinking water included 46 terminal tap water samples from different spots in the distribution system of the city, 45 bottled water samples from 14 common brands, and eight barreled water samples of different brands. Of 21 antibiotics, only florfenicol and thiamphenicol were found in tap water, with the median concentrations of 0.0089 ng/mL and 0.0064 ng/mL, respectively; only florfenicol was found in three bottled water samples from a same brand, with the concentrations ranging from 0.00060 to 0.0010 ng/mL; no antibiotics were found in barreled water. In contrast, besides florfenicol and thiamphenicol, an additional 17 antibiotics were detected in urine samples, and the total daily exposure doses and detection frequencies of florfenicol and thiamphenicol based on urine samples were significantly and substantially higher than their predicted daily exposure doses and detection frequencies from drinking water by Monte Carlo Simulation. These data indicated that drinking water was contaminated by some antibiotics in Shanghai, but played a limited role in antibiotic exposure of children.

Drinking-Water Standards and Regulations. Volume 2. Manual for 1982-88

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Wang, L.K.; Wang, M.H.S.

1988-04-10

The following 11 important documents are compiled for Drinking Water Standards and Regulations: (1) U.S. Environmental Agency Water Programs, National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations; (2) New Jersey Safe Drinking Water Act; (3) Summary of New Jersey Drinking Water Standards; (4) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Safe Drinking Water Act of 1986 Amendments; (5) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Primary Drinking Water Standards; (6) Canadian National Health and Welfare Drinking Water Quality Guidelines--Maximum Acceptable Concentrations; (7) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Filtration and Disinfection Turbidity, Giardia Lamblia, Viruses, Legionella, and Heterotrophic Bacteria; (8) Public Water Supply Manual--Guidemore » to the Safe Drinking Water Program; (9) Public Water Supply Manual--Emergency Response; (10) U.S. EPA Approved Krofta Chemicals; (11) NY-DOH Approved Krofta Chemicals.« less

Fungi from a Groundwater-Fed Drinking Water Supply System in Brazil

PubMed Central

Oliveira, Helena M.B.; Santos, Cledir; Paterson, R. Russell M.; Gusmão, Norma B.; Lima, Nelson

2016-01-01

Filamentous fungi in drinking water distribution systems are known to (a) block water pipes; (b) cause organoleptic biodeterioration; (c) act as pathogens or allergens and (d) cause mycotoxin contamination. Yeasts might also cause problems. This study describes the occurrence of several fungal species in a water distribution system supplied by groundwater in Recife—Pernambuco, Brazil. Water samples were collected from four sampling sites from which fungi were recovered by membrane filtration. The numbers in all sampling sites ranged from 5 to 207 colony forming units (CFU)/100 mL with a mean value of 53 CFU/100 mL. In total, 859 isolates were identified morphologically, with Aspergillus and Penicillium the most representative genera (37% and 25% respectively), followed by Trichoderma and Fusarium (9% each), Curvularia (5%) and finally the species Pestalotiopsis karstenii (2%). Ramichloridium and Leptodontium were isolated and are black yeasts, a group that include emergent pathogens. The drinking water system in Recife may play a role in fungal dissemination, including opportunistic pathogens. PMID:27005653

Fungi from a Groundwater-Fed Drinking Water Supply System in Brazil.

PubMed

Oliveira, Helena M B; Santos, Cledir; Paterson, R Russell M; Gusmão, Norma B; Lima, Nelson

2016-03-09

Filamentous fungi in drinking water distribution systems are known to (a) block water pipes; (b) cause organoleptic biodeterioration; (c) act as pathogens or allergens and (d) cause mycotoxin contamination. Yeasts might also cause problems. This study describes the occurrence of several fungal species in a water distribution system supplied by groundwater in Recife-Pernambuco, Brazil. Water samples were collected from four sampling sites from which fungi were recovered by membrane filtration. The numbers in all sampling sites ranged from 5 to 207 colony forming units (CFU)/100 mL with a mean value of 53 CFU/100 mL. In total, 859 isolates were identified morphologically, with Aspergillus and Penicillium the most representative genera (37% and 25% respectively), followed by Trichoderma and Fusarium (9% each), Curvularia (5%) and finally the species Pestalotiopsis karstenii (2%). Ramichloridium and Leptodontium were isolated and are black yeasts, a group that include emergent pathogens. The drinking water system in Recife may play a role in fungal dissemination, including opportunistic pathogens.

One-year Surveillance of Human Enteric Viruses in Raw and Treated Wastewaters, Downstream River Waters, and Drinking Waters.

PubMed

Iaconelli, M; Muscillo, M; Della Libera, S; Fratini, M; Meucci, L; De Ceglia, M; Giacosa, D; La Rosa, G

2017-03-01

Human enteric viruses are a major cause of waterborne diseases, and can be transmitted by contaminated water of all kinds, including drinking and recreational water. The objectives of the present study were to assess the occurrence of enteric viruses (enterovirus, norovirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A and E virus) in raw and treated wastewaters, in rivers receiving wastewater discharges, and in drinking waters. Wastewater treatment plants' (WWTP) pathogen removal efficiencies by adenovirus quantitative real-time PCR and the presence of infectious enterovirus, by cell culture assays, in treated wastewaters and in surface waters were also evaluated. A total of 90 water samples were collected: raw and treated wastewaters (treated effluents and ultrafiltered water reused for industrial purposes), water from two rivers receiving treated discharges, and drinking water. Nested PCR assays were used for the identification of viral DNA/RNA, followed by direct amplicon sequencing. All raw sewage samples (21/21), 61.9 % of treated wastewater samples (13/21), and 25 % of ultrafiltered water samples (3/12) were contaminated with at least one viral family. Multiple virus families and genera were frequently detected. Mean positive PCRs per sample decreased significantly from raw to treated sewage and to ultrafiltered waters. Moreover, quantitative adenovirus data showed a reduction in excess of 99 % in viral genome copies following wastewater treatment. In surface waters, 78.6 % (22/28) of samples tested positive for one or more viruses by molecular methods, but enterovirus-specific infectivity assays did not reveal infectious particles in these samples. All drinking water samples tested negative for all viruses, demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment in removing viral pathogens from drinking water. Integrated strategies to manage water from all sources are crucial to ensure water quality.

Estimation of the total daily oral intake of NDMA attributable to drinking water.

PubMed

Fristachi, Anthony; Rice, Glenn

2007-09-01

Disinfection with chlorine and chloramine leads to the formation of many disinfection by-products including N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Because NDMA is a probable human carcinogen, public health officials are concerned with its occurrence in drinking water. The goal of this study was to estimate NDMA concentrations from exogenous (i.e., drinking water and food) and endogenous (i.e., formed in the human body) sources, calculate average daily doses for ingestion route exposures and estimate the proportional oral intake (POI) of NDMA attributable to the consumption of drinking water relative to other ingestion sources of NDMA. The POI is predicted to be 0.02% relative to exogenous and endogenous NDMA sources combined. When only exogenous sources are considered, the POI was predicted to be 2.7%. The exclusion of endogenously formed NDMA causes the POI to increase dramatically, reflecting its importance as a potentially major source of exposure and uncertainty in the model. Although concentrations of NDMA in foods are small and human exposure to NDMA from foods is quite low, the contribution from food is predicted to be high relative to that of drinking water. The mean concentration of NDMA in drinking water would need to increase from 2.1 x 10(-3) microg/L to 0.10 microg/L, a 47-fold increase, for the POI to reach 1%, relative to all sources of NDMA considered in our model, suggesting that drinking water consumption is most likely a minor source of NDMA exposure.

A Conceptual Model to be Used for Community-based Drinking-water Improvements

PubMed Central

Ahmed, Mushfique

2006-01-01

A conceptual model that can be applied to improve community-based drinking-water in crisis-type situations has been developed from the original general science and technology/development bridging concept and from a case study in Northwest Bangladesh. The main feature of this model is the strengthened role of communities in identifying and implementing appropriate drinking-water improvements with facilitation by multi-disciplinary collaborative regional agency networks. These combined representative community/regional agency networks make decisions and take actions that involve environmental and health data, related capacity factors, and appropriateness of drinking-water improvements. They also progressively link regional decisions and actions together, expanding them nationally and preferably within a sustainable national policy-umbrella. This use of the model reflects stronger community control and input with more appropriate solutions to such drinking-water crisis situations and minimization of risk from potentially-inappropriate ‘externally-imposed’ processes. The application here is not intended as a generic or complete poverty-alleviation strategy by itself but as a crisis-solving intervention, complementary to existing and developing sustainable national policies and to introduce how key principles and concepts can relate in the wider context. In terms of the Bangladesh arsenic crisis, this translates into community/regional networks in geographic regions making assessments on the appropriateness of their drinking-water configuration. Preferred improvement options are decided and acted upon in a technological framework. Options include: pond-sand filters, rainwater harvesting, dugwell, deep-protected tubewell, and shallow tubewell with treatment devices. Bedding in the regional drinking-water improvement configuration protocols then occurs. This involves establishing ongoing representative monitoring and screening, clear delineation of arsenic-contaminated wells with inter-regional linking, and national expansion within national drinking-water policy frameworks. PMID:17366766

Occurrence and potential human health risks of semi-volatile organic compounds in drinking water from cities along the Chinese coastland of the Yellow Sea.

PubMed

Li, Zekai; Chang, Fangyu; Shi, Peng; Chen, Xun; Yang, Feng; Zhou, Qing; Pan, Yang; Li, Aimin

2018-09-01

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in drinking water have been considered a severe threat to public health worldwide. However, SVOC contamination and the associated human health risks of the drinking water from cities along tributaries of the Yangtze River and Huaihe River in China have been seldom reported. Here, we focused on the occurrence and distribution of a series of SVOCs, mainly including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and phthalate esters (PAEs), in drinking water of this region. In brief, a total of 31 SVOCs were detectable in all of the drinking water samples, and the total concentrations ranged from 0.92 ng/L to 266.16 ng/L in March and from 24.82 ng/L to 643.93 ng/L in August, with the highest concentrations in Dongtai (DT) and Xinghua (XH), respectively. Spatial and temporal differences of the SVOCs were also observed in drinking water samples, demonstrating the linkage between pollutant profiles and geographical locations, as well as exogenous wastewater discharge. Moreover, PAEs occupied 79.17-100.00% of the total concentrations of SVOCs in drinking water samples collected from the tributaries of the Yangtze River in March, while OCPs were the predominant SVOCs in most of drinking water samples from the tributaries of the Huaihe River. The human health assessment indicated that SVOCs posed negligible non-carcinogenic risks, but residents living in DT, Dafeng (DF), Chengdong (CD), Guanyun (GY) and Lianyungang (LY) may suffer carcinogenic health risks, which could be mainly induced by benzene hexachloride and heptachlor in August. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A conceptual model to be used for community-based drinking-water improvements.

PubMed

Anstiss, Richard G; Ahmed, Mushfique

2006-09-01

A conceptual model that can be applied to improve community-based drinking-water in crisis-type situations has been developed from the original general science and technology/development bridging concept and from a case study in Northwest Bangladesh. The main feature of this model is the strengthened role of communities in identifying and implementing appropriate drinking-water improvements with facilitation by multi-disciplinary collaborative regional agency networks. These combined representative community/regional agency networks make decisions and take actions that involve environmental and health data, related capacity factors, and appropriateness of drinking-water improvements. They also progressively link regional decisions and actions together, expanding them nationally and preferably within a sustainable national policy-umbrella. This use of the model reflects stronger community control and input with more appropriate solutions to such drinking-water crisis situations and minimization of risk from potentially-inappropriate 'externally-imposed' processes. The application here is not intended as a generic or complete poverty-alleviation strategy by itself but as a crisis-solving intervention, complementary to existing and developing sustainable national policies and to introduce how key principles and concepts can relate in the wider context. In terms of the Bangladesh arsenic crisis, this translates into community/regional networks in geographic regions making assessments on the appropriateness of their drinking-water configuration. Preferred improvement options are decided and acted upon in a technological framework. Options include: pond-sand filters, rainwater harvesting, dugwell, deep-protected tubewell, and shallow tubewell with treatment devices. Bedding in the regional drinking-water improvement configuration protocols then occurs. This involves establishing ongoing representative monitoring and screening, clear delineation of arsenic-contaminated wells with inter-regional linking, and national expansion within national drinking-water policy frameworks.

A critical review on iodine presence in drinking water access at the Saharawi refugee camps (Tindouf, Algeria).

PubMed

Pichel, N; Vivar, M

2017-07-01

Iodine content in drinking water at the Saharawi refugee camps was analysed to assess the controversy in the origin of the prevalence of goitre among this population. A review on the iodine presence in drinking water reported in the literature was conducted, along with international standards and guidelines for iodine intake and iodine concentration in drinking water were also consulted. Chinese legislation was taken as the reference standard to evaluate the iodine concentration in water as adequate (10-150μg/L) or not (high iodine >150μg/L and iodine excess goitre >300μg/L). Water sampling was conducted in 2015 and 2016 at the Saharawi camps (El Aiun, Awserd, Smara, Boujador and Dakhla) and at the institutional capital of Rabouni. The water supply in the camps is organized in three zones: El Aiun and Awserd where each 'wilaya' receives treated water 20days and raw water another 20days; Smara, Rabouni and Boujador receiving treated water continuously and Dakhla receiving raw water continuously. Results show that Smara, Rabouni and Boujador have access to drinking water with adequate iodine levels, as it occurs in Dakhla where raw water meets the Chinese standard, however in El Aiun and Awserd all population should have access to treated water given the current quality of the raw water supply. External supplies of water and animal milk could be also contributing to the high iodine intake. In conclusion, the contribution of drinking water as the main source of iodine to the urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and goitre prevalence among the Saharawi refugee population is not clear. Further studies should be conducted to assess the iodine content among all the nutritional sources of the population with a detailed study on the daily intake of these foods and drinks, including UIC and goitre prevalence studies. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

A Waterborne Outbreak and Detection of Cryptosporidium Oocysts in Drinking Water of an Older High-Rise Apartment Complex in Seoul

PubMed Central

Yang, Jin-Young; Lee, Eun-Sook; Kim, Se-Chul; Cha, So-Yang; Kim, Sung-Tek; Lee, Man-Ho; Han, Sun-Hee; Park, Young-Sang

2013-01-01

From May to June 2012, a waterborne outbreak of 124 cases of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the plumbing systems of an older high-rise apartment complex in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The residents of this apartment complex had symptoms of watery diarrhea and vomiting. Tap water samples in the apartment complex and its adjacent buildings were collected and tested for 57 parameters under the Korean Drinking Water Standards and for additional 11 microbiological parameters. The microbiological parameters included total colony counts, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus, fecal streptococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, total culturable viruses, and Norovirus. While the tap water samples of the adjacent buildings complied with the Korean Drinking Water Standards for all parameters, fecal bacteria and Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in the tap water samples of the outbreak apartment complex. It turned out that the agent of the disease was Cryptosporidium parvum. The drinking water was polluted with sewage from a septic tank in the apartment complex. To remove C. parvum oocysts, we conducted physical processes of cleaning the water storage tanks, flushing the indoor pipes, and replacing old pipes with new ones. Finally we restored the clean drinking water to the apartment complex after identification of no oocysts. PMID:24039290

A waterborne outbreak and detection of cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water of an older high-rise apartment complex in seoul.

PubMed

Cho, Eun-Joo; Yang, Jin-Young; Lee, Eun-Sook; Kim, Se-Chul; Cha, So-Yang; Kim, Sung-Tek; Lee, Man-Ho; Han, Sun-Hee; Park, Young-Sang

2013-08-01

From May to June 2012, a waterborne outbreak of 124 cases of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the plumbing systems of an older high-rise apartment complex in Seoul, Republic of Korea. The residents of this apartment complex had symptoms of watery diarrhea and vomiting. Tap water samples in the apartment complex and its adjacent buildings were collected and tested for 57 parameters under the Korean Drinking Water Standards and for additional 11 microbiological parameters. The microbiological parameters included total colony counts, Clostridium perfringens, Enterococcus, fecal streptococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, total culturable viruses, and Norovirus. While the tap water samples of the adjacent buildings complied with the Korean Drinking Water Standards for all parameters, fecal bacteria and Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in the tap water samples of the outbreak apartment complex. It turned out that the agent of the disease was Cryptosporidium parvum. The drinking water was polluted with sewage from a septic tank in the apartment complex. To remove C. parvum oocysts, we conducted physical processes of cleaning the water storage tanks, flushing the indoor pipes, and replacing old pipes with new ones. Finally we restored the clean drinking water to the apartment complex after identification of no oocysts.

Assessment of the Unintentional Reuse of Municipal Wastewater

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Okasaki, S.; Fono, L.; Sedlak, D. L.; Dracup, J. A.

2002-12-01

Many surface waters that receive wastewater effluent also serve as source waters for drinking water treatment plants. Recent research has shown that a number of previously undiscovered wastewater-derived contaminants are present in these surface waters, including pharmaceuticals and human hormones, several of which are suspected carcinogens or endocrine disrupters and are, as of yet, unregulated through drinking water standards. This research has been designed to determine the extent of contamination of specific wastewater-derived contaminants in surface water bodies that both receive wastewater effluent and serve as a source of drinking water to a sizeable population. We are testing the hypothesis that surface water supplies during low flow are potentially of worse quality than carefully monitored reclaimed water. The first phase of our research involves: (1) the selection of sites for study; (2) a hydrologic analysis of the selected sites to determine average flow of the source water during median- and low-flow conditions; and (3) the development and testing of chemical analyses, including both conservative and reactive tracers that have been studied in microcosms and wetlands for attenuation rates. The second phase involves the development and use of the hydrologic model QUAL2E to simulate each of the selected watersheds in order to estimate potential stream water quality impairments at the drinking water intake at each site. The results of the model are verified with field sampling at designated locations at each site. We expect to identify several critical river basins where surface water at the drinking water intake contains sufficient wastewater-derived contaminants to warrant concern. If wastewater-derived contaminants are detected, we will estimate the average annual exposure of consumers of this water. We will compare these expected and actual concentrations with typical constituent concentrations found in wastewater that has undergone advanced treatment for reclamation. We may demonstrate that the surface water supplies during low flow are actually of worse quality than carefully monitored reclaimed water.

Intrauterine growth retardation in Iowa communities with herbicide-contaminated drinking water supplies

USGS Publications Warehouse

Munger, R.; Isacson, P.; Hu, S.; Burns, T.; Hanson, J.; Lynch, C.F.; Cherryholmes, K.; Van Dorpe, P.; Hausler, W.J.

1997-01-01

In a statewide survey of 856 Iowa municipal drinking water supplies in 1986-1987 the Rathbun rural water system was found to contain elevated levels of triazine herbicides. Rates of low birth weight, prematurity, and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) in live singleton births during the period 1984-1990 by women living in 13 communities served by the Rathbun water system were compared to other communities of similar size in the same Iowa counties. The Rathbun communities had a greater risk of IUGR than southern Iowa communities with other surface sources of drinking water (relative risk = 1.8; 95% CI = 1.3, 2.7). Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that levels of the herbicides atrazine, metolachlor, and cyanazine were each significant predictors of community IUGR rates in southern Iowa after controlling for several potentially confounding factors including maternal smoking and socioeconomic variables. The association with IUGR was strongest for atrazine, but all three herbicides were intercorrelated and the independent contributions of each to IUGR risk could not be determined. We conclude that communities in southern Iowa with drinking water supplies contaminated with herbicides have elevated rates of IUGR compared to neighboring communities with different water supplies. Because of the limitations of the ecologic design of this study, including aggregate rather than individual measures of exposure and limited ability to control for confounding factors related to source of drinking water and risk of IUGR, a strong causal relationship between any specific water contaminant and risk of IUGR cannot yet be inferred. The association between the water supplied to the Rathbun communities and the increased risk of IUGR should be considered a preliminary finding that needs to be verified by more detailed epidemiologic studies.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Swedish Groundwater and Surface Water: Implications for Environmental Quality Standards and Drinking Water Guidelines.

PubMed

Gobelius, Laura; Hedlund, Johanna; Dürig, Wiebke; Tröger, Rikard; Lilja, Karl; Wiberg, Karin; Ahrens, Lutz

2018-04-03

The aim of this study was to assess per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Swedish aquatic environment, identify emission sources, and compare measured concentrations with environmental quality standards (EQS) and (drinking) water guideline values. In total, 493 samples were analyzed in 2015 for 26 PFASs (∑ 26 PFASs) in surface water, groundwater, landfill leachate, sewage treatment plant effluents and reference lakes, focusing on hot spots and drinking water sources. Highest ∑ 26 PFAS concentrations were detected in surface water (13 000 ng L -1 ) and groundwater (6400 ng L -1 ). The dominating fraction of PFASs in surface water were perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs; 64% of ∑ 26 PFASs), with high contributions from C 4 -C 8 PFCAs (94% of ∑PFCAs), indicating high mobility of shorter chain PFCAs. In inland surface water, the annual average (AA)-EQS of the EU Water Framework Directive of 0.65 ng L -1 for ∑PFOS (linear and branched isomers) was exceeded in 46% of the samples. The drinking water guideline value of 90 ng L -1 for ∑ 11 PFASs recommended by the Swedish EPA was exceeded in 3% of the water samples from drinking water sources ( n = 169). The branched isomers had a noticeable fraction in surface- and groundwater for perfluorooctanesulfonamide, perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanesulfonate, highlighting the need to include branched isomers in future guidelines.

Getting back on tap: the policy context and cost of ensuring access to low-cost drinking water in Massachusetts schools.

PubMed

Cradock, Angie L; Wilking, Cara L; Olliges, Sarah A; Gortmaker, Steven L

2012-09-01

Adequate water intake may have important health benefits for schoolchildren. Layers of federal, state, and local policy are relevant to provision of water within schools. Recently passed state and federal laws require free drinking-water access for students during mealtimes. To review Massachusetts local district wellness policies related to water access, provide estimates of costs for three water-provision strategies, and discuss implications for policy relevant to adequate drinking-water access. Legal research was conducted using the LexisNexis legal database and government websites. Local wellness policies were double-coded using existing research tools. Costs of three water-delivery options were estimated using a 10-year school-district perspective. Prior to 2010, most Massachusetts public school district wellness policies (92%-94%) did not address access to free drinking water. Ten-year costs per school for providing water during mealtimes to students, including dispenser unit, installation, water testing, water, cups, and labor, range between $12,544 and $27,922 (depending on water-delivery option) assuming the average Massachusetts school enrollment. Water-provision strategies relying on tap water are more economical than bottled water in the long term. Policy recommendations and cost considerations deserve attention at the local, state, and federal levels. Recommendations are discussed to ensure access to safe, free drinking water for all students. Copyright © 2012 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Water and Sewage Utilities Sector (NAICS 2213)

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Environmental regulation information for water utilities, including drinking and wastewater treatment facilities. Includes links to NESHAP for POTW, compliance information, and information about pretreatment programs.

Membrane bioreactors for the removal of anionic micropollutants from drinking water.

PubMed

Crespo, João G; Velizarov, Svetlozar; Reis, Maria A

2004-10-01

Biological treatment processes allow for the effective elimination of anionic micropollutants from drinking water. However, special technologies have to be implemented to eliminate the target pollutants without changing water quality, either by adding new pollutants or removing essential water components. Some innovative technologies that combine the use of membranes with the biological degradation of ionic micropollutants in order to minimize the secondary contamination of treated water include pressure-driven membrane bioreactors, gas-transfer membrane bioreactors and ion exchange membrane bioreactors.

[Drinking water regulations in Ukraine and infectious morbidity rate with water pathway of transmission of causative agents].

PubMed

Surmasheva, E V; Korchak, G I; Mikhienkova, A I; Nikonova, N A; Rosada, M A

2013-01-01

These are presented drinking water regulations in Ukraine on microbiological indices in the new state document "Hygienic Drinking water regulations intended for human consumption" (State sanitary regulations and standards (GsanPiN) 2.2.4-171-10). There is reported an analysis of both the open waterbodies water quality and water for centralized water supply in 2007-2011 and 1992-1996 also on sanitary-bacteriological indices for performance of comparative retrospective analysis. There has been shown water quality degradation for open waterbodies, the main sources of water supply for population. Against this background, a marked improvement of drinking water quality has been noted, the number of non-standard samples decreased to 3.6 % compared with 8.8% in the preceding 15 years. This index correlates with a decrease in the number of outbreaks of infections transmitted by water. There was noted unsatisfactory registration of viral infections with water pathway of transmission and the increase in morbidity rate of gastroenterocolitides of unknown etiology that may include acute viral intestinal infections. Expediency to keep "fermentation of glucose" test in bacteriological examination of water in the identification scheme of general coliforms has been substantiated.

Microbial quality of improved drinking water sources: evidence from western Kenya and southern Vietnam.

PubMed

Grady, Caitlin A; Kipkorir, Emmanuel C; Nguyen, Kien; Blatchley, E R

2015-06-01

In recent decades, more than 2 billion people have gained access to improved drinking water sources thanks to extensive effort from governments, and public and private sector entities. Despite this progress, many water sector development interventions do not provide access to safe water or fail to be sustained for long-term use. The authors examined drinking water quality of previously implemented water improvement projects in three communities in western Kenya and three communities in southern Vietnam. The cross-sectional study of 219 households included measurements of viable Escherichia coli. High rates of E. coli prevalence in these improved water sources were found in many of the samples. These findings suggest that measures above and beyond the traditional 'improved source' definition may be necessary to ensure truly safe water throughout these regions.

The importance of quality control in validating concentrations of contaminants of emerging concern in source and treated drinking water samples.

EPA Science Inventory

A national-scale survey of 247 contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), including organic and inorganic chemical compounds, and microbial contaminants, was conducted in source and treated drinking water samples from 25 treatment plants across the United States. Multiple methods w...

77 FR 1633 - Bacillus Subtilis Strain CX-9060; Exemption From the Requirement of a Tolerance

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2012-01-11

... Classification System (NAICS) codes have been provided to assist you and others in determining whether this... other exposures for which there is reliable information.'' This includes exposure through drinking water... exposure to the pesticide through food, drinking water, and through other exposures that occur as a result...

ALTERATION OF ESTROUS CYCLICITY BY THE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT DIBROMOACETIC ACID: RELATIONSHIP TO AN EFFECT ON ESTRADIOL METABOLISM?

EPA Science Inventory

A number of chemicals formed by disinfection of municipal drinking water have been suspected to cause reproductive alterations in humans and test animals. One class of these chemicals, the haloacetic acids, have been reported to alter a number of rat testicular endpoints, includ...

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Iodo-acids were recently identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, (Z)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, and (E)-2-iodo-3...

OCCURRENCE OF IODO-ACID AND IODO-THM DBPS IN U. S. CHLORAMINATED DRINKING WATERS

EPA Science Inventory

Iodo-acids were recently identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid (IAA), bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, (Z)-3-bromo-3-iodo-propenoic acid, and (E)-2-iodo-3...

IODO-ACID DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN DRINKING WATER: DOES LC/ESI-MS/MS OFFER AN ADVANTAGE OVER GC/NCI-MS?

EPA Science Inventory

As part of a recent Nationwide Disinfection By-Product (DBP) Occurrence Study, iodo-acids were identified for the first time as DBPs in drinking water disinfected with chloramines. The iodo-acids identified included iodoacetic acid, bromoiodoacetic acid, (E)-3-bromo-3-iodo-prope...

Watershed monitoring and modelling and USA regulatory compliance.

PubMed

Turner, B G; Boner, M C

2004-01-01

The aim of the Columbus program was to implement a comprehensive watershed monitoring-network including water chemistry, aquatic biology and alternative sensors to establish water environment health and methods for determining future restoration progress and early warning for protection of drinking water supplies. The program was implemented to comply with USA regulatory requirements including Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) rules of the Clean Water Act (CWA) and Source Water Assessment and Protection (SWAP) rules under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The USEPA Office of Research and Development and the Water Environment Research Foundation provided quality assurance oversight. The results obtained demonstrated that significant wet weather data is necessary to establish relationships between land use, water chemistry, aquatic biology and sensor data. These measurements and relationships formed the basis for calibrating the US EPA BASINS Model, prioritizing watershed health and determination of compliance with water quality standards. Conclusions specify priorities of cost-effective drainage system controls that attenuate stormwater flows and capture flushed pollutants. A network of permanent long-term real-time monitoring using combination of continuous sensor measurements, water column sampling and aquatic biology surveys and a regional organization is prescribed to protect drinking water supplies and measure progress towards water quality targets.

Towards health impact assessment of drinking-water privatization--the example of waterborne carcinogens in North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany).

PubMed Central

Fehr, Rainer; Mekel, Odile; Lacombe, Martin; Wolf, Ulrike

2003-01-01

Worldwide there is a tendency towards deregulation in many policy sectors - this, for example, includes liberalization and privatization of drinking-water management. However, concerns about the negative impacts this might have on human health call for prospective health impact assessment (HIA) on the management of drinking-water. On the basis of an established generic 10-step HIA procedure and on risk assessment methodology, this paper aims to produce quantitative estimates concerning health effects from increased exposure to carcinogens in drinking-water. Using data from North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany, probabilistic estimates of excess lifetime cancer risk, as well as estimates of additional cases of cancer from increased carcinogen exposure levels are presented. The results show how exposure to contaminants that are strictly within current limits could increase cancer risks and case-loads substantially. On the basis of the current analysis, we suggest that with uniform increases in pollutant levels, a single chemical (arsenic) is responsible for a large fraction of expected additional risk. The study also illustrates the uncertainty involved in predicting the health impacts of changes in water quality. Future analysis should include additional carcinogens, non-cancer risks including those due to microbial contamination, and the impacts of system failures and of illegal action, which may be increasingly likely to occur under changed management arrangements. If, in spite of concerns, water is privatized, it is particularly important to provide adequate surveillance of water quality. PMID:12894324

Lead in drinking water and human blood lead levels in the United States.

PubMed

Brown, Mary Jean; Margolis, Stephen

2012-08-10

Lead is a pervasive environmental contaminant. The adverse health effects of lead exposure in children and adults are well documented, and no safe blood lead threshold in children has been identified. Lead can be ingested from various sources, including lead paint and house dust contaminated by lead paint, as well as soil, drinking water, and food. The concentration of lead, total amount of lead consumed, and duration of lead exposure influence the severity of health effects. Because lead accumulates in the body, all sources of lead should be controlled or eliminated to prevent childhood lead poisoning. Beginning in the 1970s, lead concentrations in air, tap water, food, dust, and soil began to be substantially reduced, resulting in significantly reduced blood lead levels (BLLs) in children throughout the United States. However, children are still being exposed to lead, and many of these children live in housing built before the 1978 ban on lead-based residential paint. These homes might contain lead paint hazards, as well as drinking water service lines made from lead, lead solder, or plumbing materials that contain lead. Adequate corrosion control reduces the leaching of lead plumbing components or solder into drinking water. The majority of public water utilities are in compliance with the Safe Drinking Water Act Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) of 1991. However, some children are still exposed to lead in drinking water. EPA is reviewing LCR, and additional changes to the rule are expected that will further protect public health. Childhood lead poisoning prevention programs should be made aware of the results of local public water system lead monitoring measurement under LCR and consider drinking water as a potential cause of increased BLLs, especially when other sources of lead exposure are not identified.

Water and Beverage Consumption: Analysis of the Australian 2011-2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey.

PubMed

Sui, Zhixian; Zheng, Miaobing; Zhang, Man; Rangan, Anna

2016-10-26

Water consumption as a vital component of the human diet is under-researched in dietary surveys and nutrition studies. To assess total water and fluid intakes and examine demographic, anthropometric, and dietary factors associated with water consumption in the Australian population. Dietary intake data from the 2011 to 2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were used. Usual water, fluid and food and nutrient intakes were estimated from two days of dietary recalls. Total water includes plain drinking water and moisture from all food and beverage sources; total fluids include plain drinking water and other beverages, but not food moisture. The mean (SD) daily total water intakes for children and adolescents aged 2-18 years were 1.7 (0.6) L for males and 1.5 (0.4) L for females, and for adults aged 19 years and over were 2.6 (0.9) L for males and 2.3 (0.7) L for females. The majority of the population failed to meet the Adequate Intake (AI) values for total water intake (82%) and total fluids intake (78%) with the elderly at highest risk (90%-95%). The contributions of plain drinking water, other beverages and food moisture to total water intake were 44%, 27%, and 29%, respectively, among children and adolescents, and 37%, 37% and 25% among adults. The main sources of other beverages were full-fat plain milk and regular soft drinks for children and adolescents, and tea, coffee, and alcoholic drinks for adults. For adults, higher total water intake was associated with lower percent energy from fat, saturated fat, and free sugars, lower sodium and energy-dense nutrient poor food intakes but higher dietary fibre, fruit, vegetable, caffeine, and alcohol intakes. No associations were found between total water consumption and body mass index (BMI) for adults and BMI z -score for children and adolescents. Reported water consumption was below recommendations. Higher water intakes were suggestive of better diet quality.

Derivatization method of free cyanide including cyanogen chloride for the sensitive analysis of cyanide in chlorinated drinking water by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

PubMed

Kang, Hye-In; Shin, Ho-Sang

2015-01-20

A novel derivatization method of free cyanide (HCN + CN(-)) including cyanogen chloride in chlorinated drinking water was developed with d-cysteine and hypochlorite. The optimum conditions (0.5 mM D-cysteine, 0.5 mM hypochlorite, pH 4.5, and a reaction time of 10 min at room temperature) were established by the variation of parameters. Cyanide (C(13)N(15)) was chosen as an internal standard. The formed β-thiocyanoalanine was directly injected into a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer without any additional extraction or purification procedures. Under the established conditions, the limits of detection and the limits of quantification were 0.07 and 0.2 μg/L, respectively, and the interday relative standard deviation was less than 4% at concentrations of 4.0, 20.0, and 100.0 μg/L. The method was successfully applied to determine CN(-) in chlorinated water samples. The detected concentration range and detection frequency of CN(-) were 0.20-8.42 μg/L (14/24) in source drinking water and 0.21-1.03 μg/L (18/24) in chlorinated drinking water.

Reexamining the risks of drinking-water nitrates on public health.

PubMed

Richard, Alyce M; Diaz, James H; Kaye, Alan David

2014-01-01

Nitrates in drinking water are generally considered the sole source of nitrite poisoning with methemoglobinemia in infantile methomoglobinemia (IM). However, IM, which occurs during the first 4 months of life, is actually a constellation of cyanosis and hypoxia associated with methemoglobinemia that can result from several other causes. This review reexamines the role of nitrate levels in drinking water as a cause of IM and identifies other sources of nitrates that can affect public health and cause chronic diseases. Causes of IM include nitrites in foods, environmental chemical exposures, commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals, and the endogenous generation of oxides of nitrogen. Infants with congenital enzyme deficiencies in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and methemoglobin reductase are at greater risk of nitrite-induced methemoglobinemia from nitrates in water and food and from exposures to hemoglobin oxidizers. Early epidemiological studies demonstrated significant associations between high groundwater nitrate levels and elevated methemoglobin levels in infants fed drinking water-diluted formulas. However, more recent epidemiological investigations suggest other sources of nitrogenous substance exposures in infants, including protein-based formulas and foods and the production of nitrate precursors (nitric acid) by bacterial action in the infant gut in response to inflammation and infection.

How Trace Element Levels of Public Drinking Water Affect Body Composition in Turkey.

PubMed

Cetin, Ihsan; Nalbantcilar, Mahmut Tahir; Tosun, Kezban; Nazik, Aydan

2017-02-01

Since waterborne minerals appear in ionic form and are readily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, drinking water could be a crucial source of mineral intake. However, no comprehensive research has yet determined how trace elements in drinking water relate to body composition. We aimed to assess the relationship between clinically important trace elements in public drinking water and body composition in average, overweight and obese individuals in Turkey. The study's population consisted of 423 participants: 143 overweight, 138 obese and 142 healthy control individuals, grouped according to clinical cutoff points of body mass index (BMI). We measured levels of lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), silicon (Si), tin (Sn), strontium (Sr), boron (B), aluminium (Al), barium (Ba) and rubidium (Rb) in samples from wells of municipal water by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. We gauged all the participants' body composition measurements with a BC-418 body composition analyser. In all the participants, body weight values showed significant positive correlations with Ni levels in drinking water, as did BMI values with Al levels and percentage of obesity with Ni, Si and B levels. In particular, Ni levels showed significant positive correlations with the basal metabolic rate, activity calories, and total activity of participants. Giving findings showing correlations between obesity-related parameters and Al, Si, B and Ni content in drinking water, we hope that these associations will be clarified with further studies including cellular, experimental and clinical studies. Hence, medical practitioners must be aware of trace element levels in drinking water for overweight and obese patients.

Verification of Frequency in Species of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in Kermanshah Drinking Water Supplies Using the PCR-Sequencing Method.

PubMed

Mohajeri, Parviz; Yazdani, Laya; Shahraki, Abdolrazagh Hashemi; Alvandi, Amirhoshang; Atashi, Sara; Farahani, Abbas; Almasi, Ali; Rezaei, Mansour

2017-04-01

Nontuberculous mycobacteria are habitants of environment, especially in aquatic systems. Some of them cause problems in immunodeficient patients. Over the last decade, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was established in 45 novel species of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Experiences revealed that this method underestimates the diversity, but does not distinguish between some of mycobacterium subsp. To recognize emerging rapidly growing mycobacteria and identify their subsp, rpoB gene sequencing has been developed. To better understand the transmission of nontuberculous mycobacterial species from drinking water and preventing the spread of illness with these bacteria, the aim of this study was to detect the presence of bacteria by PCR-sequencing techniques. Drinking water samples were collected from different areas of Kermanshah city in west of IRAN. After decontamination with cetylpyridinium chloride, samples were filtered with 0.45-micron filters, the filter transferred directly on growth medium waiting to appear in colonies, then DNA extraction and PCR were performed, and products were sent to sequencing. We found 35/110 (32%) nontuberculous mycobacterial species in drinking water samples, isolates included Mycobacterium goodii, Mycobacterium aurum, and Mycobacterium gastri with the most abundance (11.5%), followed by Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium porcinum, Mycobacterium peregrinum, Mycobacterium mucogenicum, and Mycobacterium chelonae (8%). In this study, we recognized the evidence of contamination by nontuberculous mycobacteria in corroded water pipes. As a result of the high prevalence of these bacteria in drinking water in Kermanshah, this is important evidence of transmission through drinking water. This finding can also help public health policy makers control these isolates in drinking water supplies in Kermanshah.

DRINKING WATER TURBIDITY AND EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT VISITS FOR GASTROINTESTINAL ILLNESS IN ATLANTA, 1993 – 2004

PubMed Central

Tinker, Sarah C.; Moe, Christine L.; Klein, Mitchel; Flanders, W. Dana; Uber, Jim; Amirtharajah, Appiah; Singer, Philip; Tolbert, Paige E.

2013-01-01

Background The extent to which drinking water turbidity measurements indicate the risk of gastrointestinal illness is not well-understood. Despite major advances in drinking water treatment and delivery, infectious disease can still be transmitted through drinking water in the U.S., and it is important to have reliable indicators of microbial water quality to inform public health decisions. The objective of our study was to assess the relationship between gastrointestinal illness, quantified through emergency department visits, and drinking water quality, quantified as raw water and filtered water turbidity measured at the treatment plant. Methods We examined the relationship between turbidity levels of raw and filtered surface water measured at eight major drinking water treatment plants in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia, and over 240 000 emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness during 1993–2004 among the population served by these plants. We fit Poisson time-series statistical regression models that included turbidity in a 21-day distributed lag and that controlled for meteorological factors and long-term time trends. Results For filtered water turbidity, the results were consistent with no association with emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. We observed a modest association between raw water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. This association was not observed for all treatment plants in plant-specific analyses. Conclusions Our results suggest that source water quality may contribute modestly to endemic gastrointestinal illness in the study area. The association between turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness was only observed when raw water turbidity was considered; filtered water turbidity may not serve as a reliable indicator of modest pathogen risk at all treatment plants. PMID:18941478

A Decision Support System for Drinking Water Production Integrating Health Risks Assessment

PubMed Central

Delpla, Ianis; Monteith, Donald T.; Freeman, Chris; Haftka, Joris; Hermens, Joop; Jones, Timothy G.; Baurès, Estelle; Jung, Aude-Valérie; Thomas, Olivier

2014-01-01

The issue of drinking water quality compliance in small and medium scale water services is of paramount importance in relation to the 98/83/CE European Drinking Water Directive (DWD). Additionally, concerns are being expressed over the implementation of the DWD with respect to possible impacts on water quality from forecast changes in European climate with global warming and further anticipated reductions in north European acid emissions. Consequently, we have developed a decision support system (DSS) named ARTEM-WQ (AwaReness Tool for the Evaluation and Mitigation of drinking Water Quality issues resulting from environmental changes) to support decision making by small and medium plant operators and other water stakeholders. ARTEM-WQ is based on a sequential risk analysis approach that includes consideration of catchment characteristics, climatic conditions and treatment operations. It provides a holistic evaluation of the water system, while also assessing human health risks of organic contaminants potentially present in treated waters (steroids, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, bisphenol-a, polychlorobiphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petrochemical hydrocarbons and disinfection by-products; n = 109). Moreover, the system provides recommendations for improvement while supporting decision making in its widest context. The tool has been tested on various European catchments and shows a promising potential to inform water managers of risks and appropriate mitigative actions. Further improvements should include toxicological knowledge advancement, environmental background pollutant concentrations and the assessment of the impact of distribution systems on water quality variation. PMID:25046634

Animal Feeding Operations

MedlinePlus

... are transformed from nitrogen in manure or from fertilizers, are the most commonly found contaminant in drinking ... of harmful algal blooms, and contaminate drinking water. Organic Matter Animal waste, vegetable matter, etc. Pathogens Include ...

Tracing dissolved organic carbon and trihalomethane formation potential between source water and finished drinking water at a lowland and an upland UK catchment.

PubMed

Brooks, Emma; Freeman, Christopher; Gough, Rachel; Holliman, Peter J

2015-12-15

Rising dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in many upland UK catchments represents a challenge for drinking water companies, in particular due to the role of DOC as a precursor in the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs). Whereas traditionally, the response of drinking water companies has been focussed on treatment processes, increasingly, efforts have been made to better understanding the role of land use and catchment processes in affecting drinking water quality. In this study, water quality, including DOC and THM formation potential (THMFP) was assessed between the water source and finished drinking water at an upland and a lowland catchment. Surprisingly, the lowland catchment showed much higher reservoir DOC concentrations apparently due to the influence of a fen within the catchment from where a major reservoir inflow stream originated. Seasonal variations in water quality were observed, driving changes in THMFP. However, the reservoirs in both catchments appeared to dampen these temporal fluctuations. Treatment process applied in the 2 catchments were adapted to reservoir water quality with much higher DOC and THMFP removal rates observed at the lowland water treatment works where coagulation-flocculation was applied. However, selectivity during this DOC removal stage also appeared to increase the proportion of brominated THMs produced. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Water Sources and Their Protection from the Impact of Microbial Contamination in Rural Areas of Beijing, China

PubMed Central

Ye, Bixiong; Yang, Linsheng; Li, Yonghua; Wang, Wuyi; Li, Hairong

2013-01-01

Bacterial contamination of drinking water is a major public health problem in rural China. To explore bacterial contamination in rural areas of Beijing and identify possible causes of bacteria in drinking water samples, water samples were collected from wells in ten rural districts of Beijing, China. Total bacterial count, total coliforms and Escherichia coli in drinking water were then determined and water source and wellhead protection were investigated. The bacterial contamination in drinking water was serious in areas north of Beijing, with the total bacterial count, total coliforms and Escherichia coli in some water samples reaching 88,000 CFU/mL, 1,600 MPN/100 mL and 1,600 MPN/100 mL, respectively. Water source types, well depth, whether the well was adequately sealed and housed, and whether wellhead is above or below ground were the main factors influencing bacterial contamination levels in drinking water. The bacterial contamination was serious in the water of shallow wells and wells that were not closed, had no well housing or had a wellhead below ground level. The contamination sources around wells, including village dry toilets and livestock farms, were well correlated with bacterial contamination. Total bacterial counts were affected by proximity to sewage ditches and polluting industries, however, proximity to landfills did not influence the microbial indicators. PMID:23462436

Disinfection by-products in drinking water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Craun, G.F.

Many organic contaminants have been identified in drinking water, some of which are introduced during treatment. Whereas chlorination of drinking water prevents the transmission of infectious diseases, free chlorine can react with precursors in water, such as humic and fulvic acids, to produce halogenated and oxidized by-products. Many disinfection by-products have been detected, including haloketones, haloaldehydes, haloacids, haloacetonitrile, cyanogen chloride, chlorophenols, chloropicrin, and chlorinated hydroxyfuranones (i.e., MX and E-MX). A survey of 35 water facilities showed that trihalomethanes were the largest class of by-products (median 39 {mu}g/{ell}) and haloacetic acids the next most significant (median 19 {mu}g/{ell}). Cyanogen chloride wasmore » preferentially produced in chloraminated water supplies, and formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were identified as by-products of ozonation.« less

Manganese in Madison's drinking water.

PubMed

Schlenker, Thomas; Hausbeck, John; Sorsa, Kirsti

2008-12-01

Public concern over events of manganese-discolored drinking water and the potential for adverse health effects from exposure to excess manganese reached a high level in 2005. In response, Public Health Madison Dane County, together with the Madison Water Utility, conceived and implemented a public health/water utility strategy to quantify the extent of the manganese problem, determine the potential for adverse human health effects, and communicate these findings to the community. This strategy included five basic parts: taking an inventory of wells and their manganese levels, correlating manganese concentration with turbidity, determining the prevalence and distribution of excess manganese in Madison households, reviewing the available scientific literature, and effectively communicating our findings to the community. The year-long public health/water utility strategy successfully resolved the crisis of confidence in the safety of Madison's drinking water.

Microbiological Spoilage of Beverages

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Lawlor, Kathleen A.; Schuman, James D.; Simpson, Peter G.; Taormina, Peter J.

Commercially packaged, non-alcoholic, ready-to-drink (RTD) beverages comprise a diverse group of products, both carbonated (sparkling) and non-carbonated (still), that appeal to consumers of all ages and provide refreshment, hydration, energy, and nutrition at home and "on-the-go." Examples of such products include purified, mineral, and spring waters, flavored or enhanced waters, colas, fruit-flavored sodas, sports and energy drinks, fruit or vegetable juices, teas, coffees, smoothies, dairy and yogurt drinks, and fusion beverages (hybrid products that bridge multiple beverage categories).

Leaching of Heavy Metals from Water Bottle Components into the Drinking Water of Rodents

PubMed Central

Nunamaker, Elizabeth A; Otto, Kevin J; Artwohl, James E; Fortman, Jeffrey D

2013-01-01

Providing high-quality, uncontaminated drinking water is an essential component of rodent husbandry. Acidification of drinking water is a common technique to control microbial growth but is not a benign treatment. In addition to its potential biologic effects, acidified water might interact with the water-delivery system, leading to the leaching of heavy metals into the drinking water. The goal of the current study was to evaluate the effects of water acidification and autoclaving on water-bottle assemblies. The individual components of the system (stainless-steel sipper tubes, rubber stoppers, neoprene stoppers, and polysulfone water bottles) were acid-digested and analyzed for cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, selenium, and zinc to quantify the metal composition of each material. In addition the amounts of these metals that leached into tap and acidified water with and without autoclaving were quantified after 1 wk of contact time. On a weight basis, sipper tubes contained the largest quantities of all metals except magnesium and zinc, which were greatest in the neoprene stoppers. Except for cadmium and selenium, all metals had leached into the water after 1 wk, especially under the acidified condition. The quantities of copper, lead, and zinc that leached into the drinking water were the most noteworthy, because the resulting concentrations had the potential to confound animal experiments. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that water-quality monitoring programs include heavy metal analysis at the level of water delivery to animals. PMID:23562029

Leaching of heavy metals from water bottle components into the drinking water of rodents.

PubMed

Nunamaker, Elizabeth A; Otto, Kevin J; Artwohl, James E; Fortman, Jeffrey D

2013-01-01

Providing high-quality, uncontaminated drinking water is an essential component of rodent husbandry. Acidification of drinking water is a common technique to control microbial growth but is not a benign treatment. In addition to its potential biologic effects, acidified water might interact with the water-delivery system, leading to the leaching of heavy metals into the drinking water. The goal of the current study was to evaluate the effects of water acidification and autoclaving on water-bottle assemblies. The individual components of the system (stainless-steel sipper tubes, rubber stoppers, neoprene stoppers, and polysulfone water bottles) were acid-digested and analyzed for cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, selenium, and zinc to quantify the metal composition of each material. In addition the amounts of these metals that leached into tap and acidified water with and without autoclaving were quantified after 1 wk of contact time. On a weight basis, sipper tubes contained the largest quantities of all metals except magnesium and zinc, which were greatest in the neoprene stoppers. Except for cadmium and selenium, all metals had leached into the water after 1 wk, especially under the acidified condition. The quantities of copper, lead, and zinc that leached into the drinking water were the most noteworthy, because the resulting concentrations had the potential to confound animal experiments. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that water-quality monitoring programs include heavy metal analysis at the level of water delivery to animals.

Closing the Gap: the need to consider perceptions about drinking water in rural Aboriginal communities in NSW, Australia.

PubMed

Jaravani, Fidelis G; Massey, Peter D; Judd, Jenni; Allan, Jason; Allan, Natalie

2016-04-15

A crucial objective of the Australian Government's Closing the Gap program is to improve Aboriginal health, and to achieve morbidity and mortality rates similar to those for non-Indigenous Australians. Reducing public health risks due to drinking water of unknown quality will help to close the gap. Factors such as hardness, taste, colour and odour of water may influence perceptions of risk and quality. Increased contact and familiarity with a hazard is associated with individuals becoming desensitised and habituated to its presence, so that their risk judgements may reflect their behavioural experiences. Consumption of water of unknown quality, such as rainwater, instead of treated town water in Australian Aboriginal communities may be a community norm, a part of a community's culture or a result of lack of trust in government water suppliers. Partnerships between service providers and communities can ensure that the service is responsive to community needs, is conducted in a culturally appropriate manner and is beneficial to the community. Governance of drinking water in Aboriginal communities cannot be comprehensive without active engagement of the communities involved, and greater understanding of cultural issues, perceptions and behaviours towards drinking water quality. This Perspective article reviews the literature to shed light on the need to consider New South Wales (NSW) Aboriginal perceptions about drinking water and its acceptability. We urge more dialogue and research, and a policy focus that includes partnerships with discrete NSW Aboriginal communities to develop a deeper understanding of perceptions of drinking water and encourage consumption of safe water.

Excretion of arsenic (As) in urine of children, 7--11 years, exposed to elevated levels of As in the city water supply in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Wyatt, C.J.; Quiroga, V.L.; Acosta, R.T.O.

1998-07-01

Arsenic (As) is a common element in the environment with many industrial uses, but it also can be a contaminant in drinking water and present serious health concerns. Earlier studies on the quality of drinking water in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico, showed high levels of As in water from wells located in the northern part of the city. Additionally a high positive correlation between the levels of Fluoride (F) and As in the same wells was found. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the excretion of As in children, 7--11 years of age, that hadmore » been exposed to elevated levels of As in their drinking water. Twenty-four-hour urine samples and a water sample taken directly in the home were collected from school age children living in two different areas with known high levels of As in their drinking water. A control group with normal levels of As in their water was also included.« less

Drinking water systems, hydrology, and childhood gastrointestinal illness in Central and Northern Wisconsin.

PubMed

Uejio, Christopher K; Yale, Steven H; Malecki, Kristen; Borchardt, Mark A; Anderson, Henry A; Patz, Jonathan A

2014-04-01

This study investigated if the type of drinking water source (treated municipal, untreated municipal, and private well water) modifies the effect of hydrology on childhood (aged < 5 years) gastrointestinal illness. We conducted a time series study to assess the relationship between hydrologic and weather conditions with childhood gastrointestinal illness from 1991 to 2010. The Central and Northern Wisconsin study area includes households using all 3 types of drinking water systems. Separate time series models were created for each system and half-year period (winter/spring, summer/fall). More precipitation (summer/fall) systematically increased childhood gastrointestinal illness in municipalities accessing untreated water. The relative risk of contracting gastrointestinal illness was 1.4 in weeks with 3 centimeters of precipitation and 2.4 in very wet weeks with 12 centimeters of precipitation. By contrast, gastrointestinal illness in private well and treated municipal areas was not influenced by hydrologic conditions, although warmer winter temperatures slightly increased incidence. Our study suggests that improved drinking water protection, treatment, and delivery infrastructure may improve public health by specifically identifying municipal water systems lacking water treatment that may transmit waterborne disease.

Role of mafic and ultramafic rocks in drinking water quality and its potential health risk assessment, Northern Pakistan.

PubMed

Begum, Shaheen; Shah, Mohammad Tahir; Muhammad, Said; Khan, Sardar

2015-12-01

This study investigates the drinking water (groundwater and surface water) quality and potential risk assessment along mafic and ultramafic rocks in the Swat district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Provence, Pakistan. For this purpose, 82 groundwater and 33 surface water samples were collected and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters. Results showed that the majority of the physico-chemical parameters were found to be within the drinking water guidelines set by the World Health Organization. However, major cationic metals such as magnesium (Mg), and trace metals (TM) including iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and cobalt (Co) showed exceeded concentrations in 13%, 4%, 2%, 20%, 20% and 55% of water samples, respectively. Health risk assessment revealed that the non-carcinogenic effects or hazard quotient values through the oral ingestion pathway of water consumption for the TM (viz., Fe, Cr and Mn) were found to be greater than 1, could result in chronic risk to the exposed population. Results of statistical analyses revealed that mafic and ultramafic rocks are the main sources of metal contamination in drinking water, especially Ni and Cr. Both Ni and Cr have toxic health effects and therefore this study suggests that contaminated sites should be avoided or treated for drinking and domestic purposes.

Excretion of arsenic (As) in urine of children, 7-11 years, exposed to elevated levels of As in the city water supply in Hermosillo, Sonora, México.

PubMed

Wyatt, C J; Lopez Quiroga, V; Olivas Acosta, R T; Olivia Méndez, R

1998-07-01

Arsenic (As) is a common element in the environment with many industrial uses, but it also can be a contaminant in drinking water and present serious health concerns. Earlier studies on the quality of drinking water in the city of Hermosillo, Sonora, México, showed high levels of As (> 0.05 ppm) in water from wells located in the northern part of the city. Additionally a high positive correlation between the levels of Fluoride (F) and As in the same wells was found. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the excretion of As in children, 7-11 years of age, that had been exposed to elevated levels of As in their drinking water. Twenty-four-hour urine samples and a water sample taken directly in the home were collected from school age children living in two different areas with known high levels of As in their drinking water. A control group with normal levels of As in their water was also included. As was determined by an atomic absorption-hydride generator, verified with the use of NBS certified standards (SRM 1643a and SRM 2670). None of the water samples exceeded the limit established for drinking water; however, there was a significant difference between the intake of As and the As in drinking water among the three areas of the study. Average As in water was 0.009 +/- 0.002 and 0.030 +/- 0.011 micrograms/ml between the control and high areas. Intake (in micrograms/day) was 15 +/- 3 and 54 +/- 18. In the group consuming water with high levels of As, 65% of the children exceeded the recommended dose of < 1 micrograms/kg/day (EPA, 1988). Several children in this study also had high levels of As in their urine. Even though As levels in the drinking water are within the norms, it appears that children exposed to high levels of As in their drinking water may have a health risk.

WATERPROTECT: Innovative tools enabling drinking water protection in rural and urban environments

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Seuntjens, Piet; Campling, Paul; Joris, Ingeborg; Wauters, Erwin; Lopez de Alda, Miren; Kuczynska, Anna; Lajer Hojberg, Anker; Capri, Ettore; Brabyn, Cristina; Boeckaert, Charlotte; Mellander, Per Erik; Pauwelyn, Ellen; Pop, Edit

2017-04-01

High-quality, safe, and sufficient drinking water is essential for life: we use it for drinking, food preparation and cleaning. Agriculture is the biggest source of pesticides and nitrate pollution in European fresh waters. The overarching objective of the recently approved H2020 project WATERPROTECT is to contribute to effective uptake and realisation of management practices and mitigation measures to protect drinking water resources. Therefore WATERPROTECT will create an integrative multi-actor participatory framework including innovative instruments that enable actors to monitor, to finance and to effectively implement management practices and measures for the protection of water sources. We propose seven case studies involving multiple actors in implementing good practices (land management, farming, product stewardship, point source pollution prevention) to ensure safe drinking water supply. The seven case studies cover different pedo-climatic conditions, different types of farming systems, different legal frameworks, larger and smaller water collection areas across the EU. In close cooperation with actors in the field in the case studies (farmers associations, local authorities, water producing companies, private water companies, consumer organisations) and other stakeholders (fertilizer and plant protection industry, environment agencies, nature conservation agencies, agricultural administrations) at local and EU level, WATERPROTECT will develop innovative water governance models investigating alternative pathways from focusing on the 'costs of water treatment' to 'rewarding water quality delivering farming systems'. Water governance structures will be built upon cost-efficiency analysis related to mitigation and cost-benefit analysis for society, and will be supported by spatially explicit GIS analyses and predictive models that account for temporal and spatial scaling issues. The outcome will be improved participatory methods and public policy instruments to protect drinking water resources.

Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PubMed

Bain, Robert; Cronk, Ryan; Wright, Jim; Yang, Hong; Slaymaker, Tom; Bartram, Jamie

2014-05-01

Access to safe drinking-water is a fundamental requirement for good health and is also a human right. Global access to safe drinking-water is monitored by WHO and UNICEF using as an indicator "use of an improved source," which does not account for water quality measurements. Our objectives were to determine whether water from "improved" sources is less likely to contain fecal contamination than "unimproved" sources and to assess the extent to which contamination varies by source type and setting. Studies in Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish were identified from online databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, and grey literature. Studies in low- and middle-income countries published between 1990 and August 2013 that assessed drinking-water for the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) were included provided they associated results with a particular source type. In total 319 studies were included, reporting on 96,737 water samples. The odds of contamination within a given study were considerably lower for "improved" sources than "unimproved" sources (odds ratio [OR] = 0.15 [0.10-0.21], I2 = 80.3% [72.9-85.6]). However over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination in 38% of 191 studies. Water sources in low-income countries (OR = 2.37 [1.52-3.71]; p<0.001) and rural areas (OR = 2.37 [1.47-3.81] p<0.001) were more likely to be contaminated. Studies rarely reported stored water quality or sanitary risks and few achieved robust random selection. Safety may be overestimated due to infrequent water sampling and deterioration in quality prior to consumption. Access to an "improved source" provides a measure of sanitary protection but does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination nor is it consistent between source types or settings. International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access. An enhanced monitoring strategy would combine indicators of sanitary protection with measures of water quality.

Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer.

PubMed

Schaider, Laurel A; Ackerman, Janet M; Rudel, Ruthann A

2016-03-15

Domestic drinking water wells serve 44 million people in the US and are common globally. They are often located in areas served by onsite wastewater treatment systems, including septic systems, which can be sources of biological and chemical pollutants to groundwater. In this study we tested 20 domestic drinking water wells in a sand and gravel aquifer on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA, for 117 organic wastewater compounds (OWCs) and for inorganic markers of septic system impact. We detected 27 OWCs, including 12 pharmaceuticals, five per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), four organophosphate flame retardants, and an artificial sweetener (acesulfame). Maximum concentrations of several PFASs and pharmaceuticals were relatively high compared to public drinking water supplies in the US. The number of detected OWCs and total concentrations of pharmaceuticals and of PFASs were positively correlated with nitrate, boron, and acesulfame and negatively correlated with well depth. These wells were all located in areas served exclusively by onsite wastewater treatment systems, which are likely the main source of the OWCs in these wells, although landfill leachate may also be a source. Our results suggest that current regulations to protect domestic wells from pathogens in septic system discharges do not prevent OWCs from reaching domestic wells, and that nitrate, a commonly measured drinking water contaminant, is a useful screening tool for OWCs in domestic wells. Nitrate concentrations of 1mg/L NO3-N, which are tenfold higher than local background and tenfold lower than the US federal drinking water standard, were associated with wastewater impacts from OWCs in this study. Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Chronic health effects in people exposed to arsenic via the drinking water: dose-response relationships in review.

PubMed

Yoshida, Takahiko; Yamauchi, Hiroshi; Fan Sun, Gui

2004-08-01

Chronic arsenic (As) poisoning has become a worldwide public health issue. Most human As exposure occurs from consumption of drinking water containing high amounts of inorganic As (iAs). In this paper, epidemiological studies conducted on the dose-response relationships between iAs exposure via the drinking water and related adverse health effects are reviewed. Before the review, the methods for evaluation of the individual As exposure are summarized and classified into two types, that is, the methods depending on As concentration of the drinking water and the methods depending on biological monitoring for As exposure; certain methods may be applied as optimum As exposure indexes to study dose-response relationship based on various As exposure situation. Chronic effects of iAs exposure via drinking water include skin lesions, neurological effects, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, diabetes mellitus, and malignancies including skin cancer. The skin is quite sensitive to arsenic, and skin lesions are some of the most common and earliest nonmalignant effects related to chronic As exposure. The increase of prevalence in the skin lesions has been observed even at the exposure levels in the range of 0.005-0.01 mg/l As in drinking waters. Skin, lung, bladder, kidney, liver, and uterus are considered as sites As-induced malignancies, and the skin is though to be perhaps the most sensitive site. Prospective studies in large area of endemic As poisoning, like Bangladesh or China, where the rate of malignancies is expected to increase within the next several decades, will help to clarify the dose-response relationship between As exposure levels and adverse health effects with enhanced accuracy.

Pregnant women in Timis County, Romania are exposed primarily to low-level (<10μg/l) arsenic through residential drinking water consumption.

PubMed

Neamtiu, Iulia; Bloom, Michael S; Gati, Gabriel; Goessler, Walter; Surdu, Simona; Pop, Cristian; Braeuer, Simone; Fitzgerald, Edward F; Baciu, Calin; Lupsa, Ioana Rodica; Anastasiu, Doru; Gurzau, Eugen

2015-06-01

Excessive arsenic content in drinking water poses health risks to millions of people worldwide. Inorganic arsenic (iAs) in groundwater exceeding the 10μg/l maximum contaminant level (MCL) set by the World Health Organization (WHO) is characteristic for intermediate-depth aquifers over large areas of the Pannonian Basin in Central Europe. In western Romania, near the border with Hungary, Arad, Bihor, and Timis counties use drinking water coming partially or entirely from iAs contaminated aquifers. In nearby Arad and Bihor counties, more than 45,000 people are exposed to iAs over 10μg/l via public drinking water sources. However, comparable data are unavailable for Timis County. To begin to address this data gap, we determined iAs in 124 public and private Timis County drinking water sources, including wells and taps, used by pregnant women participating in a case-control study of spontaneous loss. Levels in water sources were low overall (median=3.0; range=<0.5-175μg/l), although higher in wells (median=3.1, range=<0.5-1.75) than in community taps (median=2.7, range=<0.5-36.4). In a subsample of 20 control women we measured urine biomarkers of iAs exposure, including iAs (arsenite and arsenate), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), and methylarsonic acid (MMA). Median values were higher among 10 women using iAs contaminated drinking water sources compared to 10 women using uncontaminated sources for urine total iAs (6.6 vs. 5.0μg/l, P=0.24) and DMA (5.5 vs. 4.2μg/l, P=0.31). The results suggested that the origin of urine total iAs (r=0.35, P=0.13) and DMA (r=0.31, P=0.18) must have been not only iAs in drinking-water but also some other source. Exposure of pregnant women to arsenic via drinking water in Timis County appears to be lower than for surrounding counties; however, it deserves a more definitive investigation as to its origin and the regional distribution of its risk potential. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Comprehensive assessment of a chlorinated drinking water concentrate in a rat multigenerational reproductive toxicity study.

PubMed

Narotsky, Michael G; Klinefelter, Gary R; Goldman, Jerome M; Best, Deborah S; McDonald, Anthony; Strader, Lillian F; Suarez, Juan D; Murr, Ashley S; Thillainadarajah, Inthirany; Hunter, E Sidney; Richardson, Susan D; Speth, Thomas F; Miltner, Richard J; Pressman, Jonathan G; Teuschler, Linda K; Rice, Glenn E; Moser, Virginia C; Luebke, Robert W; Simmons, Jane Ellen

2013-09-17

Some epidemiological studies report associations between drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and adverse reproductive/developmental effects, e.g., low birth weight, spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and birth defects. Using a multigenerational rat bioassay, we evaluated an environmentally relevant "whole" mixture of DBPs representative of chlorinated drinking water, including unidentified DBPs as well as realistic proportions of known DBPs at low-toxicity concentrations. Source water from a water utility was concentrated 136-fold, chlorinated, and provided as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats. Timed-pregnant females (P0 generation) were exposed during gestation and lactation. Weanlings (F1 generation) continued exposures and were bred to produce an F2 generation. Large sample sizes enhanced statistical power, particularly for pup weight and prenatal loss. No adverse effects were observed for pup weight, prenatal loss, pregnancy rate, gestation length, puberty onset in males, growth, estrous cycles, hormone levels, immunological end points, and most neurobehavioral end points. Significant, albeit slight, effects included delayed puberty for F1 females, reduced caput epidydimal sperm counts in F1 adult males, and increased incidences of thyroid follicular cell hypertrophy in adult females. These results highlight areas for future research, while the largely negative findings, particularly for pup weight and prenatal loss, are notable.

Chemical and microbial characteristics of municipal drinking water supply systems in the Canadian Arctic.

PubMed

Daley, Kiley; Truelstrup Hansen, Lisbeth; Jamieson, Rob C; Hayward, Jenny L; Piorkowski, Greg S; Krkosek, Wendy; Gagnon, Graham A; Castleden, Heather; MacNeil, Kristen; Poltarowicz, Joanna; Corriveau, Emmalina; Jackson, Amy; Lywood, Justine; Huang, Yannan

2017-06-13

Drinking water in the vast Arctic Canadian territory of Nunavut is sourced from surface water lakes or rivers and transferred to man-made or natural reservoirs. The raw water is at a minimum treated by chlorination and distributed to customers either by trucks delivering to a water storage tank inside buildings or through a piped distribution system. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical and microbial drinking water quality from source to tap in three hamlets (Coral Harbour, Pond Inlet and Pangnirtung-each has a population of <2000) on trucked service, and in Iqaluit (population ~6700), which uses a combination of trucked and piped water conveyance. Generally, the source and drinking water was of satisfactory microbial quality, containing Escherichia coli levels of <1 MPN/100 mL with a few exceptions, and selected pathogenic bacteria and parasites were below detection limits using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Tap water in households receiving trucked water contained less than the recommended 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine, while piped drinking water in Iqaluit complied with Health Canada guidelines for residual chlorine (i.e. >0.2 mg/L free chlorine). Some buildings in the four communities contained manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and/or lead (Pb) concentrations above Health Canada guideline values for the aesthetic (Mn, Cu and Fe) and health (Pb) objectives. Corrosion of components of the drinking water distribution system (household storage tanks, premise plumbing) could be contributing to Pb, Cu and Fe levels, as the source water in three of the four communities had low alkalinity. The results point to the need for robust disinfection, which may include secondary disinfection or point-of-use disinfection, to prevent microbial risks in drinking water tanks in buildings and ultimately at the tap.

U.S. drinking water challenges in the twenty-first century.

PubMed

Levin, Ronnie B; Epstein, Paul R; Ford, Tim E; Harrington, Winston; Olson, Erik; Reichard, Eric G

2002-02-01

The access of almost all 270 million U.S. residents to reliable, safe drinking water distinguishes the United States in the twentieth century from that of the nineteenth century. The United States is a relatively water-abundant country with moderate population growth; nonetheless, current trends are sufficient to strain water resources over time, especially on a regional basis. We have examined the areas of public water infrastructure, global climate effects, waterborne disease (including emerging and resurging pathogens), land use, groundwater, surface water, and the U.S. regulatory history and its horizon. These issues are integrally interrelated and cross all levels of public and private jurisdictions. We conclude that U.S. public drinking water supplies will face challenges in these areas in the next century and that solutions to at least some of them will require institutional changes.

U.S. drinking water challenges in the twenty-first century.

PubMed Central

Levin, Ronnie B; Epstein, Paul R; Ford, Tim E; Harrington, Winston; Olson, Erik; Reichard, Eric G

2002-01-01

The access of almost all 270 million U.S. residents to reliable, safe drinking water distinguishes the United States in the twentieth century from that of the nineteenth century. The United States is a relatively water-abundant country with moderate population growth; nonetheless, current trends are sufficient to strain water resources over time, especially on a regional basis. We have examined the areas of public water infrastructure, global climate effects, waterborne disease (including emerging and resurging pathogens), land use, groundwater, surface water, and the U.S. regulatory history and its horizon. These issues are integrally interrelated and cross all levels of public and private jurisdictions. We conclude that U.S. public drinking water supplies will face challenges in these areas in the next century and that solutions to at least some of them will require institutional changes. PMID:11834462

Sensory quality of drinking water produced by reverse osmosis membrane filtration followed by remineralisation.

PubMed

Vingerhoeds, Monique H; Nijenhuis-de Vries, Mariska A; Ruepert, Nienke; van der Laan, Harmen; Bredie, Wender L P; Kremer, Stefanie

2016-05-01

Membrane filtration of ground, surface, or sea water by reverse osmosis results in permeate, which is almost free from minerals. Minerals may be added afterwards, not only to comply with (legal) standards and to enhance chemical stability, but also to improve the taste of drinking water made from permeate. Both the nature and the concentrations of added minerals affect the taste of the water and in turn its acceptance by consumers. The aim of this study was to examine differences in taste between various remineralised drinking waters. Samples selected varied in mineral composition, i.e. tap water, permeate, and permeate with added minerals (40 or 120 mg Ca/L, added as CaCO3, and 4 or 24 mg Mg/L added as MgCl2), as well as commercially available bottled drinking waters, to span a relevant product space in which the remineralised samples could be compared. All samples were analysed with respect to their physical-chemical properties. Sensory profiling was done by descriptive analysis using a trained panel. Significant attributes included taste intensity, the tastes bitter, sweet, salt, metal, fresh and dry mouthfeel, bitter and metal aftertaste, and rough afterfeel. Total dissolved solids (TDS) was a major determinant of the taste perception of water. In general, lowering mineral content in drinking water in the range examined (from <5 to 440 mg/L) shifted the sensory perception of water from fresh towards bitter, dry, and rough sensations. In addition, perceived freshness of the waters correlated positively with calcium concentration. The greatest fresh taste was found for water with a TDS between 190 and 350 mg/L. Remineralisation of water after reverse osmosis can improve drinking quality significantly. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Heterotrophic plate count and consumer's health under special consideration of water softeners.

PubMed

Hambsch, Beate; Sacré, Clara; Wagner, Ivo

2004-05-01

The phenomenon of bacterial growth in water softeners is well known since years. To upgrade the hygienic safety of water softeners, the German DIN Standard 19636 was developed, to assure that the distribution system could not be contaminated by these devices and that the drinking water to be used in the household still meets the microbiological standards according to the German drinking water guidelines, i.e. among others heterotrophic plate count (HPC) below 100 CFU/ml. Moreover, the standard for the water softeners includes a test for contamination with Pseudomonas aeruginosa which has to be disinfected during the regeneration phase. This is possible by sanitizing the resin bed during regeneration by producing chlorine. The results of the last 10 years of tests of water softeners according to DIN 19636 showed that it is possible to produce water softeners that comply with that standard. Approximately 60% of the tested models were accepted. P. aeruginosa is used as an indicator for potentially pathogenic bacteria being able to grow also in low nutrient conditions which normally prevail in drinking water. Like other heterotrophs, the numbers of P. aeruginosa increase rapidly as stagnation occurs. Normally P. aeruginosa is not present in the distributed drinking water. However, under certain conditions, P. aeruginosa can be introduced into the drinking water distribution system, for instance, during construction work. The occurrence of P. aeruginosa is shown in different cases in treatment plants, public drinking water systems and in-house installations. The compliance with DIN 19636 provides assurance that a water softener will not be a constant source of contamination, even if it is once inoculated with a potentially pathogenic bacterium like P. aeruginosa. Copyright 2003 Elsevier B.V.

Children's drinking water: parental preferences and implications for fluoride exposure.

PubMed

Sriraman, Natasha K; Patrick, Patricia A; Hutton, Kara; Edwards, Karen S

2009-01-01

The purposes of this study were to: describe children's drinking water sources; determine if any demographic factors are associated with water choice; describe parents' reasons for selecting bottled water; and determine parents' ability to provide enough information about their drinking water for providers to assess children's fluoride exposure. Subjects were parents of children 6 months to 15-years-old. A questionnaire was verbally administered in English or Spanish. Chi-square analyses were used to evaluate associations among study variables. Of 194 parents, 134 (69%) gave their children bottled water either exclusively or with tap water. Bottled water use was not significantly associated with the primary source of tap water, parent's education level, or household income. Reasons for giving children bottled water included: fear of contaminants in tap water; taste and/or smell of tap water; and convenience of bottled water. For parents using bottled water, over 65% did not know the brand's fluoride content. Barriers to an accurate fluoride assessment include frequent bottled water use and parental uncertainty about its fluoride content. By initiating communication with parents and educating them about fluoride sources, health care and dental providers may be able to better evaluate the adequacy of children's fluoride exposure and decide whether fluoride supplementation is necessary.

Removal of natural organic matter from drinking water by advanced oxidation processes.

PubMed

Matilainen, Anu; Sillanpää, Mika

2010-06-01

Over the past 10-20years the amount of the natural organic matter (NOM) has been increased in raw water supplies on several areas. The presence of NOM causes many problems in drinking water treatment processes, including: (i) negative effect on water quality by colour, taste and odor problems, (ii) increased coagulant and disinfectant dose requirements (which in turn results increased sludge and potential harmful disinfection by-product formation), (iii) promoted biological growth in distribution system, and (iv) increased levels of complexed heavy metals and adsorbed organic pollutants. Thus, more efficient methods for the removal of NOM have emerged. Among these are advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). These include O(3)/H(2)O(2), O(3)/UV, UV/H(2)O(2), TiO(2)/UV, H(2)O(2)/catalyst, Fenton and photo-Fenton prosesses as well as ultrasound. In the present work, an overview of the recent research studies dealing with AOP methods for the removal of NOM and related compounds from drinking water is presented.

Fascioliasis and Eosinophilia in the Highlands of Cuzco, Peru and Their Association with Water and Socioeconomic Factors

PubMed Central

Cabada, Miguel M.; Goodrich, Mary R.; Graham, Brittany; Villanueva-Meyer, Pablo G.; Lopez, Martha; Arque, Eulogia; White, A. Clinton

2014-01-01

There are limited data about the epidemiology of fascioliasis in Cuzco, Peru. We studied children 3–12 years old from six communities in the highlands of Cuzco to evaluate the epidemiology of fascioliasis; 227 children were included, one-half were female, the mean age was 7.5 (±2.6) years, and 46.2±% had one or more parasites, including Fasciola (9.7%), Ascaris (12.8%), Hymenolepis (9.3%), Trichuris (1.3%), hookworm (1.8%), Strongyloides (0.9%), and Giardia (27.8%). Fasciola was associated with the number of siblings in the household, drinking untreated water, and giardiasis. Eosinophilia was encountered in 21% of children and more common in those drinking untreated water at home and those infected with a parasite, but the differences were not significant. Eating water plants was not associated with Fasciola or eosinophilia. Fascioliasis and eosinophilia were common in the highlands of Cuzco. Fascioliasis was associated with socioeconomic factors and drinking water. PMID:25200257

Fascioliasis and eosinophilia in the highlands of Cuzco, Peru and their association with water and socioeconomic factors.

PubMed

Cabada, Miguel M; Goodrich, Mary R; Graham, Brittany; Villanueva-Meyer, Pablo G; Lopez, Martha; Arque, Eulogia; White, A Clinton

2014-11-01

There are limited data about the epidemiology of fascioliasis in Cuzco, Peru. We studied children 3-12 years old from six communities in the highlands of Cuzco to evaluate the epidemiology of fascioliasis; 227 children were included, one-half were female, the mean age was 7.5 (±2.6) years, and 46.2±% had one or more parasites, including Fasciola (9.7%), Ascaris (12.8%), Hymenolepis (9.3%), Trichuris (1.3%), hookworm (1.8%), Strongyloides (0.9%), and Giardia (27.8%). Fasciola was associated with the number of siblings in the household, drinking untreated water, and giardiasis. Eosinophilia was encountered in 21% of children and more common in those drinking untreated water at home and those infected with a parasite, but the differences were not significant. Eating water plants was not associated with Fasciola or eosinophilia. Fascioliasis and eosinophilia were common in the highlands of Cuzco. Fascioliasis was associated with socioeconomic factors and drinking water. © The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Time-integrated passive sampling as a complement to conventional point-in-time sampling for investigating drinking-water quality, McKenzie River Basin, Oregon, 2007 and 2010-11

USGS Publications Warehouse

McCarthy, Kathleen A.; Alvarez, David A.

2014-01-01

The Eugene Water & Electric Board (EWEB) supplies drinking water to approximately 200,000 people in Eugene, Oregon. The sole source of this water is the McKenzie River, which has consistently excellent water quality relative to established drinking-water standards. To ensure that this quality is maintained as land use in the source basin changes and water demands increase, EWEB has developed a proactive management strategy that includes a combination of conventional point-in-time discrete water sampling and time‑integrated passive sampling with a combination of chemical analyses and bioassays to explore water quality and identify where vulnerabilities may lie. In this report, we present the results from six passive‑sampling deployments at six sites in the basin, including the intake and outflow from the EWEB drinking‑water treatment plant (DWTP). This is the first known use of passive samplers to investigate both the source and finished water of a municipal DWTP. Results indicate that low concentrations of several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organohalogen compounds are consistently present in source waters, and that many of these compounds are also present in finished drinking water. The nature and patterns of compounds detected suggest that land-surface runoff and atmospheric deposition act as ongoing sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, some currently used pesticides, and several legacy organochlorine pesticides. Comparison of results from point-in-time and time-integrated sampling indicate that these two methods are complementary and, when used together, provide a clearer understanding of contaminant sources than either method alone.

An Environmental Sentinel Biomonitor System for Drinking Water Protection

DTIC Science & Technology

2008-12-01

threat chemicals. Potential interferences include chemicals commonly used for drinking water disinfection (chlorine and chloramine ), byproducts of...range. Of the potential interferences tested, the ECIS test was affected only by the disinfectants chlorine and chloramine ; chlorine is typically...Industrial and Potential Interfering Chemicals Used to Evaluate ESB System Toxicity Sensors TICs Potential Interferences Acrylonitrile Chloramine

40 CFR 144.83 - Do I need to notify anyone about my Class V injection well?

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

...) Geothermal energy recovery wells (40 CFR 144.81(11) and 146.5 (e)(12) of this chapter); (C) Brine return flow... protect underground sources of drinking water. (1) Such information requirements may include, but are not... other information, if needed to protect underground sources of drinking water. (2) If the Director...

Household safe water management in Kisii County, Kenya.

PubMed

Misati, A G

2016-11-01

Contaminated drinking water can lead to the risk of intestinal and other infectious diseases that lead to high morbidity. Therefore, determining household safe water management practices will benefit billions of people by ensuring there is no recontamination. A cross-sectional study design was used and a sample of 346 households was selected through systematic random sampling. A questionnaire was then used which was based on the core questions on drinking water and sanitation for household surveys and descriptive analyses were performed for the collected data using SPSS. Springs were predominantly used as the main source of water (97 %). Approximately, over half (58 %) of the sampled households never treated their drinking water to ensure that it was safe for drinking. Mostly (56 %), the households used jerricans for the storage of water with a majority of the households (95 %) covering their containers which were elevated from the reach of children in 52 % of the households. The risks included lack of water treatment, not covering the water container, risk of permitting dipping for those containers, lacking narrow neck and the risk of container being accessible to children. Basic treatment of the water at the household level by use of chemicals, filtration and boiling may have a great impact on the drinking water quality and health of the inhabitants of Kisii County. Also, creation of awareness on the possibilities of spring water being contaminated should be carried because of the assumption that spring water is safe and does not need to be treated.

Exposure to lithium through drinking water and calcium homeostasis during pregnancy: A longitudinal study.

PubMed

Harari, Florencia; Åkesson, Agneta; Casimiro, Esperanza; Lu, Ying; Vahter, Marie

2016-05-01

There is increasing evidence of adverse health effects due to elevated lithium exposure through drinking water but the impact on calcium homeostasis is unknown. This study aimed at elucidating if lithium exposure through drinking water during pregnancy may impair the maternal calcium homeostasis. In a population-based mother-child cohort in the Argentinean Andes (n=178), with elevated lithium concentrations in the drinking water (5-1660μg/L), blood lithium concentrations (correlating significantly with lithium in water, urine and plasma) were measured repeatedly during pregnancy by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and used as exposure biomarker. Markers of calcium homeostasis included: plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), and calcium, phosphorus and magnesium concentrations in serum and urine. The median maternal blood lithium concentration was 25μg/L (range 1.9-145). In multivariable-adjusted mixed-effects linear regression models, blood lithium was inversely associated with 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (-6.1nmol/L [95%CI -9.5; -2.6] for a 25μg/L increment in blood lithium). The estimate increased markedly with increasing percentiles of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3. In multivariable-adjusted mixed-effects logistic regression models, the odds ratio of having 25-hydroxyvitamin D3<30nmol/L (19% of the women) was 4.6 (95%CI 1.1; 19.3) for a 25μg/L increment in blood lithium. Blood lithium was also positively associated with serum magnesium, but not with serum calcium and PTH, and inversely associated with urinary calcium and magnesium. In conclusion, our study suggests that lithium exposure through drinking water during pregnancy may impair the calcium homeostasis, particularly vitamin D. The results reinforce the need for better control of lithium in drinking water, including bottled water. Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Monitoring and Modelling of Salinity Behaviour in Drinking Water Ponds in Southern Bangladesh

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Hoque, M. A.; Williams, A.; Mathewson, E.; Rahman, A. K. M. M.; Ahmed, K. M.; Scheelbeek, P. F. D.; Vineis, P.; Butler, A. P.

2015-12-01

Drinking water in southern Bangladesh is provided by a variety of sources including constructed storage ponds, seasonal rainwater and, ubiquitously saline, shallow groundwater. The ponds, the communal reservoirs for harvested rainwater, also tend to be saline, some as high as 2 g/l. Drinking water salinity has several health impacts including high blood pressure associated major risk factor for several cardio-vascular diseases. Two representative drinking water ponds in Dacope Upazila of Khulna District in southwest Bangladesh were monitored over two years for rainfall, evaporation, pond and groundwater level, abstraction, and solute concentration, to better understand the controls on drinking water salinity. Water level monitoring at both ponds shows groundwater levels predominantly below the pond level throughout the year implying a downward gradient. The grain size analysis of the underlying sediments gives an estimated hydraulic conductivity of 3E-8 m/s allowing limited seepage loss. Water balance modelling indicates that the seepage has a relatively minor effect on the pond level and that the bulk of the losses come from the combination of evaporation and abstraction particularly in dry season when precipitation, the only inflow to the pond, is close to zero. Seasonal variation in salinity (electrical conductivities, EC, ranged between 1500 to 3000 μS/cm) has been observed, and are primarily due to dilution from rainfall and concentration from evaporation, except on one occasion when EC reached 16,000 μS/cm due to a breach in the pond levee. This event was analogous to the episodic inundation that occurs from tropical cyclone storm surges and appears to indicate that such events are important for explaining the widespread salinisation of surface water and shallow groundwater bodies in coastal areas. A variety of adaptations (either from practical protection measures) or novel alternative drinking sources (such as aquifer storage and recovery) can be applied in order to reduce health risks.

Assessing the microbial quality of improved drinking water sources: results from the Dominican Republic.

PubMed

Baum, Rachel; Kayser, Georgia; Stauber, Christine; Sobsey, Mark

2014-01-01

Millennium Development Goal Target 7c (to halve between 1990 and 2015 the proportion of the global population without sustainable access to safe drinking water), was celebrated as achieved in 2012. However, new studies show that we may be prematurely celebrating. Access to safe drinking water may be overestimated if microbial water quality is considered. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between microbial drinking water quality and drinking water source in the Puerto Plata region of the Dominican Republic. This study analyzed microbial drinking water quality data from 409 households in 33 communities. Results showed that 47% of improved drinking water sources were of high to very-high risk water quality, and therefore unsafe for drinking. This study provides evidence that the current estimate of safe water access may be overly optimistic, and microbial water quality data are needed to reliably assess the safety of drinking water.

Assessing the Microbial Quality of Improved Drinking Water Sources: Results from the Dominican Republic

PubMed Central

Baum, Rachel; Kayser, Georgia; Stauber, Christine; Sobsey, Mark

2014-01-01

Millennium Development Goal Target 7c (to halve between 1990 and 2015 the proportion of the global population without sustainable access to safe drinking water), was celebrated as achieved in 2012. However, new studies show that we may be prematurely celebrating. Access to safe drinking water may be overestimated if microbial water quality is considered. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between microbial drinking water quality and drinking water source in the Puerto Plata region of the Dominican Republic. This study analyzed microbial drinking water quality data from 409 households in 33 communities. Results showed that 47% of improved drinking water sources were of high to very-high risk water quality, and therefore unsafe for drinking. This study provides evidence that the current estimate of safe water access may be overly optimistic, and microbial water quality data are needed to reliably assess the safety of drinking water. PMID:24218411

High fluoride and low pH level have been detected in popular flavoured beverages in Malaysia.

PubMed

Ha Rahim, Zubaidah; M Bakri, Marina; Hm, Zakir; Ia, Ahmed; Na, Zulkifli

2014-03-01

In children, excessive ingestion of fluoride from different sources including bottled drinking water and flavoured beverages or soft drinks can lead to the development of dental fluorosis. In addition, the pH level of beverages is important. Low pH can cause dental erosion. In this study we explore the fluoride content and pH level of certain popular beverages available in Malaysian supermarkets and hawkers' stalls. Bottled drinking water and selected popular flavoured packet drinks were purchased from a supermarket and the corresponding flavoured hawkers' drinks, from a hawker's stall in Kuala Lumpur. Fluoride and pH of the beverages were determined using digital fluoride meter and digital pH meter respectively. It was found that fluoride content and pH level vary among the beverages. The mean fluoride content in both packet and hawkers' drinks (7.64±1.88 mg/L, 7.51±1.60 mg/L, respectively) was approximately 7 times higher than the bottled drinking water (1.05±0.35 mg/L). Among the beverages, the tea packet drink was found to contain the highest amount of fluoride (13.02±0.23 mg/L). The mean pH of bottled-drinking water was near neutral (6.96±0.17), but acidic for both supermarket (4.78.00±0.49) and hawkers' drinks (5.73±0.24). The lychee packet drink had the lowest pH level (2.97±0.03). Due to the wide variation of the fluoride content and pH level of the drinks tested in this study, it is recommended that steps should be taken to control the fluoride concentration and pH level in beverages if dental fluorosis and erosion are to be prevented.

Legionella species diversity and dynamics from surface reservoir to tap water: from cold adaptation to thermophily

PubMed Central

Lesnik, René; Brettar, Ingrid; Höfle, Manfred G

2016-01-01

Water samples of the Drinking Water Supply System (DWSS) of the city of Braunschweig were analysed for its Legionella species composition using genus-specific PCR amplicons and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) fingerprint analyses based on 16S rRNA genes. These analyses comprised the whole supply chain including raw water, treatment process and large-scale storage, and a seasonal study of finished drinking water sampled monthly from cold and hot tap water. Treatment of raw water had a major impact on Legionella species by reducing their diversity and abundances. The Legionella species composition of the tap water was highly distinct from that of both source waters. In cold water, 8–14 different phylotypes of Legionella (PTLs) were observed per sample with relative abundances ranging from >1% to 53%. In hot water, L. pneumophila was present during all seasons at high relative abundances (8–40%) accompanied by 5–14 other PTLs of which 6 PTLs were in common with cold water. This thermophilic Legionella community, including L. pneumophila, was able to grow in the hot water above 50 °C. Such thermophilic Legionella populations are of general relevance for drinking water management and public health, but also for the ecology and evolution of the genus Legionella. PMID:26528838

Legionella species diversity and dynamics from surface reservoir to tap water: from cold adaptation to thermophily.

PubMed

Lesnik, René; Brettar, Ingrid; Höfle, Manfred G

2016-05-01

Water samples of the Drinking Water Supply System (DWSS) of the city of Braunschweig were analysed for its Legionella species composition using genus-specific PCR amplicons and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) fingerprint analyses based on 16S rRNA genes. These analyses comprised the whole supply chain including raw water, treatment process and large-scale storage, and a seasonal study of finished drinking water sampled monthly from cold and hot tap water. Treatment of raw water had a major impact on Legionella species by reducing their diversity and abundances. The Legionella species composition of the tap water was highly distinct from that of both source waters. In cold water, 8-14 different phylotypes of Legionella (PTLs) were observed per sample with relative abundances ranging from >1% to 53%. In hot water, L. pneumophila was present during all seasons at high relative abundances (8-40%) accompanied by 5-14 other PTLs of which 6 PTLs were in common with cold water. This thermophilic Legionella community, including L. pneumophila, was able to grow in the hot water above 50 °C. Such thermophilic Legionella populations are of general relevance for drinking water management and public health, but also for the ecology and evolution of the genus Legionella.

Water-loss dehydration and aging.

PubMed

Hooper, Lee; Bunn, Diane; Jimoh, Florence O; Fairweather-Tait, Susan J

2014-01-01

This review defines water-loss and salt-loss dehydration. For older people serum osmolality appears the most appropriate gold standard for diagnosis of water-loss dehydration, but clear signs of early dehydration have not been developed. In older adults, lower muscle mass, reduced kidney function, physical and cognitive disabilities, blunted thirst, and polypharmacy all increase dehydration risk. Cross-sectional studies suggest a water-loss dehydration prevalence of 20-30% in this population. Water-loss dehydration is associated with higher mortality, morbidity and disability in older people, but evidence is still needed that this relationship is causal. There are a variety of ways we may be able to help older people reduce their risk of dehydration by recognising that they are not drinking enough, and being helped to drink more. Strategies to increase fluid intake in residential care homes include identifying and overcoming individual and institutional barriers to drinking, such as being worried about not reaching the toilet in time, physical inability to make or to reach drinks, and reduced social drinking and drinking pleasure. Research needs are discussed, some of which will be addressed by the FP7-funded NU-AGE (New dietary strategies addressing the specific needs of elderly population for a healthy ageing in Europe) trial. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

A Bee Guide to Complying with the Safe Drinking Water Act

DTIC Science & Technology

1991-08-01

disinfectants commonly used in water treatment. These disinfectants include chlorine, chloramine , chlorine dioxide, and ozone. Existing toxicological...to water systems that add a disinfectant (oxidant, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines or ozone) to any part of the treatment process. 6...AL-TR-1 991-0075 AD-A242 509 ^tLECTE II AR M A BEE GUIDE TO COMPLYING WITH THE S SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT T R Q John G. Garland III, Major, USAF, BSCN

Geogenic fluoride and arsenic contamination in the groundwater environments in Tanzania

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Bhattacharya, Prosun; Lesafi, Fina; Filemon, Regina; Ligate, Fanuel; Ijumulana, Julian; Mtalo, Felix

2016-04-01

Adequate, safe and accessible drinking water is an important aspect to human health worldwide. Understanding this importance, the Tanzanian Government has initiated a number of programmes to ensure access to high quality water by the citizens. However, elevated concentration of geochemical pollutants in many drinking water sources pose a serious challenge to water suppliers and users in the country. Fluoride is a widespread drinking water contaminant of geogenic origin occuring in both surface- and groundwater around volcanic mountains and many parts within the East African Rift Valley in regions including Arusha (10 mg/L), Shinyanga (2.9 mg/L) and Singida (1.8 mg/L). An estimated 90% of the population living along the Rift Valley region are affected by dental or skeletal fluorosis and bone crippling because of long term exposure to very high levels of fluoride in drinking water sources. In the mining areas within Lake Victoria basin, groundwater wit elevated concentrations of arsenic has been discovered over an extended area. Most of these geochemical and naturally occurring drinking water pollutants are patchy with uncertainities in their spatial and temporal distribution patterns. The adverse health effects of skin disorder and cancer due to an elevated As concentration are reported from the North Mara gold and Geita mining areas in the Lake Victoria basin. About 30% of the water sources used for drinking in Tanzania exceed the WHO guideline values of fluoride (1.5 mg/L) and arsenic (10 μg/L). There is a scarcity of baseline information on the water quality data especially on geogenic contaminants in the groundwater and surface water as potable sources. This information is crucial in exploring sources of safe drinking water aquifers, associated human health risks of fluoride and arsenic pollution. using Laboratory based studies during the past two decades have shown promising results on the removal of fluoride and arsenic using locally available adsorbent materials such as pumice, bauxite, ferralsols and bone char. Developing innovative technologies, pilot-scale implementation and scaling-up water purification based on the locally available adsorbents is thus necessary to safeguard the public health for communities exposed to high levels of fluoride and arsenic in drinking water.

Impact of human activities on the ecology of nontuberculous mycobacteria.

PubMed

Falkinham, Joseph O

2010-06-01

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are environmental opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. They are found in a wide variety of habitats to which humans are exposed, including drinking water distribution systems and household water and plumbing. In that regard, they are distinct from their obligate pathogenic relatives, the members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Owing to the presence of NTM in the human environment, human activities have had direct impacts on their ecology and thereby their epidemiology. NTM are oligotrophic, able to grow at low organic matter concentrations and over a wide range of temperatures, and even at low oxygen concentrations. Thus, NTM are normal inhabitants of natural waters and drinking waters. Discovery of the presence of NTM-polluted soils is not surprising in light of the ability of NTM to degrade a variety of hydrocarbon pollutants. A major human activity selecting for the growth and predominance of mycobacteria in habitats is disinfection. In comparison to other bacteria, NTM are disinfectant, heavy metal and antibiotic resistant. Therefore, the use of any antimicrobial agent selects for mycobacteria. Use of disinfectant in drinking water treatment selects for mycobacteria that can grow and come to proliferate in drinking water distribution systems in the absence of disinfectant-sensitive competing microorganisms. NTM selection may also occur as a consequence of antibiotics in drinking water sources.

Global costs and benefits of reaching universal coverage of sanitation and drinking-water supply.

PubMed

Hutton, Guy

2013-03-01

Economic evidence on the cost and benefits of sanitation and drinking-water supply supports higher allocation of resources and selection of efficient and affordable interventions. The study aim is to estimate global and regional costs and benefits of sanitation and drinking-water supply interventions to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) target in 2015, as well as to attain universal coverage. Input data on costs and benefits from reviewed literature were combined in an economic model to estimate the costs and benefits, and benefit-cost ratios (BCRs). Benefits included health and access time savings. Global BCRs (Dollar return per Dollar invested) were 5.5 for sanitation, 2.0 for water supply and 4.3 for combined sanitation and water supply. Globally, the costs of universal access amount to US$ 35 billion per year for sanitation and US$ 17.5 billion for drinking-water, over the 5-year period 2010-2015 (billion defined as 10(9) here and throughout). The regions accounting for the major share of costs and benefits are South Asia, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Improved sanitation and drinking-water supply deliver significant economic returns to society, especially sanitation. Economic evidence should further feed into advocacy efforts to raise funding from governments, households and the private sector.

Investigation of organic matter migrating from polymeric pipes into drinking water under different flow manners.

PubMed

Zhang, Ling; Liu, Shuming; Liu, Wenjun

2014-02-01

Polymeric pipes, such as unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) pipes, polypropylene random (PPR) pipes and polyethylene (PE) pipes are increasingly used for drinking water distribution lines. Plastic pipes may include some additives like metallic stabilizers and other antioxidants for the protection of the material during its production and use. Thus, some compounds can be released from those plastic pipes and cast a shadow on drinking water quality. This work develops a new procedure to investigate three types of polymer pipes (uPVC, PE and PPR) with respect to the migration of total organic carbon (TOC) into drinking water. The migration test was carried out in stagnant conditions with two types of migration processes, a continuous migration process and a successive migration process. These two types of migration processes are specially designed to mimic the conditions of different flow manners in drinking water pipelines, i.e., the situation of continuous stagnation with long hydraulic retention times and normal flow status with regular water renewing in drinking water networks. The experimental results showed that TOC release differed significantly with different plastic materials and under different flow manners. The order of materials with respect to the total amount of TOC migrating into drinking water was observed as PE > PPR > uPVC under both successive and continuous migration conditions. A higher amount of organic migration from PE and PPR pipes was likely to occur due to more organic antioxidants being used in pipe production. The results from the successive migration tests indicated the trend of the migration intensity of different pipe materials over time, while the results obtained from the continuous migration tests implied that under long stagnant conditions, the drinking water quality could deteriorate quickly with the consistent migration of organic compounds and the dramatic consumption of chlorine to a very low level. Higher amounts of TOC were released under the continuous migration tests.

Occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals at drinking water purification plants in Japan and implications for human health.

PubMed

Simazaki, Dai; Kubota, Reiji; Suzuki, Toshinari; Akiba, Michihiro; Nishimura, Tetsuji; Kunikane, Shoichi

2015-06-01

The present study was performed to determine the occurrence of 64 pharmaceuticals and metabolites in source water and finished water at 6 drinking water purification plants and 2 industrial water purification plants across Japan. The analytical methods employed were sample concentration using solid-phase extraction cartridges and instrumental analysis by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC/MS), or trimethylsilyl derivatization followed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Thirty-seven of the 64 target substances were detected in the source water samples. The maximum concentrations in the source water were mostly below 50 ng/L except for 13 substances. In particular, residual concentrations of iopamidol (contrast agent) exceeded 1000 ng/L at most facilities. Most of the residual pharmaceuticals and metabolites in the source water samples were removed in the course of conventional and/or advanced drinking water treatments, except for 7 pharmaceuticals and 1 metabolite, i.e., amantadine, carbamazepine, diclofenac, epinastine, fenofibrate, ibuprofen, iopamidol, and oseltamivir acid. The removal ratios of the advanced water treatment processes including ozonation and granular activated carbon filtration were typically much higher than those of the conventional treatment processes. The margins of exposure estimated by the ratio of daily minimum therapeutic dose to daily intake via drinking water were substantial, and therefore the pharmacological and physiological impacts of ingesting those residual substances via drinking water would be negligible. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in drinking water supplies of north Paraná State, Brazil.

PubMed

Lascowski, K M S; Guth, B E C; Martins, F H; Rocha, S P D; Irino, K; Pelayo, J S

2013-04-01

To determine the occurrence and characteristics of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in drinking water supplies treated and untreated. Drinking water samples (n = 1850) were collected from 41 municipalities in the north of Paraná State between February 2005 and January 2006. Escherichia coli isolates (n = 300) were recovered from water and investigated for the presence of virulence markers related to STEC by PCR. STEC isolates recovered were then characterized for both phenotypic and genotypic traits. A total of 12 isolates (11 from untreated water and one from treated water) were positive for stx, including five positive for both stx1 and stx2, two positive for stx1 and five positive for stx2. None of the STEC isolates contained eae, but other virulence genes were observed such as ehxA (100%), saa (100%), lpfAO113 (75%), iha (42%), subAB (25%) and cdtV (8%). Multidrug resistance was identified in 25% of the STEC isolates. The 12 STEC isolates belonged to seven distinct serotypes and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing revealed the presence of two clusters and two clones in this region. Drinking water, especially from untreated water supplies, can be source of STEC strains potentially pathogenic for humans. The investigation of the drinking water supplies for pathogenic E. coli, as STEC, may be useful to prevent waterborne outbreaks. © 2012 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

Occurrence of viruses and protozoa in drinking water sources of Japan and their relationship to indicator microorganisms.

PubMed

Haramoto, Eiji; Kitajima, Masaaki; Kishida, Naohiro; Katayama, Hiroyuki; Asami, Mari; Akiba, Michihiro

2012-09-01

A nationwide survey of viruses, protozoa, and indicator microorganisms in drinking water sources of Japan was conducted. Among 64 surface water samples collected from 16 drinking water treatment plants, 51 (80 %) samples were positive for at least one of the 11 pathogen types tested, including noroviruses of genogroups I (positive rate, 13 %) and II (2 %), human sapoviruses (5 %), human adenoviruses of serotypes 40 and 41 (39 %), Cryptosporidium oocysts (41 %), and Giardia cysts (36 %). Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and F-specific coliphages were detected in 63 (98 %), 33 (52 %), and 17 (27 %) samples, respectively, and E. coli was judged to be the most suitable indicator of pathogen contamination of drinking water sources. Genogroup-specific real-time PCR for F-specific coliphages revealed the presence of F-specific RNA coliphages of animal genogroup I and human genogroups II and III in 13 (41 %), 12 (39 %), and 1 (3 %), respectively, of 31 plaques isolated.

Follow up of water use in a tin mining area affected with arsenic poisoning.

PubMed

Chongsuvivatwong, V; Lim, A; Dueravee, M; Geater, A; Ritsamitchai, S; Oshikawa, S

2000-12-01

Ron Phibun district in southern Thailand has been known as an endemic area for arsenic contamination. The government has been trying to improve the situation by encouraging the use of rainwater and piped water. This study aimed to document the change of water use and to identify factors associated with safe water use in 1997 compared to that in 1994. Home visits and face-to-face questionnaire interviews were undertaken. Information on water use for drinking, cooking, washing food and washing utensils in 1994 and 1997 was obtained. Among 3,849 households from which data could be obtained (estimated 79% of total households), the percentages of using safe water (including water from bottled rain water, piped and artesian well water) for drinking and cooking rose from 72.5 and 57.9 in 1994 to 93.6 and 80.9 in 1997, respectively. The percentages for washing foods and for washing utensils rose from 28.6 and 20.5 to 59.1 and 53.8, respectively. In 1997, percentage of households using piped water for drinking and cooking was still low (3.6 and 12.3) compared to those using piped water for washing food and utensils (39.1 and 43.6). Multivariate analysis shows that independent factors of the household predicting safe water use are: high arsenic area, near main road and having piped water installed. The influence of these factors (as judged by the level of odds ratio) operates more or less equally on water use for all purposes, except that installation of piped water has more influence on washing water than drinking and cooking water. We conclude that safe water supply in the area is still inadequate. Even if piped water is installed, it is often not used for drinking and cooking. The reasons for not using piped water for drinking and cooking need to be identified.

Microbial Community Structures and Dynamics in the O3/BAC Drinking Water Treatment Process

PubMed Central

Tian, Jian; Lu, Jun; Zhang, Yu; Li, Jian-Cheng; Sun, Li-Chen; Hu, Zhang-Li

2014-01-01

Effectiveness of drinking water treatment, in particular pathogen control during the water treatment process, is always a major public health concern. In this investigation, the application of PCR-DGGE technology to the analysis of microbial community structures and dynamics in the drinking water treatment process revealed several dominant microbial populations including: α-Proteobacteria, β-Proteobacteria, γ-Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria Firmicutes and Cyanobacteria. α-Proteobacteria and β-Proteobacteria were the dominant bacteria during the whole process. Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the dominant bacteria before and after treatment, respectively. Firmicutes showed season-dependent changes in population dynamics. Importantly, γ-Proteobacteria, which is a class of medically important bacteria, was well controlled by the O3/biological activated carbon (BAC) treatment, resulting in improved effluent water bio-safety. PMID:24937529

BIODEGRADATION OF ATRAZINE IN SUBSURFACE ENVIRONMENTS

EPA Science Inventory

The pesticide atrazine is frequently detected in ground water, including ground water used as drinking water. Little information is available on the fate of atrazine in the subsurface, including its biodegradability. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the biodegradabil...

Suspect screening and non-targeted analysis of drinking water using point-of-use filters.

PubMed

Newton, Seth R; McMahen, Rebecca L; Sobus, Jon R; Mansouri, Kamel; Williams, Antony J; McEachran, Andrew D; Strynar, Mark J

2018-03-01

Monitored contaminants in drinking water represent a small portion of the total compounds present, many of which may be relevant to human health. To understand the totality of human exposure to compounds in drinking water, broader monitoring methods are imperative. In an effort to more fully characterize the drinking water exposome, point-of-use water filtration devices (Brita ® filters) were employed to collect time-integrated drinking water samples in a pilot study of nine North Carolina homes. A suspect screening analysis was performed by matching high resolution mass spectra of unknown features to molecular formulas from EPA's DSSTox database. Candidate compounds with those formulas were retrieved from the EPA's CompTox Chemistry Dashboard, a recently developed data hub for approximately 720,000 compounds. To prioritize compounds into those most relevant for human health, toxicity data from the US federal collaborative Tox21 program and the EPA ToxCast program, as well as exposure estimates from EPA's ExpoCast program, were used in conjunction with sample detection frequency and abundance to calculate a "ToxPi" score for each candidate compound. From ∼15,000 molecular features in the raw data, 91 candidate compounds were ultimately grouped into the highest priority class for follow up study. Fifteen of these compounds were confirmed using analytical standards including the highest priority compound, 1,2-Benzisothiazolin-3-one, which appeared in 7 out of 9 samples. The majority of the other high priority compounds are not targets of routine monitoring, highlighting major gaps in our understanding of drinking water exposures. General product-use categories from EPA's CPCat database revealed that several of the high priority chemicals are used in industrial processes, indicating the drinking water in central North Carolina may be impacted by local industries. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

30 CFR 71.603 - Drinking water; dispensing requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Drinking water; dispensing requirements. 71.603... COAL MINES Drinking Water § 71.603 Drinking water; dispensing requirements. (a) Water shall be dispensed through a drinking fountain or from a water storage container with an adequate supply of single...

30 CFR 71.603 - Drinking water; dispensing requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Drinking water; dispensing requirements. 71.603... COAL MINES Drinking Water § 71.603 Drinking water; dispensing requirements. (a) Water shall be dispensed through a drinking fountain or from a water storage container with an adequate supply of single...

76 FR 38158 - Meeting of the National Drinking Water Advisory Council; Notice of Public Meeting

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2011-06-29

... water supplies. The Council will also receive updates about several on-going drinking water program... ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY [FRL-9425-8] Meeting of the National Drinking Water Advisory... meeting of the National Drinking Water Advisory Council (NDWAC), established under the Safe Drinking Water...

30 CFR 71.603 - Drinking water; dispensing requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Drinking water; dispensing requirements. 71.603... COAL MINES Drinking Water § 71.603 Drinking water; dispensing requirements. (a) Water shall be dispensed through a drinking fountain or from a water storage container with an adequate supply of single...

30 CFR 71.603 - Drinking water; dispensing requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2012-07-01 2012-07-01 false Drinking water; dispensing requirements. 71.603... COAL MINES Drinking Water § 71.603 Drinking water; dispensing requirements. (a) Water shall be dispensed through a drinking fountain or from a water storage container with an adequate supply of single...

30 CFR 71.603 - Drinking water; dispensing requirements.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2013-07-01 2013-07-01 false Drinking water; dispensing requirements. 71.603... COAL MINES Drinking Water § 71.603 Drinking water; dispensing requirements. (a) Water shall be dispensed through a drinking fountain or from a water storage container with an adequate supply of single...

Lead and Drinking Water from Private Wells

MedlinePlus

... Drinking Water Policy & Recommendations History of Drinking Water Treatment Drinking Water FAQ Fast Facts Healthy Water Sites Healthy Water ... if needed. You may also wish to consider water treatment methods such as reverse osmosis, distillation, and carbon ...

Characterizing the concentration of Cryptosporidium in Australian surface waters for setting health-based targets for drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Petterson, S; Roser, D; Deere, D

2015-09-01

It is proposed that the next revision of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines will include 'health-based targets', where the required level of potable water treatment quantitatively relates to the magnitude of source water pathogen concentrations. To quantify likely Cryptosporidium concentrations in southern Australian surface source waters, the databases for 25 metropolitan water supplies with good historical records, representing a range of catchment sizes, land use and climatic regions were mined. The distributions and uncertainty intervals for Cryptosporidium concentrations were characterized for each site. Then, treatment targets were quantified applying the framework recommended in the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality 2011. Based on total oocyst concentrations, and not factoring in genotype or physiological state information as it relates to infectivity for humans, the best estimates of the required level of treatment, expressed as log10 reduction values, ranged among the study sites from 1.4 to 6.1 log10. Challenges associated with relying on historical monitoring data for defining drinking water treatment requirements were identified. In addition, the importance of quantitative microbial risk assessment input assumptions on the quantified treatment targets was investigated, highlighting the need for selection of locally appropriate values.

Variability in the chemistry of private drinking water supplies and the impact of domestic treatment systems on water quality.

PubMed

Ander, E L; Watts, M J; Smedley, P L; Hamilton, E M; Close, R; Crabbe, H; Fletcher, T; Rimell, A; Studden, M; Leonardi, G

2016-12-01

Tap water from 497 properties using private water supplies, in an area of metalliferous and arsenic mineralisation (Cornwall, UK), was measured to assess the extent of compliance with chemical drinking water quality standards, and how this is influenced by householder water treatment decisions. The proportion of analyses exceeding water quality standards were high, with 65 % of tap water samples exceeding one or more chemical standards. The highest exceedances for health-based standards were nitrate (11 %) and arsenic (5 %). Arsenic had a maximum observed concentration of 440 µg/L. Exceedances were also high for pH (47 %), manganese (12 %) and aluminium (7 %), for which standards are set primarily on aesthetic grounds. However, the highest observed concentrations of manganese and aluminium also exceeded relevant health-based guidelines. Significant reductions in concentrations of aluminium, cadmium, copper, lead and/or nickel were found in tap waters where households were successfully treating low-pH groundwaters, and similar adventitious results were found for arsenic and nickel where treatment was installed for iron and/or manganese removal, and successful treatment specifically to decrease tap water arsenic concentrations was observed at two properties where it was installed. However, 31 % of samples where pH treatment was reported had pH < 6.5 (the minimum value in the drinking water regulations), suggesting widespread problems with system maintenance. Other examples of ineffectual treatment are seen in failed responses post-treatment, including for nitrate. This demonstrates that even where the tap waters are considered to be treated, they may still fail one or more drinking water quality standards. We find that the degree of drinking water standard exceedances warrant further work to understand environmental controls and the location of high concentrations. We also found that residents were more willing to accept drinking water with high metal (iron and manganese) concentrations than international guidelines assume. These findings point to the need for regulators to reinforce the guidance on drinking water quality standards to private water supply users, and the benefits to long-term health of complying with these, even in areas where treated mains water is widely available.

Health and environmental policy issues in Canada: the role of watershed management in sustaining clean drinking water quality at surface sources.

PubMed

Davies, John-Mark; Mazumder, Asit

2003-07-01

Sustaining clean and safe drinking water sources is increasingly becoming a priority because of global pollution. The means of attaining and maintaining clean drinking water sources requires effective policies that identify, document, and reduce watershed risks. These risks are defined by their potential impact to human health. Health and risk are, therefore, indelibly linked because they are in part defined by each other. Understanding pathogen ecology and identifying watershed sources remains a priority because of the associated acute risks. Surface water quality changes resulting from inputs of human waste, nutrients and chemicals are associated with higher drinking water risks. Nutrient input can increase primary production and the resulting increase of organic matter results in greater disinfection by-product formation or requires greater treatment intensity. Many drinking water disease outbreaks have resulted from breaches in treatment facilities, therefore, even with greater treatment intensity poor source water quality intrinsically has greater associated health risks. Government and international agencies play a critical role in developing policy. The goal of maintaining water supplies whose availability is maximized and risks are minimized (i.e. sustainable) should be a vital part of such policy. Health risks are discussed in the context of a multi-barrier perspective and it is concluded that both passive (protection) and active (prescriptive management) management is necessary for sustainability. Canadian aboriginal water systems, British Columbian water policy and US EPA policies are given as examples. The basis for developing effective policies includes a strong reliance on sound science and effective instrumentation with careful consideration of stakeholders' interests. Only with such directed policies can the future availability of clean drinking water sources be ensured.

Neutral degradates of chloroacetamide herbicides: occurrence in drinking water and removal during conventional water treatment.

PubMed

Hladik, Michelle L; Bouwer, Edward J; Roberts, A Lynn

2008-12-01

Treated drinking water samples from 12 water utilities in the Midwestern United States were collected during Fall 2003 and Spring 2004 and were analyzed for selected neutral degradates of chloroacetamide herbicides, along with related compounds. Target analytes included 20 neutral chloroacetamide degradates, six ionic chloroacetamide degradates, four parent chloroacetamide herbicides, three triazine herbicides, and two neutral triazine degradates. In the fall samples, 17 of 20 neutral chloroacetamide degradates were detected in the finished drinking water, while 19 of 20 neutral chloroacetamide degradates were detected in the spring. Median concentrations for the neutral chloroacetamide degradates were approximately 2-60ng/L during both sampling periods. Concentrations measured in the fall samples of treated water were nearly the same as those measured in source waters, despite the variety of treatment trains employed. Significant removals (average of 40% for all compounds) were only found in the spring samples at those utilities that employed activated carbon.

Expression of a plant-derived peptide harboring water-cleaning and antimicrobial activities.

PubMed

Suarez, M; Entenza, J M; Doerries, C; Meyer, E; Bourquin, L; Sutherland, J; Marison, I; Moreillon, P; Mermod, N

2003-01-05

Drinking water is currently a scarce world resource, the preparation of which requires complex treatments that include clarification of suspended particles and disinfection. Seed extracts of Moringa oleifera Lam., a tropical tree, have been proposed as an environment-friendly alternative, due to their traditional use for the clarification of drinking water. However, the precise nature of the active components of the extract and whether they may be produced in recombinant form are unknown. Here we show that recombinant or synthetic forms of a cationic seed polypeptide mediate efficient sedimentation of suspended mineral particles and bacteria. Unexpectedly, the polypeptide was also found to possesses a bactericidal activity capable of disinfecting heavily contaminated water. Furthermore, the polypeptide has been shown to efficiently kill several pathogenic bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant isolates of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Legionella species. Thus, this polypeptide displays the unprecedented feature of combining water purification and disinfectant properties. Identification of an active principle derived from the seed extracts points to a range of potential for drinking water treatment or skin and mucosal disinfection in clinical settings. Copyright 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Towards a Quantitative Framework for Evaluating Vulnerability of Drinking Water Wells to Contamination from Unconventional Oil & Gas Development

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Soriano, M., Jr.; Deziel, N. C.; Saiers, J. E.

2017-12-01

The rapid expansion of unconventional oil and gas (UO&G) production, made possible by advances in hydraulic fracturing (fracking), has triggered concerns over risks this extraction poses to water resources and public health. Concerns are particularly acute within communities that host UO&G development and rely heavily on shallow aquifers as sources of drinking water. This research aims to develop a quantitative framework to evaluate the vulnerability of drinking water wells to contamination from UO&G activities. The concept of well vulnerability is explored through application of backwards travel time probability modeling to estimate the likelihood that capture zones of drinking water wells circumscribe source locations of UO&G contamination. Sources of UO&G contamination considered in this analysis include gas well pads and documented sites of UO&G wastewater and chemical spills. The modeling approach is illustrated for a portion of Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, where more than one thousand shale gas wells have been completed since 2005. Data from a network of eight multi-level groundwater monitoring wells installed in the study site in 2015 are used to evaluate the model. The well vulnerability concept is proposed as a physically based quantitative tool for policy-makers dealing with the management of contamination risks of drinking water wells. In particular, the model can be used to identify adequate setback distances of UO&G activities from drinking water wells and other critical receptors.

Drinking Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion Interventions in Two Slum Communities in Central Uganda.

PubMed

Musoke, David; Ndejjo, Rawlance; Halage, Abdullah Ali; Kasasa, Simon; Ssempebwa, John C; Carpenter, David O

2018-01-01

Poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) continue to contribute to the high prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases in low-income countries such as Uganda particularly in slums. We implemented a 3-year WASH project in two urban slums in Uganda with a focus on safe drinking water and improvement in sanitation. The project implemented community and school interventions in addition to capacity building initiatives. Community interventions included home improvement campaigns, clean-up exercises, water quality assessment, promotion of drinking safe water through household point-of-use chlorination, promotion of hand washing, and support towards solid waste management. In schools, the project supported health clubs and provided them with "talking compound" messages. The capacity building initiatives undertaken included training of youth and community health workers. Project evaluation revealed several improvements in WASH status of the slums including increase in piped water usage from 38% to 86%, reduction in use of unprotected water sources from 30% to 2%, reduction in indiscriminate disposal of solid waste from 18% to 2%, and increase in satisfaction with solid waste management services from 40% to 92%. Such proactive and sustainable community interventions have the potential to not only improve lives of slum inhabitants in developing countries but also create lasting impact.

Drinking Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion Interventions in Two Slum Communities in Central Uganda

PubMed Central

Halage, Abdullah Ali; Kasasa, Simon; Ssempebwa, John C.; Carpenter, David O.

2018-01-01

Poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) continue to contribute to the high prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases in low-income countries such as Uganda particularly in slums. We implemented a 3-year WASH project in two urban slums in Uganda with a focus on safe drinking water and improvement in sanitation. The project implemented community and school interventions in addition to capacity building initiatives. Community interventions included home improvement campaigns, clean-up exercises, water quality assessment, promotion of drinking safe water through household point-of-use chlorination, promotion of hand washing, and support towards solid waste management. In schools, the project supported health clubs and provided them with “talking compound” messages. The capacity building initiatives undertaken included training of youth and community health workers. Project evaluation revealed several improvements in WASH status of the slums including increase in piped water usage from 38% to 86%, reduction in use of unprotected water sources from 30% to 2%, reduction in indiscriminate disposal of solid waste from 18% to 2%, and increase in satisfaction with solid waste management services from 40% to 92%. Such proactive and sustainable community interventions have the potential to not only improve lives of slum inhabitants in developing countries but also create lasting impact. PMID:29623096

Drinking Water Quality Status and Contamination in Pakistan

PubMed Central

Nafees, Muhammad; Rizwan, Muhammad; Bajwa, Raees Ahmad; Shakoor, Muhammad Bilal; Arshad, Muhammad Umair; Chatha, Shahzad Ali Shahid; Deeba, Farah; Murad, Waheed; Malook, Ijaz

2017-01-01

Due to alarming increase in population and rapid industrialization, drinking water quality is being deteriorated day by day in Pakistan. This review sums up the outcomes of various research studies conducted for drinking water quality status of different areas of Pakistan by taking into account the physicochemical properties of drinking water as well as the presence of various pathogenic microorganisms. About 20% of the whole population of Pakistan has access to safe drinking water. The remaining 80% of population is forced to use unsafe drinking water due to the scarcity of safe and healthy drinking water sources. The primary source of contamination is sewerage (fecal) which is extensively discharged into drinking water system supplies. Secondary source of pollution is the disposal of toxic chemicals from industrial effluents, pesticides, and fertilizers from agriculture sources into the water bodies. Anthropogenic activities cause waterborne diseases that constitute about 80% of all diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths. This review highlights the drinking water quality, contamination sources, sanitation situation, and effects of unsafe drinking water on humans. There is immediate need to take protective measures and treatment technologies to overcome unhygienic condition of drinking water supplies in different areas of Pakistan. PMID:28884130

Drinking Water Quality Status and Contamination in Pakistan.

PubMed

Daud, M K; Nafees, Muhammad; Ali, Shafaqat; Rizwan, Muhammad; Bajwa, Raees Ahmad; Shakoor, Muhammad Bilal; Arshad, Muhammad Umair; Chatha, Shahzad Ali Shahid; Deeba, Farah; Murad, Waheed; Malook, Ijaz; Zhu, Shui Jin

2017-01-01

Due to alarming increase in population and rapid industrialization, drinking water quality is being deteriorated day by day in Pakistan. This review sums up the outcomes of various research studies conducted for drinking water quality status of different areas of Pakistan by taking into account the physicochemical properties of drinking water as well as the presence of various pathogenic microorganisms. About 20% of the whole population of Pakistan has access to safe drinking water. The remaining 80% of population is forced to use unsafe drinking water due to the scarcity of safe and healthy drinking water sources. The primary source of contamination is sewerage (fecal) which is extensively discharged into drinking water system supplies. Secondary source of pollution is the disposal of toxic chemicals from industrial effluents, pesticides, and fertilizers from agriculture sources into the water bodies. Anthropogenic activities cause waterborne diseases that constitute about 80% of all diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths. This review highlights the drinking water quality, contamination sources, sanitation situation, and effects of unsafe drinking water on humans. There is immediate need to take protective measures and treatment technologies to overcome unhygienic condition of drinking water supplies in different areas of Pakistan.

The Perspective of Riverbank Filtration in China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Li, J.; Teng, Y.; Zhai, Y.; Zuo, R.

2014-12-01

Sustainable drinking water supply can affect the health of people, and the surrounding ecosystems. According to statistics of the monitoring program of drinking water sources in 309 at or above prefecture level of China in 2013, the major pollutants index were total phosphorus, ammonia and manganese in surface drinking water sources, respectively, iron, ammonia and manganese in groundwater drinking water sources, respectively. More than 150 drinking water emergency environmental accidents happened since 2006, 52 of these accidents led to the disruption of water supply in waterworks, and a population of over ten million were affected. It indicated that there is a potential risk for people's health by the use of river water directly and it is necessary to require alternative techniques such as riverbank filtration for improving the drinking water quality. Riverbank filtration is an inexpensive natural process, not only smoothing out normal pollutant concentration found in surface water but also significantly reducing the risk from such emergency events as chemical spill into the river. Riverbank filtration technique has been used in many countries more than 100 years, including China. In China, in 1950s, the bank infiltration technique was first applied in northeast of China. Extensive bank infiltration application was conducted in 1980s, and more than 300 drinking water sources utilities bank infiltration established mainly near the Songhua River Basin, the Yellow River Basin, Haihe River Basin. However, the comparative lack of application and researches on riverbank filtration have formed critical scientific data gap in China. As the performance of riverbank filtration technique depend on not only the design and setting such as well type, pumping rate, but also the local hydrogeology and environmental properties. We recommend more riverbank filtration project and studies to be conducted to collect related significant environmental geology data in China. Additionally, the experience has demonstrated a number of water quality improvements associated with riverbank filtration. It is important to stress that the fate and behavior of emerging organic contaminants during riverbank filtration should be taken into special consideration.

Lead and tap water

MedlinePlus

... EPA) to set and enforce standards to protect public drinking water systems. The Agency requires water suppliers to produce annual water quality reports. These reports include information about lead amounts. The reports are available to ...

78 FR 65561 - D-Glucopyranose, oligomeric, decyl octyl glycosides; Exemption from the Requirement of a Tolerance

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-11-01

... exposure through drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include occupational exposure... ingredient through food, drinking water, and through other exposures that occur as a result of pesticide use... observed at the dose levels of 1,500 and 3,000 mg/kg/day, these effects are likely attributable to stress...

METHOD 544. DETERMINATION OF MICROCYSTINS AND NODULARIN IN DRINKING WATER BY SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION AND LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY/TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY (LC/MS/MS)

EPA Science Inventory

Method 544 is an accurate and precise analytical method to determine six microcystins (including MC-LR) and nodularin in drinking water using solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC/MS/MS). The advantage of this SPE-LC/MS/MS is its sensi...

Relationship between drinking water and toenail arsenic concentrations among a cohort of Nova Scotians.

PubMed

Yu, Zhijie M; Dummer, Trevor J B; Adams, Aimee; Murimboh, John D; Parker, Louise

2014-01-01

Consumption of arsenic-contaminated drinking water is associated with increased cancer risk. The relationship between arsenic body burden, such as concentrations in human toenails, and arsenic in drinking water is not fully understood. We evaluated the relationship between arsenic concentrations in drinking water and toenail clippings among a cohort of Nova Scotians. A total of 960 men and women aged 35 to 69 years provided home drinking water and toenail clipping samples. Information on water source and treatment use and covariables was collected through questionnaires. Arsenic concentrations in drinking water and toenail clippings and anthropometric indices were measured. Private drilled water wells had higher arsenic concentrations compared with other dug wells and municipal drinking water sources (P<0.001). Among participants with drinking water arsenic levels ≥1 μg/l, there was a significant relationship between drinking water and toenail arsenic concentrations (r=0.46, P<0.0001). Given similar levels of arsenic exposure from drinking water, obese individuals had significantly lower concentrations of arsenic in toenails compared with those with a normal weight. Private drilled water wells were an important source of arsenic exposure in the study population. Body weight modifies the relationship between drinking water arsenic exposure and toenail arsenic concentrations.

Low-pressure membrane integrity tests for drinking water treatment: A review.

PubMed

Guo, H; Wyart, Y; Perot, J; Nauleau, F; Moulin, P

2010-01-01

Low-pressure membrane systems, including microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes, are being increasingly used in drinking water treatments due to their high level of pathogen removal. However, the pathogen will pass through the membrane and contaminate the product if the membrane integrity is compromised. Therefore, an effective on-line integrity monitoring method for MF and UF membrane systems is essential to guarantee the regulatory requirements for pathogen removal. A lot of works on low-pressure membrane integrity tests have been conducted by many researchers. This paper provides a literature review about different low-pressure membrane integrity monitoring methods for the drinking water treatment, including direct methods (pressure-based tests, acoustic sensor test, liquid porosimetry, etc.) and indirect methods (particle counting, particle monitoring, turbidity monitoring, surrogate challenge tests). Additionally, some information about the operation of membrane integrity tests is presented here. It can be realized from this review that it remains urgent to develop an alternative on-line detection technique for a quick, accurate, simple, continuous and relatively inexpensive evaluation of low-pressure membrane integrity. To better satisfy regulatory requirements for drinking water treatments, the characteristic of this ideal membrane integrity test is proposed at the end of this paper.

Monitoring of PAEMs and beta-agonists in urine for a small group of experimental subjects and PAEs and beta-agonists in drinking water consumed by the same subjects.

PubMed

Liou, Saou-Hsing; Yang, Gordon C C; Wang, Chih-Lung; Chiu, Yu-Han

2014-07-30

This 5-month study contains two parts: (1) to monitor the concentrations of 11 phthalate esters metabolites (PAEMs) and two beta-agonists in human urine samples collected from a small group of consented participants including 16 females and five males; and (2) to analyze the residues of phthalate esters (PAEs) and beta-agonists in various categories of drinking water consumed by the same group of subjects. Each category of human urine and drinking water had 183 samples of its own. The analytical results showed that nine PAEMs were detected in human urine and eight PAEs were detected in drinking water samples. It was found that average concentrations of PAEMs increased as the age increased, but no significant difference between sexes. Further, using the principal component analysis, the loadings of age effect were found to be two times greater than that of gender effect in terms of four DEHP metabolites. Regarding beta-agonists of concern (i.e., ractopamine and salbutamol), they were neither detected in human urine nor drinking water samples in this study. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Are luminescent bacteria suitable for online detection and monitoring of toxic compounds in drinking water and its sources?

PubMed

Woutersen, Marjolijn; Belkin, Shimshon; Brouwer, Bram; van Wezel, Annemarie P; Heringa, Minne B

2011-05-01

Biosensors based on luminescent bacteria may be valuable tools to monitor the chemical quality and safety of surface and drinking water. In this review, an overview is presented of the recombinant strains available that harbour the bacterial luciferase genes luxCDABE, and which may be used in an online biosensor for water quality monitoring. Many bacterial strains have been described for the detection of a broad range of toxicity parameters, including DNA damage, protein damage, membrane damage, oxidative stress, organic pollutants, and heavy metals. Most lux strains have sensitivities with detection limits ranging from milligrams per litre to micrograms per litre, usually with higher sensitivities in compound-specific strains. Although the sensitivity of lux strains can be enhanced by various molecular manipulations, most reported detection thresholds are still too high to detect levels of individual contaminants as they occur nowadays in European drinking waters. However, lux strains sensing specific toxic effects have the advantage of being able to respond to mixtures of contaminants inducing the same effect, and thus could be used as a sensor for the sum effect, including the effect of compounds that are as yet not identified by chemical analysis. An evaluation of the suitability of lux strains for monitoring surface and drinking water is therefore provided.

A new approach to data evaluation in the non-target screening of organic trace substances in water analysis.

PubMed

Müller, Alexander; Schulz, Wolfgang; Ruck, Wolfgang K L; Weber, Walter H

2011-11-01

Non-target screening via high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) has gained increasingly in importance for monitoring organic trace substances in water resources targeted for the production of drinking water. In this article a new approach for evaluating the data from non-target HPLC-MS screening in water is introduced and its advantages are demonstrated using the supply of drinking water as an example. The crucial difference between this and other approaches is the comparison of samples based on compounds (features) determined by their full scan data. In so doing, we take advantage of the temporal, spatial, or process-based relationships among the samples by applying the set operators, UNION, INTERSECT, and COMPLEMENT to the features of each sample. This approach regards all compounds, detectable by the used analytical method. That is the fundamental meaning of non-target screening, which includes all analytical information from the applied technique for further data evaluation. In the given example, in just one step, all detected features (1729) of a landfill leachate sample could be examined for their relevant influences on water purification respectively drinking water. This study shows that 1721 out of 1729 features were not relevant for the water purification. Only eight features could be determined in the untreated water and three of them were found in the final drinking water after ozonation. In so doing, it was possible to identify 1-adamantylamine as contamination of the landfill in the drinking water at a concentration in the range of 20 ng L(-1). To support the identification of relevant compounds and their transformation products, the DAIOS database (Database-Assisted Identification of Organic Substances) was used. This database concept includes some functions such as product ion search to increase the efficiency of the database query after the screening. To identify related transformation products the database function "transformation tree" was used. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

What’s in the Pool? A Comprehensive Identification of Disinfection By-products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water

PubMed Central

Richardson, Susan D.; DeMarini, David M.; Kogevinas, Manolis; Fernandez, Pilar; Marco, Esther; Lourencetti, Carolina; Ballesté, Clara; Heederik, Dick; Meliefste, Kees; McKague, A. Bruce; Marcos, Ricard; Font-Ribera, Laia; Grimalt, Joan O.; Villanueva, Cristina M.

2010-01-01

Background Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity. Objectives We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results. Methods We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Results We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (~ 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100–S9 mix). Conclusions This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters. PMID:20833605

Mapping of drinking water research: a bibliometric analysis of research output during 1992-2011.

PubMed

Fu, Hui-Zhen; Wang, Ming-Huang; Ho, Yuh-Shan

2013-01-15

A bibliometric analysis based on the Science Citation Index Expanded from the Web of Science was carried out to provide insights into research activities and tendencies of the global drinking water from 1992 to 2011. Study emphases included performance of publication covering annual outputs, mainstream journals, Web of Science categories, leading countries, institutions, research tendencies and hotspots. The results indicated that annual output of the related scientific articles increased steadily. Water Research, Environmental Science & Technology, and Journal American Water Works Association were the three most common journals in drinking water research. The USA took a leading position out of 168 countries/territories, followed by Japan and Germany. A summary of the most frequently used keywords obtained from words in paper title analysis, author keyword analysis and KeyWords Plus analysis provided the clues to discover the current research emphases. The mainstream research related to drinking water was water treatment methods and the related contaminants. Disinfection process and consequent disinfection by-products attracted much attention. Ozonation and chlorination in disinfection, and adsorption were common techniques and are getting popular. Commonly researched drinking water contaminants concerned arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, lead, and cadmium, and pharmaceuticals emerged as the frequently studied contaminants in recent years. Disease caused by contaminants strongly promoted the development of related research. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Beverage consumption in an Alaska Native village: a mixed-methods study of behaviour, attitudes and access

PubMed Central

de Schweinitz, Peter; Wojcicki, Janet M.

2016-01-01

Background American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/AN) have the highest prevalence of obesity for any racial/ethnic group. Previous studies examining risk factors for obesity have identified excessive sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) and inadequate water consumption as major risk factors for this population group. The historical scarcity of water in rural Alaska may explain consumption patterns including reliance on SSBs and other packaged drinks. Methods Our study was designed to assess SSB, water and other beverage consumption and attitudes towards consumption in Alaska Native children and adults residing in rural Alaska. During summer 2014, 2 focus groups were conducted employing community members in a small rural village more than 200 air miles west of Fairbanks, Alaska. Interviews were completed with shop owners, Early Head Start and Head Start program instructors (n=7). SSB and total beverage intakes were measured using a modified version of the BEVQ-15, (n=69). Results High rates of SSB consumption (defined as sweetened juice beverages, soda, sweet tea, energy drink or sports drinks) and low rates of water consumption were reported for all age groups in the village. All adolescents and 81% of children reported drinking SSBs at least once per week in the last month, and 48% of adolescents and 29% of younger children reported daily consumption. Fifty-two per cent of adults reported consuming SSBs at least once per week and 20% reported daily consumption. Twenty-five per cent of adolescents reported never drinking water in the past month, and 19% of younger children and 21% of adults did not consume water daily. Conclusion Alaska Native children and adults living in the Interior Alaska consume high amounts of SSBs including energy drinks and insufficient amounts of water. Interventions targeting beverage consumption are urgently needed for the Alaska Native population in rural Alaska. PMID:26928369

[Geographic distribution and exposure population of drinking water with high concentration of arsenic in China].

PubMed

Zhang, L; Chen, C

1997-09-01

According to the data obtained from the "National Survey on Drinking Water Quality and Waterborne Diseases", the geographic distribution and exposure population of high arsenic drinking water were reported. From the data of more than 28,800 water samples, we found 9.02 million people drinking the water with As concentration of 0.030-0.049 mg/L, 3.34 million people having their water of 0.050-0.099 mg/L and 2.29 million people having water of > 0.1 mg/L. A total of 14.6 million people, about 1.5% of the surveyed population was exposed to As (> 0.030 mg/L) from drinking water. 80% of high-As-drinking water was groundwater. The situation of As in drinking water in provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities were listed. The locations of sampling site where water As exceeded the national standard for drinking water were illustrated.

Occurrence and distribution of methyl tert-butyl ether and other volatile organic compounds in drinking water in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States, 1993-98

USGS Publications Warehouse

Grady, S.J.; Casey, G.D.

2001-01-01

Data on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water supplied by 2,110 randomly selected community water systems (CWSs) in 12 Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States indicate 64 VOC analytes were detected at least once during 1993-98. Selection of the 2,110 CWSs inventoried for this study targeted 20 percent of the 10,479 active CWSs in the region and represented a random subset of the total distribution by State, source of water, and size of system. The data include 21,635 analyses of drinking water collected for compliance monitoring under the Safe Drinking Water Act; the data mostly represent finished drinking water collected at the pointof- entry to, or at more distal locations within, each CWS?s distribution system following any watertreatment processes. VOC detections were more common in drinking water supplied by large systems (serving more than 3,300 people) that tap surface-water sources or both surface- and groundwater sources than in small systems supplied exclusively by ground-water sources. Trihalomethane (THM) compounds, which are potentially formed during the process of disinfecting drinking water with chlorine, were detected in 45 percent of the randomly selected CWSs. Chloroform was the most frequently detected THM, reported in 39 percent of the CWSs. The gasoline additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was the most frequently detected VOC in drinking water after the THMs. MTBE was detected in 8.9 percent of the 1,194 randomly selected CWSs that analyzed samples for MTBE at any reporting level, and it was detected in 7.8 percent of the 1,074 CWSs that provided MTBE data at the 1.0-?g/L (microgram per liter) reporting level. As with other VOCs reported in drinking water, most MTBE concentrations were less than 5.0 ?g/L, and less than 1 percent of CWSs reported MTBE concentrations at or above the 20.0-?g/L lower limit recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency?s Drinking-Water Advisory. The frequency of MTBE detections in drinking water is significantly related to high- MTBE-use patterns. Detections are five times more likely in areas where MTBE is or has been used in gasoline at greater than 5 percent by volume as part of the oxygenated or reformulated (OXY/RFG) fuels program. Detection frequencies of the individual gasoline compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX)) were mostly less than 3 percent of the randomly selected CWSs, but collectively, BTEX compounds were detected in 8.4 percent of CWSs. BTEX concentrations also were low and just three drinkingwater samples contained BTEX at concentrations exceeding 20 ?g/L. Co-occurrence of MTBE and BTEX was rare, and only 0.8 percent of CWSs reported simultaneous detections of MTBE and BTEX compounds. Low concentrations and cooccurrence of MTBE and BTEX indicate most gasoline contaminants in drinking water probably represent nonpoint sources. Solvents were frequently detected in drinking water in the 12-State area. One or more of 27 individual solvent VOCs were detected at any reporting level in 3,080 drinking-water samples from 304 randomly selected CWSs (14 percent) and in 206 CWSs (9.8 percent) at concentrations at or above 1.0 ?g/L. High co-occurrence among solvents probably reflects common sources and the presence of transformation by-products. Other VOCs were relatively rarely detected in drinking water in the 12-State area. Six percent (127) of the 2,110 randomly selected CWSs reported concentrations of 16 VOCs at or above drinking-water criteria. The 127 CWSs collectively serve 2.6 million people. The occurrence of VOCs in drinking water was significantly associated (p<0.0001) with high population- density urban areas. New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, States with substantial urbanization and high population density, had the highest frequency of VOC detections among the 12 States. More than two-thirds of the randomly selected CWSs in New Jersey reported detecting VOC concentrations in drinking water at or above 1

[Analysis of heavy-metal-mediated disease and development of a novel remediation system based on fieldwork and experimental research].

PubMed

Yajima, Ichiro; Zou, Cunchao; Li, Xiang; Nakano, Chizuru; Omata, Yasuhiro; Kumasaka, Mayuko Y

2015-01-01

Heavy-metal pollution occurs in various environments, including water, air and soil, and has serious effects on human health. Since heavy-metal pollution in drinking water causes various diseases including skin cancer, it has become a global problem worldwide. However, there is limited information on the mechanism of development of heavy-metal-mediated disease. We performed both fieldwork and experimental studies to elucidate the levels of heavy-metal pollution and mechanisms of development of heavy-metal-related disease and to develop a novel remediation system. Our fieldwork in Bangladesh, Vietnam and Malaysia demonstrated that drinking well water in these countries was polluted with high concentrations of several heavy metals including arsenic, barium, iron and manganese. Our experimental studies based on the data from our fieldwork demonstrated that these heavy metals caused skin cancer and hearing loss. Further experimental studies resulted in the development of a novel remediation system with which toxic heavy metals were absorbed from polluted drinking water. Implementation of both fieldwork and experimental studies is important for prediction, prevention and therapy of heavy-metal-mediated diseases.

Screening and human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and their transformation products in Dutch surface waters and drinking water.

PubMed

de Jongh, Cindy M; Kooij, Pascal J F; de Voogt, Pim; ter Laak, Thomas L

2012-06-15

Numerous studies describe the presence of pharmaceuticals in the water cycle, while their transformation products are usually not included. In the current study 17 common pharmaceuticals and 9 transformation products were monitored in the Dutch waters, including surface waters, pre-treated surface waters, river bank filtrates, two groundwater samples affected by surface water and drinking waters. In these samples, 12 pharmaceuticals and 7 transformation products were present. Concentrations were generally highest in surface waters, intermediate in treated surface waters and river bank filtrates and lowest or not detected in produced drinking water. However, the concentrations of phenazone and its environmental transformation product AMPH were significantly higher in river bank filtrates, which is likely due to historical contamination. Fairly constant ratios were observed between concentrations of transformation products and parent pharmaceuticals. This might enable prediction of concentrations of transformation products from concentrations of parent pharmaceuticals. The toxicological relevance of the observed pharmaceuticals and transformation products was assessed by deriving (i) a substance specific provisional guideline value (pGLV) and (ii) a group pGLV for groups of related compounds were under the assumption of additivity of effects within each group. A substantial margin exists between the maximum summed concentrations of these compounds present in different water types and the derived (group) pGLVs. Based on the results of this limited screening campaign no adverse health effects of the studied compounds are expected in (sources of) drinking water in the Netherlands. The presence of transformation products with similar pharmacological activities and concentration levels as their parents illustrates the relevance of monitoring transformation products, and including these in risk assessment. More thorough monitoring yielding information on statistical uncertainty and variability in time and space, and research on possible synergistic effects of low concentration mixtures of compounds belonging to similar pharmacological classes require attention. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Air Emissions Damages from Municipal Drinking Water Treatment Under Current and Proposed Regulatory Standards.

PubMed

Gingerich, Daniel B; Mauter, Meagan S

2017-09-19

Water treatment processes present intersectoral and cross-media risk trade-offs that are not presently considered in Safe Drinking Water Act regulatory analyses. This paper develops a method for assessing the air emission implications of common municipal water treatment processes used to comply with recently promulgated and proposed regulatory standards, including concentration limits for, lead and copper, disinfection byproducts, chromium(VI), strontium, and PFOA/PFOS. Life-cycle models of electricity and chemical consumption for individual drinking water unit processes are used to estimate embedded NO x , SO 2 , PM 2.5 , and CO 2 emissions on a cubic meter basis. We estimate air emission damages from currently installed treatment processes at U.S. drinking water facilities to be on the order of $500 million USD annually. Fully complying with six promulgated and proposed rules would increase baseline air emission damages by approximately 50%, with three-quarters of these damages originating from chemical manufacturing. Despite the magnitude of these air emission damages, the net benefit of currently implemented rules remains positive. For some proposed rules, however, the promise of net benefits remains contingent on technology choice.

Methods for microbiological quality assessment in drinking water: a comparative study.

PubMed

Helmi, K; Barthod, F; Méheut, G; Henry, A; Poty, F; Laurent, F; Charni-Ben-Tabassi, N

2015-03-01

The present study aimed to compare several methods for quantifying and discriminating between the different physiological states of a bacterial population present in drinking water. Flow cytometry (FCM), solid-phase cytometry (SPC), epifluorescence microscopy (MSP) and culture method performances were assessed by comparing the results obtained for different water samples. These samples, including chlorinated and non-chlorinated water, were collected in a drinking water treatment plant. Total bacteria were quantified by using SYBR Green II (for FCM) and 4',6'-diamino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) (for MSP), viable and non-viable bacteria were distinguished by using SYBR Green II and propidium iodide dual staining (for FCM), and active cells were distinguished by using CTC (for MSP) and Chemchrome V6 (for FCM and SPC). In our conditions, counts using microscopy and FCM were significantly correlated regarding total bacteria and active cells. Conversely, counts were not significantly similar using solid-phase and FCM for active bacteria. Moreover, the R2A medium showed that bacterial culturability could be recovered after chlorination. This study highlights that FCM appears to be a useful and powerful technique for drinking water production monitoring.

Water Quality Index for measuring drinking water quality in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Akter, Tahera; Jhohura, Fatema Tuz; Akter, Fahmida; Chowdhury, Tridib Roy; Mistry, Sabuj Kanti; Dey, Digbijoy; Barua, Milan Kanti; Islam, Md Akramul; Rahman, Mahfuzar

2016-02-09

Public health is at risk due to chemical contaminants in drinking water which may have immediate health consequences. Drinking water sources are susceptible to pollutants depending on geological conditions and agricultural, industrial, and other man-made activities. Ensuring the safety of drinking water is, therefore, a growing problem. To assess drinking water quality, we measured multiple chemical parameters in drinking water samples from across Bangladesh with the aim of improving public health interventions. In this cross-sectional study conducted in 24 randomly selected upazilas, arsenic was measured in drinking water in the field using an arsenic testing kit and a sub-sample was validated in the laboratory. Water samples were collected to test water pH in the laboratory as well as a sub-sample of collected drinking water was tested for water pH using a portable pH meter. For laboratory testing of other chemical parameters, iron, manganese, and salinity, drinking water samples were collected from 12 out of 24 upazilas. Drinking water at sample sites was slightly alkaline (pH 7.4 ± 0.4) but within acceptable limits. Manganese concentrations varied from 0.1 to 5.5 mg/L with a median value of 0.2 mg/L. The median iron concentrations in water exceeded WHO standards (0.3 mg/L) at most of the sample sites and exceeded Bangladesh standards (1.0 mg/L) at a few sample sites. Salinity was relatively higher in coastal districts. After laboratory confirmation, arsenic concentrations were found higher in Shibchar (Madaripur) and Alfadanga (Faridpur) compared to other sample sites exceeding WHO standard (0.01 mg/L). Of the total sampling sites, 33 % had good-quality water for drinking based on the Water Quality Index (WQI). However, the majority of the households (67 %) used poor-quality drinking water. Higher values of iron, manganese, and arsenic reduced drinking water quality. Awareness raising on chemical contents in drinking water at household level is required to improve public health.

Growth of Legionella anisa in a model drinking water system to evaluate different shower outlets and the impact of cast iron rust.

PubMed

van der Lugt, Wilco; Euser, Sjoerd M; Bruin, Jacob P; Den Boer, Jeroen W; Walker, Jimmy T; Crespi, Sebastian

2017-11-01

Legionella continues to be a problem in water systems. This study investigated the influence of different shower mixer faucets, and the influence of the presence of cast iron rust from a drinking water system on the growth of Legionella. The research is conducted using a model of a household containing four drinking water systems. All four systems, which contained standard plumbing components including copper pipes and a water heater, were filled with unchlorinated drinking water. Furthermore, all systems had three different shower faucets: (A) a stainless-steel faucet, (B) a brass-ceramic faucet, and (C) a brass thermostatic faucet. System 1 was solely filled with drinking water. System 2 was filled with drinking water, and cast iron rust. System 3 was contaminated with Legionella, and system 4 was contaminated with a Legionella, and cast iron rust. During a period of 34 months, 450 cold water samples were taken from 15 sample points of the four drinking water systems, and tested for Legionella according to the Dutch Standard (NEN 6265). In system 4, with added cast iron rust, the stainless-steel mixer faucet (A) had the highest concentration of Legionella at >4.3log10CFU/l (>20,000CFU/l) and was positive in 46.4% of samples. In contrast, the stainless-steel mixer faucet (A) of system 3 without cast iron rust showed 14.3% positive samples with a maximum concentration of 3.9log10CFU/l (7600CFU/l) Legionella. Additionally, both contaminated systems (3 and 4), with the brass thermostatic faucet (C), tested positive for Legionella. System 3 in 85.7% of the samples, with a maximum concentration of 4.38log10CFU/l (24,200CFU/l), and system 4 in 64.3% of the samples with a maximum concentration of 4.13log10CFU/l (13.400CFU/l). These results suggest that both the type of faucet used in a drinking water system and the presence or absence of cast iron rust influence the growth of Legionella. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Drinking Water Systems, Hydrology, and Childhood Gastrointestinal Illness in Central and Northern Wisconsin

PubMed Central

Uejio, Christopher K.; Yale, Steven H.; Malecki, Kristen; Borchardt, Mark A.; Anderson, Henry A.; Patz, Jonathan A.

2014-01-01

Objectives. This study investigated if the type of drinking water source (treated municipal, untreated municipal, and private well water) modifies the effect of hydrology on childhood (aged < 5 years) gastrointestinal illness. Methods. We conducted a time series study to assess the relationship between hydrologic and weather conditions with childhood gastrointestinal illness from 1991 to 2010. The Central and Northern Wisconsin study area includes households using all 3 types of drinking water systems. Separate time series models were created for each system and half-year period (winter/spring, summer/fall). Results. More precipitation (summer/fall) systematically increased childhood gastrointestinal illness in municipalities accessing untreated water. The relative risk of contracting gastrointestinal illness was 1.4 in weeks with 3 centimeters of precipitation and 2.4 in very wet weeks with 12 centimeters of precipitation. By contrast, gastrointestinal illness in private well and treated municipal areas was not influenced by hydrologic conditions, although warmer winter temperatures slightly increased incidence. Conclusions. Our study suggests that improved drinking water protection, treatment, and delivery infrastructure may improve public health by specifically identifying municipal water systems lacking water treatment that may transmit waterborne disease. PMID:24524509

Ammonia pollution characteristics of centralized drinking water sources in China.

PubMed

Fu, Qing; Zheng, Binghui; Zhao, Xingru; Wang, Lijing; Liu, Changming

2012-01-01

The characteristics of ammonia in drinking water sources in China were evaluated during 2005-2009. The spatial distribution and seasonal changes of ammonia in different types of drinking water sources of 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities were investigated. The levels of ammonia in drinking water sources follow the order of river > lake/reservoir > groundwater. The levels of ammonia concentration in river sources gradually decreased from 2005 to 2008, while no obvious change was observed in the lakes/reservoirs and groundwater drinking water sources. The proportion of the type of drinking water sources is different in different regions. In river drinking water sources, the ammonia level was varied in different regions and changed seasonally. The highest value and wide range of annual ammonia was found in South East region, while the lowest value was found in Southwest region. In lake/reservoir drinking water sources, the ammonia levels were not varied obviously in different regions. In underground drinking water sources, the ammonia levels were varied obviously in different regions due to the geological permeability and the natural features of regions. In the drinking water sources with higher ammonia levels, there are enterprises and wastewater drainages in the protected areas of the drinking water sources.

Faecal contamination of household drinking water in Rwanda: A national cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Kirby, Miles A; Nagel, Corey L; Rosa, Ghislaine; Iyakaremye, Laurien; Zambrano, Laura Divens; Clasen, Thomas F

2016-11-15

Unsafe drinking water is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among young children in low-income settings. We conducted a national survey in Rwanda to determine the level of faecal contamination of household drinking water and risk factors associated therewith. Drinking water samples were collected from a nationally representative sample of 870 households and assessed for thermotolerant coliforms (TTC), a World Health Organization (WHO)-approved indicator of faecal contamination. Potential household and community-level determinants of household drinking water quality derived from household surveys, the 2012 Rwanda Population and Housing Census, and a precipitation dataset were assessed using multivariate logistic regression. Widespread faecal contamination was present, and only 24.9% (95% CI 20.9-29.4%, n=217) of household samples met WHO Guidelines of having no detectable TTC contamination, while 42.5% (95% CI 38.0-47.1%, n=361) of samples had >100TTC/100mL and considered high risk. Sub-national differences were observed, with poorer water quality in rural areas and Eastern province. In multivariate analyses, there was evidence for an association between detectable contamination and increased open waste disposal in a sector, lower elevation, and water sources other than piped to household or rainwater/bottled. Risk factors for intermediate/high risk contamination (>10TTC/100mL) included low population density, increased open waste disposal, lower elevation, water sources other than piped to household or rainwater/bottled, and occurrence of an extreme rain event the previous day. Modelling suggests non-household-based risk factors are determinants of water quality in this setting, and these results suggest a substantial proportion of Rwanda's population are exposed to faecal contamination through drinking water. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Laboratory study on the adsorption of Mn(2+) on suspended and deposited amorphous Al(OH)(3) in drinking water distribution systems.

PubMed

Wang, Wendong; Zhang, Xiaoni; Wang, Hongping; Wang, Xiaochang; Zhou, Lichuan; Liu, Rui; Liang, Yuting

2012-09-01

Manganese (II) is commonly present in drinking water. This paper mainly focuses on the adsorption of manganese on suspended and deposited amorphous Al(OH)(3) solids. The effects of water flow rate and water quality parameters, including solution pH and the concentrations of Mn(2+), humic acid, and co-existing cations on adsorption were investigated. It was found that chemical adsorption mainly took place in drinking water with pHs above 7.5; suspended Al(OH)(3) showed strong adsorption capacity for Mn(2+). When the total Mn(2+) input was 3 mg/L, 1.0 g solid could accumulate approximately 24.0 mg of Mn(2+) at 15 °C. In drinking water with pHs below 7.5, because of H(+) inhibition, active reaction sites on amorphous Al(OH)(3) surface were much less. The adsorption of Mn(2+) on Al(OH)(3) changed gradually from chemical coordination to physical adsorption. In drinking water with high concentrations of Ca(2+), Mg(2+), Fe(3+), and HA, the removal of Mn(2+) was enhanced due to the effects of co-precipitation and adsorption. In solution with 1.0 mg/L HA, the residual concentration of Mn(2+) was below 0.005 mg/L, much lower than the limit value required by the Chinese Standard for Drinking Water Quality. Unlike suspended Al(OH)(3), deposited Al(OH)(3) had a much lower adsorption capacity of 0.85 mg/g, and the variation in flow rate and major water quality parameters had little effect on it. Improved managements of water age, pipe flushing and mechanical cleaning were suggested to control residual Mn(2+). Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pond bank access as an approach for managing toxic cyanobacteria in beef cattle pasture drinking water ponds.

PubMed

Wilson, Alan E; Chislock, Michael F; Yang, Zhen; Barros, Mário U G; Roberts, John F

2018-03-25

Forty-one livestock drinking water ponds in Alabama beef cattle pastures during were surveyed during the late summer to generally understand water quality patterns in these important water resources. Since livestock drinking water ponds are prone to excess nutrients that typically lead to eutrophication, which can promote blooms of toxigenic phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria, we also assessed the threat of exposure to the hepatotoxin, microcystin. Eighty percent of the ponds studied contained measurable microcystin, while three of these ponds had concentrations above human drinking water thresholds set by the US Environmental Protection Agency (i.e., 0.3 μg/L). Water quality patterns in the livestock drinking water ponds contrasted sharply with patterns typically observed for temperate freshwater lakes and reservoirs. Namely, we found several non-linear relationships between phytoplankton abundance (measured as chlorophyll) and nutrients or total suspended solids. Livestock had direct access to all the study ponds. Consequently, the proportion of inorganic suspended solids (e.g., sediment) increased with higher concentrations of total suspended solids, which underlies these patterns. Unimodal relationships were also observed between microcystin and phytoplankton abundance or nutrients. Euglenoids were abundant in the four ponds with chlorophyll concentrations > 250 μg/L (and dominated three of these ponds), which could explain why ponds with high chlorophyll concentrations would have low microcystin concentrations. Based on observations made during sampling events and available water quality data, livestock-mediated bioturbation is causing elevated total suspended solids that lead to reduced phytoplankton abundance and microcystin despite high concentrations of nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen. Thus, livestock could be used to manage algal blooms, including toxic secondary metabolites, in their drinking water ponds by allowing them to walk in the ponds to increase turbidity.

Biological effects of drinking-water mineral composition on calcium balance and bone remodeling markers.

PubMed

Roux, S; Baudoin, C; Boute, D; Brazier, M; De La Guéronniere, V; De Vernejoul, M C

2004-01-01

To compare the effects of 2 drinking waters containing similar calcium (Ca) concentration in order to analyze the role of ions other than Ca on bone metabolism. These mineral drinking-waters differed by their mineral composition primarily concerning the concentration of bicarbonate (HCO3-), high in the HB, and sulfate, high in HS water. Of 60 included women, 39 completed the study. Patients were randomly assigned to an intake of 1 liter per day of mineral water HB or HS for 28 d, followed by cross-over to the alternative drinking-water for a further 28 d. At baseline and after each period of one month, Ca metabolism parameters, acid-base status, and bone remodeling markers were measured. Changes in Ca metabolism were significant in the HB group where the ionized Ca increased and the PTH decreased. Serum pH showed a similar increase whatever the used drinking water compared to baseline. In the HB group, significant increase in urine pH, and significant decrease in AT-HCO3- and NH4+ were observed. Bone resorption markers, urinary CTx/Cr, Pyr/Cr, and D-Pyr/Cr, significantly decreased in the HB group compared to baseline, and were not significantly modified in the HS group. These results showed a beneficial effect of the bicarbonaterich HB water on bone metabolism. This may account for a better bioavailability of the Ca, a greater alkalinization, and a larger decrease in PTH level secondary to a higher ionized Ca level. The higher content of silica in HB water may have also participated to the positive action on bone balance that was observed. In this short term study, these data underlined the potential role of the mineral drinking water composition on bone metabolism.

A framework for modeling contaminant impacts on reservoir water quality

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jeznach, Lillian C.; Jones, Christina; Matthews, Thomas; Tobiason, John E.; Ahlfeld, David P.

2016-06-01

This study presents a framework for using hydrodynamic and water quality models to understand the fate and transport of potential contaminants in a reservoir and to develop appropriate emergency response and remedial actions. In the event of an emergency situation, prior detailed modeling efforts and scenario evaluations allow for an understanding of contaminant plume behavior, including maximum concentrations that could occur at the drinking water intake and contaminant travel time to the intake. A case study assessment of the Wachusett Reservoir, a major drinking water supply for metropolitan Boston, MA, provides an example of an application of the framework and how hydrodynamic and water quality models can be used to quantitatively and scientifically guide management in response to varieties of contaminant scenarios. The model CE-QUAL-W2 was used to investigate the water quality impacts of several hypothetical contaminant scenarios, including hypothetical fecal coliform input from a sewage overflow as well as an accidental railway spill of ammonium nitrate. Scenarios investigated the impacts of decay rates, season, and inter-reservoir transfers on contaminant arrival times and concentrations at the drinking water intake. The modeling study highlights the importance of a rapid operational response by managers to contain a contaminant spill in order to minimize the mass of contaminant that enters the water column, based on modeled reservoir hydrodynamics. The development and use of hydrodynamic and water quality models for surface drinking water sources subject to the potential for contaminant entry can provide valuable guidance for making decisions about emergency response and remediation actions.

New Zealand risk management approach for toxic cyanobacteria in drinking water.

PubMed

Kouzminov, Alexander; Ruck, John; Wood, Susanna A

2007-06-01

Cyanobacterial blooms are common seasonal phenomena occurring worldwide in fresh, estuarine and coastal waters, including those used for drinking-water supplies, recreation and stock watering. In New Zealand, the frequency of blooms and their geographic spread is likely to grow with increasing eutrophication and global climate change. The New Zealand Ministry of Health has recently developed national criteria for assessing and managing the risk of toxic cyanobacteria in drinking-water supplies. This paper investigates a cyanobacterial bloom incident in the summer 2002/03 in the Waikato River and hydro lakes, which are a major drinking-water supply for Hamilton City and many other smaller towns along the river. The procedures invoked by the Hamilton City Council and other authorities to deal with this bloom event are considered in terms of the best practice of the day and compared with the Drinking-Water Standards for New Zealand 2005. The presence of cyanobacteria has significant economic effects because of increases in water supply treatment costs or the need to use an alternative source, and there are also social effects from the disruption of recreational use of water bodies and loss of confidence in the quality of reticulated, treated water supplies. Notional evaluation of economic cost of monitoring regimes and control, based on the Waikato River cyanobacterial bloom incident, is also given. The multi-barrier and process-control risk management approach, reliant on good vertical communication systems between central and local government, is an advanced approach useful for any country that regularly experiences cyanobacterial problems.

Small Drinking Water System Initiative | Drinking Water in New ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

2017-07-06

Reliable, safe, high quality drinking water is essential to sustaining our communities. Approximately 90% of New England's drinking water systems - about 10,000 systems - are small and most use ground water sources.

Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water

MedlinePlus

... Water and Drinking Water Contact Us Share Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water Have a question ... Related Information from Other Federal Government Agencies General Information about Lead in Drinking Water How Lead Gets ...

Secondary Drinking Water Standards: Guidance for Nuisance Chemicals

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Learn about Secondary Drinking Water Regulations for nuisance chemicals contained in some drinking water. They are established only as guidelines to assist public water systems in managing their drinking water for aesthetic considerations.

Ground-water flow and quality in Wisconsin's shallow aquifer system

USGS Publications Warehouse

Kammerer, P.A.

1995-01-01

In terms of chemical quality, the water is suitable for potable supply and most other uses, but objectionable hardness in large areas and concen- trations of iron and manganese that exceed State drinking-water standards cause aesthetic problems that may require treatment of the water for some uses. Concentrations of major dissolved constitu- ents (calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate), hard- ness, alkalinity, and dissolved solids are highest where the bedrock component of the aquifer is dolo- mite and lowest where the shallow aquifer is almost entirely sand and gravel. Concentrations of other minor constituents (sodium, potassium, sulfate, chloride, and fluoride) are less closely related to common minerals that compose the aquifer system. Sulfate and fluoride concentrations exceed State drinking-water standards locally. Extreme variability in concentrations of iron and manganese are common locally. Iron and manganese concentra- tions exceed State drinking-water standards in water from one-third and one-quarter of the wells, respectively. Likely causes of nitrate-nitrogen con- centrations that exceed State drinking-water stan- dards include local contamination from plant fertilizers, animal wastes, waste water disposed of on land, and septic systems. Water quality in the shallow aquifer system has been affected by saline water from underlying aquifers, primarily along the eastern and western boundaries of the State where the thickness of Paleozoic rocks is greatest.

White Sands Missile Range 2011 Drinking Water Quality Report

DTIC Science & Technology

2012-01-01

This Annual Drinking Water Quality Report, or the Consumer Confi dence Report, is required by the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The SDWA ensures...public drinking water systems meet national standards for the protection of your health. This report provides details about where your water comes...NMED). WSMR tap water meets all EPA and NMED drinking water standards. What is This Water Quality Report? Este informe contiene informacion importante

Chemical Analyses of Ground Water in the Carson Desert near Stillwater, Churchill County, Nevada, 2005

USGS Publications Warehouse

Fosbury, DeEtta; Walker, Mark; Stillings, Lisa L.

2008-01-01

This report presents the chemical analyses of ground-water samples collected in 2005 from domestic wells located in the Stillwater area of the Carson Desert (fig. 1). These data were evaluated for evidence of mixing with nearby geothermal waters (Fosbury, 2007). That study used several methods to identify mixing zones of ground and geothermal waters using trace elements, chemical equilibria, water temperature, geothermometer estimates, and statistical techniques. In some regions, geothermal sources influence the chemical quality of ground water used for drinking water supplies. Typical geothermal contaminants include arsenic, mercury, antimony, selenium, thallium, boron, lithium, and fluoride (Webster and Nordstrom, 2003). The Environmental Protection Agency has established primary drinking water standards for these, with the exception of boron and lithium. Concentrations of some trace metals in geothermal water may exceed drinking water standards by several orders of magnitude. Geothermal influences on water quality are likely to be localized, depending on directions of ground water flow, the relative volumes of geothermal sources and ground water originating from other sources, and depth below the surface from which water is withdrawn. It is important to understand the areal extent of shallow mixing of geothermal water because it may have adverse chemical and aesthetic effects on domestic drinking water. It would be useful to understand the areal extent of these effects.

Chloride interference in the determination of bromate in drinking water by reagent free ion chromatography with mass spectrometry detection.

PubMed

Cavalli, Silvano; Polesello, Stefano; Valsecchi, Sara

2005-08-26

Bromate, a well known by-product of the ozonation of drinking water, has been included among the substances which have to be monitored in the drinking water according to the last EC Directive 251/98 on potable water with a regulated limit of 10 microg l(-1). The need of performing routine analysis at this limit is a driving force for the developing of new simple and sensitive methods of detection, which should be also able to overcome the effect of matrix composition. This work explored the use of mass spectrometry detection with electrospray ionisation hyphenated to a reagent free ion chromatograph with hydroxide gradient elution for the determination of bromate in drinking water. The use of a high capacity hydroxide selective column operated in gradient mode allowed to avoid the interference by carbonate peak, which moved to longer retention times. The effect of increasing chloride concentrations from 0 to 250 mg l(-1), which is the guideline limit for drinking water in Directive 251/98/EC, was to decrease absolute mass spectrometric response and chromatographic efficiency and, on the consequence, to increase the effective detection limits. The effect of the chloride concentration on the detection of bromate is discussed.

Effect of oxygen on survival of faecal pollution indicators in drinking water.

PubMed

Roslev, P; Bjergbaek, L A; Hesselsoe, M

2004-01-01

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of oxygen on the survival of faecal pollution indicators including Escherichia coli in nondisinfected drinking water. Aerobic and anaerobic drinking water microcosms were inoculated with E. coli ATCC 25922 or raw sewage. Survival of E. coli was monitored by membrane filtration combined with cultivation on standard media, and by in situ hybridization with 16S rRNA-targeted fluorescent oligonucleotide probes. Anaerobic conditions significantly increased the survival of E. coli in drinking water compared with aerobic conditions. Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 showed a biphasic decrease in survival under aerobic conditions with an initial first-order decay rate of -0.11 day(-1) followed by a more rapid rate of -0.35 day(-1). In contrast, the first-order decay rate under anaerobic conditions was only -0.02 day(-1). After 35 days, <0.01% of the initial E. coli ATCC 25922 population remained detectable in aerobic microcosms compared with 48% in anaerobic microcosms. A poor survival was observed under aerobic conditions regardless of whether E. coli ATCC 25922 or sewage-derived E. coli was examined, and regardless of the detection method used (CFU or fluorescent in situ hybridization). Aerobic conditions in drinking water also appeared to decrease the survival of faecal enterococci, somatic coliphages and coliforms other than E. coli. The results indicate that oxygen is a major regulator of the survival of E. coli in nondisinfected drinking water. The results also suggest that faecal pollution indicators other than E. coli may persist longer in drinking water under anaerobic conditions. The effect of oxygen should be considered when evaluating the survival potential of enteric pathogens in oligotrophic environments.

Consumers' choice of drinking water: Is it dependent upon perceived quality, convenience, price and attitude?

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Wahid, Nabsiah Abdul; Cheng, Patrick Tan Foon; Abustan, Ismail; Nee, Goh Yen

2017-10-01

Tap water is one of the many sources of water that the public as consumers can choose for drinking. This study hypothesized that perceived quality, convenience, price and environmental attitude would determine consumers's choice of drinking water following the Attribution Theory as the underlying model. A survey was carried out on Malaysia's public at large. From 301 usable data, the PLS analysis revealed that only perceived quality, convenience and price attributed towards the public's choice of drinking water while attitude was not significant. The findings are beneficial for the water sector industry, particularly for drinking water operators, state governments, and alternative drinking water manufacturers like bottled water companies. The ability to identify factors for why consumers in the marketplace choose the source of their drinking water would enable the operators to plan and strategize tactics that can disseminate accurate knowledge about the product that can motivate marketability of drinking water in Malaysia.

Water and Beverage Consumption: Analysis of the Australian 2011–2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey

PubMed Central

Sui, Zhixian; Zheng, Miaobing; Zhang, Man; Rangan, Anna

2016-01-01

Background: Water consumption as a vital component of the human diet is under-researched in dietary surveys and nutrition studies. Aim: To assess total water and fluid intakes and examine demographic, anthropometric, and dietary factors associated with water consumption in the Australian population. Methods: Dietary intake data from the 2011 to 2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were used. Usual water, fluid and food and nutrient intakes were estimated from two days of dietary recalls. Total water includes plain drinking water and moisture from all food and beverage sources; total fluids include plain drinking water and other beverages, but not food moisture. Results: The mean (SD) daily total water intakes for children and adolescents aged 2–18 years were 1.7 (0.6) L for males and 1.5 (0.4) L for females, and for adults aged 19 years and over were 2.6 (0.9) L for males and 2.3 (0.7) L for females. The majority of the population failed to meet the Adequate Intake (AI) values for total water intake (82%) and total fluids intake (78%) with the elderly at highest risk (90%–95%). The contributions of plain drinking water, other beverages and food moisture to total water intake were 44%, 27%, and 29%, respectively, among children and adolescents, and 37%, 37% and 25% among adults. The main sources of other beverages were full-fat plain milk and regular soft drinks for children and adolescents, and tea, coffee, and alcoholic drinks for adults. For adults, higher total water intake was associated with lower percent energy from fat, saturated fat, and free sugars, lower sodium and energy-dense nutrient poor food intakes but higher dietary fibre, fruit, vegetable, caffeine, and alcohol intakes. No associations were found between total water consumption and body mass index (BMI) for adults and BMI z-score for children and adolescents. Conclusion: Reported water consumption was below recommendations. Higher water intakes were suggestive of better diet quality. PMID:27792184

An examination of the potential added value of water safety plans to the United States national drinking water legislation.

PubMed

Baum, Rachel; Amjad, Urooj; Luh, Jeanne; Bartram, Jamie

2015-11-01

National and sub-national governments develop and enforce regulations to ensure the delivery of safe drinking water in the United States (US) and countries worldwide. However, periodic contamination events, waterborne endemic illness and outbreaks of waterborne disease still occur, illustrating that delivery of safe drinking water is not guaranteed. In this study, we examined the potential added value of a preventive risk management approach, specifically, water safety plans (WSPs), in the US in order to improve drinking water quality. We undertook a comparative analysis between US drinking water regulations and WSP steps to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and identify how WSPs might complement drinking water regulations in the US. Findings show that US drinking water regulations and WSP steps were aligned in the areas of describing the water supply system and defining monitoring and controls. However, gaps exist between US drinking water regulations and WSPs in the areas of team procedures and training, internal risk assessment and prioritization, and management procedures and plans. The study contributes to understanding both required and voluntary drinking water management practices in the US and how implementing water safety plans could benefit water systems to improve drinking water quality and human health. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

World Health Organization discontinues its drinking-water guideline for manganese.

PubMed

Frisbie, Seth H; Mitchell, Erika J; Dustin, Hannah; Maynard, Donald M; Sarkar, Bibudhendra

2012-06-01

The World Health Organization (WHO) released the fourth edition of Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality in July 2011. In this edition, the 400-µg/L drinking-water guideline for manganese (Mn) was discontinued with the assertion that because "this health-based value is well above concentrations of manganese normally found in drinking water, it is not considered necessary to derive a formal guideline value." In this commentary, we review the WHO guideline for Mn in drinking water--from its introduction in 1958 through its discontinuation in 2011. For the primary references, we used the WHO publications that documented the Mn guidelines. We used peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, published conference proceedings, and theses to identify countries with drinking water or potential drinking-water supplies exceeding 400 µg/L Mn and peer-reviewed journal articles to summarize the health effects of Mn. Drinking water or potential drinking-water supplies with Mn concentrations > 400 µg/L are found in a substantial number of countries worldwide. The drinking water of many tens of millions of people has Mn concentrations > 400 µg/L. Recent research on the health effects of Mn suggests that the earlier WHO guideline of 400 µg/L may have been too high to adequately protect public health. The toxic effects and geographic distribution of Mn in drinking-water supplies justify a reevaluation by the WHO of its decision to discontinue its drinking-water guideline for Mn.

[Physicochemical composition of bottled drinking water marketed in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso)].

PubMed

Some, Issa Touridomon; Banao, Issouf; Gouado, Inocent; Tapsoba, Théophile Lincoln

2009-01-01

The bottled drinking water marketed in urban areas includes natural mineral water, spring water, and treated drinking water. Their physicochemical qualities depend on the type and quantity of their components and define their safe use. Bottled water is widely consumed in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), and many brand names exist. Although many publications have examined the microbiological qualities of such water, no study has examined the physicochemical quality of water from Burkina Faso. This study, conducted from March 2005 through January 2006, aimed to assess the physicochemical composition of drinking water sold in Ouagadougou to facilitate better choices and use by consumers. Results showed that all the water analyzed in Ouagadougou is soft (TH < 50 ppm) or moderately soft (50 < TH < 200 ppm) and weakly mineralized (total dissolved solid content < 500 mg/L, sulfates [SO(2-)(4)] < 200 mg/L, [Ca(++)] < 150 mg/L, [Mg(2+)] < 50 mg/L, and [HCO(3)-] < 600 mg/l). Some imported water, however, is hard and highly mineralized. French standards do not set limit values for the natural mineral water parameters described above, and much of the water sold in Ouagadougou was natural mineral water. The spring water met potability standards, except for the Montagne d'Arrée brand, which had a pH value of 5.8, below the WHO standards of 6.5 < pH 8.5.

The effect of drinking water quality on the health and longevity of people-A case study in Mayang, Hunan Province, China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Lu, J.; Yuan, F.

2017-08-01

Drinking water is an important source for trace elements intake into human body. Thus, the drinking water quality has a great impact on people’s health and longevity. This study aims to study the relationship between drinking water quality and human health and longevity. A longevity county Mayang in Hunan province, China was chosen as the study area. The drinking water and hair of local centenarians were collected and analyzed the chemical composition. The drinking water is weak alkaline and rich in the essential trace elements. The daily intakes of Ca, Cu, Fe, Se, Sr from drinking water for residents in Mayang were much higher than the national average daily intake from beverage and water. There was a positive correlation between Ni and Pb in drinking water and Ni and Pb in hair. There were significant correlations between Cu, K in drinking water and Ba, Ca, Mg, Sr in the hair at the 0.01 level. The concentrations of Mg, Sr, Se in drinking water showed extremely significant positive relation with two centenarian index 100/80% and 100/90% correlation. Essential trace elements in drinking water can be an important factor for local health and longevity.

Exposure to lithium through drinking water and calcium homeostasis during pregnancy: A longitudinal study

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Harari, Florencia; Åkesson, Agneta; Casimiro, Esperanza

There is increasing evidence of adverse health effects due to elevated lithium exposure through drinking water but the impact on calcium homeostasis is unknown. This study aimed at elucidating if lithium exposure through drinking water during pregnancy may impair the maternal calcium homeostasis. In a population-based mother-child cohort in the Argentinean Andes (n=178), with elevated lithium concentrations in the drinking water (5–1660 μg/L), blood lithium concentrations (correlating significantly with lithium in water, urine and plasma) were measured repeatedly during pregnancy by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and used as exposure biomarker. Markers of calcium homeostasis included: plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D{sub 3},more » serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), and calcium, phosphorus and magnesium concentrations in serum and urine. The median maternal blood lithium concentration was 25 μg/L (range 1.9–145). In multivariable-adjusted mixed-effects linear regression models, blood lithium was inversely associated with 25-hydroxyvitamin D{sub 3} (−6.1 nmol/L [95%CI −9.5; −2.6] for a 25 μg/L increment in blood lithium). The estimate increased markedly with increasing percentiles of 25-hydroxyvitamin D{sub 3}. In multivariable-adjusted mixed-effects logistic regression models, the odds ratio of having 25-hydroxyvitamin D3<30 nmol/L (19% of the women) was 4.6 (95%CI 1.1; 19.3) for a 25 μg/L increment in blood lithium. Blood lithium was also positively associated with serum magnesium, but not with serum calcium and PTH, and inversely associated with urinary calcium and magnesium. In conclusion, our study suggests that lithium exposure through drinking water during pregnancy may impair the calcium homeostasis, particularly vitamin D. The results reinforce the need for better control of lithium in drinking water, including bottled water. - Highlights: • Elevated drinking water lithium (Li) concentrations are increasingly reported. • We studied a Li-exposed population-based mother-child cohort in northern Argentina. • Li exposure during pregnancy affected maternal calcium homeostasis. • Blood Li was consistently inversely associated with maternal plasma vitamin D{sub 3}. • Associations were independent of season of sampling and lifestyle.« less

Analysis of endocrine activity in drinking water, surface water and treated wastewater from six countries.

PubMed

Leusch, Frederic D L; Neale, Peta A; Arnal, Charlotte; Aneck-Hahn, Natalie H; Balaguer, Patrick; Bruchet, Auguste; Escher, Beate I; Esperanza, Mar; Grimaldi, Marina; Leroy, Gaela; Scheurer, Marco; Schlichting, Rita; Schriks, Merijn; Hebert, Armelle

2018-08-01

The aquatic environment can contain numerous micropollutants and there are concerns about endocrine activity in environmental waters and the potential impacts on human and ecosystem health. In this study a complementary chemical analysis and in vitro bioassay approach was applied to evaluate endocrine activity in treated wastewater, surface water and drinking water samples from six countries (Germany, Australia, France, South Africa, the Netherlands and Spain). The bioassay test battery included assays indicative of seven endocrine pathways, while 58 different chemicals, including pesticides, pharmaceuticals and industrial compounds, were analysed by targeted chemical analysis. Endocrine activity was below the limit of quantification for most water samples, with only two of six treated wastewater samples and two of six surface water samples exhibiting estrogenic, glucocorticoid, progestagenic and/or anti-mineralocorticoid activity above the limit of quantification. Based on available effect-based trigger values (EBT) for estrogenic and glucocorticoid activity, some of the wastewater and surface water samples were found to exceed the EBT, suggesting these environmental waters may pose a potential risk to ecosystem health. In contrast, the lack of bioassay activity and low detected chemical concentrations in the drinking water samples do not suggest a risk to human endocrine health, with all samples below the relevant EBTs. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Klise, Katherine A.; Hart, David; Moriarty, Dylan Michael

Drinking water systems face multiple challenges, including aging infrastructure, water quality concerns, uncertainty in supply and demand, natural disasters, environmental emergencies, and cyber and terrorist attacks. All of these have the potential to disrupt a large portion of a water system causing damage to infrastructure and outages to customers. Increasing resilience to these types of hazards is essential to improving water security. As one of the United States (US) sixteen critical infrastructure sectors, drinking water is a national priority. The National Infrastructure Advisory Council defined infrastructure resilience as “the ability to reduce the magnitude and/or duration of disruptive events. Themore » effectiveness of a resilient infrastructure or enterprise depends upon its ability to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and/or rapidly recover from a potentially disruptive event”. Being able to predict how drinking water systems will perform during disruptive incidents and understanding how to best absorb, recover from, and more successfully adapt to such incidents can help enhance resilience.« less

Arsenic remediation from drinking water using Fenton's reagent with slow sand filter.

PubMed

Jasudkar, Dipali; Rakhunde, Rupali; Deshpande, Leena; Labhasetwar, Pawan; Juneja, H D

2012-12-01

This paper describes the development of a remediation approach based on the pre-oxidation using Fenton's reagent and the subsequent removal of arsenic (As) through sand filtration from drinking water. The efficiency of the process was carried out including As(III) and As(V) with various concentration ratios up to 3,000 ppb. Efficient removal of As was observed within WHO guideline value of 10 ppb. The recoveries of samples were found to be 98 % ± 2.5 %. The process was applied to field samples, where results show considerable reduction in As concentrations. This process is cost effective for treatment of drinking water with high concentration of As.

Organic compounds in produced waters from coalbed natural gas wells in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming, USA

USGS Publications Warehouse

Orem, W.H.; Tatu, C.A.; Lerch, H.E.; Rice, C.A.; Bartos, T.T.; Bates, A.L.; Tewalt, S.; Corum, M.D.

2007-01-01

The organic composition of produced water samples from coalbed natural gas (CBNG) wells in the Powder River Basin, WY, sampled in 2001 and 2002 are reported as part of a larger study of the potential health and environmental effects of organic compounds derived from coal. The quality of CBNG produced waters is a potential environmental concern and disposal problem for CBNG producers, and no previous studies of organic compounds in CBNG produced water have been published. Organic compounds identified in the produced water samples included: phenols, biphenyls, N-, O-, and S-containing heterocyclic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aromatic amines, various non-aromatic compounds, and phthalates. Many of the identified organic compounds (phenols, heterocyclic compounds, PAHs) are probably coal-derived. PAHs represented the group of organic compounds most commonly observed. Concentrations of total PAHs ranged up to 23 ??g/L. Concentrations of individual compounds ranged from about 18 to <0.01 ??g/L. Temporal variability of organic compound concentrations was documented, as two wells with relatively high organic compound contents in produced water in 2001 had much lower concentrations in 2002. In many areas, including the PRB, coal strata provide aquifers for drinking water wells. Organic compounds observed in produced water are also likely present in drinking water supplied from wells in the coal. Some of the organic compounds identified in the produced water samples are potentially toxic, but at the levels measured in these samples are unlikely to have acute health effects. The human health effects of low-level, chronic exposure to coal-derived organic compounds in drinking water are currently unknown. Continuing studies will evaluate possible toxic effects from low level, chronic exposure to coal-derived organic compounds in drinking water supplies.

Sources and occurrence of chloroform and other trihalomethanes in drinking-water supply wells in the United States, 1986-2001

USGS Publications Warehouse

Ivahnenko, Tamara; Zogorski, J.S.

2006-01-01

Chloroform and three other trihalomethanes (THMs)--bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform--are disinfection by-products commonly produced during the chlorination of water and wastewater. Samples of untreated ground water from drinking-water supply wells (1,096 public and 2,400 domestic wells) were analyzed for THMs and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during 1986-2001, or compiled, as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. This report provides a summary of potential sources of THMs and of the occurrence and geographical distribution of THMs in samples from public and domestic wells. Evidence for an anthropogenic source of THMs and implications for future research also are presented. Potential sources of THMs to both public and domestic wells include the discharge of chlorinated drinking water and wastewater that may be intentional or inadvertent. Intentional discharge includes the use of municipally supplied chlorinated water to irrigate lawns, golf courses, parks, gardens, and other areas; the use of septic systems; or the regulated discharge of chlorinated wastewater to surface waters or ground-water recharge facilities. Inadvertent discharge includes leakage of chlorinated water from swimming pools, spas, or distribution systems for drinking water or wastewater sewers. Statistical analyses indicate that population density, the percentage of urban land, and the number of Resource Conservation and Recovery Act hazardous-waste facilities near sampled wells are significantly associated with the probability of detection of chloroform, especially for public wells. Domestic wells may have several other sources of THMs, including the practice of well disinfection through shock chlorination, laundry wastewater containing bleach, and septic system effluent. Chloroform was the most frequently detected VOC in samples from drinking-water supply wells (public and domestic wells) in the United States. Although chloroform was detected frequently in samples from public and domestic wells and the other THMs were detected in some samples, no concentrations in samples from either well type exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Maximum Contaminant Level of 80 micrograms per liter for total THMs. Chloroform was detected in public well samples almost twice as frequently (11 percent) as in domestic well samples (5 percent). The other three THMs also were detected more frequently in public well samples than in domestic well samples. This detection pattern may be attributed to public wells having a higher pumping capacity than domestic wells. The higher capacity wells create a larger capture zone that potentially intercepts more urban and other land uses and associated point and nonpoint sources of contamination than the smaller capacity domestic wells. THM detection frequencies in domestic well samples show a pattern of decreasing frequency with increasing bromide content, that is in the order: chloroform > bromodichloromethane >= dibromochloromethane >= bromoform. This same pattern has been documented in studies of water chlorination, indicating that an important source of chloroform and other THMs in drinking-water supply wells may be the recycling of chlorinated water and wastewater. Mixtures of THMs commonly occur in public well samples, and the most frequently occurring are combinations of the brominated THMs. These THMs have limited industrial production, few natural sources, and small or no reported direct releases to the environment. Therefore, industrial, commercial, or natural sources are not likely sources of the brominated THMs in public and domestic well samples. The THM detection frequency pattern, the co-occurrence of brominated THMs, and other lines of evidence indicate that the recycling of water with a history of chlorination is an important source of these compounds in samples from drinking-water supply wells.

Tapping Into Water: Key Considerations for Achieving Excellence in School Drinking Water Access

PubMed Central

Hecht, Kenneth; Hampton, Karla E.; Grumbach, Jacob M.; Braff-Guajardo, Ellen; Brindis, Claire D.

2014-01-01

Objectives. We examined free drinking water access in schools. Methods. We conducted cross-sectional interviews with administrators from 240 California public schools from May to November 2011 to examine the proportion of schools that met excellent water access criteria (i.e., location, density, type, maintenance, and appeal of water sources), school-level characteristics associated with excellent water access, and barriers to improvements. Results. No schools met all criteria for excellent water access. High schools and middle schools had lower fountain:student ratios than elementary schools (odds ratio [OR] = 0.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.02, 0.20; OR = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.12, 0.70). Rural schools were more likely to offer a nonfountain water source than city schools (OR = 5.0; 95% CI = 1.74, 14.70). Newer schools were more likely to maintain water sources than older schools (OR = 0.98; 95% CI = 0.97, 1.00). Schools that offered free water in food service areas increased from pre- to postimplementation of California’s school water policy (72%–83%; P < .048). Barriers to improving school water included cost of programs and other pressing concerns. Conclusions. Awareness of the benefits related to school drinking water provision and funding may help communities achieve excellence in drinking water access. PMID:24832141

Storing Drinking-water in Copper pots Kills Contaminating Diarrhoeagenic Bacteria

PubMed Central

Sudha, V.B. Preethi; Ganesan, Sheeba; Pazhani, G.P.; Ramamurthy, T.; Nair, G.B.

2012-01-01

Microbially-unsafe water is still a major concern in most developing countries. Although many water-purification methods exist, these are expensive and beyond the reach of many people, especially in rural areas. Ayurveda recommends the use of copper for storing drinking-water. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of copper pot on microbially-contaminated drinking-water. The antibacterial effect of copper pot against important diarrhoeagenic bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae O1, Shigella flexneri 2a, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic E. coli, Salmonella enterica Typhi, and Salmonella Paratyphi is reported. When drinking-water (pH 7.83±0.4; source: ground) was contaminated with 500 CFU/mL of the above bacteria and stored in copper pots for 16 hours at room temperature, no bacteria could be recovered on the culture medium. Recovery failed even after resuscitation in enrichment broth, followed by plating on selective media, indicating loss of culturability. This is the first report on the effect of copper on S. flexneri 2a, enteropathogenic E. coli, and Salmonella Paratyphi. After 16 hours, there was a slight increase in the pH of water from 7.83 to 7.93 in the copper pots while the other physicochemical parameters remained unchanged. Copper content (177±16 ppb) in water stored in copper pots was well within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization. Copper holds promise as a point-of-use solution for microbial purification of drinking-water, especially in developing countries. PMID:22524115

Storing drinking-water in copper pots kills contaminating diarrhoeagenic bacteria.

PubMed

Sudha, V B Preethi; Ganesan, Sheeba; Pazhani, G P; Ramamurthy, T; Nair, G B; Venkatasubramanian, Padma

2012-03-01

Microbially-unsafe water is still a major concern in most developing countries. Although many water-purification methods exist, these are expensive and beyond the reach of many people, especially in rural areas. Ayurveda recommends the use of copper for storing drinking-water. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of copper pot on microbially-contaminated drinking-water. The antibacterial effect of copper pot against important diarrhoeagenic bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae O1, Shigella flexneri 2a, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic E. coli, Salmonella enterica Typhi, and Salmonella Paratyphi is reported. When drinking-water (pH 7.83 +/- 0.4; source: ground) was contaminated with 500 CFU/mL of the above bacteria and stored in copper pots for 16 hours at room temperature, no bacteria could be recovered on the culture medium. Recovery failed even after resuscitation in enrichment broth, followed by plating on selective media, indicating loss of culturability. This is the first report on the effect of copper on S. flexneri 2a, enteropathogenic E. coli, and Salmonella Paratyphi. After 16 hours, there was a slight increase in the pH of water from 7.83 to 7.93 in the copper pots while the other physicochemical parameters remained unchanged. Copper content (177 +/- 16 ppb) in water stored in copper pots was well within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization. Copper holds promise as a point-of-use solution for microbial purification of drinking-water, especially in developing countries.

Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

PubMed Central

Bain, Robert; Cronk, Ryan; Wright, Jim; Yang, Hong; Slaymaker, Tom; Bartram, Jamie

2014-01-01

Background Access to safe drinking-water is a fundamental requirement for good health and is also a human right. Global access to safe drinking-water is monitored by WHO and UNICEF using as an indicator “use of an improved source,” which does not account for water quality measurements. Our objectives were to determine whether water from “improved” sources is less likely to contain fecal contamination than “unimproved” sources and to assess the extent to which contamination varies by source type and setting. Methods and Findings Studies in Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish were identified from online databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, and grey literature. Studies in low- and middle-income countries published between 1990 and August 2013 that assessed drinking-water for the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) were included provided they associated results with a particular source type. In total 319 studies were included, reporting on 96,737 water samples. The odds of contamination within a given study were considerably lower for “improved” sources than “unimproved” sources (odds ratio [OR] = 0.15 [0.10–0.21], I2 = 80.3% [72.9–85.6]). However over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination in 38% of 191 studies. Water sources in low-income countries (OR = 2.37 [1.52–3.71]; p<0.001) and rural areas (OR = 2.37 [1.47–3.81] p<0.001) were more likely to be contaminated. Studies rarely reported stored water quality or sanitary risks and few achieved robust random selection. Safety may be overestimated due to infrequent water sampling and deterioration in quality prior to consumption. Conclusion Access to an “improved source” provides a measure of sanitary protection but does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination nor is it consistent between source types or settings. International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access. An enhanced monitoring strategy would combine indicators of sanitary protection with measures of water quality. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary PMID:24800926

Nitrate-nitrogen levels in rural drinking water: Is there an association with age-related macular degeneration?

PubMed

Klein, Barbara E K; McElroy, Jane A; Klein, Ronald; Howard, Kerri P; Lee, Kristine E

2013-01-01

We examined the association of nitrate-nitrogen exposure from rural private drinking water and incidence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). All participants in the Beaver Dam Eye Study (53916 improvement plan code) completed a questionnaire and had an ocular examination including standardized, graded fundus photographs at five examinations. Only information from rural residents in that study are included in this report. Data from an environmental monitoring study with probabilistic-based agro-chemical sampling, including nitrate-nitrogen, of rural private drinking water were available. Incidence of early AMD was associated with elevated nitrate-nitrogen levels in rural private drinking water supply (10.0% for low, 19.2% for medium, and 26.1% for high nitrate-nitrogen level in the right eye). The odds ratios (ORs) were 1.77 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12-2.78) for medium and 2.88 (95% CI: 1.59-5.23) for high nitrate-nitrogen level. Incidence of late AMD was increased for those with medium or high levels of nitrate-nitrogen compared to low levels (2.3% for low and 5.1% for the medium or high nitrate-nitrogen level, for the right eye). The OR for medium or high nitrate-nitrogen groups was 2.80 (95% CI: 1.07-7.31) compared to the low nitrate-nitrogen group.

Toxicological risk assessment and prioritization of drinking water relevant contaminants of emerging concern.

PubMed

Baken, Kirsten A; Sjerps, Rosa M A; Schriks, Merijn; van Wezel, Annemarie P

2018-06-13

Toxicological risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in (sources of) drinking water is required to identify potential health risks and prioritize chemicals for abatement or monitoring. In such assessments, concentrations of chemicals in drinking water or sources are compared to either (i) health-based (statutory) drinking water guideline values, (ii) provisional guideline values based on recent toxicity data in absence of drinking water guidelines, or (iii) generic drinking water target values in absence of toxicity data. Here, we performed a toxicological risk assessment for 163 CEC that were selected as relevant for drinking water. This relevance was based on their presence in drinking water and/or groundwater and surface water sources in downstream parts of the Rhine and Meuse, in combination with concentration levels and physicochemical properties. Statutory and provisional drinking water guideline values could be derived from publically available toxicological information for 142 of the CEC. Based on measured concentrations it was concluded that the majority of substances do not occur in concentrations which individually pose an appreciable human health risk. A health concern could however not be excluded for vinylchloride, trichloroethene, bromodichloromethane, aniline, phenol, 2-chlorobenzenamine, mevinphos, 1,4-dioxane, and nitrolotriacetic acid. For part of the selected substances, toxicological risk assessment for drinking water could not be performed since either toxicity data (hazard) or drinking water concentrations (exposure) were lacking. In absence of toxicity data, the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach can be applied for screening level risk assessment. The toxicological information on the selected substances was used to evaluate whether drinking water target values based on existing TTC levels are sufficiently protective for drinking water relevant CEC. Generic drinking water target levels of 37 μg/L for Cramer class I substances and 4 μg/L for Cramer class III substances in drinking water were derived based on these CEC. These levels are in line with previously reported generic drinking water target levels based on original TTC values and are shown to be protective for health effects of the majority of contaminants of emerging concern evaluated in the present study. Since the human health impact of many chemicals appearing in the water cycle has been studied insufficiently, generic drinking water target levels are useful for early warning and prioritization of CEC with unknown toxicity in drinking water and its sources for future monitoring. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency.

PubMed Central

Smith, A. H.; Lingas, E. O.; Rahman, M.

2000-01-01

The contamination of groundwater by arsenic in Bangladesh is the largest poisoning of a population in history, with millions of people exposed. This paper describes the history of the discovery of arsenic in drinking-water in Bangladesh and recommends intervention strategies. Tube-wells were installed to provide "pure water" to prevent morbidity and mortality from gastrointestinal disease. The water from the millions of tube-wells that were installed was not tested for arsenic contamination. Studies in other countries where the population has had long-term exposure to arsenic in groundwater indicate that 1 in 10 people who drink water containing 500 micrograms of arsenic per litre may ultimately die from cancers caused by arsenic, including lung, bladder and skin cancers. The rapid allocation of funding and prompt expansion of current interventions to address this contamination should be facilitated. The fundamental intervention is the identification and provision of arsenic-free drinking water. Arsenic is rapidly excreted in urine, and for early or mild cases, no specific treatment is required. Community education and participation are essential to ensure that interventions are successful; these should be coupled with follow-up monitoring to confirm that exposure has ended. Taken together with the discovery of arsenic in groundwater in other countries, the experience in Bangladesh shows that groundwater sources throughout the world that are used for drinking-water should be tested for arsenic. PMID:11019458

Implications of land disturbance on drinking water treatability in a changing climate: demonstrating the need for "source water supply and protection" strategies.

PubMed

Emelko, Monica B; Silins, Uldis; Bladon, Kevin D; Stone, Micheal

2011-01-01

Forests form the critical source water areas for downstream drinking water supplies in many parts of the world, including the Rocky Mountain regions of North America. Large scale natural disturbances from wildfire and severe insect infestation are more likely because of warming climate and can significantly impact water quality downstream of forested headwaters regions. To investigate potential implications of changing climate and wildfire on drinking water treatment, the 2003 Lost Creek Wildfire in Alberta, Canada was studied. Four years of comprehensive hydrology and water quality data from seven watersheds were evaluated and synthesized to assess the implications of wildfire and post-fire intervention (salvage-logging) on downstream drinking water treatment. The 95th percentile turbidity and DOC remained low in streams draining unburned watersheds (5.1 NTU, 3.8 mg/L), even during periods of potential treatment challenge (e.g., stormflows, spring freshet); in contrast, they were elevated in streams draining burned (15.3 NTU, 4.6 mg/L) and salvage-logged (18.8 NTU, 9.9 mg/L) watersheds. Persistent increases in these parameters and observed increases in other contaminants such as nutrients, heavy metals, and chlorophyll-a in discharge from burned and salvage-logged watersheds present important economic and operational challenges for water treatment; most notably, a potential increased dependence on solids and DOC removal processes. Many traditional source water protection strategies would fail to adequately identify and evaluate many of the significant wildfire- and post-fire management-associated implications to drinking water "treatability"; accordingly, it is proposed that "source water supply and protection strategies" should be developed to consider a suppliers' ability to provide adequate quantities of potable water to meet demand by addressing all aspects of drinking water "supply" (i.e., quantity, timing of availability, and quality) and their relationship to "treatability" in response to land disturbance. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

[A "historical" case of lead poisoning via drinking water: diagnostic and therapeutic issues].

PubMed

Testud, F; Girtanner-Brunel, L; Péaud, P Y; Serpollet, G; Duchen, C

2001-12-01

It is likely that lead poisoning via drinking water is often overlooked because of its supposed rarity and nonspecific early symptoms, which result in delayed management. One case of severe lead poisoning via drinking water is reported. The diagnosis was long missed and a particularly long chelating treatment was required. The clinical features included lead colic, a Burton's lead line, anemia, polyneuritis and arterial hypertension. Eighteen courses of calcium EDTA were required to obtain 'biological recovery'. The poisoning was linked to a very long water supply lead pipe and potomania secondary to alcohol withdrawal. This case report illustrates how difficult the early recognition of lead poisoning can be, and underlines the need to inquire about a toxic aetiology, particularly via the environment, of otherwise unexplained pathological conditions.

Your Drinking Water Source | Drinking Water in New England ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

2017-07-06

Local communities are responsible for protecting their community's drinking water, and as a citizen, you can directly affect the success or failure of your community's drinking water protection efforts.

Understanding, Monitoring, and Controlling Biofilm Growth in Drinking Water Distribution Systems.

PubMed

Liu, Sanly; Gunawan, Cindy; Barraud, Nicolas; Rice, Scott A; Harry, Elizabeth J; Amal, Rose

2016-09-06

In drinking water distribution systems (DWDS), biofilms are the predominant mode of microbial growth, with the presence of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) protecting the biomass from environmental and shear stresses. Biofilm formation poses a significant problem to the drinking water industry as a potential source of bacterial contamination, including pathogens, and, in many cases, also affecting the taste and odor of drinking water and promoting the corrosion of pipes. This article critically reviews important research findings on biofilm growth in DWDS, examining the factors affecting their formation and characteristics as well as the various technologies to characterize and monitor and, ultimately, to control their growth. Research indicates that temperature fluctuations potentially affect not only the initial bacteria-to-surface attachment but also the growth rates of biofilms. For the latter, the effect is unique for each type of biofilm-forming bacteria; ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, for example, grow more-developed biofilms at a typical summer temperature of 22 °C compared to 12 °C in fall, and the opposite occurs for the pathogenic Vibrio cholerae. Recent investigations have found the formation of thinner yet denser biofilms under high and turbulent flow regimes of drinking water, in comparison to the more porous and loosely attached biofilms at low flow rates. Furthermore, in addition to the rather well-known tendency of significant biofilm growth on corrosion-prone metal pipes, research efforts also found leaching of growth-promoting organic compounds from the increasingly popular use of polymer-based pipes. Knowledge of the unique microbial members of drinking water biofilms and, importantly, the influence of water characteristics and operational conditions on their growth can be applied to optimize various operational parameters to minimize biofilm accumulation. More-detailed characterizations of the biofilm population size and structure are now feasible with fluorescence microscopy (epifluorescence and CLSM imaging with DNA, RNA, EPS, and protein and lipid stains) and electron microscopy imaging (ESEM). Importantly, thorough identification of microbial fingerprints in drinking water biofilms is achievable with DNA sequencing techniques (the 16S rRNA gene-based identification), which have revealed a prevalence of previously undetected bacterial members. Technologies are now moving toward in situ monitoring of biomass growth in distribution networks, including the development of optical fibers capable of differentiating biomass from chemical deposits. Taken together, management of biofilm growth in water distribution systems requires an integrated approach, starting from the treatment of water prior to entering the networks to the potential implementation of "biofilm-limiting" operational conditions and, finally, ending with the careful selection of available technologies for biofilm monitoring and control. For the latter, conventional practices, including chlorine-chloramine disinfection, flushing of DWDS, nutrient removal, and emerging technologies are discussed with their associated challenges.

Identification and characterization of phenylacetonitrile as a nitrogenous disinfection byproduct derived from chlorination of phenylalanine in drinking water.

PubMed

Ma, Xiaoyan; Deng, Jing; Feng, Jiao; Shanaiah, Narasimhamurthy; Smiley, Elizabeth; Dietrich, Andrea M

2016-10-01

Unregulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), including nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs), originating from chlorination of the precursor amino acid phenylalanine in aqueous systems, were identified in laboratory reactions and distributed tap. The major N-DBP identified was phenylacetonitrile, and minor DBPs of benzyl chloride, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-chlorobenzyl cyanide, and 2, 6-diphenylpyridine were also formed. Phenylacetonitrile was generated through decarboxylation, dechlorination and/or hydrolysis processes. With an aromatic structure, phenylacetonitrile has an unpleasant odor of various descriptors and an odor threshold concentration of 0.2 ppt-v as measured through gas chromatography-olfactometry. The half-life of phenylacetonitrile in reagent water and chlorinated water at 19 °C were 121 h and 792 h, respectively. The occurrence of phenylacetonitrile as an N-DBP in tap water was investigated for the first time; the results revealed that μg/L concentrations were present in nine different distributed drinking waters in China and the United States. Phenylacetonitrile deteriorates the aesthetic quality of drinking water and may present risk due to its prolonged existence in drinking water, especially in the presence of residual chlorine. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Drinking cholera: salinity levels and palatability of drinking water in coastal Bangladesh.

PubMed

Grant, Stephen Lawrence; Tamason, Charlotte Crim; Hoque, Bilqis Amin; Jensen, Peter Kjaer Mackie

2015-04-01

To measure the salinity levels of common water sources in coastal Bangladesh and explore perceptions of water palatability among the local population to investigate the plausibility of linking cholera outbreaks in Bangladesh with ingestion of saline-rich cholera-infected river water. Hundred participants took part in a taste-testing experiment of water with varying levels of salinity. Salinity measurements were taken of both drinking and non-drinking water sources. Informal group discussions were conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of water sources and water uses. Salinity levels of non-drinking water sources suggest that the conditions for Vibrio cholerae survival exist 7-8 days within the local aquatic environment. However, 96% of participants in the taste-testing experiment reported that they would never drink water with salinity levels that would be conducive to V. cholerae survival. Furthermore, salinity levels of participant's drinking water sources were all well below the levels required for optimal survival of V. cholerae. Respondents explained that they preferred less salty and more aesthetically pleasing drinking water. Theoretically, V. cholerae can survive in the river systems in Bangladesh; however, water sources which have been contaminated with river water are avoided as potential drinking water sources. Furthermore, there are no physical connecting points between the river system and drinking water sources among the study population, indicating that the primary driver for cholera cases in Bangladesh is likely not through the contamination of saline-rich river water into drinking water sources. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Overview of Chemicals of Emerging Concern

EPA Science Inventory

Contaminants of emerging concern or environmental emerging contaminants, are chemicals, products and materials that are detected with increasing frequency in all environmental media including surface, ground water and drinking water. Examples of these contaminants include pharmac...

Beyond Flint: National Trends in Drinking Water Quality Violations

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Allaire, M.; Wu, H.; Lall, U.

2016-12-01

Ensuring safe water supply for communities across the U.S. represents an emerging challenge. Aging infrastructure, impaired source water, and strained community finances may increase vulnerability of water systems to quality violations. In the aftermath of Flint, there is a great need to assess the current state of U.S. drinking water quality. How widespread are violations? What are the spatial and temporal patterns in water quality? Which types of communities and systems are most vulnerable? This is the first national assessment of trends in drinking water quality violations across several decades. In 2015, 9% of community water systems violated health-related water quality standards. These non-compliant systems served nearly 23 million people. Thus, the challenge of providing safe drinking water extends beyond Flint and represents a nationwide concern. We use a panel dataset that includes every community water system in the United States from 1981 to 2010 to identify factors that lead to regulatory noncompliance. This study focuses on health-related violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Lasso regression informed selection of appropriate covariates, while logistic regressions modeled the probability of noncompliance. We find that compliance is positively associated with private ownership, purchased water supply, and greater household income. Yet, greater concentration of utility ownership and violations in prior years are associated with a higher likelihood of violation. The results suggest that purchased water contracts, which are growing among small utilities, could serve as a way to improve regulatory compliance in the future. However, persistence of violations and ownership concentration deserve attention from policymakers. Already, the EPA has begun to prioritize enforcement of persistent violators. Overall, as the revitalization of U.S. water infrastructure becomes a growing priority area, results of this study are intended to inform investment and policy.

Drinking Water Management and Governance in Canada: An Innovative Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Framework for a Safe Drinking Water Supply

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Bereskie, Ty; Rodriguez, Manuel J.; Sadiq, Rehan

2017-08-01

Drinking water management in Canada is complex, with a decentralized, three-tiered governance structure responsible for safe drinking water throughout the country. The current approach has been described as fragmented, leading to governance gaps, duplication of efforts, and an absence of accountability and enforcement. Although there have been no major waterborne disease outbreaks in Canada since 2001, a lack of performance improvement, especially in small drinking water systems, is evident. The World Health Organization water safety plan approach for drinking water management represents an alternative preventative management framework to the current conventional, reactive drinking water management strategies. This approach has seen successful implementation throughout the world and has the potential to address many of the issues with drinking water management in Canada. This paper presents a review and strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats analysis of drinking water management and governance in Canada at the federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal levels. Based on this analysis, a modified water safety plan (defined as the plan-do-check-act (PDCA)-WSP framework) is proposed, established from water safety plan recommendations and the principles of PDCA for continuous performance improvement. This proposed framework is designed to strengthen current drinking water management in Canada and is designed to fit within and incorporate the existing governance structure.

Drinking Water Management and Governance in Canada: An Innovative Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Framework for a Safe Drinking Water Supply.

PubMed

Bereskie, Ty; Rodriguez, Manuel J; Sadiq, Rehan

2017-08-01

Drinking water management in Canada is complex, with a decentralized, three-tiered governance structure responsible for safe drinking water throughout the country. The current approach has been described as fragmented, leading to governance gaps, duplication of efforts, and an absence of accountability and enforcement. Although there have been no major waterborne disease outbreaks in Canada since 2001, a lack of performance improvement, especially in small drinking water systems, is evident. The World Health Organization water safety plan approach for drinking water management represents an alternative preventative management framework to the current conventional, reactive drinking water management strategies. This approach has seen successful implementation throughout the world and has the potential to address many of the issues with drinking water management in Canada. This paper presents a review and strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats analysis of drinking water management and governance in Canada at the federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal levels. Based on this analysis, a modified water safety plan (defined as the plan-do-check-act (PDCA)-WSP framework) is proposed, established from water safety plan recommendations and the principles of PDCA for continuous performance improvement. This proposed framework is designed to strengthen current drinking water management in Canada and is designed to fit within and incorporate the existing governance structure.

Occurrence of by-products of strong oxidants reacting with drinking water contaminants--scope of the problem.

PubMed Central

Rice, R G; Gomez-Taylor, M

1986-01-01

This paper describes results of a detailed literature review of the organic and inorganic by-products that have been identified as being formed in aqueous solution with four of the strong oxidizing/disinfecting agents commonly employed in drinking water treatment. These agents are: chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and ozone. Significant findings include the production of similar nonchlorinated organic oxidation products from chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone. In addition, all three chlorinous oxidants/disinfectants can produce chlorinated by-products under certain conditions. The presence of chloronitrile compounds in drinking waters is indicated to arise from reactions of chlorine or chloramine to amine/amide functions in amino acids or proteinaceous materials, followed by dehydrohalogenation. These nitriles could hydrolyze to produce the corresponding chloroacetic acids. It is concluded that to minimize the presence of oxidation by-products in drinking waters, the concentrations of oxidizable organic/inorganic impurities should be lowered before any oxidizing agent is added. PMID:3545807

Drinking water pollution with respective of fluoride in the semi-arid region of Basara, Nirmal district, Telangana State, India.

PubMed

Narsimha, Adimalla; Sudarshan, Venkatayogi

2018-02-01

Fluoride is an essential microelement for human health. Statistically, smaller quantities (<1.0 mg/L) in drinking water are usually considered to have a beneficial effect on the rate of occurrence of dental caries, particularly among children, but excessive continuous exposure (>1.5 mg/L) to fluoride can give rise to a number of adverse effects, including dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, increased rate of bone fractures, decreased birth rates, increased rate of urolithiasis (kidney stones), impaired thyroid function, and impaired development of intelligence in children [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]. The data suggested that the north-eastern part of the Basara region having high fluoride concentration, which is unsuitable for drinking purposes. Hence, this unsuitable drinking water cause fluorosis in this Basara and surrounding villages, and especially based on the findings suggests, where the fluoride levels are in below maximum permissible limits that water ingests to the people to avoid further fluorosis.

Protecting health from metal exposures in drinking water.

PubMed

Armour, Margaret-Ann

2016-03-01

Drinking water is essential to us as human beings. According to the World Health Organization "The quality of drinking-water is a powerful environmental determinant of health" (http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/), but clean drinking water is a precious commodity not always readily available. Surface and ground water are the major sources of drinking water. Both can be contaminated, surface water with bacteria while ground water frequently contains salts of metals that occur naturally or are introduced by human activity. This paper will briefly review the metallic salts found in drinking water in areas around the world, as well as list some of the methods used to reduce or remove them. It will then discuss our research on reducing the risk of pollution of drinking water by removal of metal ions from wastewater.

Source Water Protection Basics

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Defines drinking water sources (source water), identifies drinking water sources, and describes source water assessments and protection, roles of government and organizations in drinking water source protection

A preliminary nationwide survey of the presence of emerging contaminants in drinking and source waters in Brazil.

PubMed

Machado, Kelly C; Grassi, Marco Tadeu; Vidal, Cristiane; Pescara, Igor C; Jardim, Wilson F; Fernandes, Andreia N; Sodré, Fernando F; Almeida, Fernanda V; Santana, Joyce S; Canela, Maria Cristina; Nunes, Camila R O; Bichinho, Kátia M; Severo, Flaviana J R

2016-12-01

This is the first nationwide survey of emerging contaminants in Brazilian waters. One hundred drinking water samples were investigated in 22 Brazilian state capitals. In addition, seven source water samples from two of the most populous regions of the country were evaluated. Samples were collected from June to September of 2011 and again during the same period in 2012. The study covered emerging contaminants of different classes, including hormones, plasticizers, herbicides, triclosan and caffeine. The analytical method for the determination of the compounds was based on solid-phase extraction followed by analysis via liquid chromatography electrospray triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Caffeine, triclosan, atrazine, phenolphthalein and bisphenol A were found in at least one of the samples collected in the two sampling campaigns. Caffeine and atrazine were the most frequently detected substances in both drinking and source water. Caffeine concentrations in drinking water ranged from 1.8ngL -1 to values above 2.0μgL -1 while source-water concentrations varied from 40ngL -1 to about 19μgL -1 . For atrazine, concentrations were found in the range from 2.0 to 6.0ngL -1 in drinking water and at concentrations of up to 15ngL -1 in source water. The widespread presence of caffeine in samples of treated water is an indication of the presence of domestic sewage in the source water, considering that caffeine is a compound of anthropogenic origin. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Enhanced carcinogenicity by coexposure to arsenic and iron and a novel remediation system for the elements in well drinking water.

PubMed

Kumasaka, Mayuko Y; Yamanoshita, Osamu; Shimizu, Shingo; Ohnuma, Shoko; Furuta, Akio; Yajima, Ichiro; Nizam, Saika; Khalequzzaman, Md; Shekhar, Hossain U; Nakajima, Tamie; Kato, Masashi

2013-03-01

Various carcinomas including skin cancer are explosively increasing in arsenicosis patients who drink arsenic-polluted well water, especially in Bangladesh. Although well drinking water in the cancer-prone areas contains various elements, very little is known about the effects of elements except arsenic on carcinogenicity. In order to clarify the carcinogenic effects of coexposure to arsenic and iron, anchorage-independent growth and invasion in human untransformed HaCaT and transformed A431 keratinocytes were examined. Since the mean ratio of arsenic and iron in well water was 1:10 in cancer-prone areas of Bangladesh, effects of 1 μM arsenic and 10 μM iron were investigated. Iron synergistically promoted arsenic-mediated anchorage-independent growth in untransformed and transformed keratinocytes. Iron additionally increased invasion in both types of keratinocytes. Activities of c-SRC and ERK that regulate anchorage-independent growth and invasion were synergistically enhanced in both types of keratinocytes. Our results suggest that iron promotes arsenic-mediated transformation of untransformed keratinocytes and progression of transformed keratinocytes. We then developed a low-cost and high-performance adsorbent composed of a hydrotalcite-like compound for arsenic and iron. The adsorbent rapidly reduced concentrations of both elements from well drinking water in cancer-prone areas of Bangladesh to levels less than those in WHO health-based guidelines for drinking water. Thus, we not only demonstrated for the first time increased carcinogenicity by coexposure to arsenic and iron but also proposed a novel remediation system for well drinking water.

Fast, rugged and sensitive ultra high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for analysis of cyanotoxins in raw water and drinking water--First findings of anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins and microcystin variants in Swedish source waters and infiltration ponds.

PubMed

Pekar, Heidi; Westerberg, Erik; Bruno, Oscar; Lääne, Ants; Persson, Kenneth M; Sundström, L Fredrik; Thim, Anna-Maria

2016-01-15

Freshwater blooms of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in source waters are generally composed of several different strains with the capability to produce a variety of toxins. The major exposure routes for humans are direct contact with recreational waters and ingestion of drinking water not efficiently treated. The ultra high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry based analytical method presented here allows simultaneous analysis of 22 cyanotoxins from different toxin groups, including anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins, nodularin and microcystins in raw water and drinking water. The use of reference standards enables correct identification of toxins as well as precision of the quantification and due to matrix effects, recovery correction is required. The multi-toxin group method presented here, does not compromise sensitivity, despite the large number of analytes. The limit of quantification was set to 0.1 μg/L for 75% of the cyanotoxins in drinking water and 0.5 μg/L for all cyanotoxins in raw water, which is compliant with the WHO guidance value for microcystin-LR. The matrix effects experienced during analysis were reasonable for most analytes, considering the large volume injected into the mass spectrometer. The time of analysis, including lysing of cell bound toxins, is less than three hours. Furthermore, the method was tested in Swedish source waters and infiltration ponds resulting in evidence of presence of anatoxin, homo-anatoxin, cylindrospermopsin and several variants of microcystins for the first time in Sweden, proving its usefulness. Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

[The mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of reflexotherapy and drinking mineral waters in the patients presenting with metabolic syndrome].

PubMed

Zhernov, V A; Frolkov, V K; Zubarkina, M M

Both acupuncture and drinking mineral water can influence the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids as well as their hormonal regulation, but the possibility of the application of these therapeutic factors for the correction of insulin resistance has not been studied in the patients presenting with metabolic syndrome. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects produced by the intake of drinking mineral water and acupuncture on the various parameters characterizing the patients suffering from metabolic syndrome in combination with altered insulin resistance. Ninety patients with this condition included in the study underwent the analysis of their the blood pressure, body mass index, blood glucose and lipid levels, insulin and cortisol secretion. We undertook the analysis of the effects of the single and repeated intakes of Essentuki No 17 mineral water included in the combined treatment of the patients with metabolic syndrome and revealed many common responses of the organism to its therapeutic action. Specifically, the stress-type reactions suggested the initiation of the adaptive processes in the system of hormonal regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Simultaneously, the manifestations of insulin resistance became less pronounced indicating that both acupuncture and drinking mineral water suppressed the action of the main pathogenic mechanisms underlying the development of metabolic syndrome. Moreover, it was shown that acupuncture had a stronger hypotensive effect in the combination with the decrease of the overproduction of cortisol whereas the intake of the mineral water had a greater metabolic potential and contributed to the intensification of the basal secretion of glucocorticoids. Both reflexotherapy and drinking mineral water have a well apparent effect on the pathogenetic reactions of the metabolic syndrome and therefore can be used in addition to the standard therapy to activate the non-specific, phylogenetically established and enshrined at the genetic level self-healing responses by mainstreaming the adaptation processes and the formation of the adaptive reactions initiated by stressor components. The addition of acupuncture or domestic mineral water intake to the standard therapy of the patients suffering from metabolic syndrome significantly enhances the effectiveness of the treatment. The beneficial therapeutic action of acupuncture and drinking mineral water is underlain by their impact on the mechanisms of resistance to insulin that manifests itself as a decrease of the fasting secretion of this hormone and optimization of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The therapeutic effect of acupuncture and drinking mineral water is realized through the induction of the stress-initiating reactions which activate the processes of adaptation, with reflexotherapy largely acting on the cardiovascular system and drinking mineral water on the system responsible for insulin regulation of the metabolic processes.

Tribal Set-Aside Program of the Drinking Water Infrastructure Grant

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA), as amended in 1996, established the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) to make funds available to drinking water systems to finance infrastructure improvements.

High prevalence of enteric viruses in untreated individual drinking water sources and surface water in Slovenia.

PubMed

Steyer, Andrej; Torkar, Karmen Godič; Gutiérrez-Aguirre, Ion; Poljšak-Prijatelj, Mateja

2011-09-01

Waterborne infections have been shown to be important in outbreaks of gastroenteritis throughout the world. Although improved sanitary conditions are being progressively applied, fecal contaminations remain an emerging problem also in developed countries. The aim of our study was to investigate the prevalence of fecal contaminated water sources in Slovenia, including surface waters and groundwater sources throughout the country. In total, 152 water samples were investigated, of which 72 samples represents groundwater from individual wells, 17 samples from public collection supplies and 63 samples from surface stream waters. Two liters of untreated water samples were collected and concentrated by the adsorption/elution technique with positively charged filters followed by an additional ultracentrifugation step. Group A rotaviruses, noroviruses (genogroups I and II) and astroviruses were detected with real-time RT-PCR method in 69 (45.4%) out of 152 samples collected, of which 31/89 (34.8%) drinking water and 38/63 (60.3%) surface water samples were positive for at least one virus tested. In 30.3% of drinking water samples group A rotaviruses were detected (27/89), followed by noroviruses GI (2.2%; 2/89) and astroviruses (2.2%; 2/89). In drinking groundwater samples group A rotaviruses were detected in 27 out of 72 tested samples (37.5%), genogroup I noroviruses in two (2.8%), and human astroviruses in one (1.4%) samples. In surface water samples norovirus genogroup GII was the most frequently detected (41.3%; 26/63), followed by norovirus GI (33.3%; 21/63), human astrovirus (27.0%; 17/63) and group A rotavirus (17.5%; 11/63). Our study demonstrates relatively high percentage of groundwater contamination in Slovenia and, suggests that raw groundwater used as individual drinking water supply may constitute a possible source of enteric virus infections. In the future, testing for enteric viruses should be applied for drinking water sources in waterborne outbreaks. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of regulated and emerging iodinated DBPs in the Shanghai drinking water.

PubMed

Wei, Xiao; Chen, Xin; Wang, Xia; Zheng, Weiwei; Zhang, Dong; Tian, Dajun; Jiang, Songhui; Ong, Choon Nam; He, Gengsheng; Qu, Weidong

2013-01-01

Drinking water chlorination plays a pivotal role in preventing pathogen contamination against water-borne disease. However, chemical disinfection leads to the formation of halogenated disinfection by products (DBPs). Many DBPs are highly toxic and are of health concern. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive measurements of DBPs, including iodoacetic acid (IAA), iodoform (IF), nine haloacetic acids and four trihalomethanes in drinking waters from 13 water plants in Shanghai, China. The results suggested that IAA and IF were found in all the water treatment plants, with maximum levels of 1.66 µg/L and 1.25 µg/L for IAA and IF, respectively. Owing to deterioration of water quality, the Huangpu River has higher IAA and IF than the Yangtze River. Our results also demonstrated that low pH, high natural organic matter, ammonia nitrogen, and iodide in source waters increased IAA and IF formation. Compared to chlorine, chloramines resulted in higher concentration of iodinated DBP, but reduced the levels of trihalomethanes. This is the first study to reveal the widespread occurrence of IAA and IF in drinking water in China. The data provide a better understanding on the formation of iodinated disinfection byproducts and the findings should be useful for treatment process improvement and disinfection byproducts controls.

Occurrence of Regulated and Emerging Iodinated DBPs in the Shanghai Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Wei, Xiao; Chen, Xin; Wang, Xia; Zheng, Weiwei; Zhang, Dong; Tian, Dajun; Jiang, Songhui; Ong, Choon Nam; He, Gengsheng; Qu, Weidong

2013-01-01

Drinking water chlorination plays a pivotal role in preventing pathogen contamination against water-borne disease. However, chemical disinfection leads to the formation of halogenated disinfection by products (DBPs). Many DBPs are highly toxic and are of health concern. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive measurements of DBPs, including iodoacetic acid (IAA), iodoform (IF), nine haloacetic acids and four trihalomethanes in drinking waters from 13 water plants in Shanghai, China. The results suggested that IAA and IF were found in all the water treatment plants, with maximum levels of 1.66 µg/L and 1.25 µg/L for IAA and IF, respectively. Owing to deterioration of water quality, the Huangpu River has higher IAA and IF than the Yangtze River. Our results also demonstrated that low pH, high natural organic matter, ammonia nitrogen, and iodide in source waters increased IAA and IF formation. Compared to chlorine, chloramines resulted in higher concentration of iodinated DBP, but reduced the levels of trihalomethanes. This is the first study to reveal the widespread occurrence of IAA and IF in drinking water in China. The data provide a better understanding on the formation of iodinated disinfection byproducts and the findings should be useful for treatment process improvement and disinfection byproducts controls. PMID:23555742

Drinking Water Quality Surveillance in a Vulnerable Urban Ward of Ahmedabad.

PubMed

Iyer, Veena; Choudhury, Nandini; Azhar, Gulrez Shah; Somvanshi, Bhushan

2014-05-01

The World Bank estimates that 21% of all communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water with diarrhoea alone causing more than 0.1 million deaths annually. The WHO drinking water surveillance parameters of quality, quantity, accessibility, affordability and continuity were assessed in one vulnerable ward of Ahmedabad-a fast growing city in Western India. Interviews with key informants of the ward office, health centre and water supply department, secondary analysis and mapping of field test reports and a questionnaire-based survey of different household types were conducted. We found that Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) supplies water to the ward intermittently for two hours during the day. Housing society clusters supplement their AMC water supply with untested bore-well water. The water quality surveillance system is designed for a twenty-four-hour piped distribution of treated surface water. However, in order to maintain surveillance over an intermittent supply that includes ground water, the sampling process should include periodic surveys of water actually consumed by the citizens. The laboratory capacity of the Central Water Testing Laboratory should expand to include more refined tests for microbial and chemical contamination.

Exposure to low-dose barium by drinking water causes hearing loss in mice.

PubMed

Ohgami, Nobutaka; Hori, Sohjiro; Ohgami, Kyoko; Tamura, Haruka; Tsuzuki, Toyonori; Ohnuma, Shoko; Kato, Masashi

2012-10-01

We continuously ingest barium as a general element by drinking water and foods in our daily life. Exposure to high-dose barium (>100mg/kg/day) has been shown to cause physiological impairments. Direct administration of barium to inner ears by vascular perfusion has been shown to cause physiological impairments in inner ears. However, the toxic influence of oral exposure to low-dose barium on hearing levels has not been clarified in vivo. We analyzed the toxic influence of oral exposure to low-dose barium on hearing levels and inner ears in mice. We orally administered barium at low doses of 0.14 and 1.4 mg/kg/day to wild-type ICR mice by drinking water. The doses are equivalent to and 10-fold higher than the limit level (0.7 mg/l) of WHO health-based guidelines for drinking water, respectively. After 2-week exposure, hearing levels were measured by auditory brain stem responses and inner ears were morphologically analyzed. After 2-month exposure, tissue distribution of barium was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Low-dose barium in drinking water caused severe hearing loss in mice. Inner ears including inner and outer hair cells, stria vascularis and spiral ganglion neurons showed severe degeneration. The Barium-administered group showed significantly higher levels of barium in inner ears than those in the control group, while barium levels in bone did not show a significant difference between the two groups. Barium levels in other tissues including the cerebrum, cerebellum, heart, liver and kidney were undetectably low in both groups. Our results demonstrate for the first time that low-dose barium administered by drinking water specifically distributes to inner ears resulting in severe ototoxicity with degeneration of inner ears in mice. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Lithium in drinking water and the incidence of bipolar disorder: A nation-wide population-based study.

PubMed

Kessing, Lars V; Gerds, Thomas A; Knudsen, Nikoline N; Jørgensen, Lisbeth F; Kristiansen, Søren M; Voutchkova, Denitza; Ernstsen, Vibeke; Schullehner, Jörg; Hansen, Birgitte; Andersen, Per K; Ersbøll, Annette K

2017-11-01

Animal data suggest that subtherapeutic doses, including micro doses, of lithium may influence mood, and lithium levels in drinking water have been found to correlate with the rate of suicide. It has never been investigated whether consumption of lithium may prevent the development of bipolar disorder (primary prophylaxis). In a nation-wide population-based study, we investigated whether long-term exposure to micro levels of lithium in drinking water correlates with the incidence of bipolar disorder in the general population, hypothesizing an inverse association in which higher long-term lithium exposure is associated with lower incidences of bipolar disorder. We included longitudinal individual geographical data on municipality of residence, data from drinking water lithium measurements and time-specific data from all cases with a hospital contact with a diagnosis of mania/bipolar disorder from 1995 to 2013 (N=14 820) and 10 age- and gender-matched controls from the Danish population (N= 140 311). Average drinking water lithium exposure was estimated for all study individuals. The median of the average lithium exposure did not differ between cases with a diagnosis of mania/bipolar disorder (12.7 μg/L; interquartile range [IQR]: 7.9-15.5 μg/L) and controls (12.5 μg/L; IQR: 7.6-15.7 μg/L; P=.2). Further, the incidence rate ratio of mania/bipolar disorder did not decrease with higher long-term lithium exposure, overall, or within age categories (0-40, 41-60 and 61-100 years of age). Higher long-term lithium exposure from drinking water was not associated with a lower incidence of bipolar disorder. The association should be investigated in areas with higher lithium levels than in Denmark. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Drinking water consumption patterns among adults-SMS as a novel tool for collection of repeated self-reported water consumption.

PubMed

Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Toljander, Jonas; Mattisson, Irene; Åkesson, Agneta; Simonsson, Magnus

2018-03-01

Studies have shown that the average drinking water consumption ranges between 0.075 and 3 L/day for adults with both national and regional differences. For exposure assessment of drinking water hazards, country-specific drinking water consumption data including sources of the consumed water may therefore be warranted. To estimate the amount and source of drinking water consumed among adults in Sweden, we collected self-reported estimates using both traditional methods (telephone interviews, web questionnaire) and a novel method (Short Message Service, SMS questionnaires) in a population from an average sized Swedish municipality. Monthly SMS questionnaires were sent out during one year to obtain longitudinal information as well. SMS showed to be a promising tool for collecting self-reported consumption, as most citizens could participate and the method showed high response rate. Data collected via the SMS questionnaire shows an average consumption of cold tap water of 4.9 glasses/24 h (one glass=200 ml), while the average estimates of cold tap water collected by the traditional methods range from 4.5 to 7.0 glasses/24 h. For statistical distributions, the mean daily consumption of cold tap water for the population was best fitted to a gamma distribution. About 70% of the cold tap water is consumed at home. Based on the results from the SMS study, we suggest using 1 l/day for the average adult population and 2.5 l/day for high consumers for risk assessment of cold tap water consumption. As 46% of the tap water consumed is heated, we suggest using 1.85 l/day for total tap water consumption.

Drinking water consumption patterns among adults—SMS as a novel tool for collection of repeated self-reported water consumption

PubMed Central

Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Toljander, Jonas; Mattisson, Irene; Åkesson, Agneta; Simonsson, Magnus

2018-01-01

Studies have shown that the average drinking water consumption ranges between 0.075 and 3 L/day for adults with both national and regional differences. For exposure assessment of drinking water hazards, country-specific drinking water consumption data including sources of the consumed water may therefore be warranted. To estimate the amount and source of drinking water consumed among adults in Sweden, we collected self-reported estimates using both traditional methods (telephone interviews, web questionnaire) and a novel method (Short Message Service, SMS questionnaires) in a population from an average sized Swedish municipality. Monthly SMS questionnaires were sent out during one year to obtain longitudinal information as well. SMS showed to be a promising tool for collecting self-reported consumption, as most citizens could participate and the method showed high response rate. Data collected via the SMS questionnaire shows an average consumption of cold tap water of 4.9 glasses/24 h (one glass=200 ml), while the average estimates of cold tap water collected by the traditional methods range from 4.5 to 7.0 glasses/24 h. For statistical distributions, the mean daily consumption of cold tap water for the population was best fitted to a gamma distribution. About 70% of the cold tap water is consumed at home. Based on the results from the SMS study, we suggest using 1 l/day for the average adult population and 2.5 l/day for high consumers for risk assessment of cold tap water consumption. As 46% of the tap water consumed is heated, we suggest using 1.85 l/day for total tap water consumption. PMID:28612838

How to Manual: How to Update and Enhance Your Local Source Water Protection Assessments

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Describes opportunities for improving source water assessments performed under the Safe Drinking Water Act 1453. It includes: local delineations, potential contaminant source inventories, and susceptibility determinations of source water assessment.

Effects of Forest and Grassland Management On Drinking Water Quality for Public Water Supplies:A Review And Synthesis of the Scientific Literature - Review Draft

Treesearch

George E. Dissmeyer

1999-01-01

The Importance of Safe Public Drinking Water The United States Congress justified passing the Safe Drinking Water Amendments (SDWA) of 1996 (P. L. 104-182) by stating "safe drinking water is essential to the protection of public health".For 50 years the basic axiom for public health protection has been safe drinking water...

Blood pressure hyperreactivity: an early cardiovascular risk in normotensive men exposed to low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic in drinking water.

PubMed

Kunrath, Julie; Gurzau, Eugen; Gurzau, Anca; Goessler, Walter; Gelmann, Elyssa R; Thach, Thu-Trang; McCarty, Kathleen M; Yeckel, Catherine W

2013-02-01

Essential hypertension is associated with chronic exposure to high levels of inorganic arsenic in drinking water. However, early signs of risk for developing hypertension remain unclear in people exposed to chronic low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic. We evaluated cardiovascular stress reactivity and recovery in healthy, normotensive, middle-aged men living in an arsenic-endemic region of Romania. Unexposed (n = 16) and exposed (n = 19) participants were sampled from communities based on WHO limits for inorganic arsenic in drinking water (<10 μg/l). Water sources and urine samples were collected and analyzed for inorganic arsenic and its metabolites. Functional evaluation of blood pressure included clinical, anticipatory, cold pressor test, and recovery measurements. Blood pressure hyperreactivity was defined as a combined stress-induced change in SBP (> 20 mmHg) and DBP (>15 mmHg). Drinking water inorganic arsenic averaged 40.2 ± 30.4 and 1.0 ± 0.2 μg/l for the exposed and unexposed groups, respectively (P < 0.001). Compared to the unexposed group, the exposed group expressed a greater probability of blood pressure hyperreactivity to both anticipatory stress (47.4 vs. 12.5%; P = 0.035) and cold stress (73.7 vs. 37.5%; P = 0.044). Moreover, the exposed group exhibited attenuated blood pressure recovery from stress and a greater probability of persistent hypertensive responses (47.4 vs. 12.5%; P = 0.035). Inorganic arsenic exposure increased stress-induced blood pressure hyperreactivity and poor blood pressure recovery, including persistent hypertensive responses in otherwise healthy, clinically normotensive men. Drinking water containing even low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic may act as a sympathetic nervous system trigger for hypertension risk.

Blood pressure hyperreactivity: an early cardiovascular risk in normotensive men exposed to low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic in drinking water

PubMed Central

Kunrath, Julie; Gurzau, Eugen; Gurzau, Anca; Goessler, Walter; Gelmann, Elyssa R.; Thach, Thu-Trang; Mccarty, Kathleen M.; Yeckel, Catherine W.

2012-01-01

Essential hypertension is associated with chronic exposure to high levels of inorganic arsenic in drinking water. However, early signs of risk for developing hypertension remain unclear in people exposed to chronic low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic. Objective We evaluated cardiovascular stress reactivity and recovery in healthy, normotensive, middle-aged men living in an arsenic-endemic region of Romania. Methods Unexposed (n=16) and exposed (n=19) participants were sampled from communities based on WHO limits for inorganic arsenic in drinking water (<10 μg/l). Water sources and urine samples were collected and analyzed for inorganic arsenic and its metabolites. Functional evaluation of blood pressure included clinical, anticipatory, cold pressor test, and recovery measurements. Results Blood pressure hyperreactivity was defined as a combined stress-induced change in SBP (>20 mmHg) and DBP (>15 mmHg). Drinking water inorganic arsenic averaged 40.2±30.4 and 1.0±0.2 μg/l for the exposed and unexposed groups, respectively (P<0.001). Compared to the unexposed group, the exposed group expressed a greater probability of blood pressure hyperreactivity to both anticipatory stress (47.4 vs. 12.5%; P=0.035) and cold stress (73.7 vs. 37.5%; P=0.044). Moreover, the exposed group exhibited attenuated blood pressure recovery from stress and a greater probability of persistent hypertensive responses (47.4 vs. 12.5%; P=0.035). Conclusions Inorganic arsenic exposure increased stress-induced blood pressure hyperreactivity and poor blood pressure recovery, including persistent hypertensive responses in otherwise healthy, clinically normotensive men. Drinking water containing even low-to-moderate inorganic arsenic may act as a sympathetic nervous system trigger for hypertension risk. PMID:23203141

Effects of low-dose drinking water arsenic on mouse fetal and postnatal growth and development.

PubMed

Kozul-Horvath, Courtney D; Zandbergen, Fokko; Jackson, Brian P; Enelow, Richard I; Hamilton, Joshua W

2012-01-01

Arsenic (As) exposure is a significant worldwide environmental health concern. Chronic exposure via contaminated drinking water has been associated with an increased incidence of a number of diseases, including reproductive and developmental effects. The goal of this study was to identify adverse outcomes in a mouse model of early life exposure to low-dose drinking water As (10 ppb, current U.S. EPA Maximum Contaminant Level). C57B6/J pups were exposed to 10 ppb As, via the dam in her drinking water, either in utero and/or during the postnatal period. Birth outcomes, the growth of the F1 offspring, and health of the dams were assessed by a variety of measurements. Birth outcomes including litter weight, number of pups, and gestational length were unaffected. However, exposure during the in utero and postnatal period resulted in significant growth deficits in the offspring after birth, which was principally a result of decreased nutrients in the dam's breast milk. Cross-fostering of the pups reversed the growth deficit. Arsenic exposed dams displayed altered liver and breast milk triglyceride levels and serum profiles during pregnancy and lactation. The growth deficits in the F1 offspring resolved following separation from the dam and cessation of exposure in male mice, but did not resolve in female mice up to six weeks of age. Exposure to As at the current U.S. drinking water standard during critical windows of development induces a number of adverse health outcomes for both the dam and offspring. Such effects may contribute to the increased disease risks observed in human populations.

Fluoride in Iranian Drinking Water Resources: a Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Non-carcinogenic Risk Assessment.

PubMed

Keramati, Hassan; Miri, Ali; Baghaei, Mehdi; Rahimizadeh, Aziz; Ghorbani, Raheb; Fakhri, Yadolah; Bay, Abotaleb; Moradi, Masoud; Bahmani, Zohreh; Ghaderpoori, Mansour; Mousavi Khaneghah, Amin

2018-06-25

A systematic review, meta-analysis, and non-carcinogenic risk considering fluoride content of drinking water resources of 31 provinces of Iran among some international databases such as Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, and national databases including SID and Irandoc (2011 to July 2017) were conducted. In this context, 10 articles (40 studies) with 1706 samples were included in meta-analyses and risk assessment studies. The pooled concentration of fluoride in the cold, mild, and warm weather provinces were calculated as 0.39 mg/L (95% CI 0.32-0.48 mg/L), 0.52 (95% CI 0.43-0.61 mg/L), and 0.75 (95% CI 0.56-0.94 mg/L), respectively. The pooled concentration of fluoride in Iranian drinking water resources was 0.51 (95% CI 0.45-0.57 mg/L). The minimum and maximum concentrations of fluoride content were related to Kermanshah (0.19 mg/L) and Kerman (1.13 mg/L) provinces, respectively. The HQ of fluoride in the children and adults were 0.462 and 0.077, respectively as children are more vulnerable than adults. The HQ for children and adults was lower than 1 value. Therefore, there is no considerable non-carcinogenic risk for consumers due to drinking water in Iran. Although the non-carcinogenic of fluoride in drinking water was not significant, fluoride entry from other sources, such as food or inhalation, could endanger the health of the residents of Kerman and Bushehr provinces.

30 CFR 71.601 - Drinking water; quality.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Drinking water; quality. 71.601 Section 71.601... Water § 71.601 Drinking water; quality. (a) Potable water provided in accordance with the provisions of § 71.600 shall meet the applicable minimum health requirements for drinking water established by the...

30 CFR 71.602 - Drinking water; distribution.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Drinking water; distribution. 71.602 Section 71... Drinking Water § 71.602 Drinking water; distribution. (a) Water shall be piped or transported in sanitary containers. Water systems and appurtenances thereto shall be constructed and maintained in accordance with...

30 CFR 71.602 - Drinking water; distribution.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Drinking water; distribution. 71.602 Section 71... Drinking Water § 71.602 Drinking water; distribution. (a) Water shall be piped or transported in sanitary containers. Water systems and appurtenances thereto shall be constructed and maintained in accordance with...

30 CFR 71.601 - Drinking water; quality.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Drinking water; quality. 71.601 Section 71.601... Water § 71.601 Drinking water; quality. (a) Potable water provided in accordance with the provisions of § 71.600 shall meet the applicable minimum health requirements for drinking water established by the...

30 CFR 71.601 - Drinking water; quality.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Drinking water; quality. 71.601 Section 71.601... Water § 71.601 Drinking water; quality. (a) Potable water provided in accordance with the provisions of § 71.600 shall meet the applicable minimum health requirements for drinking water established by the...

30 CFR 71.602 - Drinking water; distribution.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Drinking water; distribution. 71.602 Section 71... Drinking Water § 71.602 Drinking water; distribution. (a) Water shall be piped or transported in sanitary containers. Water systems and appurtenances thereto shall be constructed and maintained in accordance with...

30 CFR 71.602 - Drinking water; distribution.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2012-07-01 2012-07-01 false Drinking water; distribution. 71.602 Section 71... Drinking Water § 71.602 Drinking water; distribution. (a) Water shall be piped or transported in sanitary containers. Water systems and appurtenances thereto shall be constructed and maintained in accordance with...

30 CFR 71.602 - Drinking water; distribution.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2013-07-01 2013-07-01 false Drinking water; distribution. 71.602 Section 71... Drinking Water § 71.602 Drinking water; distribution. (a) Water shall be piped or transported in sanitary containers. Water systems and appurtenances thereto shall be constructed and maintained in accordance with...

30 CFR 71.601 - Drinking water; quality.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2013-07-01 2013-07-01 false Drinking water; quality. 71.601 Section 71.601... Water § 71.601 Drinking water; quality. (a) Potable water provided in accordance with the provisions of § 71.600 shall meet the applicable minimum health requirements for drinking water established by the...

30 CFR 71.601 - Drinking water; quality.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... 30 Mineral Resources 1 2012-07-01 2012-07-01 false Drinking water; quality. 71.601 Section 71.601... Water § 71.601 Drinking water; quality. (a) Potable water provided in accordance with the provisions of § 71.600 shall meet the applicable minimum health requirements for drinking water established by the...

44 CFR 206.221 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-10-01

...) Utility means buildings, structures, or systems of energy, communication, water supply, sewage collection.... Irrigation facilities include water for fire suppression, generating and supplying electricity, and drinking...

44 CFR 206.221 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-10-01

...) Utility means buildings, structures, or systems of energy, communication, water supply, sewage collection.... Irrigation facilities include water for fire suppression, generating and supplying electricity, and drinking...

44 CFR 206.221 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-10-01

...) Utility means buildings, structures, or systems of energy, communication, water supply, sewage collection.... Irrigation facilities include water for fire suppression, generating and supplying electricity, and drinking...

75 FR 48329 - Tribal Drinking Water Operator Certification Program

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-08-10

... ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY [FRL-9186-8] Tribal Drinking Water Operator Certification Program... details of EPA's voluntary Tribal Drinking Water Operator Certification Program, effective October 1, 2010. The program enables qualified drinking water operators at public water systems in Indian country to be...

High fluoride and low pH level have been detected in popular flavoured beverages in Malaysia

PubMed Central

HA Rahim, Zubaidah; M Bakri, Marina; HM, Zakir; IA, Ahmed; NA, Zulkifli

2014-01-01

Objective: In children, excessive ingestion of fluoride from different sources including bottled drinking water and flavoured beverages or soft drinks can lead to the development of dental fluorosis. In addition, the pH level of beverages is important. Low pH can cause dental erosion. In this study we explore the fluoride content and pH level of certain popular beverages available in Malaysian supermarkets and hawkers’ stalls. Methods: Bottled drinking water and selected popular flavoured packet drinks were purchased from a supermarket and the corresponding flavoured hawkers’ drinks, from a hawker’s stall in Kuala Lumpur. Fluoride and pH of the beverages were determined using digital fluoride meter and digital pH meter respectively. Results: It was found that fluoride content and pH level vary among the beverages. The mean fluoride content in both packet and hawkers’ drinks (7.64±1.88 mg/L, 7.51±1.60 mg/L, respectively) was approximately 7 times higher than the bottled drinking water (1.05±0.35 mg/L). Among the beverages, the tea packet drink was found to contain the highest amount of fluoride (13.02±0.23 mg/L). The mean pH of bottled-drinking water was near neutral (6.96±0.17), but acidic for both supermarket (4.78.00±0.49) and hawkers’ drinks (5.73±0.24). The lychee packet drink had the lowest pH level (2.97±0.03). Conclusions: Due to the wide variation of the fluoride content and pH level of the drinks tested in this study, it is recommended that steps should be taken to control the fluoride concentration and pH level in beverages if dental fluorosis and erosion are to be prevented. PMID:24772152

WATER QUALITY IN SOURCE WATER, TREATMENT, AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

Most drinking water utilities practice the multiple-barrier concept as the guiding principle for providing safe water. This chapter discusses multiple barriers as they relate to the basic criteria for selecting and protecting source waters, including known and potential sources ...

Hierarchical distance-based fuzzy approach to evaluate urban water supply systems in a semi-arid region.

PubMed

Yekta, Tahereh Sadeghi; Khazaei, Mohammad; Nabizadeh, Ramin; Mahvi, Amir Hossein; Nasseri, Simin; Yari, Ahmad Reza

2015-01-01

Hierarchical distance-based fuzzy multi-criteria group decision making was served as a tool to evaluate the drinking water supply systems of Qom, a semi-arid city located in central part of Iran. A list of aspects consisting of 6 criteria and 35 sub-criteria were evaluated based on a linguistic term set by five decision-makers. Four water supply alternatives including "Public desalinated distribution system", "PET Bottled Drinking Water", "Private desalinated water suppliers" and "Household desalinated water units" were assessed based on criteria and sub-criteria. Data were aggregated and normalized to apply Performance Ratings of Alternatives. Also, the Performance Ratings of Alternatives were aggregated again to achieve the Aggregate Performance Ratings. The weighted distances from ideal solution and anti-ideal solution were calculated after secondary normalization. The proximity of each alternative to the ideal solution was determined as the final step. The alternatives were ranked based on the magnitude of ideal solutions. Results showed that "Public desalinated distribution system" was the most appropriate alternative to supply the drinking needs of Qom population. Also, "PET Bottled Drinking Water" was the second acceptable option. A novel classification of alternatives to satisfy the drinking water requirements was proposed which is applicable for the other cities located in semi-arid regions of Iran. The health issues were considered as independent criterion, distinct from the environmental issues. The constraints of high-tech alternatives were also considered regarding to the level of dependency on overseas.

Neuro-fuzzy inference system Prediction of stability indices and Sodium absorption ratio in Lordegan rural drinking water resources in west Iran.

PubMed

Takdastan, Afshin; Mirzabeygi Radfard, Majid; Yousefi, Mahmood; Abbasnia, Abbas; Khodadadia, Rouhollah; Soleimani, Hamed; Mahvi, Amir Hossein; Naghan, Davood Jalili

2018-06-01

According to World Health Organization guidelines, corrosion control is an important aspect of safe drinking-water supplies. Water always includes ingredients, dissolved gases and suspended materials. Although some of these water ingredients is indispensable for human beings, these elements more than permissible limits, could be endanger human health. The aim of this study is to assess physical and chemical parameters of drinking water in the rural areas of Lordegan city, also to determine corrosion indices. This cross-sectional study has carried out with 141 taken samples during 2017 with 13 parameters, which has been analyzed based on standard method and to estimate the water quality indices from groundwater using ANFIS. Also with regard to standard conditions, results of this paper are compared with Environmental Protection Agency and Iran national standards. Five indices, Ryznar Stability Index (RSI), Langlier Saturation Index (LSI), Larson-Skold Index (LS), Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI), and Aggressive Index (AI) programmed by using Microsoft Excel software. Owing to its simplicity, the program, can easily be used by researchers and operators. Parameters included Sulfate, Sodium, Chloride, and Electrical Conductivity respectively were 13.5, 28, 10.5, and 15% more than standard level. The amount of Nitrate, in 98% of cases were in permissible limits and about 2% were more than standard level. Result of presented research indicate that water is corrosive at 10.6%,89.4%,87.2%,59.6% and 14.9% of drinking water supply reservoirs, according to LSI, RSI, PSI, LS and AI, respectively.

Vulnerability of drinking water supplies to engineered nanoparticles.

PubMed

Troester, Martin; Brauch, Heinz-Juergen; Hofmann, Thilo

2016-06-01

The production and use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) inevitably leads to their release into aquatic environments, with the quantities involved expected to increase significantly in the future. Concerns therefore arise over the possibility that ENPs might pose a threat to drinking water supplies. Investigations into the vulnerability of drinking water supplies to ENPs are hampered by the absence of suitable analytical methods that are capable of detecting and quantifiying ENPs in complex aqueous matrices. Analytical data concerning the presence of ENPs in drinking water supplies is therefore scarce. The eventual fate of ENPs in the natural environment and in processes that are important for drinking water production are currently being investigated through laboratory based-experiments and modelling. Although the information obtained from these studies may not, as yet, be sufficient to allow comprehensive assessment of the complete life-cycle of ENPs, it does provide a valuable starting point for predicting the significance of ENPs to drinking water supplies. This review therefore addresses the vulnerability of drinking water supplies to ENPs. The risk of ENPs entering drinking water is discussed and predicted for drinking water produced from groundwater and from surface water. Our evaluation is based on reviewing published data concerning ENP production amounts and release patterns, the occurrence and behavior of ENPs in aquatic systems relevant for drinking water supply and ENP removability in drinking water purification processes. Quantitative predictions are made based on realistic high-input case scenarios. The results of our synthesis of current knowledge suggest that the risk probability of ENPs being present in surface water resources is generally limited, but that particular local conditions may increase the probability of raw water contamination by ENPs. Drinking water extracted from porous media aquifers are not generally considered to be prone to ENP contamination. In karstic aquifers, however, there is an increased probability that if any ENPs enter the groundwater system they will reach the extraction point of a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). The ability to remove ENPs during water treatment depends on the specific design of the treatment process. In conventional DWTPs with no flocculation step a proportion of ENPs, if present in the raw water, may reach the final drinking water. The use of ultrafiltration techniques improves drinking water safety with respect to ENP contamination. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.