Increased reward in ankle robotics training enhances motor control and cortical efficiency in stroke.

PubMed

Goodman, Ronald N; Rietschel, Jeremy C; Roy, Anindo; Jung, Brian C; Diaz, Jason; Macko, Richard F; Forrester, Larry W

2014-01-01

Robotics is rapidly emerging as a viable approach to enhance motor recovery after disabling stroke. Current principles of cognitive motor learning recognize a positive relationship between reward and motor learning. Yet no prior studies have established explicitly whether reward improves the rate or efficacy of robotics-assisted rehabilitation or produces neurophysiologic adaptations associated with motor learning. We conducted a 3 wk, 9-session clinical pilot with 10 people with chronic hemiparetic stroke, randomly assigned to train with an impedance-controlled ankle robot (anklebot) under either high reward (HR) or low reward conditions. The 1 h training sessions entailed playing a seated video game by moving the paretic ankle to hit moving onscreen targets with the anklebot only providing assistance as needed. Assessments included paretic ankle motor control, learning curves, electroencephalograpy (EEG) coherence and spectral power during unassisted trials, and gait function. While both groups exhibited changes in EEG, the HR group had faster learning curves (p = 0.05), smoother movements (p

Social Learning Theory: its application in the context of nurse education.

PubMed

Bahn, D

2001-02-01

Cognitive theories are fundamental to enable problem solving and the ability to understand and apply principles in a variety of situations. This article looks at Social Learning Theory, critically analysing its principles, which are based on observational learning and modelling, and considering its value and application in the context of nurse education. It also considers the component processes that will determine the outcome of observed behaviour, other than reinforcement, as identified by Bandura, namely: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. Copyright 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.

Motor-based intervention protocols in treatment of childhood apraxia of speech (CAS)

PubMed Central

Maas, Edwin; Gildersleeve-Neumann, Christina; Jakielski, Kathy J.; Stoeckel, Ruth

2014-01-01

This paper reviews current trends in treatment for childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), with a particular emphasis on motor-based intervention protocols. The paper first briefly discusses how CAS fits into the typology of speech sound disorders, followed by a discussion of the potential relevance of principles derived from the motor learning literature for CAS treatment. Next, different motor-based treatment protocols are reviewed, along with their evidence base. The paper concludes with a summary and discussion of future research needs. PMID:25313348

Motor Learning Versus StandardWalking Exercise in Older Adults with Subclinical Gait Dysfunction: A Randomized Clinical Trial

PubMed Central

Brach, Jennifer S.; Van Swearingen, Jessie M.; Perera, Subashan; Wert, David M.; Studenski, Stephanie

2013-01-01

Background Current exercise recommendationsfocus on endurance and strength, but rarely incorporate principles of motor learning. Motor learning exerciseis designed to address neurological aspects of movement. Motor learning exercise has not been evaluated in older adults with subclinical gait dysfunction. Objectives Tocompare motor learning versus standard exercise on measures of mobility and perceived function and disability. Design Single-blind randomized trial. Setting University research center. Participants Olderadults (n=40), mean age 77.1±6.0 years), who had normal walking speed (≥1.0 m/s) and impaired motor skill (Figure of 8 walk time > 8 s). Interventions The motor learning program (ML) incorporated goal-oriented stepping and walking to promote timing and coordination within the phases of the gait cycle. The standard program (S) employed endurance training by treadmill walking.Both included strength training and were offered twice weekly for one hour for 12 weeks. Measurements Primary outcomes included mobility performance (gait efficiency, motor skill in walking, gait speed, and walking endurance)and secondary outcomes included perceived function and disability (Late Life Function and Disability Instrument). Results 38 of 40 participants completed the trial (ML, n=18; S, n=20). ML improved more than Sin gait speed (0.13 vs. 0.05 m/s, p=0.008) and motor skill (−2.2 vs. −0.89 s, p<0.0001). Both groups improved in walking endurance (28.3 and 22.9m, but did not differ significantly p=0.14). Changes in gait efficiency and perceived function and disability were not different between the groups (p>0.10). Conclusion In older adults with subclinical gait dysfunction, motor learning exercise improved some parameters of mobility performance more than standard exercise. PMID:24219189

An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: overcoming learned nonuse by shaping.

PubMed

Taub, E; Crago, J E; Burgio, L D; Groomes, T E; Cook, E W; DeLuca, S C; Miller, N E

1994-03-01

A new approach to the rehabilitation of movement, based primarily on the principles of operant conditioning, was derived from research with deafferented monkeys. The analysis suggests that a certain proportion of excess motor disability after certain types of injury involves a learned suppression of movement and may be termed learned nonuse. Learned nonuse can be overcome by changing the contingencies of reinforcement so that they strongly favor use of an affected upper extremity in the chronic postinjury situation. The techniques employed here involved 2 weeks of restricting movement of the opposite (unaffected) extremity and training of the affected limb. Initial work with humans has been with chronic stroke patients for whom the approach has yielded large improvements in motor ability and functional independence. We report here preliminary data suggesting that shaping with verbal feedback further enhances the motor recovery.

Microswitch- and VOCA-Assisted Programs for Two Post-Coma Persons with Minimally Conscious State and Pervasive Motor Disabilities

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lancioni, Giulio E.; Singh, Nirbhay N.; O'Reilly, Mark F.; Sigafoos, Jeff; Buonocunto, Francesca; Sacco, Valentina; Colonna, Fabio; Navarro, Jorge; Oliva, Doretta; Signorino, Mario; Megna, Gianfranco

2009-01-01

Intervention programs, based on learning principles and assistive technology, were assessed in two studies with two post-coma men with minimally conscious state and pervasive motor disabilities. Study I assessed a program that included (a) an optic microswitch, activated via double blinking, which allowed a man direct access to brief music…

Motor learning and consolidation: the case of visuomotor rotation.

PubMed

Krakauer, John W

2009-01-01

Adaptation to visuomotor rotation is a particular form of motor learning distinct from force-field adaptation, sequence learning, and skill learning. Nevertheless, study of adaptation to visuomotor rotation has yielded a number of findings and principles that are likely of general importance to procedural learning and memory. First, rotation learning is implicit and appears to proceed through reduction in a visual prediction error generated by a forward model, such implicit adaptation occurs even when it is in conflict with an explicit task goal. Second, rotation learning is subject to different forms of interference: retrograde, anterograde through aftereffects, and contextual blocking of retrieval. Third, opposite rotations can be recalled within a short time interval without interference if implicit contextual cues (effector change) rather than explicit cues (color change) are used. Fourth, rotation learning consolidates both over time and with increased initial training (saturation learning).

Training production of lexical stress in typically developing children using orthographically biased stimuli and principles of motor learning.

PubMed

van Rees, Lauren J; Ballard, Kirrie J; McCabe, Patricia; Macdonald-D'Silva, Anita G; Arciuli, Joanne

2012-08-01

Impaired lexical stress production characterizes multiple pediatric speech disorders. Effective remediation strategies are not available, and little is known about the normal process of learning to assign and produce lexical stress. This study examined whether typically developing (TD) children can be trained to produce lexical stress on bisyllabic pseudowords that are orthographically biased to a strong-weak or weak-strong pattern (e.g., MAMbey or beDOON), in combination with the principles of motor learning (PML). Fourteen TD children ages 5;0 (years;months) to 13;0 were randomly assigned to a training or control group using concealed allocation within blocks. A pre- to posttraining group design was used to examine the acquisition, retention, and generalization of lexical stress production. The training group learned to produce appropriate lexical stress for the pseudowords with strong maintenance and generalization to related untrained stimuli. Accuracy of stress production did not change in the control group. TD children can learn to produce lexical stress patterns for orthographically biased pseudowords via explicit training methods. Findings have relevance for the study of languages other than English and for a range of prosodic disorders.

Integration of Motor Learning Principles Into Real-Time Ambulatory Voice Biofeedback and Example Implementation Via a Clinical Case Study With Vocal Fold Nodules.

PubMed

Van Stan, Jarrad H; Mehta, Daryush D; Petit, Robert J; Sternad, Dagmar; Muise, Jason; Burns, James A; Hillman, Robert E

2017-02-01

Ambulatory voice biofeedback (AVB) has the potential to significantly improve voice therapy effectiveness by targeting one of the most challenging aspects of rehabilitation: carryover of desired behaviors outside of the therapy session. Although initial evidence indicates that AVB can alter vocal behavior in daily life, retention of the new behavior after biofeedback has not been demonstrated. Motor learning studies repeatedly have shown retention-related benefits when reducing feedback frequency or providing summary statistics. Therefore, novel AVB settings that are based on these concepts are developed and implemented. The underlying theoretical framework and resultant implementation of innovative AVB settings on a smartphone-based voice monitor are described. A clinical case study demonstrates the functionality of the new relative frequency feedback capabilities. With new technical capabilities, 2 aspects of feedback are directly modifiable for AVB: relative frequency and summary feedback. Although reduced-frequency AVB was associated with improved carryover of a therapeutic vocal behavior (i.e., reduced vocal intensity) in a patient post-excision of vocal fold nodules, causation cannot be assumed. Timing and frequency of AVB schedules can be manipulated to empirically assess generalization of motor learning principles to vocal behavior modification and test the clinical effectiveness of AVB with various feedback schedules.

Integration of Motor Learning Principles Into Real-Time Ambulatory Voice Biofeedback and Example Implementation Via a Clinical Case Study With Vocal Fold Nodules

PubMed Central

Mehta, Daryush D.; Petit, Robert J.; Sternad, Dagmar; Muise, Jason; Burns, James A.; Hillman, Robert E.

2017-01-01

Purpose Ambulatory voice biofeedback (AVB) has the potential to significantly improve voice therapy effectiveness by targeting one of the most challenging aspects of rehabilitation: carryover of desired behaviors outside of the therapy session. Although initial evidence indicates that AVB can alter vocal behavior in daily life, retention of the new behavior after biofeedback has not been demonstrated. Motor learning studies repeatedly have shown retention-related benefits when reducing feedback frequency or providing summary statistics. Therefore, novel AVB settings that are based on these concepts are developed and implemented. Method The underlying theoretical framework and resultant implementation of innovative AVB settings on a smartphone-based voice monitor are described. A clinical case study demonstrates the functionality of the new relative frequency feedback capabilities. Results With new technical capabilities, 2 aspects of feedback are directly modifiable for AVB: relative frequency and summary feedback. Although reduced-frequency AVB was associated with improved carryover of a therapeutic vocal behavior (i.e., reduced vocal intensity) in a patient post-excision of vocal fold nodules, causation cannot be assumed. Conclusions Timing and frequency of AVB schedules can be manipulated to empirically assess generalization of motor learning principles to vocal behavior modification and test the clinical effectiveness of AVB with various feedback schedules. PMID:28124070

Use of the challenge point framework to guide motor learning of stepping reactions for improved balance control in people with stroke: a case series.

PubMed

Pollock, Courtney L; Boyd, Lara A; Hunt, Michael A; Garland, S Jayne

2014-04-01

Stepping reactions are important for walking balance and community-level mobility. Stepping reactions of people with stroke are characterized by slow reaction times, poor coordination of motor responses, and low amplitude of movements, which may contribute to their decreased ability to recover their balance when challenged. An important aspect of rehabilitation of mobility after stroke is optimizing the motor learning associated with retraining effective stepping reactions. The Challenge Point Framework (CPF) is a model that can be used to promote motor learning through manipulation of conditions of practice to modify task difficulty, that is, the interaction of the skill of the learner and the difficulty of the task to be learned. This case series illustrates how the retraining of multidirectional stepping reactions may be informed by the CPF to improve balance function in people with stroke. Four people (53-68 years of age) with chronic stroke (>1 year) and mild to moderate motor recovery received 4 weeks of multidirectional stepping reaction retraining. Important tenets of motor learning were optimized for each person during retraining in accordance with the CPF. Participants demonstrated improved community-level walking balance, as determined with the Community Balance and Mobility Scale. These improvements were evident 1 year later. Aspects of balance-related self-efficacy and movement kinematics also showed improvements during the course of the intervention. The application of CPF motor learning principles in the retraining of stepping reactions to improve community-level walking balance in people with chronic stroke appears to be promising. The CPF provides a plausible theoretical framework for the progression of functional task training in neurorehabilitation.

Assist-as-needed robotic trainer based on reinforcement learning and its application to dart-throwing.

PubMed

Obayashi, Chihiro; Tamei, Tomoya; Shibata, Tomohiro

2014-05-01

This paper proposes a novel robotic trainer for motor skill learning. It is user-adaptive inspired by the assist-as-needed principle well known in the field of physical therapy. Most previous studies in the field of the robotic assistance of motor skill learning have used predetermined desired trajectories, and it has not been examined intensively whether these trajectories were optimal for each user. Furthermore, the guidance hypothesis states that humans tend to rely too much on external assistive feedback, resulting in interference with the internal feedback necessary for motor skill learning. A few studies have proposed a system that adjusts its assistive strength according to the user's performance in order to prevent the user from relying too much on the robotic assistance. There are, however, problems in these studies, in that a physical model of the user's motor system is required, which is inherently difficult to construct. In this paper, we propose a framework for a robotic trainer that is user-adaptive and that neither requires a specific desired trajectory nor a physical model of the user's motor system, and we achieve this using model-free reinforcement learning. We chose dart-throwing as an example motor-learning task as it is one of the simplest throwing tasks, and its performance can easily be and quantitatively measured. Training experiments with novices, aiming at maximizing the score with the darts and minimizing the physical robotic assistance, demonstrate the feasibility and plausibility of the proposed framework. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Virtual Reality Rehabilitation from Social Cognitive and Motor Learning Theoretical Perspectives in Stroke Population

PubMed Central

Imam, Bita; Jarus, Tal

2014-01-01

Objectives. To identify the virtual reality (VR) interventions used for the lower extremity rehabilitation in stroke population and to explain their underlying training mechanisms using Social Cognitive (SCT) and Motor Learning (MLT) theoretical frameworks. Methods. Medline, Embase, Cinahl, and Cochrane databases were searched up to July 11, 2013. Randomized controlled trials that included a VR intervention for lower extremity rehabilitation in stroke population were included. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the quality of the included studies. The underlying training mechanisms involved in each VR intervention were explained according to the principles of SCT (vicarious learning, performance accomplishment, and verbal persuasion) and MLT (focus of attention, order and predictability of practice, augmented feedback, and feedback fading). Results. Eleven studies were included. PEDro scores varied from 3 to 7/10. All studies but one showed significant improvement in outcomes in favour of the VR group (P < 0.05). Ten VR interventions followed the principle of performance accomplishment. All the eleven VR interventions directed subject's attention externally, whereas nine provided training in an unpredictable and variable fashion. Conclusions. The results of this review suggest that VR applications used for lower extremity rehabilitation in stroke population predominantly mediate learning through providing a task-oriented and graduated learning under a variable and unpredictable practice. PMID:24523967

Utilizing media arts principles for developing effective interactive neurorehabilitation systems.

PubMed

Rikakis, Thanassis

2011-01-01

This paper discusses how interactive neurorehabilitation systems can increase their effectiveness through systematic integration of media arts principles and practice. Media arts expertise can foster the development of complex yet intuitive extrinsic feedback displays that match the inherent complexity and intuitive nature of motor learning. Abstract, arts-based feedback displays can be powerful metaphors that provide re-contextualization, engagement and appropriate reward mechanisms for mature adults. Such virtual feedback displays must be seamlessly integrated with physical components to produce mixed reality training environments that promote active, generalizable learning. The proposed approaches are illustrated through examples from mixed reality rehabilitation systems developed by our team.

Parameters and Measures in Assessment of Motor Learning in Neurorehabilitation; A Systematic Review of the Literature

PubMed Central

Shishov, Nataliya; Melzer, Itshak; Bar-Haim, Simona

2017-01-01

Upper limb function, essential for daily life, is often impaired in individuals after stroke and cerebral palsy (CP). For an improved upper limb function, learning should occur, and therefore training with motor learning principles is included in many rehabilitation interventions. Despite accurate measurement being an important aspect for examination and optimization of treatment outcomes, there are no standard algorithms for outcome measures selection. Moreover, the ability of the chosen measures to identify learning is not well established. We aimed to review and categorize the parameters and measures utilized for identification of motor learning in stroke and CP populations. PubMed, Pedro, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched between January 2000 and March 2016 for studies assessing a form of motor learning following upper extremity training using motor control measures. Thirty-two studies in persons after stroke and 10 studies in CP of any methodological quality were included. Identified outcome measures were sorted into two categories, “parameters,” defined as identifying a form of learning, and “measures,” as tools measuring the parameter. Review's results were organized as a narrative synthesis focusing on the outcome measures. The included studies were heterogeneous in their study designs, parameters and measures. Parameters included adaptation (n = 6), anticipatory control (n = 2), after-effects (n = 3), de-adaptation (n = 4), performance (n = 24), acquisition (n = 8), retention (n = 8), and transfer (n = 14). Despite motor learning theory's emphasis on long-lasting changes and generalization, the majority of studies did not assess the retention and transfer parameters. Underlying measures included kinematic analyses in terms of speed, geometry or both (n = 39), dynamic metrics, measures of accuracy, consistency, and coordination. There is no exclusivity of measures to a specific parameter. Many factors affect task performance and the ability to measure it—necessitating the use of several metrics to examine different features of movement and learning. Motor learning measures' applicability to clinical setting can benefit from a treatment-focused approach, currently lacking. The complexity of motor learning results in various metrics, utilized to assess its occurrence, making it difficult to synthesize findings across studies. Further research is desirable for development of an outcome measures selection algorithm, while considering the quality of such measurements. PMID:28286474

Hand rim wheelchair propulsion training using biomechanical real-time visual feedback based on motor learning theory principles.

PubMed

Rice, Ian; Gagnon, Dany; Gallagher, Jere; Boninger, Michael

2010-01-01

As considerable progress has been made in laboratory-based assessment of manual wheelchair propulsion biomechanics, the necessity to translate this knowledge into new clinical tools and treatment programs becomes imperative. The objective of this study was to describe the development of a manual wheelchair propulsion training program aimed to promote the development of an efficient propulsion technique among long-term manual wheelchair users. Motor learning theory principles were applied to the design of biomechanical feedback-based learning software, which allows for random discontinuous real-time visual presentation of key spatiotemporal and kinetic parameters. This software was used to train a long-term wheelchair user on a dynamometer during 3 low-intensity wheelchair propulsion training sessions over a 3-week period. Biomechanical measures were recorded with a SmartWheel during over ground propulsion on a 50-m level tile surface at baseline and 3 months after baseline. Training software was refined and administered to a participant who was able to improve his propulsion technique by increasing contact angle while simultaneously reducing stroke cadence, mean resultant force, peak and mean moment out of plane, and peak rate of rise of force applied to the pushrim after training. The proposed propulsion training protocol may lead to favorable changes in manual wheelchair propulsion technique. These changes could limit or prevent upper limb injuries among manual wheelchair users. In addition, many of the motor learning theory-based techniques examined in this study could be applied to training individuals in various stages of rehabilitation to optimize propulsion early on.

Hand Rim Wheelchair Propulsion Training Using Biomechanical Real-Time Visual Feedback Based on Motor Learning Theory Principles

PubMed Central

Rice, Ian; Gagnon, Dany; Gallagher, Jere; Boninger, Michael

2010-01-01

Background/Objective: As considerable progress has been made in laboratory-based assessment of manual wheelchair propulsion biomechanics, the necessity to translate this knowledge into new clinical tools and treatment programs becomes imperative. The objective of this study was to describe the development of a manual wheelchair propulsion training program aimed to promote the development of an efficient propulsion technique among long-term manual wheelchair users. Methods: Motor learning theory principles were applied to the design of biomechanical feedback-based learning software, which allows for random discontinuous real-time visual presentation of key spatio-temporal and kinetic parameters. This software was used to train a long-term wheelchair user on a dynamometer during 3 low-intensity wheelchair propulsion training sessions over a 3-week period. Biomechanical measures were recorded with a SmartWheel during over ground propulsion on a 50-m level tile surface at baseline and 3 months after baseline. Results: Training software was refined and administered to a participant who was able to improve his propulsion technique by increasing contact angle while simultaneously reducing stroke cadence, mean resultant force, peak and mean moment out of plane, and peak rate of rise of force applied to the pushrim after training. Conclusions: The proposed propulsion training protocol may lead to favorable changes in manual wheelchair propulsion technique. These changes could limit or prevent upper limb injuries among manual wheelchair users. In addition, many of the motor learning theory–based techniques examined in this study could be applied to training individuals in various stages of rehabilitation to optimize propulsion early on. PMID:20397442

The Nervous System Game

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Corbitt, Cynthia; Carpenter, Molly

2006-01-01

For many children, especially those with reading difficulties, a motor-kinesthetic learning activity may be an effective tool to teach complex concepts. With this in mind, the authors developed and tested a game designed to teach fourth- to sixth-grade children some basic principles of nervous system function by allowing the children themselves to…

7 Habits of Developmental Coaches

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Darden, Gibson; Shimon, Jane

2004-01-01

In this article, the authors describe how coaches can apply principles of athlete growth and development to the learning and performance of motor skills. They present 7 habits that lead to well-rounded athletes who experience increased enjoyment, self-motivation, skill improvement, and ultimately more success on the playing field. (Contains 1…

Learning by stimulation avoidance: A principle to control spiking neural networks dynamics

PubMed Central

Sinapayen, Lana; Ikegami, Takashi

2017-01-01

Learning based on networks of real neurons, and learning based on biologically inspired models of neural networks, have yet to find general learning rules leading to widespread applications. In this paper, we argue for the existence of a principle allowing to steer the dynamics of a biologically inspired neural network. Using carefully timed external stimulation, the network can be driven towards a desired dynamical state. We term this principle “Learning by Stimulation Avoidance” (LSA). We demonstrate through simulation that the minimal sufficient conditions leading to LSA in artificial networks are also sufficient to reproduce learning results similar to those obtained in biological neurons by Shahaf and Marom, and in addition explains synaptic pruning. We examined the underlying mechanism by simulating a small network of 3 neurons, then scaled it up to a hundred neurons. We show that LSA has a higher explanatory power than existing hypotheses about the response of biological neural networks to external simulation, and can be used as a learning rule for an embodied application: learning of wall avoidance by a simulated robot. In other works, reinforcement learning with spiking networks can be obtained through global reward signals akin simulating the dopamine system; we believe that this is the first project demonstrating sensory-motor learning with random spiking networks through Hebbian learning relying on environmental conditions without a separate reward system. PMID:28158309

Learning by stimulation avoidance: A principle to control spiking neural networks dynamics.

PubMed

Sinapayen, Lana; Masumori, Atsushi; Ikegami, Takashi

2017-01-01

Learning based on networks of real neurons, and learning based on biologically inspired models of neural networks, have yet to find general learning rules leading to widespread applications. In this paper, we argue for the existence of a principle allowing to steer the dynamics of a biologically inspired neural network. Using carefully timed external stimulation, the network can be driven towards a desired dynamical state. We term this principle "Learning by Stimulation Avoidance" (LSA). We demonstrate through simulation that the minimal sufficient conditions leading to LSA in artificial networks are also sufficient to reproduce learning results similar to those obtained in biological neurons by Shahaf and Marom, and in addition explains synaptic pruning. We examined the underlying mechanism by simulating a small network of 3 neurons, then scaled it up to a hundred neurons. We show that LSA has a higher explanatory power than existing hypotheses about the response of biological neural networks to external simulation, and can be used as a learning rule for an embodied application: learning of wall avoidance by a simulated robot. In other works, reinforcement learning with spiking networks can be obtained through global reward signals akin simulating the dopamine system; we believe that this is the first project demonstrating sensory-motor learning with random spiking networks through Hebbian learning relying on environmental conditions without a separate reward system.

Human-robot cooperative movement training: learning a novel sensory motor transformation during walking with robotic assistance-as-needed.

PubMed

Emken, Jeremy L; Benitez, Raul; Reinkensmeyer, David J

2007-03-28

A prevailing paradigm of physical rehabilitation following neurologic injury is to "assist-as-needed" in completing desired movements. Several research groups are attempting to automate this principle with robotic movement training devices and patient cooperative algorithms that encourage voluntary participation. These attempts are currently not based on computational models of motor learning. Here we assume that motor recovery from a neurologic injury can be modelled as a process of learning a novel sensory motor transformation, which allows us to study a simplified experimental protocol amenable to mathematical description. Specifically, we use a robotic force field paradigm to impose a virtual impairment on the left leg of unimpaired subjects walking on a treadmill. We then derive an "assist-as-needed" robotic training algorithm to help subjects overcome the virtual impairment and walk normally. The problem is posed as an optimization of performance error and robotic assistance. The optimal robotic movement trainer becomes an error-based controller with a forgetting factor that bounds kinematic errors while systematically reducing its assistance when those errors are small. As humans have a natural range of movement variability, we introduce an error weighting function that causes the robotic trainer to disregard this variability. We experimentally validated the controller with ten unimpaired subjects by demonstrating how it helped the subjects learn the novel sensory motor transformation necessary to counteract the virtual impairment, while also preventing them from experiencing large kinematic errors. The addition of the error weighting function allowed the robot assistance to fade to zero even though the subjects' movements were variable. We also show that in order to assist-as-needed, the robot must relax its assistance at a rate faster than that of the learning human. The assist-as-needed algorithm proposed here can limit error during the learning of a dynamic motor task. The algorithm encourages learning by decreasing its assistance as a function of the ongoing progression of movement error. This type of algorithm is well suited for helping people learn dynamic tasks for which large kinematic errors are dangerous or discouraging, and thus may prove useful for robot-assisted movement training of walking or reaching following neurologic injury.

Mitigating road impacts on animals through learning principles.

PubMed

Proppe, D S; McMillan, N; Congdon, J V; Sturdy, C B

2017-01-01

Roads are a nearly ubiquitous feature of the developed world, but their presence does not come without consequences. Many mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians suffer high rates of mortality through collision with motor vehicles, while other species treat roads as barriers that reduce gene flow between populations. Road effects extend beyond the pavement, where traffic noise is altering communities of songbirds, insects, and some mammals. Traditional methods of mitigation along roads include the creation of quieter pavement and tires and the construction of physical barriers to reduce sound transmission and movement. While effective, these forms of mitigation are costly and time-consuming. One alternative is the use of learning principles to create or extinguish aversive behaviors in animals living near roads. Classical and operant conditioning are well-documented techniques for altering behavior in response to novel cues and signals. Behavioral ecologists have used conditioning techniques to mitigate human-wildlife conflict challenges, alter predator-prey interactions, and facilitate reintroduction efforts. Yet, these principles have rarely been applied in the context of roads. We suggest that the field of road ecology is ripe with opportunity for experimentation with learning principles. We present tangible ways that learning techniques could be utilized to mitigate negative roadside behaviors, address the importance of evaluating fitness within these contexts, and evaluate the longevity of learned behaviors. This review serves as an invitation for empirical studies that test the effectiveness of learning paradigms as a mitigation tool in the context of roads.

Comparison of a robotic-assisted gait training program with a program of functional gait training for children with cerebral palsy: design and methods of a two group randomized controlled cross-over trial.

PubMed

Hilderley, Alicia J; Fehlings, Darcy; Lee, Gloria W; Wright, F Virginia

2016-01-01

Enhancement of functional ambulation is a key goal of rehabilitation for children with cerebral palsy (CP) who experience gross motor impairment. Physiotherapy (PT) approaches often involve overground and treadmill-based gait training to promote motor learning, typically as free walking or with body-weight support. Robotic-assisted gait training (RAGT), using a device such as the Lokomat ® Pro, may permit longer training duration, faster and more variable gait speeds, and support walking pattern guidance more than overground/treadmill training to further capitalize on motor learning principles. Single group pre-/post-test studies have demonstrated an association between RAGT and moderate to large improvements in gross motor skills, gait velocity and endurance. A single published randomized controlled trial (RCT) comparing RAGT to a PT-only intervention showed no difference in gait kinematics. However, gross motor function and walking endurance were not evaluated and conclusions were limited by a large PT group drop-out rate. In this two-group cross-over RCT, children are randomly allocated to the RAGT or PT arm (each with twice weekly sessions for eight weeks), with cross-over to the other intervention arm following a six-week break. Both interventions are grounded in motor learning principles with incorporation of individualized mobility-based goals. Sessions are fully operationalized through manualized, menu-based protocols and post-session documentation to enhance internal and external validity. Assessments occur pre/post each intervention arm (four time points total) by an independent assessor. The co-primary outcomes are gross motor functional ability (Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM-66) and 6-minute walk test), with secondary outcome measures assessing: (a) individualized goals; (b) gait variables and daily walking amounts; and (c) functional abilities, participation and quality of life. Investigators and statisticians are blinded to study group allocation in the analyses, and assessors are blinded to treatment group. The primary analysis will be the pre- to post-test differences (change scores) of the GMFM-66 and 6MWT between RAGT and PT groups. This study is the first RCT comparing RAGT to an active gait-related PT intervention in paediatric CP that addresses gait-related gross motor, participation and individualized outcomes, and as such, is expected to provide comprehensive information as to the potential role of RAGT in clinical practice. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02196298.

Effects of Practice Schedule on Wind Instrument Performance: A Preliminary Application of a Motor Learning Principle

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Stambaugh, Laura A.; Demorest, Steven M.

2010-01-01

The effects of three practice schedules on beginning instrumental achievement were explored. A total of 19 seventh-grade clarinet and saxophone students completed one 18-minute practice session using either a blocked schedule causing a low level of cognitive (contextual) interference, a hybrid schedule causing a moderate level of interference, or…

Improving Motor Corticothalamic Communication After Stroke Using Real-Time fMRI Connectivity-Based Neurofeedback.

PubMed

Liew, Sook-Lei; Rana, Mohit; Cornelsen, Sonja; Fortunato de Barros Filho, Marcos; Birbaumer, Niels; Sitaram, Ranganatha; Cohen, Leonardo G; Soekadar, Surjo R

2016-08-01

Two thirds of stroke survivors experience motor impairment resulting in long-term disability. The anatomical substrate is often the disruption of cortico-subcortical pathways. It has been proposed that reestablishment of cortico-subcortical communication relates to functional recovery. In this study, we applied a novel training protocol to augment ipsilesional cortico-subcortical connectivity after stroke. Chronic stroke patients with severe motor impairment were provided online feedback of blood-oxygenation level dependent signal connectivity between cortical and subcortical regions critical for motor function using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback. In this proof of principle study, 3 out of 4 patients learned to voluntarily modulate cortico-subcortical connectivity as intended. Our results document for the first time the feasibility and safety for patients with chronic stroke and severe motor impairment to self-regulate and augment ipsilesional cortico-subcortical connectivity through neurofeedback using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging. © The Author(s) 2015.

Trajectory formation principles are the same after mild or moderate stroke

PubMed Central

van Dokkum, Liesjet Elisabeth Henriette; Froger, Jérôme; Gouaïch, Abdelkader; Laffont, Isabelle

2017-01-01

When we make rapid reaching movements, we have to trade speed for accuracy. To do so, the trajectory of our hand is the result of an optimal balance between feed-forward and feed-back control in the face of signal-dependant noise in the sensorimotor system. How far do these principles of trajectory formation still apply after a stroke, for persons with mild to moderate sensorimotor deficits who recovered some reaching ability? Here, we examine the accuracy of fast hand reaching movements with a focus on the information capacity of the sensorimotor system and its relation to trajectory formation in young adults, in persons who had a stroke and in age-matched control participants. We find that persons with stroke follow the same trajectory formation principles, albeit parameterized differently in the face of higher sensorimotor uncertainty. Higher directional errors after a stroke result in less feed-forward control, hence more feed-back loops responsible for segmented movements. As a consequence, movements are globally slower to reach the imposed accuracy, and the information throughput of the sensorimotor system is lower after a stroke. The fact that the most abstract principles of motor control remain after a stroke suggests that clinicians can capitalize on existing theories of motor control and learning to derive principled rehabilitation strategies. PMID:28329000

Physiotherapy treatment approaches for the recovery of postural control and lower limb function following stroke.

PubMed

Pollock, A; Baer, G; Pomeroy, V; Langhorne, P

2007-01-24

There are a number of different approaches to physiotherapy treatment following stroke that, broadly speaking, are based on neurophysiological, motor learning and orthopaedic principles. Some physiotherapists base their treatment on a single approach, while others use a mixture of components from a number of different approaches. To determine if there is a difference in the recovery of postural control and lower limb function in patients with stroke if physiotherapy treatment is based on orthopaedic or neurophysiological or motor learning principles, or on a mixture of these treatment principles. We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group Trials Register (last searched May 2005), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library Issue 2, 2005), MEDLINE (1966 to May 2005), EMBASE (1980 to May 2005) and CINAHL (1982 to May 2005). We contacted experts and researchers with an interest in stroke rehabilitation. Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials of physiotherapy treatment approaches aimed at promoting the recovery of postural control and lower limb function in adult participants with a clinical diagnosis of stroke. Outcomes included measures of disability, motor impairment or participation. Two review authors independently categorised the identified trials according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, documented their methodological quality, and extracted the data. Twenty-one trials were included in the review, five of which were included in two comparisons. Eight trials compared a neurophysiological approach with another approach; eight compared a motor learning approach with another approach; and eight compared a mixed approach with another approach. A mixed approach was significantly more effective than no treatment or placebo control for improving functional independence (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.94, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.08 to 1.80). There was no significant evidence that any single approach had a better outcome than any other single approach or no treatment control. There is evidence that physiotherapy intervention, using a mix of components from different approaches, is significantly more effective than no treatment or placebo control in the recovery of functional independence following stroke. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that any one physiotherapy approach is more effective in promoting recovery of lower limb function or postural control following stroke than any other approach. We recommend that future research should concentrate on investigating the effectiveness of clearly described individual techniques and task-specific treatments, regardless of their historical or philsophical origin.

The most common deviations in the development of hand motoricity in children from birth to one year of age.

PubMed

Matijević, Valentina; Secić, Ana; Zivković, Tamara Kauzlarić; Borosak, Jesenka; Kolak, Zeljka; Dimić, Zdenka

2013-09-01

The early child development, from birth until the age of one year is, amongst other changes, characterized by intense motor learning. During that period, the voluntary learning patterns evolve from reflexive patterns to coordinated voluntary patterns. All of the child's voluntary movements present active forms in which the child communicates with the environment. In this communication, the hand plays an important role. Its brain representation covers one-third of the entire motor region, situated in the close proximity to the speech region. For this reason, some authors refer to hand as a "speech organ". According to numerous studies, each separate finger also has a relatively large representation in the cerebral cortex, which points to the importance of the fine motor skills development, or precise, highly differentiated movements of hand muscles following the principles of differentiation and hierarchical integration. Development of the fine motor skills in the hand is important for the overall child development, and it also serves as a predictor pointing to immaturity of the central nervous system. The aim of this paper is to present the development of hand motoricity from birth until the age of one year, as well as the most frequent deviations observed in children hospitalized at Children's Department of Rehabilitation, Clinical Department of Rheumatology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Sestre milosrdnice University Hospital Center.

Computational approaches to motor learning by imitation.

PubMed Central

Schaal, Stefan; Ijspeert, Auke; Billard, Aude

2003-01-01

Movement imitation requires a complex set of mechanisms that map an observed movement of a teacher onto one's own movement apparatus. Relevant problems include movement recognition, pose estimation, pose tracking, body correspondence, coordinate transformation from external to egocentric space, matching of observed against previously learned movement, resolution of redundant degrees-of-freedom that are unconstrained by the observation, suitable movement representations for imitation, modularization of motor control, etc. All of these topics by themselves are active research problems in computational and neurobiological sciences, such that their combination into a complete imitation system remains a daunting undertaking-indeed, one could argue that we need to understand the complete perception-action loop. As a strategy to untangle the complexity of imitation, this paper will examine imitation purely from a computational point of view, i.e. we will review statistical and mathematical approaches that have been suggested for tackling parts of the imitation problem, and discuss their merits, disadvantages and underlying principles. Given the focus on action recognition of other contributions in this special issue, this paper will primarily emphasize the motor side of imitation, assuming that a perceptual system has already identified important features of a demonstrated movement and created their corresponding spatial information. Based on the formalization of motor control in terms of control policies and their associated performance criteria, useful taxonomies of imitation learning can be generated that clarify different approaches and future research directions. PMID:12689379

Human-robot cooperative movement training: Learning a novel sensory motor transformation during walking with robotic assistance-as-needed

PubMed Central

Emken, Jeremy L; Benitez, Raul; Reinkensmeyer, David J

2007-01-01

Background A prevailing paradigm of physical rehabilitation following neurologic injury is to "assist-as-needed" in completing desired movements. Several research groups are attempting to automate this principle with robotic movement training devices and patient cooperative algorithms that encourage voluntary participation. These attempts are currently not based on computational models of motor learning. Methods Here we assume that motor recovery from a neurologic injury can be modelled as a process of learning a novel sensory motor transformation, which allows us to study a simplified experimental protocol amenable to mathematical description. Specifically, we use a robotic force field paradigm to impose a virtual impairment on the left leg of unimpaired subjects walking on a treadmill. We then derive an "assist-as-needed" robotic training algorithm to help subjects overcome the virtual impairment and walk normally. The problem is posed as an optimization of performance error and robotic assistance. The optimal robotic movement trainer becomes an error-based controller with a forgetting factor that bounds kinematic errors while systematically reducing its assistance when those errors are small. As humans have a natural range of movement variability, we introduce an error weighting function that causes the robotic trainer to disregard this variability. Results We experimentally validated the controller with ten unimpaired subjects by demonstrating how it helped the subjects learn the novel sensory motor transformation necessary to counteract the virtual impairment, while also preventing them from experiencing large kinematic errors. The addition of the error weighting function allowed the robot assistance to fade to zero even though the subjects' movements were variable. We also show that in order to assist-as-needed, the robot must relax its assistance at a rate faster than that of the learning human. Conclusion The assist-as-needed algorithm proposed here can limit error during the learning of a dynamic motor task. The algorithm encourages learning by decreasing its assistance as a function of the ongoing progression of movement error. This type of algorithm is well suited for helping people learn dynamic tasks for which large kinematic errors are dangerous or discouraging, and thus may prove useful for robot-assisted movement training of walking or reaching following neurologic injury. PMID:17391527

Invariant principles of speech motor control that are not language-specific.

PubMed

Chakraborty, Rahul

2012-12-01

Bilingual speakers must learn to modify their speech motor control mechanism based on the linguistic parameters and rules specified by the target language. This study examines if there are aspects of speech motor control which remain invariant regardless of the first (L1) and second (L2) language targets. Based on the age of academic exposure and proficiency in L2, 21 Bengali-English bilingual participants were classified into high (n = 11) and low (n = 10) L2 (English) proficiency groups. Using the Optotrak 3020 motion sensitive camera system, the lips and jaw movements were recorded while participants produced Bengali (L1) and English (L2) sentences. Based on kinematic analyses of the lip and jaw movements, two different variability measures (i.e., lip aperture and lower lip/jaw complex) were computed for English and Bengali sentences. Analyses demonstrated that the two groups of bilingual speakers produced lip aperture complexes (a higher order synergy) that were more consistent in co-ordination than were the lower lip/jaw complexes (a lower order synergy). Similar findings were reported earlier in monolingual English speakers by Smith and Zelaznik. Thus, this hierarchical organization may be viewed as a fundamental principle of speech motor control, since it is maintained even in bilingual speakers.

gSRT-Soft: a generic software application and some methodological guidelines to investigate implicit learning through visual-motor sequential tasks.

PubMed

Chambaron, Stéphanie; Ginhac, Dominique; Perruchet, Pierre

2008-05-01

Serial reaction time tasks and, more generally, the visual-motor sequential paradigms are increasingly popular tools in a variety of research domains, from studies on implicit learning in laboratory contexts to the assessment of residual learning capabilities of patients in clinical settings. A consequence of this success, however, is the increased variability in paradigms and the difficulty inherent in respecting the methodological principles that two decades of experimental investigations have made more and more stringent. The purpose of the present article is to address those problems. We present a user-friendly application that simplifies running classical experiments, but is flexible enough to permit a broad range of nonstandard manipulations for more specific objectives. Basic methodological guidelines are also provided, as are suggestions for using the software to explore unconventional directions of research. The most recent version of gSRT-Soft may be obtained for free by contacting the authors.

Efficient and Effective Change Principles in Active Videogames

PubMed Central

Fenner, Ashley A.; Howie, Erin K.; Feltz, Deborah L.; Gray, Cindy M.; Lu, Amy Shirong; Mueller, Florian “Floyd”; Simons, Monique; Barnett, Lisa M.

2015-01-01

Abstract Active videogames have the potential to enhance population levels of physical activity but have not been successful in achieving this aim to date. This article considers a range of principles that may be important to the design of effective and efficient active videogames from diverse discipline areas, including behavioral sciences (health behavior change, motor learning, and serious games), business production (marketing and sales), and technology engineering and design (human–computer interaction/ergonomics and flow). Both direct and indirect pathways to impact on population levels of habitual physical activity are proposed, along with the concept of a game use lifecycle. Examples of current active and sedentary electronic games are used to understand how such principles may be applied. Furthermore, limitations of the current usage of theoretical principles are discussed. A suggested list of principles for best practice in active videogame design is proposed along with suggested research ideas to inform practice to enhance physical activity. PMID:26181680

Efficient and Effective Change Principles in Active Videogames.

PubMed

Straker, Leon M; Fenner, Ashley A; Howie, Erin K; Feltz, Deborah L; Gray, Cindy M; Lu, Amy Shirong; Mueller, Florian Floyd; Simons, Monique; Barnett, Lisa M

2015-02-01

Active videogames have the potential to enhance population levels of physical activity but have not been successful in achieving this aim to date. This article considers a range of principles that may be important to the design of effective and efficient active videogames from diverse discipline areas, including behavioral sciences (health behavior change, motor learning, and serious games), business production (marketing and sales), and technology engineering and design (human-computer interaction/ergonomics and flow). Both direct and indirect pathways to impact on population levels of habitual physical activity are proposed, along with the concept of a game use lifecycle. Examples of current active and sedentary electronic games are used to understand how such principles may be applied. Furthermore, limitations of the current usage of theoretical principles are discussed. A suggested list of principles for best practice in active videogame design is proposed along with suggested research ideas to inform practice to enhance physical activity.

Physical Therapy for Neurological Conditions in Geriatric Populations.

PubMed

Carmeli, Eli

2017-01-01

With more of the world's population surviving longer, individuals often face age-related neurology disorders and decline of function that can affect lifestyle and well-being. Despite neurophysiological changes affecting the brain function and structure, the aged brain, in some degree, can learn and relearn due to neuroplasticity. Recent advances in rehabilitation techniques have produced better functional outcomes in age-related neurological conditions. Physical therapy (PT) of the elderly individual focuses in particular on sensory-motor impairments, postural control coordination, and prevention of sarcopenia. Geriatric PT has a significant influence on quality of life, independent living, and life expectancy. However, in many developed and developing countries, the profession of PT is underfunded and understaffed. This article provides a brief overview on (a) age-related disease of central nervous system and (b) the principles, approaches, and doctrines of motor skill learning and point out the most common treatment models that PTs use for neurological patients.

Physical Therapy for Neurological Conditions in Geriatric Populations

PubMed Central

Carmeli, Eli

2017-01-01

With more of the world’s population surviving longer, individuals often face age-related neurology disorders and decline of function that can affect lifestyle and well-being. Despite neurophysiological changes affecting the brain function and structure, the aged brain, in some degree, can learn and relearn due to neuroplasticity. Recent advances in rehabilitation techniques have produced better functional outcomes in age-related neurological conditions. Physical therapy (PT) of the elderly individual focuses in particular on sensory–motor impairments, postural control coordination, and prevention of sarcopenia. Geriatric PT has a significant influence on quality of life, independent living, and life expectancy. However, in many developed and developing countries, the profession of PT is underfunded and understaffed. This article provides a brief overview on (a) age-related disease of central nervous system and (b) the principles, approaches, and doctrines of motor skill learning and point out the most common treatment models that PTs use for neurological patients. PMID:29270402

Motor control theories and their applications.

PubMed

Latash, Mark L; Levin, Mindy F; Scholz, John P; Schöner, Gregor

2010-01-01

We describe several influential hypotheses in the field of motor control including the equilibrium-point (referent configuration) hypothesis, the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis, and the idea of synergies based on the principle of motor abundance. The equilibrium-point hypothesis is based on the idea of control with thresholds for activation of neuronal pools; it provides a framework for analysis of both voluntary and involuntary movements. In particular, control of a single muscle can be adequately described with changes in the threshold of motor unit recruitment during slow muscle stretch (threshold of the tonic stretch reflex). Unlike the ideas of internal models, the equilibrium-point hypothesis does not assume neural computations of mechanical variables. The uncontrolled manifold hypothesis is based on the dynamic system approach to movements; it offers a toolbox to analyze synergic changes within redundant sets of elements related to stabilization of potentially important performance variables. The referent configuration hypothesis and the principle of abundance can be naturally combined into a single coherent scheme of control of multi-element systems. A body of experimental data on healthy persons and patients with movement disorders are reviewed in support of the mentioned hypotheses. In particular, movement disorders associated with spasticity are considered as consequences of an impaired ability to shift threshold of the tonic stretch reflex within the whole normal range. Technical details and applications of the mentioned hypo-theses to studies of motor learning are described. We view the mentioned hypotheses as the most promising ones in the field of motor control, based on a solid physical and neurophysiological foundation.

Auditory-motor learning influences auditory memory for music.

PubMed

Brown, Rachel M; Palmer, Caroline

2012-05-01

In two experiments, we investigated how auditory-motor learning influences performers' memory for music. Skilled pianists learned novel melodies in four conditions: auditory only (listening), motor only (performing without sound), strongly coupled auditory-motor (normal performance), and weakly coupled auditory-motor (performing along with auditory recordings). Pianists' recognition of the learned melodies was better following auditory-only or auditory-motor (weakly coupled and strongly coupled) learning than following motor-only learning, and better following strongly coupled auditory-motor learning than following auditory-only learning. Auditory and motor imagery abilities modulated the learning effects: Pianists with high auditory imagery scores had better recognition following motor-only learning, suggesting that auditory imagery compensated for missing auditory feedback at the learning stage. Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1 with melodies that contained greater variation in acoustic features. Melodies that were slower and less variable in tempo and intensity were remembered better following weakly coupled auditory-motor learning. These findings suggest that motor learning can aid performers' auditory recognition of music beyond auditory learning alone, and that motor learning is influenced by individual abilities in mental imagery and by variation in acoustic features.

The emergence of mirror-like response properties from domain-general principles in vision and audition.

PubMed

Saygin, Ayse P; Dick, Frederic

2014-04-01

Like Cook et al., we suggest that mirror neurons are a fascinating product of cross-modal learning. As predicted by an associative account, responses in motor regions are observed for novel and/or abstract visual stimuli such as point-light and android movements. Domain-specific mirror responses also emerge as a function of audiomotor expertise that is slowly acquired over years of intensive training.

Cerebellar contributions to motor control and language comprehension: searching for common computational principles.

PubMed

Moberget, Torgeir; Ivry, Richard B

2016-04-01

The past 25 years have seen the functional domain of the cerebellum extend beyond the realm of motor control, with considerable discussion of how this subcortical structure contributes to cognitive domains including attention, memory, and language. Drawing on evidence from neuroanatomy, physiology, neuropsychology, and computational work, sophisticated models have been developed to describe cerebellar function in sensorimotor control and learning. In contrast, mechanistic accounts of how the cerebellum contributes to cognition have remained elusive. Inspired by the homogeneous cerebellar microanatomy and a desire for parsimony, many researchers have sought to extend mechanistic ideas from motor control to cognition. One influential hypothesis centers on the idea that the cerebellum implements internal models, representations of the context-specific dynamics of an agent's interactions with the environment, enabling predictive control. We briefly review cerebellar anatomy and physiology, to review the internal model hypothesis as applied in the motor domain, before turning to extensions of these ideas in the linguistic domain, focusing on speech perception and semantic processing. While recent findings are consistent with this computational generalization, they also raise challenging questions regarding the nature of cerebellar learning, and may thus inspire revisions of our views on the role of the cerebellum in sensorimotor control. © 2016 New York Academy of Sciences.

Technology-assisted training of arm-hand skills in stroke: concepts on reacquisition of motor control and therapist guidelines for rehabilitation technology design

PubMed Central

Timmermans, Annick AA; Seelen, Henk AM; Willmann, Richard D; Kingma, Herman

2009-01-01

Background It is the purpose of this article to identify and review criteria that rehabilitation technology should meet in order to offer arm-hand training to stroke patients, based on recent principles of motor learning. Methods A literature search was conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and EMBASE (1997–2007). Results One hundred and eighty seven scientific papers/book references were identified as being relevant. Rehabilitation approaches for upper limb training after stroke show to have shifted in the last decade from being analytical towards being focussed on environmentally contextual skill training (task-oriented training). Training programmes for enhancing motor skills use patient and goal-tailored exercise schedules and individual feedback on exercise performance. Therapist criteria for upper limb rehabilitation technology are suggested which are used to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a number of current technological systems. Conclusion This review shows that technology for supporting upper limb training after stroke needs to align with the evolution in rehabilitation training approaches of the last decade. A major challenge for related technological developments is to provide engaging patient-tailored task oriented arm-hand training in natural environments with patient-tailored feedback to support (re) learning of motor skills. PMID:19154570

Motor pathway convergence predicts syllable repertoire size in oscine birds

PubMed Central

Moore, Jordan M.; Székely, Tamás; Büki, József; DeVoogd, Timothy J.

2011-01-01

Behavioral specializations are frequently associated with expansions of the brain regions controlling them. This principle of proper mass spans sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities and has been observed in a wide variety of vertebrate species. Yet, it is unknown if this concept extrapolates to entire neural pathways or how selection on a behavioral capacity might otherwise shape circuit structure. We investigate these questions by comparing the songs and neuroanatomy of 49 species from 17 families of songbirds, which vary immensely in the number of unique song components they produce and possess a conserved neural network dedicated to this behavior. We find that syllable repertoire size is strongly related to the degree of song motor pathway convergence. Repertoire size is more accurately predicted by the number of neurons in higher motor areas relative to that in their downstream targets than by the overall number of neurons in the song motor pathway. Additionally, the convergence values along serial premotor and primary motor projections account for distinct portions of the behavioral variation. These findings suggest that selection on song has independently shaped different components of this hierarchical pathway, and they elucidate how changes in pathway structure could have underlain elaborations of this learned motor behavior. PMID:21918109

Adaptive robotic control driven by a versatile spiking cerebellar network.

PubMed

Casellato, Claudia; Antonietti, Alberto; Garrido, Jesus A; Carrillo, Richard R; Luque, Niceto R; Ros, Eduardo; Pedrocchi, Alessandra; D'Angelo, Egidio

2014-01-01

The cerebellum is involved in a large number of different neural processes, especially in associative learning and in fine motor control. To develop a comprehensive theory of sensorimotor learning and control, it is crucial to determine the neural basis of coding and plasticity embedded into the cerebellar neural circuit and how they are translated into behavioral outcomes in learning paradigms. Learning has to be inferred from the interaction of an embodied system with its real environment, and the same cerebellar principles derived from cell physiology have to be able to drive a variety of tasks of different nature, calling for complex timing and movement patterns. We have coupled a realistic cerebellar spiking neural network (SNN) with a real robot and challenged it in multiple diverse sensorimotor tasks. Encoding and decoding strategies based on neuronal firing rates were applied. Adaptive motor control protocols with acquisition and extinction phases have been designed and tested, including an associative Pavlovian task (Eye blinking classical conditioning), a vestibulo-ocular task and a perturbed arm reaching task operating in closed-loop. The SNN processed in real-time mossy fiber inputs as arbitrary contextual signals, irrespective of whether they conveyed a tone, a vestibular stimulus or the position of a limb. A bidirectional long-term plasticity rule implemented at parallel fibers-Purkinje cell synapses modulated the output activity in the deep cerebellar nuclei. In all tasks, the neurorobot learned to adjust timing and gain of the motor responses by tuning its output discharge. It succeeded in reproducing how human biological systems acquire, extinguish and express knowledge of a noisy and changing world. By varying stimuli and perturbations patterns, real-time control robustness and generalizability were validated. The implicit spiking dynamics of the cerebellar model fulfill timing, prediction and learning functions.

It's all connected: Pathways in visual object recognition and early noun learning.

PubMed

Smith, Linda B

2013-11-01

A developmental pathway may be defined as the route, or chain of events, through which a new structure or function forms. For many human behaviors, including object name learning and visual object recognition, these pathways are often complex and multicausal and include unexpected dependencies. This article presents three principles of development that suggest the value of a developmental psychology that explicitly seeks to trace these pathways and uses empirical evidence on developmental dependencies among motor development, action on objects, visual object recognition, and object name learning in 12- to 24-month-old infants to make the case. The article concludes with a consideration of the theoretical implications of this approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).

Motor imagery learning modulates functional connectivity of multiple brain systems in resting state.

PubMed

Zhang, Hang; Long, Zhiying; Ge, Ruiyang; Xu, Lele; Jin, Zhen; Yao, Li; Liu, Yijun

2014-01-01

Learning motor skills involves subsequent modulation of resting-state functional connectivity in the sensory-motor system. This idea was mostly derived from the investigations on motor execution learning which mainly recruits the processing of sensory-motor information. Behavioral evidences demonstrated that motor skills in our daily lives could be learned through imagery procedures. However, it remains unclear whether the modulation of resting-state functional connectivity also exists in the sensory-motor system after motor imagery learning. We performed a fMRI investigation on motor imagery learning from resting state. Based on previous studies, we identified eight sensory and cognitive resting-state networks (RSNs) corresponding to the brain systems and further explored the functional connectivity of these RSNs through the assessments, connectivity and network strengths before and after the two-week consecutive learning. Two intriguing results were revealed: (1) The sensory RSNs, specifically sensory-motor and lateral visual networks exhibited greater connectivity strengths in precuneus and fusiform gyrus after learning; (2) Decreased network strength induced by learning was proved in the default mode network, a cognitive RSN. These results indicated that resting-state functional connectivity could be modulated by motor imagery learning in multiple brain systems, and such modulation displayed in the sensory-motor, visual and default brain systems may be associated with the establishment of motor schema and the regulation of introspective thought. These findings further revealed the neural substrates underlying motor skill learning and potentially provided new insights into the therapeutic benefits of motor imagery learning.

Opposing effects of dopamine antagonism in a motor sequence task—tiapride increases cortical excitability and impairs motor learning

PubMed Central

Lissek, Silke; Vallana, Guido S.; Schlaffke, Lara; Lenz, Melanie; Dinse, Hubert R.; Tegenthoff, Martin

2014-01-01

The dopaminergic system is involved in learning and participates in the modulation of cortical excitability (CE). CE has been suggested as a marker of learning and use-dependent plasticity. However, results from separate studies on either motor CE or motor learning challenge this notion, suggesting opposing effects of dopaminergic modulation upon these parameters: while agonists decrease and antagonists increase CE, motor learning is enhanced by agonists and disturbed by antagonists. To examine whether this discrepancy persists when complex motor learning and motor CE are measured in the same experimental setup, we investigated the effects of dopaminergic (DA) antagonism upon both parameters and upon task-associated brain activation. Our results demonstrate that DA-antagonism has opposing effects upon motor CE and motor sequence learning. Tiapride did not alter baseline CE, but increased CE post training of a complex motor sequence while simultaneously impairing motor learning. Moreover, tiapride reduced activation in several brain regions associated with motor sequence performance, i.e., dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC), supplementary motor area (SMA), Broca's area, cingulate and caudate body. Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) intensity in anterior cingulate and caudate body, but not CE, correlated with performance across groups. In summary, our results do not support a concept of CE as a general marker of motor learning, since they demonstrate that a straightforward relation of increased CE and higher learning success does not apply to all instances of motor learning. At least for complex motor tasks that recruit a network of brain regions outside motor cortex, CE in primary motor cortex is probably no central determinant for learning success. PMID:24994972

Temporal structure of motor variability is dynamically regulated and predicts motor learning ability.

PubMed

Wu, Howard G; Miyamoto, Yohsuke R; Gonzalez Castro, Luis Nicolas; Ölveczky, Bence P; Smith, Maurice A

2014-02-01

Individual differences in motor learning ability are widely acknowledged, yet little is known about the factors that underlie them. Here we explore whether movement-to-movement variability in motor output, a ubiquitous if often unwanted characteristic of motor performance, predicts motor learning ability. Surprisingly, we found that higher levels of task-relevant motor variability predicted faster learning both across individuals and across tasks in two different paradigms, one relying on reward-based learning to shape specific arm movement trajectories and the other relying on error-based learning to adapt movements in novel physical environments. We proceeded to show that training can reshape the temporal structure of motor variability, aligning it with the trained task to improve learning. These results provide experimental support for the importance of action exploration, a key idea from reinforcement learning theory, showing that motor variability facilitates motor learning in humans and that our nervous systems actively regulate it to improve learning.

Temporal structure of motor variability is dynamically regulated and predicts motor learning ability

PubMed Central

Wu, Howard G; Miyamoto, Yohsuke R; Castro, Luis Nicolas Gonzalez; Ölveczky, Bence P; Smith, Maurice A

2015-01-01

Individual differences in motor learning ability are widely acknowledged, yet little is known about the factors that underlie them. Here we explore whether movement-to-movement variability in motor output, a ubiquitous if often unwanted characteristic of motor performance, predicts motor learning ability. Surprisingly, we found that higher levels of task-relevant motor variability predicted faster learning both across individuals and across tasks in two different paradigms, one relying on reward-based learning to shape specific arm movement trajectories and the other relying on error-based learning to adapt movements in novel physical environments. We proceeded to show that training can reshape the temporal structure of motor variability, aligning it with the trained task to improve learning. These results provide experimental support for the importance of action exploration, a key idea from reinforcement learning theory, showing that motor variability facilitates motor learning in humans and that our nervous systems actively regulate it to improve learning. PMID:24413700

Multidisciplinary Views on Applying Explicit and Implicit Motor Learning in Practice: An International Survey

PubMed Central

Kleynen, Melanie; Braun, Susy M.; Rasquin, Sascha M. C.; Bleijlevens, Michel H. C.; Lexis, Monique A. S.; Halfens, Jos; Wilson, Mark R.; Masters, Rich S. W.; Beurskens, Anna J.

2015-01-01

Background A variety of options and techniques for causing implicit and explicit motor learning have been described in the literature. The aim of the current paper was to provide clearer guidance for practitioners on how to apply motor learning in practice by exploring experts’ opinions and experiences, using the distinction between implicit and explicit motor learning as a conceptual departure point. Methods A survey was designed to collect and aggregate informed opinions and experiences from 40 international respondents who had demonstrable expertise related to motor learning in practice and/or research. The survey was administered through an online survey tool and addressed potential options and learning strategies for applying implicit and explicit motor learning. Responses were analysed in terms of consensus (≥ 70%) and trends (≥ 50%). A summary figure was developed to illustrate a taxonomy of the different learning strategies and options indicated by the experts in the survey. Results Answers of experts were widely distributed. No consensus was found regarding the application of implicit and explicit motor learning. Some trends were identified: Explicit motor learning can be promoted by using instructions and various types of feedback, but when promoting implicit motor learning, instructions and feedback should be restricted. Further, for implicit motor learning, an external focus of attention should be considered, as well as practicing the entire skill. Experts agreed on three factors that influence motor learning choices: the learner’s abilities, the type of task, and the stage of motor learning (94.5%; n = 34/36). Most experts agreed with the summary figure (64.7%; n = 22/34). Conclusion The results provide an overview of possible ways to cause implicit or explicit motor learning, signposting examples from practice and factors that influence day-to-day motor learning decisions. PMID:26296203

Motor Imagery Learning Modulates Functional Connectivity of Multiple Brain Systems in Resting State

PubMed Central

Zhang, Hang; Long, Zhiying; Ge, Ruiyang; Xu, Lele; Jin, Zhen; Yao, Li; Liu, Yijun

2014-01-01

Background Learning motor skills involves subsequent modulation of resting-state functional connectivity in the sensory-motor system. This idea was mostly derived from the investigations on motor execution learning which mainly recruits the processing of sensory-motor information. Behavioral evidences demonstrated that motor skills in our daily lives could be learned through imagery procedures. However, it remains unclear whether the modulation of resting-state functional connectivity also exists in the sensory-motor system after motor imagery learning. Methodology/Principal Findings We performed a fMRI investigation on motor imagery learning from resting state. Based on previous studies, we identified eight sensory and cognitive resting-state networks (RSNs) corresponding to the brain systems and further explored the functional connectivity of these RSNs through the assessments, connectivity and network strengths before and after the two-week consecutive learning. Two intriguing results were revealed: (1) The sensory RSNs, specifically sensory-motor and lateral visual networks exhibited greater connectivity strengths in precuneus and fusiform gyrus after learning; (2) Decreased network strength induced by learning was proved in the default mode network, a cognitive RSN. Conclusions/Significance These results indicated that resting-state functional connectivity could be modulated by motor imagery learning in multiple brain systems, and such modulation displayed in the sensory-motor, visual and default brain systems may be associated with the establishment of motor schema and the regulation of introspective thought. These findings further revealed the neural substrates underlying motor skill learning and potentially provided new insights into the therapeutic benefits of motor imagery learning. PMID:24465577

A Lemon Cell Battery for High-Power Applications

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Muske, Kenneth R.; Nigh, Christopher W.; Weinstein, Randy D.

2007-01-01

The use of lemon cell battery to run an electric DC motor is demonstrated for chemistry students. This demonstration aids the students in understanding principles behind the design and construction of the lemon cell battery and principles governing the electric DC motor and other basic principles.

Pediatric feeding and swallowing rehabilitation: An overview.

PubMed

van den Engel-Hoek, Lenie; Harding, Celia; van Gerven, Marjo; Cockerill, Helen

2017-05-16

Children with neurological disabilities frequently have problems with feeding and swallowing. Such problems have a significant impact on the health and well-being of these children and their families. The primary aims in the rehabilitation of pediatric feeding and swallowing disorders are focused on supporting growth, nutrition and hydration, the development of feeding activities, and ensuring safe swallowing with the aim of preventing choking and aspiration pneumonia. Pediatric feeding and swallowing disorders can be divided into four groups: transient, developmental, chronic or progressive.This article provides an overview of the available literature about the rehabilitation of feeding and swallowing disorders in infants and children. Principles of motor control, motor learning and neuroplasticity are discussed for the four groups of children with feeding and swallowing disorders.

Using dual tasks to test immediate transfer of training between naturalistic movements: a proof-of-principle study.

PubMed

Schaefer, Sydney Y; Lang, Catherine E

2012-01-01

Theories of motor learning predict that training a movement reduces the amount of attention needed for its performance (i.e., more automatic). If training one movement transfers, then the amount of attention needed for performing a second movement should also be reduced, as measured under dual task conditions. The authors' purpose was to test whether dual task paradigms are feasible for detecting transfer of training between two naturalistic movements. Immediately following motor training, subjects improved performance of a second untrained movement under single and dual task conditions. Subjects with no training did not. Improved performance in the untrained movement was likely due to transfer, and suggests that dual tasks may be feasible for detecting transfer between naturalistic actions.

Predicting explorative motor learning using decision-making and motor noise.

PubMed

Chen, Xiuli; Mohr, Kieran; Galea, Joseph M

2017-04-01

A fundamental problem faced by humans is learning to select motor actions based on noisy sensory information and incomplete knowledge of the world. Recently, a number of authors have asked whether this type of motor learning problem might be very similar to a range of higher-level decision-making problems. If so, participant behaviour on a high-level decision-making task could be predictive of their performance during a motor learning task. To investigate this question, we studied performance during an explorative motor learning task and a decision-making task which had a similar underlying structure with the exception that it was not subject to motor (execution) noise. We also collected an independent measurement of each participant's level of motor noise. Our analysis showed that explorative motor learning and decision-making could be modelled as the (approximately) optimal solution to a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process bounded by noisy neural information processing. The model was able to predict participant performance in motor learning by using parameters estimated from the decision-making task and the separate motor noise measurement. This suggests that explorative motor learning can be formalised as a sequential decision-making process that is adjusted for motor noise, and raises interesting questions regarding the neural origin of explorative motor learning.

Predicting explorative motor learning using decision-making and motor noise

PubMed Central

Galea, Joseph M.

2017-01-01

A fundamental problem faced by humans is learning to select motor actions based on noisy sensory information and incomplete knowledge of the world. Recently, a number of authors have asked whether this type of motor learning problem might be very similar to a range of higher-level decision-making problems. If so, participant behaviour on a high-level decision-making task could be predictive of their performance during a motor learning task. To investigate this question, we studied performance during an explorative motor learning task and a decision-making task which had a similar underlying structure with the exception that it was not subject to motor (execution) noise. We also collected an independent measurement of each participant’s level of motor noise. Our analysis showed that explorative motor learning and decision-making could be modelled as the (approximately) optimal solution to a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process bounded by noisy neural information processing. The model was able to predict participant performance in motor learning by using parameters estimated from the decision-making task and the separate motor noise measurement. This suggests that explorative motor learning can be formalised as a sequential decision-making process that is adjusted for motor noise, and raises interesting questions regarding the neural origin of explorative motor learning. PMID:28437451

Interactive effect of acute pain and motor learning acquisition on sensorimotor integration and motor learning outcomes

PubMed Central

Dancey, Erin; Andrew, Danielle; Yielder, Paul

2016-01-01

Previous work has demonstrated differential changes in early somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) when motor learning acquisition occurred in the presence of acute pain; however, the learning task was insufficiently complex to determine how these underlying neurophysiological differences impacted learning acquisition and retention. To address this limitation, we have utilized a complex motor task in conjunction with SEPs. Two groups of 12 participants (n = 24) were randomly assigned to either a capsaicin (capsaicin cream) or a control (inert lotion) group. SEP amplitudes were collected at baseline, after application, and after motor learning acquisition. Participants performed a motor acquisition task followed by a pain-free retention task within 24–48 h. After motor learning acquisition, the amplitude of the N20 SEP peak significantly increased (P < 0.05) and the N24 SEP peak significantly decreased (P < 0.001) for the control group while the N18 SEP peak significantly decreased (P < 0.01) for the capsaicin group. The N30 SEP peak was significantly increased (P < 0.001) after motor learning acquisition for both groups. The P25 SEP peak decreased significantly (P < 0.05) after the application of capsaicin cream. Both groups improved in accuracy after motor learning acquisition (P < 0.001). The capsaicin group outperformed the control group before motor learning acquisition (P < 0.05) and after motor learning acquisition (P < 0.05) and approached significance at retention (P = 0.06). Improved motor learning in the presence of capsaicin provides support for the enhancement of motor learning while in acute pain. In addition, the changes in SEP peak amplitudes suggest that early SEP changes reflect neurophysiological alterations accompanying both motor learning and mild acute pain. PMID:27535371

Motor learning and working memory in children born preterm: a systematic review.

PubMed

Jongbloed-Pereboom, Marjolein; Janssen, Anjo J W M; Steenbergen, Bert; Nijhuis-van der Sanden, Maria W G

2012-04-01

Children born preterm have a higher risk for developing motor, cognitive, and behavioral problems. Motor problems can occur in combination with working memory problems, and working memory is important for explicit learning of motor skills. The relation between motor learning and working memory has never been reviewed. The goal of this review was to provide an overview of motor learning, visual working memory and the role of working memory on motor learning in preterm children. A systematic review conducted in four databases identified 38 relevant articles, which were evaluated for methodological quality. Only 4 of 38 articles discussed motor learning in preterm children. Thirty-four studies reported on visual working memory; preterm birth affected performance on visual working memory tests. Information regarding motor learning and the role of working memory on the different components of motor learning was not available. Future research should address this issue. Insight in the relation between motor learning and visual working memory may contribute to the development of evidence based intervention programs for children born preterm. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Parallel Alterations of Functional Connectivity during Execution and Imagination after Motor Imagery Learning

PubMed Central

Zhang, Rushao; Hui, Mingqi; Long, Zhiying; Zhao, Xiaojie; Yao, Li

2012-01-01

Background Neural substrates underlying motor learning have been widely investigated with neuroimaging technologies. Investigations have illustrated the critical regions of motor learning and further revealed parallel alterations of functional activation during imagination and execution after learning. However, little is known about the functional connectivity associated with motor learning, especially motor imagery learning, although benefits from functional connectivity analysis attract more attention to the related explorations. We explored whether motor imagery (MI) and motor execution (ME) shared parallel alterations of functional connectivity after MI learning. Methodology/Principal Findings Graph theory analysis, which is widely used in functional connectivity exploration, was performed on the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of MI and ME tasks before and after 14 days of consecutive MI learning. The control group had no learning. Two measures, connectivity degree and interregional connectivity, were calculated and further assessed at a statistical level. Two interesting results were obtained: (1) The connectivity degree of the right posterior parietal lobe decreased in both MI and ME tasks after MI learning in the experimental group; (2) The parallel alterations of interregional connectivity related to the right posterior parietal lobe occurred in the supplementary motor area for both tasks. Conclusions/Significance These computational results may provide the following insights: (1) The establishment of motor schema through MI learning may induce the significant decrease of connectivity degree in the posterior parietal lobe; (2) The decreased interregional connectivity between the supplementary motor area and the right posterior parietal lobe in post-test implicates the dissociation between motor learning and task performing. These findings and explanations further revealed the neural substrates underpinning MI learning and supported that the potential value of MI learning in motor function rehabilitation and motor skill learning deserves more attention and further investigation. PMID:22629308

Somatosensory Contribution to the Initial Stages of Human Motor Learning

PubMed Central

Bernardi, Nicolò F.; Darainy, Mohammad

2015-01-01

The early stages of motor skill acquisition are often marked by uncertainty about the sensory and motor goals of the task, as is the case in learning to speak or learning the feel of a good tennis serve. Here we present an experimental model of this early learning process, in which targets are acquired by exploration and reinforcement rather than sensory error. We use this model to investigate the relative contribution of motor and sensory factors to human motor learning. Participants make active reaching movements or matched passive movements to an unseen target using a robot arm. We find that learning through passive movements paired with reinforcement is comparable with learning associated with active movement, both in terms of magnitude and durability, with improvements due to training still observable at a 1 week retest. Motor learning is also accompanied by changes in somatosensory perceptual acuity. No stable changes in motor performance are observed for participants that train, actively or passively, in the absence of reinforcement, or for participants who are given explicit information about target position in the absence of somatosensory experience. These findings indicate that the somatosensory system dominates learning in the early stages of motor skill acquisition. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The research focuses on the initial stages of human motor learning, introducing a new experimental model that closely approximates the key features of motor learning outside of the laboratory. The finding indicates that it is the somatosensory system rather than the motor system that dominates learning in the early stages of motor skill acquisition. This is important given that most of our computational models of motor learning are based on the idea that learning is motoric in origin. This is also a valuable finding for rehabilitation of patients with limited mobility as it shows that reinforcement in conjunction with passive movement results in benefits to motor learning that are as great as those observed for active movement training. PMID:26490869

Using animal models of enriched environments to inform research on sensory integration intervention for the rehabilitation of neurodevelopmental disorders.

PubMed

Reynolds, Stacey; Lane, Shelly J; Richards, Lorie

2010-09-01

The field of behavioral neuroscience has been successful in using an animal model of enriched environments for over five decades to measure the rehabilitative and preventative effects of sensory, cognitive and motor stimulation in animal models. Several key principles of enriched environments match those used in sensory integration therapy, a treatment used for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. This paper reviews the paradigm of environmental enrichment, compares animal models of enriched environments to principles of sensory integration treatment, and discusses applications for the rehabilitation of neurodevelopmental disorders. Based on this review, the essential features in the enriched environment paradigm which should be included in sensory integration treatment are multiple sensory experiences, novelty in the environment, and active engagement in challenging cognitive, sensory, and motor tasks. Use of sensory integration treatment may be most applicable for children with anxiety, hypersensitivity, repetitive behaviors or heightened levels of stress. Additionally, individuals with deficits in social behavior, social participation, or impairments in learning and memory may show gains with this type of treatment.

Kinematic and neurophysiological consequences of an assisted-force-feedback brain-machine interface training: a case study.

PubMed

Silvoni, Stefano; Cavinato, Marianna; Volpato, Chiara; Cisotto, Giulia; Genna, Clara; Agostini, Michela; Turolla, Andrea; Ramos-Murguialday, Ander; Piccione, Francesco

2013-01-01

In a proof-of-principle prototypical demonstration we describe a new type of brain-machine interface (BMI) paradigm for upper limb motor-training. The proposed technique allows a fast contingent and proportionally modulated stimulation of afferent proprioceptive and motor output neural pathways using operant learning. Continuous and immediate assisted-feedback of force proportional to rolandic rhythm oscillations during actual movements was employed and illustrated with a single case experiment. One hemiplegic patient was trained for 2 weeks coupling somatosensory brain oscillations with force-field control during a robot-mediated center-out motor-task whose execution approaches movements of everyday life. The robot facilitated actual movements adding a modulated force directed to the target, thus providing a non-delayed proprioceptive feedback. Neuro-electric, kinematic, and motor-behavioral measures were recorded in pre- and post-assessments without force assistance. Patient's healthy arm was used as control since neither a placebo control was possible nor other control conditions. We observed a generalized and significant kinematic improvement in the affected arm and a spatial accuracy improvement in both arms, together with an increase and focalization of the somatosensory rhythm changes used to provide assisted-force-feedback. The interpretation of the neurophysiological and kinematic evidences reported here is strictly related to the repetition of the motor-task and the presence of the assisted-force-feedback. Results are described as systematic observations only, without firm conclusions about the effectiveness of the methodology. In this prototypical view, the design of appropriate control conditions is discussed. This study presents a novel operant-learning-based BMI-application for motor-training coupling brain oscillations and force feedback during an actual movement.

The Vite Model: A Neural Command Circuit for Generating Arm and Articulator Trajectories,

DTIC Science & Technology

1988-03-01

Principles of Learning, Perception, Development , Cognition , and Motor Control. Boston: Reidel Press, (1982). Grossberg, S . and Kuperstein, M., Neural...AD-RI92 705 THE YITE MODEL: A NEURAL COMMAND CIRCUIT FO R .# GENERATING ARM AND ARTUCULA..(U) BOSTON UNJY MA CENTER FOR ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS S GROSSUERO...and Articulator Trajectories 6 EFRIGOG EOTNME 7. AUTHOR( s ) 5. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER( s ) Stephen Grossberg XM- F49620-86-C-0O37 Daniel Bullock 9. S

Chronic Nicotine Mitigates Aberrant Inhibitory Motor Learning Induced by Motor Experience under Dopamine Deficiency

PubMed Central

Krok, Anne C.; Xu, Jian; Contractor, Anis; McGehee, Daniel S.; Zhuang, Xiaoxi

2016-01-01

Although dopamine receptor antagonism has long been associated with impairments in motor performance, more recent studies have shown that dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) antagonism, paired with a motor task, not only impairs motor performance concomitant with the pharmacodynamics of the drug, but also impairs future motor performance once antagonism has been relieved. We have termed this phenomenon “aberrant motor learning” and have suggested that it may contribute to motor symptoms in movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Here, we show that chronic nicotine (cNIC), but not acute nicotine, treatment mitigates the acquisition of D2R-antagonist-induced aberrant motor learning in mice. Although cNIC mitigates D2R-mediated aberrant motor learning, cNIC has no effect on D1R-mediated motor learning. β2-containing nicotinic receptors in dopamine neurons likely mediate the protective effect of cNIC against aberrant motor learning, because selective deletion of β2 nicotinic subunits in dopamine neurons reduced D2R-mediated aberrant motor learning. Finally, both cNIC treatment and β2 subunit deletion blunted postsynaptic responses to D2R antagonism. These results suggest that a chronic decrease in function or a downregulation of β2-containing nicotinic receptors protects the striatal network against aberrant plasticity and aberrant motor learning induced by motor experience under dopamine deficiency. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Increasingly, aberrant plasticity and aberrant learning are recognized as contributing to the development and progression of movement disorders. Here, we show that chronic nicotine (cNIC) treatment or specific deletion of β2 nicotinic receptor subunits in dopamine neurons mitigates aberrant motor learning induced by dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) blockade in mice. Moreover, both manipulations also reduced striatal dopamine release and blunt postsynaptic responses to D2R antagonists. These results suggest that chronic downregulation of function and/or receptor expression of β2-containing nicotinic receptors alters presynaptic and postsynaptic striatal signaling to protect against aberrant motor learning. Moreover, these results suggest that cNIC treatment may alleviate motor symptoms and/or delay the deterioration of motor function in movement disorders by blocking aberrant motor learning. PMID:27170121

Movement Sonification: Effects on Motor Learning beyond Rhythmic Adjustments.

PubMed

Effenberg, Alfred O; Fehse, Ursula; Schmitz, Gerd; Krueger, Bjoern; Mechling, Heinz

2016-01-01

Motor learning is based on motor perception and emergent perceptual-motor representations. A lot of behavioral research is related to single perceptual modalities but during last two decades the contribution of multimodal perception on motor behavior was discovered more and more. A growing number of studies indicates an enhanced impact of multimodal stimuli on motor perception, motor control and motor learning in terms of better precision and higher reliability of the related actions. Behavioral research is supported by neurophysiological data, revealing that multisensory integration supports motor control and learning. But the overwhelming part of both research lines is dedicated to basic research. Besides research in the domains of music, dance and motor rehabilitation, there is almost no evidence for enhanced effectiveness of multisensory information on learning of gross motor skills. To reduce this gap, movement sonification is used here in applied research on motor learning in sports. Based on the current knowledge on the multimodal organization of the perceptual system, we generate additional real-time movement information being suitable for integration with perceptual feedback streams of visual and proprioceptive modality. With ongoing training, synchronously processed auditory information should be initially integrated into the emerging internal models, enhancing the efficacy of motor learning. This is achieved by a direct mapping of kinematic and dynamic motion parameters to electronic sounds, resulting in continuous auditory and convergent audiovisual or audio-proprioceptive stimulus arrays. In sharp contrast to other approaches using acoustic information as error-feedback in motor learning settings, we try to generate additional movement information suitable for acceleration and enhancement of adequate sensorimotor representations and processible below the level of consciousness. In the experimental setting, participants were asked to learn a closed motor skill (technique acquisition of indoor rowing). One group was treated with visual information and two groups with audiovisual information (sonification vs. natural sounds). For all three groups learning became evident and remained stable. Participants treated with additional movement sonification showed better performance compared to both other groups. Results indicate that movement sonification enhances motor learning of a complex gross motor skill-even exceeding usually expected acoustic rhythmic effects on motor learning.

Movement Sonification: Effects on Motor Learning beyond Rhythmic Adjustments

PubMed Central

Effenberg, Alfred O.; Fehse, Ursula; Schmitz, Gerd; Krueger, Bjoern; Mechling, Heinz

2016-01-01

Motor learning is based on motor perception and emergent perceptual-motor representations. A lot of behavioral research is related to single perceptual modalities but during last two decades the contribution of multimodal perception on motor behavior was discovered more and more. A growing number of studies indicates an enhanced impact of multimodal stimuli on motor perception, motor control and motor learning in terms of better precision and higher reliability of the related actions. Behavioral research is supported by neurophysiological data, revealing that multisensory integration supports motor control and learning. But the overwhelming part of both research lines is dedicated to basic research. Besides research in the domains of music, dance and motor rehabilitation, there is almost no evidence for enhanced effectiveness of multisensory information on learning of gross motor skills. To reduce this gap, movement sonification is used here in applied research on motor learning in sports. Based on the current knowledge on the multimodal organization of the perceptual system, we generate additional real-time movement information being suitable for integration with perceptual feedback streams of visual and proprioceptive modality. With ongoing training, synchronously processed auditory information should be initially integrated into the emerging internal models, enhancing the efficacy of motor learning. This is achieved by a direct mapping of kinematic and dynamic motion parameters to electronic sounds, resulting in continuous auditory and convergent audiovisual or audio-proprioceptive stimulus arrays. In sharp contrast to other approaches using acoustic information as error-feedback in motor learning settings, we try to generate additional movement information suitable for acceleration and enhancement of adequate sensorimotor representations and processible below the level of consciousness. In the experimental setting, participants were asked to learn a closed motor skill (technique acquisition of indoor rowing). One group was treated with visual information and two groups with audiovisual information (sonification vs. natural sounds). For all three groups learning became evident and remained stable. Participants treated with additional movement sonification showed better performance compared to both other groups. Results indicate that movement sonification enhances motor learning of a complex gross motor skill—even exceeding usually expected acoustic rhythmic effects on motor learning. PMID:27303255

Enhanced Multisensory Integration and Motor Reactivation after Active Motor Learning of Audiovisual Associations

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Butler, Andrew J.; James, Thomas W.; James, Karin Harman

2011-01-01

Everyday experience affords us many opportunities to learn about objects through multiple senses using physical interaction. Previous work has shown that active motor learning of unisensory items enhances memory and leads to the involvement of motor systems during subsequent perception. However, the impact of active motor learning on subsequent…

Theta Neurofeedback Effects on Motor Memory Consolidation and Performance Accuracy: An Apparent Paradox?

PubMed

Reiner, Miriam; Lev, Dror D; Rosen, Amit

2018-05-15

Previous studies have shown that theta neurofeedback enhances motor memory consolidation on an easy-to-learn finger-tapping task. However, the simplicity of the finger-tapping task precludes evaluating the putative effects of elevated theta on performance accuracy. Mastering a motor sequence is classically assumed to entail faster performance with fewer errors. The speed-accuracy tradeoff (SAT) principle states that as action speed increases, motor performance accuracy decreases. The current study investigated whether theta neurofeedback could improve both performance speed and performance accuracy, or would only enhance performance speed at the cost of reduced accuracy. A more complex task was used to study the effects of parietal elevated theta on 45 healthy volunteers The findings confirmed previous results on the effects of theta neurofeedback on memory consolidation. In contrast to the two control groups, in the theta-neurofeedback group the speed-accuracy tradeoff was reversed. The speed-accuracy tradeoff patterns only stabilized after a night's sleep implying enhancement in terms of both speed and accuracy. Copyright © 2017 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Auditory and motor imagery modulate learning in music performance

PubMed Central

Brown, Rachel M.; Palmer, Caroline

2013-01-01

Skilled performers such as athletes or musicians can improve their performance by imagining the actions or sensory outcomes associated with their skill. Performers vary widely in their auditory and motor imagery abilities, and these individual differences influence sensorimotor learning. It is unknown whether imagery abilities influence both memory encoding and retrieval. We examined how auditory and motor imagery abilities influence musicians' encoding (during Learning, as they practiced novel melodies), and retrieval (during Recall of those melodies). Pianists learned melodies by listening without performing (auditory learning) or performing without sound (motor learning); following Learning, pianists performed the melodies from memory with auditory feedback (Recall). During either Learning (Experiment 1) or Recall (Experiment 2), pianists experienced either auditory interference, motor interference, or no interference. Pitch accuracy (percentage of correct pitches produced) and temporal regularity (variability of quarter-note interonset intervals) were measured at Recall. Independent tests measured auditory and motor imagery skills. Pianists' pitch accuracy was higher following auditory learning than following motor learning and lower in motor interference conditions (Experiments 1 and 2). Both auditory and motor imagery skills improved pitch accuracy overall. Auditory imagery skills modulated pitch accuracy encoding (Experiment 1): Higher auditory imagery skill corresponded to higher pitch accuracy following auditory learning with auditory or motor interference, and following motor learning with motor or no interference. These findings suggest that auditory imagery abilities decrease vulnerability to interference and compensate for missing auditory feedback at encoding. Auditory imagery skills also influenced temporal regularity at retrieval (Experiment 2): Higher auditory imagery skill predicted greater temporal regularity during Recall in the presence of auditory interference. Motor imagery aided pitch accuracy overall when interference conditions were manipulated at encoding (Experiment 1) but not at retrieval (Experiment 2). Thus, skilled performers' imagery abilities had distinct influences on encoding and retrieval of musical sequences. PMID:23847495

Aging Affects Motor Learning but Not Savings at Transfer of Learning

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Seidler, Rachael D.

2007-01-01

Two important components of skill learning are the learning process itself (motor acquisition) and the ability to transfer what has been learned to new task variants (motor transfer). Many studies have documented age-related declines in the ability to learn new manual motor skills. In this study, I tested whether the degree of savings at transfer…

LSVT LOUD and LSVT BIG: Behavioral Treatment Programs for Speech and Body Movement in Parkinson Disease

PubMed Central

Fox, Cynthia; Ebersbach, Georg; Ramig, Lorraine; Sapir, Shimon

2012-01-01

Recent advances in neuroscience have suggested that exercise-based behavioral treatments may improve function and possibly slow progression of motor symptoms in individuals with Parkinson disease (PD). The LSVT (Lee Silverman Voice Treatment) Programs for individuals with PD have been developed and researched over the past 20 years beginning with a focus on the speech motor system (LSVT LOUD) and more recently have been extended to address limb motor systems (LSVT BIG). The unique aspects of the LSVT Programs include the combination of (a) an exclusive target on increasing amplitude (loudness in the speech motor system; bigger movements in the limb motor system), (b) a focus on sensory recalibration to help patients recognize that movements with increased amplitude are within normal limits, even if they feel “too loud” or “too big,” and (c) training self-cueing and attention to action to facilitate long-term maintenance of treatment outcomes. In addition, the intensive mode of delivery is consistent with principles that drive activity-dependent neuroplasticity and motor learning. The purpose of this paper is to provide an integrative discussion of the LSVT Programs including the rationale for their fundamentals, a summary of efficacy data, and a discussion of limitations and future directions for research. PMID:22530161

InSPAL: A Novel Immersive Virtual Learning Programme.

PubMed

Byrne, Julia; Ip, Horace H S; Shuk-Ying Lau, Kate; Chen Li, Richard; Tso, Amy; Choi, Catherine

2015-01-01

In this paper we introduce The Interactive Sensory Program for Affective Learning (InSPAL) a pioneering virtual learning programme designed for the severely intellectually disabled (SID) students, who are having cognitive deficiencies and other sensory-motor handicaps, and thus need more help and attention in overcoming their learning difficulties. Through combining and integrating interactive media and virtual reality technology with the principles of art therapy and relevant pedagogical techniques, InSPAL aims to strengthen SID students' pre-learning abilities, promote their self-awareness, decrease behavioral interferences with learning as well as social interaction, enhance their communication and thus promote their quality of life. Results of our study show that students who went through our programme were more focused, and the ability to do things more independently increased by 15%. Moreover, 50% of the students showed a marked improvement in the ability to raise their hands in response, thus increasing their communication skills. The use of therapeutic interventions enabled a better control to the body, mind and emotions, resulting a greater performance and better participation.

Probabilistic motor sequence learning in a virtual reality serial reaction time task.

PubMed

Sense, Florian; van Rijn, Hedderik

2018-01-01

The serial reaction time task is widely used to study learning and memory. The task is traditionally administered by showing target positions on a computer screen and collecting responses using a button box or keyboard. By comparing response times to random or sequenced items or by using different transition probabilities, various forms of learning can be studied. However, this traditional laboratory setting limits the number of possible experimental manipulations. Here, we present a virtual reality version of the serial reaction time task and show that learning effects emerge as expected despite the novel way in which responses are collected. We also show that response times are distributed as expected. The current experiment was conducted in a blank virtual reality room to verify these basic principles. For future applications, the technology can be used to modify the virtual reality environment in any conceivable way, permitting a wide range of previously impossible experimental manipulations.

Questioning the cerebellar doctrine.

PubMed

Galliano, Elisa; De Zeeuw, Chris I

2014-01-01

The basic principles of cerebellar function were originally described by Flourens, Cajal, and Marr/Albus/Ito, and they constitute the pillars of what can be considered to be the classic cerebellar doctrine. In their concepts, the main cerebellar function is to control motor behavior, Purkinje cells are the only cortical neuron receiving and integrating inputs from climbing fiber and mossy-parallel fiber pathways, and plastic modification at the parallel fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells constitutes the substrate of motor learning. Yet, because of recent technical advances and new angles of investigation, all pillars of the cerebellar doctrine now face regular re-examination. In this review, after summarizing the classic concepts and recent disputes, we attempt to synthesize an integrated view and propose a revisited version of the cerebellar doctrine. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Virtual reality and gaming systems to improve walking and mobility for people with musculoskeletal and neuromuscular conditions.

PubMed

Deutsch, Judith E

2009-01-01

Improving walking for individuals with musculoskeletal and neuromuscular conditions is an important aspect of rehabilitation. The capabilities of clinicians who address these rehabilitation issues could be augmented with innovations such as virtual reality gaming based technologies. The chapter provides an overview of virtual reality gaming based technologies currently being developed and tested to improve motor and cognitive elements required for ambulation and mobility in different patient populations. Included as well is a detailed description of a single VR system, consisting of the rationale for development and iterative refinement of the system based on clinical science. These concepts include: neural plasticity, part-task training, whole task training, task specific training, principles of exercise and motor learning, sensorimotor integration, and visual spatial processing.

Using dual tasks to test immediate transfer of training between naturalistic movements: A proof-of-principle study

PubMed Central

Schaefer, Sydney Y.; Lang, Catherine E.

2012-01-01

Theories of motor learning predict that training a movement reduces the amount of attention needed for its performance (i.e. more automatic). If training one movement transfers, then the amount of attention needed for performing a second movement should also be reduced, as measured under dual task conditions. The purpose of this study was to test whether dual task paradigms are feasible for detecting transfer of training between two naturalistic movements. Immediately following motor training, subjects improved performance of a second untrained movement under both single and dual task conditions. Subjects with no training did not. Improved performance in the untrained movement was likely due to transfer, and suggests that dual tasks may be feasible for detecting transfer between naturalistic actions. PMID:22934682

Action observation versus motor imagery in learning a complex motor task: a short review of literature and a kinematics study.

PubMed

Gatti, R; Tettamanti, A; Gough, P M; Riboldi, E; Marinoni, L; Buccino, G

2013-04-12

Both motor imagery and action observation have been shown to play a role in learning or re-learning complex motor tasks. According to a well accepted view they share a common neurophysiological basis in the mirror neuron system. Neurons within this system discharge when individuals perform a specific action and when they look at another individual performing the same or a motorically related action. In the present paper, after a short review of literature on the role of action observation and motor imagery in motor learning, we report the results of a kinematics study where we directly compared motor imagery and action observation in learning a novel complex motor task. This involved movement of the right hand and foot in the same angular direction (in-phase movement), while at the same time moving the left hand and foot in an opposite angular direction (anti-phase movement), all at a frequency of 1Hz. Motor learning was assessed through kinematics recording of wrists and ankles. The results showed that action observation is better than motor imagery as a strategy for learning a novel complex motor task, at least in the fast early phase of motor learning. We forward that these results may have important implications in educational activities, sport training and neurorehabilitation. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The dissociable effects of punishment and reward on motor learning.

PubMed

Galea, Joseph M; Mallia, Elizabeth; Rothwell, John; Diedrichsen, Jörn

2015-04-01

A common assumption regarding error-based motor learning (motor adaptation) in humans is that its underlying mechanism is automatic and insensitive to reward- or punishment-based feedback. Contrary to this hypothesis, we show in a double dissociation that the two have independent effects on the learning and retention components of motor adaptation. Negative feedback, whether graded or binary, accelerated learning. While it was not necessary for the negative feedback to be coupled to monetary loss, it had to be clearly related to the actual performance on the preceding movement. Positive feedback did not speed up learning, but it increased retention of the motor memory when performance feedback was withdrawn. These findings reinforce the view that independent mechanisms underpin learning and retention in motor adaptation, reject the assumption that motor adaptation is independent of motivational feedback, and raise new questions regarding the neural basis of negative and positive motivational feedback in motor learning.

Effect of internal versus external focus of attention on implicit motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder.

PubMed

Jarus, Tal; Ghanouni, Parisa; Abel, Rachel L; Fomenoff, Shelby L; Lundberg, Jocelyn; Davidson, Stephanie; Caswell, Sarah; Bickerton, Laura; Zwicker, Jill G

2015-02-01

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) struggle to learn new motor skills. It is unknown whether children with DCD learn motor skills more effectively with an external focus of attention (focusing on impact of movement on the environment) or an internal focus of attention (focusing on one's body movements) during implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) motor learning. This paper aims to determine the trends of implicit motor learning in children with DCD, and how focus of attention influences motor learning in children with DCD in comparison with typically developing children. 25 children, aged 8-12, with (n=12) and without (n=13) DCD were randomly assigned to receive instructions that focused attention externally or internally while completing a computer tracking task during acquisition, retention, and transfer phases. The motor task involved tracking both repeated and random patterns, with the repeated pattern indicative of implicit learning. Children with DCD scored lower on the motor task in all three phases of the study, demonstrating poorer implicit learning. Furthermore, graphical data showed that for the children with DCD, there was no apparent difference between internal and external focus of attention during retention and transfer, while there was an advantage to the external focus of attention group for typically developing children. Children with DCD demonstrate less accuracy than typically developing children in learning a motor task. Also, the effect of focus of attention on motor performance is different in children with DCD versus their typically developing counterparts during the three phases of motor learning. Results may inform clinicians how to facilitate motor learning in children with DCD by incorporating explicit learning with either internal or external focus of attention within interventions. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mental workload and motor performance dynamics during practice of reaching movements under various levels of task difficulty.

PubMed

Shuggi, Isabelle M; Oh, Hyuk; Shewokis, Patricia A; Gentili, Rodolphe J

2017-09-30

The assessment of mental workload can inform attentional resource allocation during task performance that is essential for understanding the underlying principles of human cognitive-motor behavior. While many studies have focused on mental workload in relation to human performance, a modest body of work has examined it in a motor practice/learning context without considering individual variability. Thus, this work aimed to examine mental workload by employing the NASA TLX as well as the changes in motor performance resulting from the practice of a novel reaching task. Two groups of participants practiced a reaching task at a high and low nominal difficulty during which a group-level analysis assessed the mental workload, motor performance and motor improvement dynamics. A secondary cluster analysis was also conducted to identify specific individual patterns of cognitive-motor responses. Overall, both group- and cluster-level analyses revealed that: (i) all participants improved their performance throughout motor practice, and (ii) an increase in mental workload was associated with a reduction of the quality of motor performance along with a slower rate of motor improvement. The results are discussed in the context of the optimal challenge point framework and in particular it is proposed that under the experimental conditions employed here, functional task difficulty: (i) would possibly depend on an individuals' information processing capabilities, and (ii) could be indexed by the level of mental workload which, when excessively heightened can decrease the quality of performance and more generally result in delayed motor improvements. Copyright © 2017 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Functional Plasticity in Somatosensory Cortex Supports Motor Learning by Observing.

PubMed

McGregor, Heather R; Cashaback, Joshua G A; Gribble, Paul L

2016-04-04

An influential idea in neuroscience is that the sensory-motor system is activated when observing the actions of others [1, 2]. This idea has recently been extended to motor learning, in which observation results in sensory-motor plasticity and behavioral changes in both motor and somatosensory domains [3-9]. However, it is unclear how the brain maps visual information onto motor circuits for learning. Here we test the idea that the somatosensory system, and specifically primary somatosensory cortex (S1), plays a role in motor learning by observing. In experiment 1, we applied stimulation to the median nerve to occupy the somatosensory system with unrelated inputs while participants observed a tutor learning to reach in a force field. Stimulation disrupted motor learning by observing in a limb-specific manner. Stimulation delivered to the right arm (the same arm used by the tutor) disrupted learning, whereas left arm stimulation did not. This is consistent with the idea that a somatosensory representation of the observed effector must be available during observation for learning to occur. In experiment 2, we assessed S1 cortical processing before and after observation by measuring somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) associated with median nerve stimulation. SEP amplitudes increased only for participants who observed learning. Moreover, SEPs increased more for participants who exhibited greater motor learning following observation. Taken together, these findings support the idea that motor learning by observing relies on functional plasticity in S1. We propose that visual signals about the movements of others are mapped onto motor circuits for learning via the somatosensory system. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Enhanced multisensory integration and motor reactivation after active motor learning of audiovisual associations.

PubMed

Butler, Andrew J; James, Thomas W; James, Karin Harman

2011-11-01

Everyday experience affords us many opportunities to learn about objects through multiple senses using physical interaction. Previous work has shown that active motor learning of unisensory items enhances memory and leads to the involvement of motor systems during subsequent perception. However, the impact of active motor learning on subsequent perception and recognition of associations among multiple senses has not been investigated. Twenty participants were included in an fMRI study that explored the impact of active motor learning on subsequent processing of unisensory and multisensory stimuli. Participants were exposed to visuo-motor associations between novel objects and novel sounds either through self-generated actions on the objects or by observing an experimenter produce the actions. Immediately after exposure, accuracy, RT, and BOLD fMRI measures were collected with unisensory and multisensory stimuli in associative perception and recognition tasks. Response times during audiovisual associative and unisensory recognition were enhanced by active learning, as was accuracy during audiovisual associative recognition. The difference in motor cortex activation between old and new associations was greater for the active than the passive group. Furthermore, functional connectivity between visual and motor cortices was stronger after active learning than passive learning. Active learning also led to greater activation of the fusiform gyrus during subsequent unisensory visual perception. Finally, brain regions implicated in audiovisual integration (e.g., STS) showed greater multisensory gain after active learning than after passive learning. Overall, the results show that active motor learning modulates the processing of multisensory associations.

Age differences in spatial working memory contributions to visuomotor adaptation and transfer.

PubMed

Langan, Jeanne; Seidler, Rachael D

2011-11-20

Throughout our life span we encounter challenges that require us to adapt to the demands of our changing environment; this entails learning new skills. Two primary components of motor skill learning are motor acquisition, the initial process of learning the skill, and motor transfer, when learning a new skill is benefitted by the overlap with a previously learned one. Older adults typically exhibit declines in motor acquisition compared to young adults, but remarkably, do not demonstrate deficits in motor transfer [10]. Our recent work demonstrates that a failure to engage spatial working memory (SWM) is associated with skill learning deficits in older adults [16]. Here, we investigate the role that SWM plays in both motor learning and transfer in young and older adults. Both age groups exhibited performance savings, or positive transfer, at transfer of learning for some performance variables. Measures of spatial working memory performance and reaction time correlated with both motor learning and transfer for young adults. Young adults recruited overlapping brain regions in prefrontal, premotor, parietal and occipital cortex for performance of a SWM and a visuomotor adaptation task, most notably during motor learning, replicating our prior findings [12]. Neural overlap between the SWM task and visuomotor adaptation for the older adults was limited to parietal cortex, with minimal changes from motor learning to transfer. Combined, these results suggest that age differences in engagement of cognitive strategies have a differential impact on motor learning and transfer. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Age differences in spatial working memory contributions to visuomotor adaptation and transfer

PubMed Central

Langan, Jeanne; Seidler, Rachael. D.

2011-01-01

Throughout our life span we encounter challenges that require us to adapt to the demands of our changing environment; this entails learning new skills. Two primary components of motor skill learning are motor acquisition, the initial process of learning the skill, and motor transfer, when learning a new skill is benefitted by the overlap with a previously learned one. Older adults typically exhibit declines in motor acquisition compared to young adults, but remarkably, do not demonstrate deficits in motor transfer (Seidler, 2007). Our recent work demonstrates that a failure to engage spatial working memory (SWM) is associated with skill learning deficits in older adults (Anguera et al., 2011). Here, we investigate the role that SWM plays in both motor learning and transfer in young and older adults. Both age groups exhibited performance savings, or positive transfer, at transfer of learning for some performance variables. Measures of spatial working memory performance and reaction time correlated with both motor learning and transfer for young adults. Young adults recruited overlapping brain regions in prefrontal, premotor, parietal and occipital cortex for performance of a SWM and a visuomotor adaptation task, most notably during motor learning, replicating our prior findings (Anguera et al., 2010). Neural overlap between the SWM task and visuomotor adaptation for the older adults was limited to parietal cortex, with minimal changes from motor learning to transfer. Combined, these results suggest that age differences in engagement of cognitive strategies have a differential impact on motor learning and transfer. PMID:21784106

The quest to apply VR technology to rehabilitation: tribulations and treasures.

PubMed

Keshner, Emily A; Fung, Joyce

2017-01-01

The papers that follow stem from a symposium presented at the International Society for Posture and Gait Research (ISPGR) in Seville, Spain, in July 2015. Four speakers were charged with presenting their methods of applying virtual reality (VR) technology to obtain meaningful rehabilitation outcomes. The symposium aims to explore characteristics of VR that modify mechanisms supporting motor relearning. Common impairments in posture and gait that can be modulated within virtual environments by employing motor learning concepts, including sensory augmentation and repetition, were examined. Critical overviews of VR applications that address different therapeutic objectives for improving posture and gait in individuals with neurological insult or injury were presented. A further goal was to identify approaches and efforts to bridge the gap between knowledge generation from research and knowledge uptake in clinical practice. Specific objectives of this symposium were that participants be able to: 1) identify benefits and limitations of selecting VR as an intervention tool; 2) discuss how VR relates to principles for motor relearning following neurological insult or injury; and 3) identify areas and methods for future translation of VR technology in clinical and home-based settings. Our symposium concluded that the application of VR technology in assessment, treatment, and research has yielded promising results in transferring learned cognitive and motor skills to more natural environments. VR permits the user to interact with a multidimensional and multisensory environment in real time, and offers the opportunity to provide both standardized and individualized interventions while monitoring behavior.

Functional connectivity between somatosensory and motor brain areas predicts individual differences in motor learning by observing.

PubMed

McGregor, Heather R; Gribble, Paul L

2017-08-01

Action observation can facilitate the acquisition of novel motor skills; however, there is considerable individual variability in the extent to which observation promotes motor learning. Here we tested the hypothesis that individual differences in brain function or structure can predict subsequent observation-related gains in motor learning. Subjects underwent an anatomical MRI scan and resting-state fMRI scans to assess preobservation gray matter volume and preobservation resting-state functional connectivity (FC), respectively. On the following day, subjects observed a video of a tutor adapting her reaches to a novel force field. After observation, subjects performed reaches in a force field as a behavioral assessment of gains in motor learning resulting from observation. We found that individual differences in resting-state FC, but not gray matter volume, predicted postobservation gains in motor learning. Preobservation resting-state FC between left primary somatosensory cortex and bilateral dorsal premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, and primary somatosensory cortex and left superior parietal lobule was positively correlated with behavioral measures of postobservation motor learning. Sensory-motor resting-state FC can thus predict the extent to which observation will promote subsequent motor learning. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that individual differences in preobservation brain function can predict subsequent observation-related gains in motor learning. Preobservation resting-state functional connectivity within a sensory-motor network may be used as a biomarker for the extent to which observation promotes motor learning. This kind of information may be useful if observation is to be used as a way to boost neuroplasticity and sensory-motor recovery for patients undergoing rehabilitation for diseases that impair movement such as stroke. Copyright © 2017 the American Physiological Society.

Psychosocial Modulators of Motor Learning in Parkinson’s Disease

PubMed Central

Zemankova, Petra; Lungu, Ovidiu; Bares, Martin

2016-01-01

Using the remarkable overlap between brain circuits affected in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and those underlying motor sequence learning, we may improve the effectiveness of motor rehabilitation interventions by identifying motor learning facilitators in PD. For instance, additional sensory stimulation and task cueing enhanced motor learning in people with PD, whereas exercising using musical rhythms or console computer games improved gait and balance, and reduced some motor symptoms, in addition to increasing task enjoyment. Yet, despite these advances, important knowledge gaps remain. Most studies investigating motor learning in PD used laboratory-specific tasks and equipment, with little resemblance to real life situations. Thus, it is unknown whether similar results could be achieved in more ecological setups and whether individual’s task engagement could further improve motor learning capacity. Moreover, the role of social interaction in motor skill learning process has not yet been investigated in PD and the role of mind-set and self-regulatory mechanisms have been sporadically examined. Here, we review evidence suggesting that these psychosocial factors may be important modulators of motor learning in PD. We propose their incorporation in future research, given that it could lead to development of improved non-pharmacological interventions aimed to preserve or restore motor function in PD. PMID:26973495

Varied overground walking-task practice versus body-weight-supported treadmill training in ambulatory adults within one year of stroke: a randomized controlled trial protocol.

PubMed

DePaul, Vincent G; Wishart, Laurie R; Richardson, Julie; Lee, Timothy D; Thabane, Lehana

2011-10-21

Although task-oriented training has been shown to improve walking outcomes after stroke, it is not yet clear whether one task-oriented approach is superior to another. The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of the Motor Learning Walking Program (MLWP), a varied overground walking task program consistent with key motor learning principles, to body-weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) in community-dwelling, ambulatory, adults within 1 year of stroke. A parallel, randomized controlled trial with stratification by baseline gait speed will be conducted. Allocation will be controlled by a central randomization service and participants will be allocated to the two active intervention groups (1:1) using a permuted block randomization process. Seventy participants will be assigned to one of two 15-session training programs. In MLWP, one physiotherapist will supervise practice of various overground walking tasks. Instructions, feedback, and guidance will be provided in a manner that facilitates self-evaluation and problem solving. In BWSTT, training will emphasize repetition of the normal gait cycle while supported over a treadmill, assisted by up to three physiotherapists. Outcomes will be assessed by a blinded assessor at baseline, post-intervention and at 2-month follow-up. The primary outcome will be post-intervention comfortable gait speed. Secondary outcomes include fast gait speed, walking endurance, balance self-efficacy, participation in community mobility, health-related quality of life, and goal attainment. Groups will be compared using analysis of covariance with baseline gait speed strata as the single covariate. Intention-to-treat analysis will be used. In order to direct clinicians, patients, and other health decision-makers, there is a need for a head-to-head comparison of different approaches to active, task-related walking training after stroke. We hypothesize that outcomes will be optimized through the application of a task-related training program that is consistent with key motor learning principles related to practice, guidance and feedback. ClinicalTrials.gov # NCT00561405.

Varied overground walking-task practice versus body-weight-supported treadmill training in ambulatory adults within one year of stroke: a randomized controlled trial protocol

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Background Although task-oriented training has been shown to improve walking outcomes after stroke, it is not yet clear whether one task-oriented approach is superior to another. The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of the Motor Learning Walking Program (MLWP), a varied overground walking task program consistent with key motor learning principles, to body-weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) in community-dwelling, ambulatory, adults within 1 year of stroke. Methods/Design A parallel, randomized controlled trial with stratification by baseline gait speed will be conducted. Allocation will be controlled by a central randomization service and participants will be allocated to the two active intervention groups (1:1) using a permuted block randomization process. Seventy participants will be assigned to one of two 15-session training programs. In MLWP, one physiotherapist will supervise practice of various overground walking tasks. Instructions, feedback, and guidance will be provided in a manner that facilitates self-evaluation and problem solving. In BWSTT, training will emphasize repetition of the normal gait cycle while supported over a treadmill, assisted by up to three physiotherapists. Outcomes will be assessed by a blinded assessor at baseline, post-intervention and at 2-month follow-up. The primary outcome will be post-intervention comfortable gait speed. Secondary outcomes include fast gait speed, walking endurance, balance self-efficacy, participation in community mobility, health-related quality of life, and goal attainment. Groups will be compared using analysis of covariance with baseline gait speed strata as the single covariate. Intention-to-treat analysis will be used. Discussion In order to direct clinicians, patients, and other health decision-makers, there is a need for a head-to-head comparison of different approaches to active, task-related walking training after stroke. We hypothesize that outcomes will be optimized through the application of a task-related training program that is consistent with key motor learning principles related to practice, guidance and feedback. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov # NCT00561405 PMID:22018267

Neural constraints on learning.

PubMed

Sadtler, Patrick T; Quick, Kristin M; Golub, Matthew D; Chase, Steven M; Ryu, Stephen I; Tyler-Kabara, Elizabeth C; Yu, Byron M; Batista, Aaron P

2014-08-28

Learning, whether motor, sensory or cognitive, requires networks of neurons to generate new activity patterns. As some behaviours are easier to learn than others, we asked if some neural activity patterns are easier to generate than others. Here we investigate whether an existing network constrains the patterns that a subset of its neurons is capable of exhibiting, and if so, what principles define this constraint. We employed a closed-loop intracortical brain-computer interface learning paradigm in which Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) controlled a computer cursor by modulating neural activity patterns in the primary motor cortex. Using the brain-computer interface paradigm, we could specify and alter how neural activity mapped to cursor velocity. At the start of each session, we observed the characteristic activity patterns of the recorded neural population. The activity of a neural population can be represented in a high-dimensional space (termed the neural space), wherein each dimension corresponds to the activity of one neuron. These characteristic activity patterns comprise a low-dimensional subspace (termed the intrinsic manifold) within the neural space. The intrinsic manifold presumably reflects constraints imposed by the underlying neural circuitry. Here we show that the animals could readily learn to proficiently control the cursor using neural activity patterns that were within the intrinsic manifold. However, animals were less able to learn to proficiently control the cursor using activity patterns that were outside of the intrinsic manifold. These results suggest that the existing structure of a network can shape learning. On a timescale of hours, it seems to be difficult to learn to generate neural activity patterns that are not consistent with the existing network structure. These findings offer a network-level explanation for the observation that we are more readily able to learn new skills when they are related to the skills that we already possess.

Role of motor cortex NMDA receptors in learning-dependent synaptic plasticity of behaving mice

PubMed Central

Hasan, Mazahir T.; Hernández-González, Samuel; Dogbevia, Godwin; Treviño, Mario; Bertocchi, Ilaria; Gruart, Agnès; Delgado-García, José M.

2013-01-01

The primary motor cortex has an important role in the precise execution of learned motor responses. During motor learning, synaptic efficacy between sensory and primary motor cortical neurons is enhanced, possibly involving long-term potentiation and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-specific glutamate receptor function. To investigate whether NMDA receptor in the primary motor cortex can act as a coincidence detector for activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength and associative learning, here we generate mice with deletion of the Grin1 gene, encoding the essential NMDA receptor subunit 1 (GluN1), specifically in the primary motor cortex. The loss of NMDA receptor function impairs primary motor cortex long-term potentiation in vivo. Importantly, it impairs the synaptic efficacy between the primary somatosensory and primary motor cortices and significantly reduces classically conditioned eyeblink responses. Furthermore, compared with wild-type littermates, mice lacking primary motor cortex show slower learning in Skinner-box tasks. Thus, primary motor cortex NMDA receptors are necessary for activity-dependent synaptic strengthening and associative learning. PMID:23978820

A Principle and Winding Design of Consequent-Pole Bearingless Motors

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Takenaga, Tomohiro; Kubota, Yutaka; Chiba, Akira; Fukao, Tadashi

Recently, bearingless motors have been developed to enhance motor drive systems with magnetic suspension. Several types of motors have been proposed as bearingless motors, such as induction, surface mounted permanent magnet, inset permanent magnet, interior permanent magnet, buried permanent magnet, homopolar, hybrid, and switched reluctance bearingless motors. Permanent magnet bearingless motors have been attracting more interests in these years because of the high efficiency. In this paper, a consequent-pole bearingless motor is proposed. A rotor has buried permanent magnets, of which polarities are like. The radial force of a consequent-pole bearingless motor is generated by dc current. Thus, rotational angular position is not needed in a magnetic suspension controller. Radial force variations caused by a rotor rotation are minimized by improving arrangement of stator suspension conductors. A prototype bearingless motor and its controller are built. In experiment, principles of magnetic suspension in the proposed consequent-pole bearingless drive are confirmed.

Motor Sequence Learning-Induced Neural Efficiency in Functional Brain Connectivity

PubMed Central

Karim, Helmet T; Huppert, Theodore J; Erickson, Kirk I; Wollam, Mariegold E; Sparto, Patrick J; Sejdić, Ervin; VanSwearingen, Jessie M

2016-01-01

Previous studies have shown the functional neural circuitry differences before and after an explicitly learned motor sequence task, but have not assessed these changes during the process of motor skill learning. Functional magnetic resonance imaging activity was measured while participants (n=13) were asked to tap their fingers to visually presented sequences in blocks that were either the same sequence repeated (learning block) or random sequences (control block). Motor learning was associated with a decrease in brain activity during learning compared to control. Lower brain activation was noted in the posterior parietal association area and bilateral thalamus during the later periods of learning (not during the control). Compared to the control condition, we found the task-related motor learning was associated with decreased connectivity between the putamen and left inferior frontal gyrus and left middle cingulate brain regions. Motor learning was associated with changes in network activity, spatial extent, and connectivity. PMID:27845228

Dissociation of visual associative and motor learning in Drosophila at the flight simulator.

PubMed

Wang, Shunpeng; Li, Yan; Feng, Chunhua; Guo, Aike

2003-08-29

Ever since operant conditioning was studied experimentally, the relationship between associative learning and possible motor learning has become controversial. Although motor learning and its underlying neural substrates have been extensively studied in mammals, it is still poorly understood in invertebrates. The visual discriminative avoidance paradigm of Drosophila at the flight simulator has been widely used to study the flies' visual associative learning and related functions, but it has not been used to study the motor learning process. In this study, newly-designed data analysis was employed to examine the flies' solitary behavioural variable that was recorded at the flight simulator-yaw torque. Analysis was conducted to explore torque distributions of both wild-type and mutant flies in conditioning, with the following results: (1) Wild-type Canton-S flies had motor learning performance in conditioning, which was proved by modifications of the animal's behavioural mode in conditioning. (2) Repetition of training improved the motor learning performance of wild-type Canton-S flies. (3) Although mutant dunce(1) flies were defective in visual associative learning, they showed essentially normal motor learning performance in terms of yaw torque distribution in conditioning. Finally, we tentatively proposed that both visual associative learning and motor learning were involved in the visual operant conditioning of Drosophila at the flight simulator, that the two learning forms could be dissociated and they might have different neural bases.

Facilitating behavioral learning and habit change in voice therapy--theoretic premises and practical strategies.

PubMed

Iwarsson, Jenny

2015-12-01

A typical goal of voice therapy is a behavioral change in the patient's everyday speech. The SLP's plan for voice therapy should therefore optimally include strategies for automatization. The aim of the present study was to identify and describe factors that promote behavioral learning and habit change in voice behavior and have the potential to affect patient compliance and thus therapy outcome. Research literature from the areas of motor and behavioral learning, habit formation, and habit change was consulted. Also, specific elements from personal experience of clinical voice therapy are described and discussed from a learning theory perspective. Nine factors that seem to be relevant to facilitate behavioral learning and habit change in voice therapy are presented, together with related practical strategies and theoretical underpinnings. These are: 1) Cue-altering; 2) Attention exercises; 3) Repetition; 4) Cognitive activation; 5) Negative practice; 6) Inhibition through interruption; 7) Decomposing complex behavior; 8) The 'each time-every time' principle; and 9) Successive implementation of automaticity.

Extrinsic feedback and upper limb motor skill learning in typically-developing children and children with cerebral palsy: Review.

PubMed

Robert, Maxime T; Sambasivan, Krithika; Levin, Mindy F

2017-01-01

Improvment of upper limb motor skills occurs through motor learning that can be enhanced by providing extrinsic feedback. Different types and frequencies of feedback are discussed but specific guidelines for use of feedback for motor learning in typically-developing (TD) children and children with Cerebral Palsy (CP) are not available. Identify the most effective modalities and frequencies of feedback for improving upper limb motor skills in TD children and children with CP. Ovid MEDLINE, Cochrane, PEDro and PubMed-NCBI were searched from 1950 to December 2015 to identify English-language articles addressing the role of extrinsic feedback on upper limb motor learning in TD children and children with CP. Nine studies were selected with a total of 243 TD children and 102 children with CP. Study quality was evaluated using the Downs and Black scale and levels of evidence were determined with Sackett's quality ratings. There was a lack of consistency in the modalities and frequencies of feedback delivery used to improve motor learning in TD children and in children with CP. Moreover, the complexity of the task to be learned influenced the degree of motor learning achieved. A better understanding of the influence of feedback on motor learning is needed to optimize motor skill acquisition in children with CP.

Implementing Set Based Design into Department of Defense Acquisition

DTIC Science & Technology

2016-12-01

challenges for the DOD. This report identifies the original SBD principles and characteristics based on Toyota Motor Corporation’s Set Based Concurrent...Engineering Model. Additionally, the team reviewed DOD case studies that implemented SBD. The SBD principles , along with the common themes from the...perennial challenges for the DOD. This report identifies the original SBD principles and characteristics based on Toyota Motor Corporation’s Set

Motor cortex is required for learning but not executing a motor skill

PubMed Central

Kawai, Risa; Markman, Timothy; Poddar, Rajesh; Ko, Raymond; Fantana, Antoniu; Dhawale, Ashesh; Kampff, Adam R.; Ölveczky, Bence P.

2018-01-01

Motor cortex is widely believed to underlie the acquisition and execution of motor skills, yet its contributions to these processes are not fully understood. One reason is that studies on motor skills often conflate motor cortex’s established role in dexterous control with roles in learning and producing task-specific motor sequences. To dissociate these aspects, we developed a motor task for rats that trains spatiotemporally precise movement patterns without requirements for dexterity. Remarkably, motor cortex lesions had no discernible effect on the acquired skills, which were expressed in their distinct pre-lesion forms on the very first day of post-lesion training. Motor cortex lesions prior to training, however, rendered rats unable to acquire the stereotyped motor sequences required for the task. These results suggest a remarkable capacity of subcortical motor circuits to execute learned skills and a previously unappreciated role for motor cortex in ‘tutoring’ these circuits during learning. PMID:25892304

Cortical ensemble activity increasingly predicts behaviour outcomes during learning of a motor task

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Laubach, Mark; Wessberg, Johan; Nicolelis, Miguel A. L.

2000-06-01

When an animal learns to make movements in response to different stimuli, changes in activity in the motor cortex seem to accompany and underlie this learning. The precise nature of modifications in cortical motor areas during the initial stages of motor learning, however, is largely unknown. Here we address this issue by chronically recording from neuronal ensembles located in the rat motor cortex, throughout the period required for rats to learn a reaction-time task. Motor learning was demonstrated by a decrease in the variance of the rats' reaction times and an increase in the time the animals were able to wait for a trigger stimulus. These behavioural changes were correlated with a significant increase in our ability to predict the correct or incorrect outcome of single trials based on three measures of neuronal ensemble activity: average firing rate, temporal patterns of firing, and correlated firing. This increase in prediction indicates that an association between sensory cues and movement emerged in the motor cortex as the task was learned. Such modifications in cortical ensemble activity may be critical for the initial learning of motor tasks.

Is Implicit Motor Learning Preserved after Stroke? A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

PubMed Central

Kal, E.; Winters, M.; van der Kamp, J.; Houdijk, H.; Groet, E.; van Bennekom, C.; Scherder, E.

2016-01-01

Many stroke patients experience difficulty with performing dual-tasks. A promising intervention to target this issue is implicit motor learning, as it should enhance patients’ automaticity of movement. Yet, although it is often thought that implicit motor learning is preserved post-stroke, evidence for this claim has not been systematically analysed yet. Therefore, we systematically reviewed whether implicit motor learning is preserved post-stroke, and whether patients benefit more from implicit than from explicit motor learning. We comprehensively searched conventional (MEDLINE, Cochrane, Embase, PEDro, PsycINFO) and grey literature databases (BIOSIS, Web of Science, OpenGrey, British Library, trial registries) for relevant reports. Two independent reviewers screened reports, extracted data, and performed a risk of bias assessment. Overall, we included 20 out of the 2177 identified reports that allow for a succinct evaluation of implicit motor learning. Of these, only 1 study investigated learning on a relatively complex, whole-body (balance board) task. All 19 other studies concerned variants of the serial-reaction time paradigm, with most of these focusing on learning with the unaffected hand (N = 13) rather than the affected hand or both hands (both: N = 4). Four of the 20 studies compared explicit and implicit motor learning post-stroke. Meta-analyses suggest that patients with stroke can learn implicitly with their unaffected side (mean difference (MD) = 69 ms, 95% CI[45.1, 92.9], p < .00001), but not with their affected side (standardized MD = -.11, 95% CI[-.45, .25], p = .56). Finally, implicit motor learning seemed equally effective as explicit motor learning post-stroke (SMD = -.54, 95% CI[-1.37, .29], p = .20). However, overall, the high risk of bias, small samples, and limited clinical relevance of most studies make it impossible to draw reliable conclusions regarding the effect of implicit motor learning strategies post-stroke. High quality studies with larger samples are warranted to test implicit motor learning in clinically relevant contexts. PMID:27992442

Neural substrates underlying stimulation-enhanced motor skill learning after stroke

PubMed Central

Lefebvre, Stéphanie; Dricot, Laurence; Laloux, Patrice; Gradkowski, Wojciech; Desfontaines, Philippe; Evrard, Frédéric; Peeters, André; Jamart, Jacques

2015-01-01

Motor skill learning is one of the key components of motor function recovery after stroke, especially recovery driven by neurorehabilitation. Transcranial direct current stimulation can enhance neurorehabilitation and motor skill learning in stroke patients. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the retention of stimulation-enhanced motor skill learning involving a paretic upper limb have not been resolved. These neural substrates were explored by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging. Nineteen chronic hemiparetic stroke patients participated in a double-blind, cross-over randomized, sham-controlled experiment with two series. Each series consisted of two sessions: (i) an intervention session during which dual transcranial direct current stimulation or sham was applied during motor skill learning with the paretic upper limb; and (ii) an imaging session 1 week later, during which the patients performed the learned motor skill. The motor skill learning task, called the ‘circuit game’, involves a speed/accuracy trade-off and consists of moving a pointer controlled by a computer mouse along a complex circuit as quickly and accurately as possible. Relative to the sham series, dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied bilaterally over the primary motor cortex during motor skill learning with the paretic upper limb resulted in (i) enhanced online motor skill learning; (ii) enhanced 1-week retention; and (iii) superior transfer of performance improvement to an untrained task. The 1-week retention’s enhancement driven by the intervention was associated with a trend towards normalization of the brain activation pattern during performance of the learned motor skill relative to the sham series. A similar trend towards normalization relative to sham was observed during performance of a simple, untrained task without a speed/accuracy constraint, despite a lack of behavioural difference between the dual transcranial direct current stimulation and sham series. Finally, dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied during the first session enhanced continued learning with the paretic limb 1 week later, relative to the sham series. This lasting behavioural enhancement was associated with more efficient recruitment of the motor skill learning network, that is, focused activation on the motor-premotor areas in the damaged hemisphere, especially on the dorsal premotor cortex. Dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied during motor skill learning with a paretic upper limb resulted in prolonged shaping of brain activation, which supported behavioural enhancements in stroke patients. PMID:25488186

Reversed Effects of Intermittent Theta Burst Stimulation following Motor Training That Vary as a Function of Training-Induced Changes in Corticospinal Excitability

PubMed Central

Stöckel, Tino; Summers, Jeffery J.; Hinder, Mark R.

2015-01-01

Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) has the potential to enhance corticospinal excitability (CSE) and subsequent motor learning. However, the effects of iTBS following motor learning are unknown. The purpose of the present study was to explore the effect of iTBS on CSE and performance following motor learning. Therefore twenty-four healthy participants practiced a ballistic motor task for a total of 150 movements. iTBS was subsequently applied to the trained motor cortex (STIM group) or the vertex (SHAM group). Performance and CSE were assessed before motor learning and before and after iTBS. Training significantly increased performance and CSE in both groups. In STIM group participants, subsequent iTBS significantly reduced motor performance with smaller reductions in CSE. CSE changes as a result of motor learning were negatively correlated with both the CSE changes and performance changes as a result of iTBS. No significant effects of iTBS were found for SHAM group participants. We conclude that iTBS has the potential to degrade prior motor learning as a function of training-induced CSE changes. That means the expected LTP-like effects of iTBS are reversed following motor learning. PMID:26167305

Reversed Effects of Intermittent Theta Burst Stimulation following Motor Training That Vary as a Function of Training-Induced Changes in Corticospinal Excitability.

PubMed

Stöckel, Tino; Summers, Jeffery J; Hinder, Mark R

2015-01-01

Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) has the potential to enhance corticospinal excitability (CSE) and subsequent motor learning. However, the effects of iTBS following motor learning are unknown. The purpose of the present study was to explore the effect of iTBS on CSE and performance following motor learning. Therefore twenty-four healthy participants practiced a ballistic motor task for a total of 150 movements. iTBS was subsequently applied to the trained motor cortex (STIM group) or the vertex (SHAM group). Performance and CSE were assessed before motor learning and before and after iTBS. Training significantly increased performance and CSE in both groups. In STIM group participants, subsequent iTBS significantly reduced motor performance with smaller reductions in CSE. CSE changes as a result of motor learning were negatively correlated with both the CSE changes and performance changes as a result of iTBS. No significant effects of iTBS were found for SHAM group participants. We conclude that iTBS has the potential to degrade prior motor learning as a function of training-induced CSE changes. That means the expected LTP-like effects of iTBS are reversed following motor learning.

Fall proof: improving mobility and balance Elizabeth Best-Martini Fall proof: improving mobility and balance and Kim A Botenhagen-Di Genova Human Kinetics £24.50 0 73603 687 3 0736036873 Debra Rose Human Kinetics £38 0 73604 088 9 0736040889.

PubMed

2003-09-01

A structured balance and mobility-training programme specifically designed to reduce physical frailty and the rising incidence of falls among older people. This practical manual blends theory into practical applications and covers an introduction to the body systems, balance assessments and a discussion of contemporary motor learning principles. Tel: Customer Services 0113 255 5665. Email: hk@hkeurope.com.

Dopamine Promotes Motor Cortex Plasticity and Motor Skill Learning via PLC Activation

PubMed Central

Rioult-Pedotti, Mengia-Seraina; Pekanovic, Ana; Atiemo, Clement Osei; Marshall, John; Luft, Andreas Rüdiger

2015-01-01

Dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area, the major midbrain nucleus projecting to the motor cortex, play a key role in motor skill learning and motor cortex synaptic plasticity. Dopamine D1 and D2 receptor antagonists exert parallel effects in the motor system: they impair motor skill learning and reduce long-term potentiation. Traditionally, D1 and D2 receptor modulate adenylyl cyclase activity and cyclic adenosine monophosphate accumulation in opposite directions via different G-proteins and bidirectionally modulate protein kinase A (PKA), leading to distinct physiological and behavioral effects. Here we show that D1 and D2 receptor activity influences motor skill acquisition and long term synaptic potentiation via phospholipase C (PLC) activation in rat primary motor cortex. Learning a new forelimb reaching task is severely impaired in the presence of PLC, but not PKA-inhibitor. Similarly, long term potentiation in motor cortex, a mechanism involved in motor skill learning, is reduced when PLC is inhibited but remains unaffected by the PKA inhibitor. Skill learning deficits and reduced synaptic plasticity caused by dopamine antagonists are prevented by co-administration of a PLC agonist. These results provide evidence for a role of intracellular PLC signaling in motor skill learning and associated cortical synaptic plasticity, challenging the traditional view of bidirectional modulation of PKA by D1 and D2 receptors. These findings reveal a novel and important action of dopamine in motor cortex that might be a future target for selective therapeutic interventions to support learning and recovery of movement resulting from injury and disease. PMID:25938462

Building a Framework for a Dual Task Taxonomy

PubMed Central

McIsaac, Tara L.; Lamberg, Eric M.; Muratori, Lisa M.

2015-01-01

The study of dual task interference has gained increasing attention in the literature for the past 35 years, with six MEDLINE citations in 1979 growing to 351 citations indexed in 2014 and a peak of 454 cited papers in 2013. Increasingly, researchers are examining dual task cost in individuals with pathology, including those with neurodegenerative diseases. While the influence of these papers has extended from the laboratory to the clinic, the field has evolved without clear definitions of commonly used terms and with extreme variations in experimental procedures. As a result, it is difficult to examine the interference literature as a single body of work. In this paper we present a new taxonomy for classifying cognitive-motor and motor-motor interference within the study of dual task behaviors that connects traditional concepts of learning and principles of motor control with current issues of multitasking analysis. As a first step in the process we provide an operational definition of dual task, distinguishing it from a complex single task. We present this new taxonomy, inclusive of both cognitive and motor modalities, as a working model; one that we hope will generate discussion and create a framework from which one can view previous studies and develop questions of interest. PMID:25961027

Advantages of virtual reality in the rehabilitation of balance and gait: Systematic review.

PubMed

Cano Porras, Desiderio; Siemonsma, Petra; Inzelberg, Rivka; Zeilig, Gabriel; Plotnik, Meir

2018-05-29

Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a therapeutic tool facilitating motor learning for balance and gait rehabilitation. The evidence, however, has not yet resulted in standardized guidelines. The aim of this study was to systematically review the application of VR-based rehabilitation of balance and gait in 6 neurologic cohorts, describing methodologic quality, intervention programs, and reported efficacy. This study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. VR-based treatments of Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, acute and chronic poststroke, traumatic brain injury, and cerebral palsy were researched in PubMed and Scopus, including earliest available records. Therapeutic validity (CONTENT scale) and risk of bias in randomized controlled trials (RCT) (Cochrane Collaboration tool) and non-RCT (Newcastle-Ottawa scale) were assessed. Ninety-seven articles were included, 68 published in 2013 or later. VR improved balance and gait in all cohorts, especially when combined with conventional rehabilitation. Most studies presented poor methodologic quality, lacked a clear rationale for intervention programs, and did not utilize motor learning principles meticulously. RCTs with more robust methodologic designs were widely recommended. Our results suggest that VR-based rehabilitation is developing rapidly, has the potential to improve balance and gait in neurologic patients, and brings additional benefits when combined with conventional rehabilitation. This systematic review provides detailed information for developing theory-driven protocols that may assist overcoming the observed lack of argued choices for intervention programs and motor learning implementation and serves as a reference for the design and planning of personalized VR-based treatments. PROSPERO CRD42016042051. © 2018 American Academy of Neurology.

Learning-performance distinction and memory processes for motor skills: a focused review and perspective.

PubMed

Kantak, Shailesh S; Winstein, Carolee J

2012-03-01

Behavioral research in cognitive psychology provides evidence for an important distinction between immediate performance that accompanies practice and long-term performance that reflects the relative permanence in the capability for the practiced skill (i.e. learning). This learning-performance distinction is strikingly evident when challenging practice conditions may impair practice performance, but enhance long-term retention of motor skills. A review of motor learning studies with a specific focus on comparing differences in performance between that at the end of practice and at delayed retention suggests that the delayed retention or transfer performance is a better indicator of motor learning than the performance at (or end of) practice. This provides objective evidence for the learning-performance distinction. This behavioral evidence coupled with an understanding of the motor memory processes of encoding, consolidation and retrieval may provide insight into the putative mechanism that implements the learning-performance distinction. Here, we propose a simplistic empirically-based framework--motor behavior-memory framework--that integrates the temporal evolution of motor memory processes with the time course of practice and delayed retention frequently used in behavioral motor learning paradigms. In the context of the proposed framework, recent research has used noninvasive brain stimulation to decipher the role of each motor memory process, and specific cortical brain regions engaged in motor performance and learning. Such findings provide beginning insights into the relationship between the time course of practice-induced performance changes and motor memory processes. This in turn has promising implications for future research and practical applications. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Interference in Ballistic Motor Learning: Specificity and Role of Sensory Error Signals

PubMed Central

Lundbye-Jensen, Jesper; Petersen, Tue Hvass; Rothwell, John C.; Nielsen, Jens Bo

2011-01-01

Humans are capable of learning numerous motor skills, but newly acquired skills may be abolished by subsequent learning. Here we ask what factors determine whether interference occurs in motor learning. We speculated that interference requires competing processes of synaptic plasticity in overlapping circuits and predicted specificity. To test this, subjects learned a ballistic motor task. Interference was observed following subsequent learning of an accuracy-tracking task, but only if the competing task involved the same muscles and movement direction. Interference was not observed from a non-learning task suggesting that interference requires competing learning. Subsequent learning of the competing task 4 h after initial learning did not cause interference suggesting disruption of early motor memory consolidation as one possible mechanism underlying interference. Repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of corticospinal motor output at intensities below movement threshold did not cause interference, whereas suprathreshold rTMS evoking motor responses and (re)afferent activation did. Finally, the experiments revealed that suprathreshold repetitive electrical stimulation of the agonist (but not antagonist) peripheral nerve caused interference. The present study is, to our knowledge, the first to demonstrate that peripheral nerve stimulation may cause interference. The finding underscores the importance of sensory feedback as error signals in motor learning. We conclude that interference requires competing plasticity in overlapping circuits. Interference is remarkably specific for circuits involved in a specific movement and it may relate to sensory error signals. PMID:21408054

Sleep benefits consolidation of visuo-motor adaptation learning in older adults.

PubMed

Mantua, Janna; Baran, Bengi; Spencer, Rebecca M C

2016-02-01

Sleep is beneficial for performance across a range of memory tasks in young adults, but whether memories are similarly consolidated in older adults is less clear. Performance benefits have been observed following sleep in older adults for declarative learning tasks, but this benefit may be reduced for non-declarative, motor skill learning tasks. To date, studies of sleep-dependent consolidation of motor learning in older adults are limited to motor sequence tasks. To examine whether reduced sleep-dependent consolidation in older adults is generalizable to other forms of motor skill learning, we examined performance changes over intervals of sleep and wake in young (n = 62) and older adults (n = 61) using a mirror-tracing task, which assesses visuo-motor adaptation learning. Participants learned the task either in the morning or in evening, and performance was assessed following a 12-h interval containing overnight sleep or daytime wake. Contrary to our prediction, both young adults and older adults exhibited sleep-dependent gains in visuo-motor adaptation. There was a correlation between performance improvement over sleep and percent of the night in non-REM stage 2 sleep. These results indicate that motor skill consolidation remains intact with increasing age although this relationship may be limited to specific forms of motor skill learning.

Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative, automatic memory processes: evidence from golf putting.

PubMed

Chauvel, Guillaume; Maquestiaux, François; Hartley, Alan A; Joubert, Sven; Didierjean, André; Masters, Rich S W

2012-01-01

Can motor learning be equivalent in younger and older adults? To address this question, 48 younger (M = 23.5 years) and 48 older (M = 65.0 years) participants learned to perform a golf-putting task in two different motor learning situations: one that resulted in infrequent errors or one that resulted in frequent errors. The results demonstrated that infrequent-error learning predominantly relied on nondeclarative, automatic memory processes whereas frequent-error learning predominantly relied on declarative, effortful memory processes: After learning, infrequent-error learners verbalized fewer strategies than frequent-error learners; at transfer, a concurrent, attention-demanding secondary task (tone counting) left motor performance of infrequent-error learners unaffected but impaired that of frequent-error learners. The results showed age-equivalent motor performance in infrequent-error learning but age deficits in frequent-error learning. Motor performance of frequent-error learners required more attention with age, as evidenced by an age deficit on the attention-demanding secondary task. The disappearance of age effects when nondeclarative, automatic memory processes predominated suggests that these processes are preserved with age and are available even early in motor learning.

Modulation of motor performance and motor learning by transcranial direct current stimulation.

PubMed

Reis, Janine; Fritsch, Brita

2011-12-01

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has shown preliminary success in improving motor performance and motor learning in healthy individuals, and restitution of motor deficits in stroke patients. This brief review highlights some recent work. Within the past years, behavioural studies have confirmed and specified the timing and polarity specific effects of tDCS on motor skill learning and motor adaptation. There is strong evidence that timely co-application of (hand/arm) training and anodal tDCS to the contralateral M1 can improve motor learning. Improvements in motor function as measured by clinical scores have been described for combined tDCS and training in stroke patients. For this purpose, electrode montages have been modified with respect to interhemispheric imbalance after brain injury. Cathodal tDCS applied to the unlesioned M1 or bihemispheric M1 stimulation appears to be well tolerated and useful to induce improvements in motor function. Mechanistic studies in humans and animals are discussed with regard to physiological motor learning. tDCS is well tolerated, easy to use and capable of inducing lasting improvements in motor function. This method holds promise for the rehabilitation of motor disabilities, although acute studies in patients with brain injury are so far lacking.

Reversal of Long-Term Potentiation-Like Plasticity Processes after Motor Learning Disrupts Skill Retention

PubMed Central

Cantarero, Gabriela; Lloyd, Ashley

2013-01-01

Plasticity of synaptic connections in the primary motor cortex (M1) is thought to play an essential role in learning and memory. Human and animal studies have shown that motor learning results in long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity processes, namely potentiation of M1 and a temporary occlusion of additional LTP-like plasticity. Moreover, biochemical processes essential for LTP are also crucial for certain types of motor learning and memory. Thus, it has been speculated that the occlusion of LTP-like plasticity after learning, indicative of how much LTP was used to learn, is essential for retention. Here we provide supporting evidence of it in humans. Induction of LTP-like plasticity can be abolished using a depotentiation protocol (DePo) consisting of brief continuous theta burst stimulation. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation to assess whether application of DePo over M1 after motor learning affected (1) occlusion of LTP-like plasticity and (2) retention of motor skill learning. We found that the magnitude of motor memory retention is proportional to the magnitude of occlusion of LTP-like plasticity. Moreover, DePo stimulation over M1, but not over a control site, reversed the occlusion of LTP-like plasticity induced by motor learning and disrupted skill retention relative to control subjects. Altogether, these results provide evidence of a link between occlusion of LTP-like plasticity and retention and that this measure could be used as a biomarker to predict retention. Importantly, attempts to reverse the occlusion of LTP-like plasticity after motor learning comes with the cost of reducing retention of motor learning. PMID:23904621

Motor sequence learning-induced neural efficiency in functional brain connectivity.

PubMed

Karim, Helmet T; Huppert, Theodore J; Erickson, Kirk I; Wollam, Mariegold E; Sparto, Patrick J; Sejdić, Ervin; VanSwearingen, Jessie M

2017-02-15

Previous studies have shown the functional neural circuitry differences before and after an explicitly learned motor sequence task, but have not assessed these changes during the process of motor skill learning. Functional magnetic resonance imaging activity was measured while participants (n=13) were asked to tap their fingers to visually presented sequences in blocks that were either the same sequence repeated (learning block) or random sequences (control block). Motor learning was associated with a decrease in brain activity during learning compared to control. Lower brain activation was noted in the posterior parietal association area and bilateral thalamus during the later periods of learning (not during the control). Compared to the control condition, we found the task-related motor learning was associated with decreased connectivity between the putamen and left inferior frontal gyrus and left middle cingulate brain regions. Motor learning was associated with changes in network activity, spatial extent, and connectivity. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Motor cortex is required for learning but not for executing a motor skill.

PubMed

Kawai, Risa; Markman, Timothy; Poddar, Rajesh; Ko, Raymond; Fantana, Antoniu L; Dhawale, Ashesh K; Kampff, Adam R; Ölveczky, Bence P

2015-05-06

Motor cortex is widely believed to underlie the acquisition and execution of motor skills, but its contributions to these processes are not fully understood. One reason is that studies on motor skills often conflate motor cortex's established role in dexterous control with roles in learning and producing task-specific motor sequences. To dissociate these aspects, we developed a motor task for rats that trains spatiotemporally precise movement patterns without requirements for dexterity. Remarkably, motor cortex lesions had no discernible effect on the acquired skills, which were expressed in their distinct pre-lesion forms on the very first day of post-lesion training. Motor cortex lesions prior to training, however, rendered rats unable to acquire the stereotyped motor sequences required for the task. These results suggest a remarkable capacity of subcortical motor circuits to execute learned skills and a previously unappreciated role for motor cortex in "tutoring" these circuits during learning. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Refinement of learned skilled movement representation in motor cortex deep output layer

PubMed Central

Li, Qian; Ko, Ho; Qian, Zhong-Ming; Yan, Leo Y. C.; Chan, Danny C. W.; Arbuthnott, Gordon; Ke, Ya; Yung, Wing-Ho

2017-01-01

The mechanisms underlying the emergence of learned motor skill representation in primary motor cortex (M1) are not well understood. Specifically, how motor representation in the deep output layer 5b (L5b) is shaped by motor learning remains virtually unknown. In rats undergoing motor skill training, we detect a subpopulation of task-recruited L5b neurons that not only become more movement-encoding, but their activities are also more structured and temporally aligned to motor execution with a timescale of refinement in tens-of-milliseconds. Field potentials evoked at L5b in vivo exhibit persistent long-term potentiation (LTP) that parallels motor performance. Intracortical dopamine denervation impairs motor learning, and disrupts the LTP profile as well as the emergent neurodynamical properties of task-recruited L5b neurons. Thus, dopamine-dependent recruitment of L5b neuronal ensembles via synaptic reorganization may allow the motor cortex to generate more temporally structured, movement-encoding output signal from M1 to downstream circuitry that drives increased uniformity and precision of movement during motor learning. PMID:28598433

Using a Delphi Technique to Seek Consensus Regarding Definitions, Descriptions and Classification of Terms Related to Implicit and Explicit Forms of Motor Learning

PubMed Central

Kleynen, Melanie; Braun, Susy M.; Bleijlevens, Michel H.; Lexis, Monique A.; Rasquin, Sascha M.; Halfens, Jos; Wilson, Mark R.; Beurskens, Anna J.; Masters, Rich S. W.

2014-01-01

Background Motor learning is central to domains such as sports and rehabilitation; however, often terminologies are insufficiently uniform to allow effective sharing of experience or translation of knowledge. A study using a Delphi technique was conducted to ascertain level of agreement between experts from different motor learning domains (i.e., therapists, coaches, researchers) with respect to definitions and descriptions of a fundamental conceptual distinction within motor learning, namely implicit and explicit motor learning. Methods A Delphi technique was embedded in multiple rounds of a survey designed to collect and aggregate informed opinions of 49 international respondents with expertise related to motor learning. The survey was administered via an online survey program and accompanied by feedback after each round. Consensus was considered to be reached if ≥70% of the experts agreed on a topic. Results Consensus was reached with respect to definitions of implicit and explicit motor learning, and seven common primary intervention strategies were identified in the context of implicit and explicit motor learning. Consensus was not reached with respect to whether the strategies promote implicit or explicit forms of learning. Discussion The definitions and descriptions agreed upon may aid translation and transfer of knowledge between domains in the field of motor learning. Empirical and clinical research is required to confirm the accuracy of the definitions and to explore the feasibility of the strategies that were identified in research, everyday practice and education. PMID:24968228

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation to the Primary Motor Cortex Interferes with Motor Learning by Observing

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Brown, Liana E.; Wilson, Elizabeth T.; Gribble, Paul L.

2009-01-01

Neural representations of novel motor skills can be acquired through visual observation. We used repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to test the idea that this "motor learning by observing" is based on engagement of neural processes for learning in the primary motor cortex (M1). Human subjects who observed another person learning…

Acquisition of Internal Models of Motor Tasks in Children with Autism

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Gidley Larson, Jennifer C.; Bastian, Amy J.; Donchin, Opher; Shadmehr, Reza; Mostofsky, Stewart H.

2008-01-01

Children with autism exhibit a host of motor disorders including poor coordination, poor tool use and delayed learning of complex motor skills like riding a tricycle. Theory suggests that one of the crucial steps in motor learning is the ability to form internal models: to predict the sensory consequences of motor commands and learn from errors to…

Neural substrates underlying stimulation-enhanced motor skill learning after stroke.

PubMed

Lefebvre, Stéphanie; Dricot, Laurence; Laloux, Patrice; Gradkowski, Wojciech; Desfontaines, Philippe; Evrard, Frédéric; Peeters, André; Jamart, Jacques; Vandermeeren, Yves

2015-01-01

Motor skill learning is one of the key components of motor function recovery after stroke, especially recovery driven by neurorehabilitation. Transcranial direct current stimulation can enhance neurorehabilitation and motor skill learning in stroke patients. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the retention of stimulation-enhanced motor skill learning involving a paretic upper limb have not been resolved. These neural substrates were explored by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging. Nineteen chronic hemiparetic stroke patients participated in a double-blind, cross-over randomized, sham-controlled experiment with two series. Each series consisted of two sessions: (i) an intervention session during which dual transcranial direct current stimulation or sham was applied during motor skill learning with the paretic upper limb; and (ii) an imaging session 1 week later, during which the patients performed the learned motor skill. The motor skill learning task, called the 'circuit game', involves a speed/accuracy trade-off and consists of moving a pointer controlled by a computer mouse along a complex circuit as quickly and accurately as possible. Relative to the sham series, dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied bilaterally over the primary motor cortex during motor skill learning with the paretic upper limb resulted in (i) enhanced online motor skill learning; (ii) enhanced 1-week retention; and (iii) superior transfer of performance improvement to an untrained task. The 1-week retention's enhancement driven by the intervention was associated with a trend towards normalization of the brain activation pattern during performance of the learned motor skill relative to the sham series. A similar trend towards normalization relative to sham was observed during performance of a simple, untrained task without a speed/accuracy constraint, despite a lack of behavioural difference between the dual transcranial direct current stimulation and sham series. Finally, dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied during the first session enhanced continued learning with the paretic limb 1 week later, relative to the sham series. This lasting behavioural enhancement was associated with more efficient recruitment of the motor skill learning network, that is, focused activation on the motor-premotor areas in the damaged hemisphere, especially on the dorsal premotor cortex. Dual transcranial direct current stimulation applied during motor skill learning with a paretic upper limb resulted in prolonged shaping of brain activation, which supported behavioural enhancements in stroke patients. © The Author (2014). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.

Auditory-Perceptual Learning Improves Speech Motor Adaptation in Children

PubMed Central

Shiller, Douglas M.; Rochon, Marie-Lyne

2015-01-01

Auditory feedback plays an important role in children’s speech development by providing the child with information about speech outcomes that is used to learn and fine-tune speech motor plans. The use of auditory feedback in speech motor learning has been extensively studied in adults by examining oral motor responses to manipulations of auditory feedback during speech production. Children are also capable of adapting speech motor patterns to perceived changes in auditory feedback, however it is not known whether their capacity for motor learning is limited by immature auditory-perceptual abilities. Here, the link between speech perceptual ability and the capacity for motor learning was explored in two groups of 5–7-year-old children who underwent a period of auditory perceptual training followed by tests of speech motor adaptation to altered auditory feedback. One group received perceptual training on a speech acoustic property relevant to the motor task while a control group received perceptual training on an irrelevant speech contrast. Learned perceptual improvements led to an enhancement in speech motor adaptation (proportional to the perceptual change) only for the experimental group. The results indicate that children’s ability to perceive relevant speech acoustic properties has a direct influence on their capacity for sensory-based speech motor adaptation. PMID:24842067

Dissociable effects of practice variability on learning motor and timing skills.

PubMed

Caramiaux, Baptiste; Bevilacqua, Frédéric; Wanderley, Marcelo M; Palmer, Caroline

2018-01-01

Motor skill acquisition inherently depends on the way one practices the motor task. The amount of motor task variability during practice has been shown to foster transfer of the learned skill to other similar motor tasks. In addition, variability in a learning schedule, in which a task and its variations are interweaved during practice, has been shown to help the transfer of learning in motor skill acquisition. However, there is little evidence on how motor task variations and variability schedules during practice act on the acquisition of complex motor skills such as music performance, in which a performer learns both the right movements (motor skill) and the right time to perform them (timing skill). This study investigated the impact of rate (tempo) variability and the schedule of tempo change during practice on timing and motor skill acquisition. Complete novices, with no musical training, practiced a simple musical sequence on a piano keyboard at different rates. Each novice was assigned to one of four learning conditions designed to manipulate the amount of tempo variability across trials (large or small tempo set) and the schedule of tempo change (randomized or non-randomized order) during practice. At test, the novices performed the same musical sequence at a familiar tempo and at novel tempi (testing tempo transfer), as well as two novel (but related) sequences at a familiar tempo (testing spatial transfer). We found that practice conditions had little effect on learning and transfer performance of timing skill. Interestingly, practice conditions influenced motor skill learning (reduction of movement variability): lower temporal variability during practice facilitated transfer to new tempi and new sequences; non-randomized learning schedule improved transfer to new tempi and new sequences. Tempo (rate) and the sequence difficulty (spatial manipulation) affected performance variability in both timing and movement. These findings suggest that there is a dissociable effect of practice variability on learning complex skills that involve both motor and timing constraints.

The Integration of Environmental Education in Science Materials by Using "MOTORIC" Learning Model

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Sukarjita, I. Wayan; Ardi, Muhammad; Rachman, Abdul; Supu, Amiruddin; Dirawan, Gufran Darma

2015-01-01

The research of the integration of Environmental Education in science subject matter by application of "MOTORIC" Learning models has carried out on Junior High School Kupang Nusa Tenggara Timur Indonesia. "MOTORIC" learning model is an Environmental Education (EE) learning model that collaborate three learning approach i.e.…

Implicit sequence-specific motor learning after sub-cortical stroke is associated with increased prefrontal brain activations: An fMRI study

PubMed Central

Meehan, Sean K.; Randhawa, Bubblepreet; Wessel, Brenda; Boyd, Lara A.

2010-01-01

Implicit motor learning is preserved after stroke, but how the brain compensates for damage to facilitate learning is unclear. We used a random effects analysis to determine how stroke alters patterns of brain activity during implicit sequence-specific motor learning as compared to general improvements in motor control. Nine healthy participants and 9 individuals with chronic, right focal sub-cortical stroke performed a continuous joystick-based tracking task during an initial fMRI session, over 5 days of practice, and a retention test during a separate fMRI session. Sequence-specific implicit motor learning was differentiated from general improvements in motor control by comparing tracking performance on a novel, repeated tracking sequences during early practice and again at the retention test. Both groups demonstrated implicit sequence-specific motor learning at the retention test, yet substantial differences were apparent. At retention, healthy control participants demonstrated increased BOLD response in left dorsal premotor cortex (BA 6) but decreased BOLD response left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; BA 9) during repeated sequence tracking. In contrast, at retention individuals with stroke did not show this reduction in DLPFC during repeated tracking. Instead implicit sequence-specific motor learning and general improvements in motor control were associated with increased BOLD response in the left middle frontal gyrus BA 8, regardless of sequence type after stroke. These data emphasize the potential importance of a prefrontal-based attentional network for implicit motor learning after stroke. The present study is the first to highlight the importance of the prefrontal cortex for implicit sequence-specific motor learning after stroke. PMID:20725908

Nondeclarative learning in children with specific language impairment: predicting regularities in the visuomotor, phonological, and cognitive domains.

PubMed

Mayor-Dubois, C; Zesiger, P; Van der Linden, M; Roulet-Perez, E

2014-01-01

Ullman (2004) suggested that Specific Language Impairment (SLI) results from a general procedural learning deficit. In order to test this hypothesis, we investigated children with SLI via procedural learning tasks exploring the verbal, motor, and cognitive domains. Results showed that compared with a Control Group, the children with SLI (a) were unable to learn a phonotactic learning task, (b) were able but less efficiently to learn a motor learning task and (c) succeeded in a cognitive learning task. Regarding the motor learning task (Serial Reaction Time Task), reaction times were longer and learning slower than in controls. The learning effect was not significant in children with an associated Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), and future studies should consider comorbid motor impairment in order to clarify whether impairments are related to the motor rather than the language disorder. Our results indicate that a phonotactic learning but not a cognitive procedural deficit underlies SLI, thus challenging Ullmans' general procedural deficit hypothesis, like a few other recent studies.

Theories and control models and motor learning: clinical applications in neuro-rehabilitation.

PubMed

Cano-de-la-Cuerda, R; Molero-Sánchez, A; Carratalá-Tejada, M; Alguacil-Diego, I M; Molina-Rueda, F; Miangolarra-Page, J C; Torricelli, D

2015-01-01

In recent decades there has been a special interest in theories that could explain the regulation of motor control, and their applications. These theories are often based on models of brain function, philosophically reflecting different criteria on how movement is controlled by the brain, each being emphasised in different neural components of the movement. The concept of motor learning, regarded as the set of internal processes associated with practice and experience that produce relatively permanent changes in the ability to produce motor activities through a specific skill, is also relevant in the context of neuroscience. Thus, both motor control and learning are seen as key fields of study for health professionals in the field of neuro-rehabilitation. The major theories of motor control are described, which include, motor programming theory, systems theory, the theory of dynamic action, and the theory of parallel distributed processing, as well as the factors that influence motor learning and its applications in neuro-rehabilitation. At present there is no consensus on which theory or model defines the regulations to explain motor control. Theories of motor learning should be the basis for motor rehabilitation. The new research should apply the knowledge generated in the fields of control and motor learning in neuro-rehabilitation. Copyright © 2011 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.

tDCS-induced alterations in GABA concentration within primary motor cortex predict motor learning and motor memory: a 7 T magnetic resonance spectroscopy study.

PubMed

Kim, Soyoung; Stephenson, Mary C; Morris, Peter G; Jackson, Stephen R

2014-10-01

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that alters cortical excitability in a polarity specific manner and has been shown to influence learning and memory. tDCS may have both on-line and after-effects on learning and memory, and the latter are thought to be based upon tDCS-induced alterations in neurochemistry and synaptic function. We used ultra-high-field (7 T) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), together with a robotic force adaptation and de-adaptation task, to investigate whether tDCS-induced alterations in GABA and Glutamate within motor cortex predict motor learning and memory. Note that adaptation to a robot-induced force field has long been considered to be a form of model-based learning that is closely associated with the computation and 'supervised' learning of internal 'forward' models within the cerebellum. Importantly, previous studies have shown that on-line tDCS to the cerebellum, but not to motor cortex, enhances model-based motor learning. Here we demonstrate that anodal tDCS delivered to the hand area of the left primary motor cortex induces a significant reduction in GABA concentration. This effect was specific to GABA, localised to the left motor cortex, and was polarity specific insofar as it was not observed following either cathodal or sham stimulation. Importantly, we show that the magnitude of tDCS-induced alterations in GABA concentration within motor cortex predicts individual differences in both motor learning and motor memory on the robotic force adaptation and de-adaptation task. Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Inc.

To What Extent Can Motor Imagery Replace Motor Execution While Learning a Fine Motor Skill?

PubMed Central

Sobierajewicz, Jagna; Szarkiewicz, Sylwia; Przekoracka-Krawczyk, Anna; Jaśkowski, Wojciech; van der Lubbe, Rob

2016-01-01

Motor imagery is generally thought to share common mechanisms with motor execution. In the present study, we examined to what extent learning a fine motor skill by motor imagery may substitute physical practice. Learning effects were assessed by manipulating the proportion of motor execution and motor imagery trials. Additionally, learning effects were compared between participants with an explicit motor imagery instruction and a control group. A Go/NoGo discrete sequence production (DSP) task was employed, wherein a five-stimulus sequence presented on each trial indicated the required sequence of finger movements after a Go signal. In the case of a NoGo signal, participants either had to imagine carrying out the response sequence (the motor imagery group), or the response sequence had to be withheld (the control group). Two practice days were followed by a final test day on which all sequences had to be executed. Learning effects were assessed by computing response times (RTs) and the percentages of correct responses (PCs). The electroencephalogram (EEG ) was additionally measured on this test day to examine whether motor preparation and the involvement of visual short term memory (VST M) depended on the amount of physical/mental practice. Accuracy data indicated strong learning effects. However, a substantial amount of physical practice was required to reach an optimal speed. EEG results suggest the involvement of VST M for sequences that had less or no physical practice in both groups. The absence of differences between the motor imagery and the control group underlines the possibility that motor preparation may actually resemble motor imagery. PMID:28154614

To What Extent Can Motor Imagery Replace Motor Execution While Learning a Fine Motor Skill?

PubMed

Sobierajewicz, Jagna; Szarkiewicz, Sylwia; Przekoracka-Krawczyk, Anna; Jaśkowski, Wojciech; van der Lubbe, Rob

2016-01-01

Motor imagery is generally thought to share common mechanisms with motor execution. In the present study, we examined to what extent learning a fine motor skill by motor imagery may substitute physical practice. Learning effects were assessed by manipulating the proportion of motor execution and motor imagery trials. Additionally, learning effects were compared between participants with an explicit motor imagery instruction and a control group. A Go/NoGo discrete sequence production (DSP) task was employed, wherein a five-stimulus sequence presented on each trial indicated the required sequence of finger movements after a Go signal. In the case of a NoGo signal, participants either had to imagine carrying out the response sequence (the motor imagery group), or the response sequence had to be withheld (the control group). Two practice days were followed by a final test day on which all sequences had to be executed. Learning effects were assessed by computing response times (RTs) and the percentages of correct responses (PCs). The electroencephalogram (EEG ) was additionally measured on this test day to examine whether motor preparation and the involvement of visual short term memory (VST M) depended on the amount of physical/mental practice. Accuracy data indicated strong learning effects. However, a substantial amount of physical practice was required to reach an optimal speed. EEG results suggest the involvement of VST M for sequences that had less or no physical practice in both groups. The absence of differences between the motor imagery and the control group underlines the possibility that motor preparation may actually resemble motor imagery.

Common mechanisms of human perceptual and motor learning

PubMed Central

Censor, Nitzan; Sagi, Dov; Cohen, Leonardo G.

2016-01-01

The adult mammalian brain has a remarkable capacity to learn in both the perceptual and motor domains through the formation and consolidation of memories. Such practice-enabled procedural learning results in perceptual and motor skill improvements. Here, we examine evidence supporting the notion that perceptual and motor learning in humans exhibit analogous properties, including similarities in temporal dynamics and the interactions between primary cortical and higher-order brain areas. These similarities may point to the existence of a common general mechanism for learning in humans. PMID:22903222

Disrupted implicit motor sequence learning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder revealed with ambidextrous Serial Reaction Time Task.

PubMed

Chrobak, Adrian Andrzej; Siuda-Krzywicka, Katarzyna; Siwek, Grzegorz Przemysław; Tereszko, Anna; Janeczko, Weronika; Starowicz-Filip, Anna; Siwek, Marcin; Dudek, Dominika

2017-10-03

Impairment of implicit motor sequence learning was shown in schizophrenia (SZ) and, most recently, in bipolar disorder (BD), and was connected to cerebellar abnormalities. The goal of this study was to compare implicit motor sequence learning in BD and SZ. We examined 33 patients with BD, 33 patients with SZ and 31 healthy controls with a use of ambidextrous Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), which allows exploring asymmetries in performance depending on the hand used. BD and SZ patients presented impaired implicit motor sequence learning, although the pattern of their impairments was different. While BD patients showed no signs of implicit motor sequence learning for both hands, the SZ group presented some features of motor learning when performing with the right, but not with the left hand. To our best knowledge this is the first study comparing implicit motor sequence learning in BD and SZ. We show that both diseases share impairments in this domain, however in the case of SZ this impairment differs dependently on the hand performing SRTT. We propose that implicit motor sequence learning impairments constitute an overlapping symptom in BD and SZ and suggest further neuroimaging studies to verify cerebellar underpinnings as its cause. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Optimization of a motor learning attention-directing strategy based on an individual's motor imagery ability.

PubMed

Sakurada, Takeshi; Hirai, Masahiro; Watanabe, Eiju

2016-01-01

Motor learning performance has been shown to be affected by various cognitive factors such as the focus of attention and motor imagery ability. Most previous studies on motor learning have shown that directing the attention of participants externally, such as on the outcome of an assigned body movement, can be more effective than directing their attention internally, such as on body movement itself. However, to the best of our knowledge, no findings have been reported on the effect of the focus of attention selected according to the motor imagery ability of an individual on motor learning performance. We measured individual motor imagery ability assessed by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire and classified the participants into kinesthetic-dominant (n = 12) and visual-dominant (n = 8) groups based on the questionnaire score. Subsequently, the participants performed a motor learning task such as tracing a trajectory using visuomotor rotation. When the participants were required to direct their attention internally, the after-effects of the learning task in the kinesthetic-dominant group were significantly greater than those in the visual-dominant group. Conversely, when the participants were required to direct their attention externally, the after-effects of the visual-dominant group were significantly greater than those of the kinesthetic-dominant group. Furthermore, we found a significant positive correlation between the size of after-effects and the modality-dominance of motor imagery. These results suggest that a suitable attention strategy based on the intrinsic motor imagery ability of an individual can improve performance during motor learning tasks.

Functional aging impairs the role of feedback in motor learning.

PubMed

Liu, Yu; Cao, Chunmei; Yan, Jin H

2013-10-01

Optimal motor skill acquisition frequently requires augmented feedback or knowledge of results (KR). However, the effect of functional declines on the benefits of KR remains to be determined. The objective of this research was to examine how cognitive and motor deficits of older adults influence the use of KR for motor skill learning. A total of 57 older adults (mean 73.1 years; SD 4.2) received both cognitive and eye-hand coordination assessments, whereas 55 young controls (mean 25.8 years; SD 3.8) took only the eye-hand coordination test. All young and older participants learned a time-constrained arm movement through KR in three pre-KR and post-KR intervals. In the subsequent no-KR skill retests, absolute and variable time errors were not significantly reduced for the older learners who had KR during skill practice, especially for those with cognitive and motor dysfunctions. The finding suggests that KR results in no measureable improvement for older adults with cognitive and motor functional deficiencies. More importantly, for the older adults, longer post-KR intervals showed greater detrimental effects on feedback-based motor learning than shorter pauses after KR delivery. The findings support the hypothesis about the effects of cognitive and motor deficits on KR in motor skill learning of older adults. The dynamics of cognitive and motor aging, external feedback and internal control mechanisms collectively explain the deterioration in the sensory-motor learning of older adults. The theoretical implications and practical relevance of functional aging for motor skill learning are discussed. © 2013 Japan Geriatrics Society.

Consciousness and the Consolidation of Motor Learning

PubMed Central

Song, Sunbin

2009-01-01

It is no secret that motor learning benefits from repetition. For example, pianists devote countless hours to performing complicated sequences of key presses, and golfers practice their swings thousands of times to reach a level of proficiency. Interestingly, the subsequent waking and sleeping hours after practice also play important roles in motor learning. During this time, a motor skill can consolidate into a more stable form that can lead to improved future performance without intervening practice. Though it is widely believed that sleep is crucial for this consolidation of motor learning, this is not generally true. In many instances only day-time consolidates motor learning, while in other instances neither day-time nor sleep consolidates learning. Recent studies have suggested that conscious awareness during motor training can determine whether sleep or day-time plays a role in consolidation. However, ongoing studies suggest that this explanation is also incomplete. In addition to conscious awareness, attention is an important factor to consider. This review discusses how attention and conscious awareness interact with day and night processes to consolidate a motor memory. PMID:18951924

Implicit and explicit motor learning: Application to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

PubMed

Izadi-Najafabadi, Sara; Mirzakhani-Araghi, Navid; Miri-Lavasani, Negar; Nejati, Vahid; Pashazadeh-Azari, Zahra

2015-12-01

This study aims to determine whether children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are capable of learning a motor skill both implicitly and explicitly. In the present study, 30 boys with ASD, aged 7-11 with IQ average of 81.2, were compared with 32 typical IQ- and age-matched boys on their performance on a serial reaction time task (SRTT). Children were grouped by ASD and typical children and by implicit and explicit learning groups for the SRTT. Implicit motor learning occurred in both children with ASD (p=.02) and typical children (p=.01). There were no significant differences between groups (p=.39). However, explicit motor learning was only observed in typical children (p=.01) not children with ASD (p=.40). There was a significant difference between groups for explicit learning (p=.01). The results of our study showed that implicit motor learning is not affected in children with ASD. Implications for implicit and explicit learning are applied to the CO-OP approach of motor learning with children with ASD. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

[Anticipatory postural adjustment in bimanual unloading: role of the motor cortex in motor learning].

PubMed

Kazennikov, O V; Solopova, I A; Talis, V L; Ioffe, M E

2006-01-01

The role of the motor cortex was investigated during learning unusual postural adjustment. Healthy subjects held their right (postural) forearm in a horizontal position while supporting a 1-kG load via an electromagnet. The postural forearm position was perturbed by the load release triggered by other elbow voluntary movement. Repetition of the imposed unloading test resulted in a progressive reduction of the maximal forearm rotation, accompanied by the anticipatory decrease in m. biceps brachii activity (learning). Control situation consisted of the voluntary forearm loading. Using the transcranial magnetic stimulation we examined changes in the motor evoked potential of the m. biceps brahii at the beginning and at the end of learning. The evoked potential amplitude did not significantly change in process of the decrease of m. biceps brachii activity. At the end of learning, motor evoked potential / baseline electromyogram ratio increased as compared to the beginning of learning and to the control situation. The results highlight the fundamental role of the motor cortex in suppression of synergies which interfere with formation of a new coordination during motor learning.

Role of the motor system in language knowledge.

PubMed

Berent, Iris; Brem, Anna-Katharine; Zhao, Xu; Seligson, Erica; Pan, Hong; Epstein, Jane; Stern, Emily; Galaburda, Albert M; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro

2015-02-17

All spoken languages express words by sound patterns, and certain patterns (e.g., blog) are systematically preferred to others (e.g., lbog). What principles account for such preferences: does the language system encode abstract rules banning syllables like lbog, or does their dislike reflect the increased motor demands associated with speech production? More generally, we ask whether linguistic knowledge is fully embodied or whether some linguistic principles could potentially be abstract. To address this question, here we gauge the sensitivity of English speakers to the putative universal syllable hierarchy (e.g., blif ≻ bnif ≻ bdif ≻ lbif) while undergoing transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the cortical motor representation of the left orbicularis oris muscle. If syllable preferences reflect motor simulation, then worse-formed syllables (e.g., lbif) should (i) elicit more errors; (ii) engage more strongly motor brain areas; and (iii) elicit stronger effects of TMS on these motor regions. In line with the motor account, we found that repetitive TMS pulses impaired participants' global sensitivity to the number of syllables, and functional MRI confirmed that the cortical stimulation site was sensitive to the syllable hierarchy. Contrary to the motor account, however, ill-formed syllables were least likely to engage the lip sensorimotor area and they were least impaired by TMS. Results suggest that speech perception automatically triggers motor action, but this effect is not causally linked to the computation of linguistic structure. We conclude that the language and motor systems are intimately linked, yet distinct. Language is designed to optimize motor action, but its knowledge includes principles that are disembodied and potentially abstract.

Role of the motor system in language knowledge

PubMed Central

Berent, Iris; Brem, Anna-Katharine; Zhao, Xu; Seligson, Erica; Pan, Hong; Epstein, Jane; Stern, Emily; Galaburda, Albert M.; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro

2015-01-01

All spoken languages express words by sound patterns, and certain patterns (e.g., blog) are systematically preferred to others (e.g., lbog). What principles account for such preferences: does the language system encode abstract rules banning syllables like lbog, or does their dislike reflect the increased motor demands associated with speech production? More generally, we ask whether linguistic knowledge is fully embodied or whether some linguistic principles could potentially be abstract. To address this question, here we gauge the sensitivity of English speakers to the putative universal syllable hierarchy (e.g., blif≻bnif≻bdif≻lbif) while undergoing transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the cortical motor representation of the left orbicularis oris muscle. If syllable preferences reflect motor simulation, then worse-formed syllables (e.g., lbif) should (i) elicit more errors; (ii) engage more strongly motor brain areas; and (iii) elicit stronger effects of TMS on these motor regions. In line with the motor account, we found that repetitive TMS pulses impaired participants’ global sensitivity to the number of syllables, and functional MRI confirmed that the cortical stimulation site was sensitive to the syllable hierarchy. Contrary to the motor account, however, ill-formed syllables were least likely to engage the lip sensorimotor area and they were least impaired by TMS. Results suggest that speech perception automatically triggers motor action, but this effect is not causally linked to the computation of linguistic structure. We conclude that the language and motor systems are intimately linked, yet distinct. Language is designed to optimize motor action, but its knowledge includes principles that are disembodied and potentially abstract. PMID:25646465

Inter-individual differences in audio-motor learning of piano melodies and white matter fiber tract architecture.

PubMed

Engel, Annerose; Hijmans, Brenda S; Cerliani, Leonardo; Bangert, Marc; Nanetti, Luca; Keller, Peter E; Keysers, Christian

2014-05-01

Humans vary substantially in their ability to learn new motor skills. Here, we examined inter-individual differences in learning to play the piano, with the goal of identifying relations to structural properties of white matter fiber tracts relevant to audio-motor learning. Non-musicians (n = 18) learned to perform three short melodies on a piano keyboard in a pure audio-motor training condition (vision of their own fingers was occluded). Initial learning times ranged from 17 to 120 min (mean ± SD: 62 ± 29 min). Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging was used to derive the fractional anisotropy (FA), an index of white matter microstructural arrangement. A correlation analysis revealed that higher FA values were associated with faster learning of piano melodies. These effects were observed in the bilateral corticospinal tracts, bundles of axons relevant for the execution of voluntary movements, and the right superior longitudinal fasciculus, a tract important for audio-motor transformations. These results suggest that the speed with which novel complex audio-motor skills can be acquired may be determined by variability in structural properties of white matter fiber tracts connecting brain areas functionally relevant for audio-motor learning. Copyright © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Principle and Basic Characteristics of Variable-Magnetic-Force Memory Motors

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Sakai, Kazuto; Yuki, Kazuaki; Hashiba, Yutaka; Takahashi, Norio; Yasui, Kazuya; Kovudhikulrungsri, Lilit

A reduction in the power consumed by motors is required for energy saving in the case of electrical appliances and electric vehicles (EV). The motors used for operating these apparatus operate at variable speeds. Further, the motors operate with small load in stationary mode and with large load in start-up mode. A permanent magnet motor can operate at the rated power with a high efficiency. However, the efficiency is lower at small load or high speed because the large constant magnetic force results in substantial core loss. Furthermore, the flux-weakening current that depresses voltage at high speed leads to significant copper loss. Therefore, we have developed a new technique for controlling the magnetic force of permanent magnet on the basis of the load or speed of the motor. In this paper, we propose the novel motor that can vary magnetic flux and we clarify the principle.

Specialized Motor-Driven dusp1 Expression in the Song Systems of Multiple Lineages of Vocal Learning Birds

PubMed Central

Horita, Haruhito; Kobayashi, Masahiko; Liu, Wan-chun; Oka, Kotaro; Jarvis, Erich D.; Wada, Kazuhiro

2012-01-01

Mechanisms for the evolution of convergent behavioral traits are largely unknown. Vocal learning is one such trait that evolved multiple times and is necessary in humans for the acquisition of spoken language. Among birds, vocal learning is evolved in songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds. Each time similar forebrain song nuclei specialized for vocal learning and production have evolved. This finding led to the hypothesis that the behavioral and neuroanatomical convergences for vocal learning could be associated with molecular convergence. We previously found that the neural activity-induced gene dual specificity phosphatase 1 (dusp1) was up-regulated in non-vocal circuits, specifically in sensory-input neurons of the thalamus and telencephalon; however, dusp1 was not up-regulated in higher order sensory neurons or motor circuits. Here we show that song motor nuclei are an exception to this pattern. The song nuclei of species from all known vocal learning avian lineages showed motor-driven up-regulation of dusp1 expression induced by singing. There was no detectable motor-driven dusp1 expression throughout the rest of the forebrain after non-vocal motor performance. This pattern contrasts with expression of the commonly studied activity-induced gene egr1, which shows motor-driven expression in song nuclei induced by singing, but also motor-driven expression in adjacent brain regions after non-vocal motor behaviors. In the vocal non-learning avian species, we found no detectable vocalizing-driven dusp1 expression in the forebrain. These findings suggest that independent evolutions of neural systems for vocal learning were accompanied by selection for specialized motor-driven expression of the dusp1 gene in those circuits. This specialized expression of dusp1 could potentially lead to differential regulation of dusp1-modulated molecular cascades in vocal learning circuits. PMID:22876306

The relationship between gross motor skills and academic achievement in children with learning disabilities.

PubMed

Westendorp, Marieke; Hartman, Esther; Houwen, Suzanne; Smith, Joanne; Visscher, Chris

2011-01-01

The present study compared the gross motor skills of 7- to 12-year-old children with learning disabilities (n = 104) with those of age-matched typically developing children (n = 104) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Additionally, the specific relationships between subsets of gross motor skills and academic performance in reading, spelling, and mathematics were examined in children with learning disabilities. As expected, the children with learning disabilities scored poorer on both the locomotor and object-control subtests than their typically developing peers. Furthermore, in children with learning disabilities a specific relationship was observed between reading and locomotor skills and a trend was found for a relationship between mathematics and object-control skills: the larger children's learning lag, the poorer their motor skill scores. This study stresses the importance of specific interventions facilitating both motor and academic abilities. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A Single Bout of Moderate Aerobic Exercise Improves Motor Skill Acquisition.

PubMed

Statton, Matthew A; Encarnacion, Marysol; Celnik, Pablo; Bastian, Amy J

2015-01-01

Long-term exercise is associated with improved performance on a variety of cognitive tasks including attention, executive function, and long-term memory. Remarkably, recent studies have shown that even a single bout of aerobic exercise can lead to immediate improvements in declarative learning and memory, but less is known about the effect of exercise on motor learning. Here we sought to determine the effect of a single bout of moderate intensity aerobic exercise on motor skill learning. In experiment 1, we investigated the effect of moderate aerobic exercise on motor acquisition. 24 young, healthy adults performed a motor learning task either immediately after 30 minutes of moderate intensity running, after running followed by a long rest period, or after slow walking. Motor skill was assessed via a speed-accuracy tradeoff function to determine how exercise might differentially affect two distinct components of motor learning performance: movement speed and accuracy. In experiment 2, we investigated both acquisition and retention of motor skill across multiple days of training. 20 additional participants performed either a bout of running or slow walking immediately before motor learning on three consecutive days, and only motor learning (no exercise) on a fourth day. We found that moderate intensity running led to an immediate improvement in motor acquisition for both a single session and on multiple sessions across subsequent days, but had no effect on between-day retention. This effect was driven by improved movement accuracy, as opposed to speed. However, the benefit of exercise was dependent upon motor learning occurring immediately after exercise-resting for a period of one hour after exercise diminished the effect. These results demonstrate that moderate intensity exercise can prime the nervous system for the acquisition of new motor skills, and suggest that similar exercise protocols may be effective in improving the outcomes of movement rehabilitation programs.

A Single Bout of Moderate Aerobic Exercise Improves Motor Skill Acquisition

PubMed Central

Statton, Matthew A.; Encarnacion, Marysol; Celnik, Pablo; Bastian, Amy J.

2015-01-01

Long-term exercise is associated with improved performance on a variety of cognitive tasks including attention, executive function, and long-term memory. Remarkably, recent studies have shown that even a single bout of aerobic exercise can lead to immediate improvements in declarative learning and memory, but less is known about the effect of exercise on motor learning. Here we sought to determine the effect of a single bout of moderate intensity aerobic exercise on motor skill learning. In experiment 1, we investigated the effect of moderate aerobic exercise on motor acquisition. 24 young, healthy adults performed a motor learning task either immediately after 30 minutes of moderate intensity running, after running followed by a long rest period, or after slow walking. Motor skill was assessed via a speed-accuracy tradeoff function to determine how exercise might differentially affect two distinct components of motor learning performance: movement speed and accuracy. In experiment 2, we investigated both acquisition and retention of motor skill across multiple days of training. 20 additional participants performed either a bout of running or slow walking immediately before motor learning on three consecutive days, and only motor learning (no exercise) on a fourth day. We found that moderate intensity running led to an immediate improvement in motor acquisition for both a single session and on multiple sessions across subsequent days, but had no effect on between-day retention. This effect was driven by improved movement accuracy, as opposed to speed. However, the benefit of exercise was dependent upon motor learning occurring immediately after exercise–resting for a period of one hour after exercise diminished the effect. These results demonstrate that moderate intensity exercise can prime the nervous system for the acquisition of new motor skills, and suggest that similar exercise protocols may be effective in improving the outcomes of movement rehabilitation programs. PMID:26506413

Developing a new experimental system for an undergraduate laboratory exercise to teach theories of visuomotor learning.

PubMed

Kasuga, Shoko; Ushiba, Junichi

2014-01-01

Humans have a flexible motor ability to adapt their movements to changes in the internal/external environment. For example, using arm-reaching tasks, a number of studies experimentally showed that participants adapt to a novel visuomotor environment. These results helped develop computational models of motor learning implemented in the central nervous system. Despite the importance of such experimental paradigms for exploring the mechanisms of motor learning, because of the cost and preparation time, most students are unable to participate in such experiments. Therefore, in the current study, to help students better understand motor learning theories, we developed a simple finger-reaching experimental system using commonly used laptop PC components with an open-source programming language (Processing Motor Learning Toolkit: PMLT). We found that compared to a commercially available robotic arm-reaching device, our PMLT accomplished similar learning goals (difference in the error reduction between the devices, P = 0.10). In addition, consistent with previous reports from visuomotor learning studies, the participants showed after-effects indicating an adaptation of the motor learning system. The results suggest that PMLT can serve as a new experimental system for an undergraduate laboratory exercise of motor learning theories with minimal time and cost for instructors.

Implicit and explicit motor sequence learning in children born very preterm.

PubMed

Jongbloed-Pereboom, Marjolein; Janssen, Anjo J W M; Steiner, K; Steenbergen, Bert; Nijhuis-van der Sanden, Maria W G

2017-01-01

Motor skills can be learned explicitly (dependent on working memory (WM)) or implicitly (relatively independent of WM). Children born very preterm (VPT) often have working memory deficits. Explicit learning may be compromised in these children. This study investigated implicit and explicit motor learning and the role of working memory in VPT children and controls. Three groups (6-9 years) participated: 20 VPT children with motor problems, 20 VPT children without motor problems, and 20 controls. A nine button sequence was learned implicitly (pressing the lighted button as quickly as possible) and explicitly (discovering the sequence via trial-and-error). Children learned implicitly and explicitly, evidenced by decreased movement duration of the sequence over time. In the explicit condition, children also reduced the number of errors over time. Controls made more errors than VPT children without motor problems. Visual WM had positive effects on both explicit and implicit performance. VPT birth and low motor proficiency did not negatively affect implicit or explicit learning. Visual WM was positively related to both implicit and explicit performance, but did not influence learning curves. These findings question the theoretical difference between implicit and explicit learning and the proposed role of visual WM therein. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effects of Dispositional Mindfulness on the Self-Controlled Learning of a Novel Motor Task

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kee, Ying Hwa; Liu, Yeou-Teh

2011-01-01

Current literature suggests that mindful learning is beneficial to learning but its links with motor learning is seldom examined. In the present study, we examine the effects of learners' mindfulness disposition on the self-controlled learning of a novel motor task. Thirty-two participants undertook five practice sessions, in addition to a pre-,…

Neural correlates of the age-related changes in motor sequence learning and motor adaptation in older adults

PubMed Central

King, Bradley R.; Fogel, Stuart M.; Albouy, Geneviève; Doyon, Julien

2013-01-01

As the world's population ages, a deeper understanding of the relationship between aging and motor learning will become increasingly relevant in basic research and applied settings. In this context, this review aims to address the effects of age on motor sequence learning (MSL) and motor adaptation (MA) with respect to behavioral, neurological, and neuroimaging findings. Previous behavioral research investigating the influence of aging on motor learning has consistently reported the following results. First, the initial acquisition of motor sequences is not altered, except under conditions of increased task complexity. Second, older adults demonstrate deficits in motor sequence memory consolidation. And, third, although older adults demonstrate deficits during the exposure phase of MA paradigms, the aftereffects following removal of the sensorimotor perturbation are similar to young adults, suggesting that the adaptive ability of older adults is relatively intact. This paper will review the potential neural underpinnings of these behavioral results, with a particular emphasis on the influence of age-related dysfunctions in the cortico-striatal system on motor learning. PMID:23616757

Modulating Motor Learning through Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation: An Integrative View

PubMed Central

Ammann, Claudia; Spampinato, Danny; Márquez-Ruiz, Javier

2016-01-01

Motor learning consists of the ability to improve motor actions through practice playing a major role in the acquisition of skills required for high-performance sports or motor function recovery after brain lesions. During the last decades, it has been reported that transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS), consisting in applying weak direct current through the scalp, is able of inducing polarity-specific changes in the excitability of cortical neurons. This low-cost, painless and well-tolerated portable technique has found a wide-spread use in the motor learning domain where it has been successfully applied to enhance motor learning in healthy individuals and for motor recovery after brain lesion as well as in pathological states associated to motor deficits. The main objective of this mini-review is to offer an integrative view about the potential use of tDCS for human motor learning modulation. Furthermore, we introduce the basic mechanisms underlying immediate and long-term effects associated to tDCS along with important considerations about its limitations and progression in recent years. PMID:28066300

Older Adults can Learn to Learn New Motor Skills

PubMed Central

Seidler, Rachael D.

2007-01-01

Many studies have demonstrated that aging is associated with declines in skill acquisition. In the current study, we tested whether older adults could acquire general, transferable knowledge about skill learning processes. Older adult participants learned five different motor tasks. Two older adult control groups performed the same number of trials, but learned only one task. The experimental group exhibited faster learning than that seen in the control groups. These data demonstrate that older adults can learn to learn new motor skills. PMID:17602760

Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during complex whole body motor skill learning.

PubMed

Kaminski, Elisabeth; Hoff, Maike; Sehm, Bernhard; Taubert, Marco; Conde, Virginia; Steele, Christopher J; Villringer, Arno; Ragert, Patrick

2013-09-27

The aim of the study was to investigate tDCS effects on motor skill learning in a complex whole body dynamic balance task (DBT). We hypothesized that tDCS over the supplementary motor area (SMA), a region that is known to be involved in the control of multi-joint whole body movements, will result in polarity specific changes in DBT learning. In a randomized sham-controlled, double-blinded parallel design, we applied 20 min of tDCS over the supplementary motor area (SMA) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) while subjects performed a DBT. Anodal tDCS over SMA with the cathode placed over contralateral PFC impaired motor skill learning of the DBT compared to sham. This effect was still present on the second day of training. Reversing the polarity (cathode over SMA, anode over PFC) did not affect motor skill learning neither on the first nor on the second day of training. To better disentangle whether the impaired motor skill learning was due to a modulation of SMA or PFC, we performed an additional control experiment. Here, we applied anodal tDCS over SMA together with a larger and presumably more ineffective electrode (cathode) over PFC. Interestingly this alternative tDCS electrode setup did not affect the outcome of DBT learning. Our results provide novel evidence that a modulation of the (right) PFC seems to impair complex multi-joint motor skill learning. Hence, future studies should take the positioning of both tDCS electrodes into account when investigating complex motor skill learning. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches.

PubMed

Maxwell, Jon P; Capio, Catherine M; Masters, Rich S W

2017-05-01

The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9-12 years (M = 9.74, SD = 0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n = 13), Errorless Low-Ability (n = 11), Errorful High-Ability (n = 10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n = 11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.

The Representation of Motor (Inter)action, States of Action, and Learning: Three Perspectives on Motor Learning by Way of Imagery and Execution

PubMed Central

Frank, Cornelia; Schack, Thomas

2017-01-01

Learning in intelligent systems is a result of direct and indirect interaction with the environment. While humans can learn by way of different states of (inter)action such as the execution or the imagery of an action, their unique potential to induce brain- and mind-related changes in the motor action system is still being debated. The systematic repetition of different states of action (e.g., physical and/or mental practice) and their contribution to the learning of complex motor actions has traditionally been approached by way of performance improvements. More recently, approaches highlighting the role of action representation in the learning of complex motor actions have evolved and may provide additional insight into the learning process. In the present perspective paper, we build on brain-related findings and sketch recent research on learning by way of imagery and execution from a hierarchical, perceptual-cognitive approach to motor control and learning. These findings provide insights into the learning of intelligent systems from a perceptual-cognitive, representation-based perspective and as such add to our current understanding of action representation in memory and its changes with practice. Future research should build bridges between approaches in order to more thoroughly understand functional changes throughout the learning process and to facilitate motor learning, which may have particular importance for cognitive systems research in robotics, rehabilitation, and sports. PMID:28588510

Neuronal mechanisms of motor learning and motor memory consolidation in healthy old adults.

PubMed

Berghuis, K M M; Veldman, M P; Solnik, S; Koch, G; Zijdewind, I; Hortobágyi, T

2015-06-01

It is controversial whether or not old adults are capable of learning new motor skills and consolidate the performance gains into motor memory in the offline period. The underlying neuronal mechanisms are equally unclear. We determined the magnitude of motor learning and motor memory consolidation in healthy old adults and examined if specific metrics of neuronal excitability measured by magnetic brain stimulation mediate the practice and retention effects. Eleven healthy old adults practiced a wrist extension-flexion visuomotor skill for 20 min (MP, 71.3 years), while a second group only watched the templates without movements (attentional control, AC, n = 11, 70.5 years). There was 40 % motor learning in MP but none in AC (interaction, p < 0.001) with the skill retained 24 h later in MP and a 16 % improvement in AC. Corticospinal excitability at rest and during task did not change, but when measured during contraction at 20 % of maximal force, it strongly increased in MP and decreased in AC (interaction, p = 0.002). Intracortical inhibition at rest and during the task decreased and facilitation at rest increased in MP, but these metrics changed in the opposite direction in AC. These neuronal changes were especially profound at retention. Healthy old adults can learn a new motor skill and consolidate the learned skill into motor memory, processes that are most likely mediated by disinhibitory mechanisms. These results are relevant for the increasing number of old adults who need to learn and relearn movements during motor rehabilitation.

Cooperation Not Competition: Bihemispheric tDCS and fMRI Show Role for Ipsilateral Hemisphere in Motor Learning.

PubMed

Waters, Sheena; Wiestler, Tobias; Diedrichsen, Jörn

2017-08-02

What is the role of ipsilateral motor and premotor areas in motor learning? One view is that ipsilateral activity suppresses contralateral motor cortex and, accordingly, that inhibiting ipsilateral regions can improve motor learning. Alternatively, the ipsilateral motor cortex may play an active role in the control and/or learning of unilateral hand movements. We approached this question by applying double-blind bihemispheric transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over both contralateral and ipsilateral motor cortex in a between-group design during 4 d of unimanual explicit sequence training in human participants. Independently of whether the anode was placed over contralateral or ipsilateral motor cortex, bihemispheric stimulation yielded substantial performance gains relative to unihemispheric or sham stimulation. This performance advantage appeared to be supported by plastic changes in both hemispheres. First, we found that behavioral advantages generalized strongly to the untrained hand, suggesting that tDCS strengthened effector-independent representations. Second, functional imaging during speed-matched execution of trained sequences conducted 48 h after training revealed sustained, polarity-independent increases in activity in both motor cortices relative to the sham group. These results suggest a cooperative rather than competitive interaction of the two motor cortices during skill learning and suggest that bihemispheric brain stimulation during unimanual skill learning may be beneficial because it harnesses plasticity in the ipsilateral hemisphere. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Many neurorehabilitation approaches are based on the idea that is beneficial to boost excitability in the contralateral hemisphere while attenuating that of the ipsilateral cortex to reduce interhemispheric inhibition. We observed that bihemispheric transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) with the excitatory anode either over contralateral or ipsilateral motor cortex facilitated motor learning nearly twice as strongly as unihemispheric tDCS. These increases in motor learning were accompanied by increases in fMRI activation in both motor cortices that outlasted the stimulation period, as well as increased generalization to the untrained hand. Collectively, our findings suggest a cooperative rather than a competitive role of the hemispheres and imply that it is most beneficial to harness plasticity in both hemispheres in neurorehabilitation of motor deficits. Copyright © 2017 Waters et al.

Cerebellar-M1 Connectivity Changes Associated with Motor Learning Are Somatotopic Specific.

PubMed

Spampinato, Danny A; Block, Hannah J; Celnik, Pablo A

2017-03-01

One of the functions of the cerebellum in motor learning is to predict and account for systematic changes to the body or environment. This form of adaptive learning is mediated by plastic changes occurring within the cerebellar cortex. The strength of cerebellar-to-cerebral pathways for a given muscle may reflect aspects of cerebellum-dependent motor adaptation. These connections with motor cortex (M1) can be estimated as cerebellar inhibition (CBI): a conditioning pulse of transcranial magnetic stimulation delivered to the cerebellum before a test pulse over motor cortex. Previously, we have demonstrated that changes in CBI for a given muscle representation correlate with learning a motor adaptation task with the involved limb. However, the specificity of these effects is unknown. Here, we investigated whether CBI changes in humans are somatotopy specific and how they relate to motor adaptation. We found that learning a visuomotor rotation task with the right hand changed CBI, not only for the involved first dorsal interosseous of the right hand, but also for an uninvolved right leg muscle, the tibialis anterior, likely related to inter-effector transfer of learning. In two follow-up experiments, we investigated whether the preparation of a simple hand or leg movement would produce a somatotopy-specific modulation of CBI. We found that CBI changes only for the effector involved in the movement. These results indicate that learning-related changes in cerebellar-M1 connectivity reflect a somatotopy-specific interaction. Modulation of this pathway is also present in the context of interlimb transfer of learning. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Connectivity between the cerebellum and motor cortex is a critical pathway for the integrity of everyday movements and understanding the somatotopic specificity of this pathway in the context of motor learning is critical to advancing the efficacy of neurorehabilitation. We found that adaptive learning with the hand affects cerebellar-motor cortex connectivity, not only for the trained hand, but also for an untrained leg muscle, an effect likely related to intereffector transfer of learning. Furthermore, we introduce a novel method to measure cerebellar-motor cortex connectivity during movement preparation. With this technique, we show that, outside the context of learning, modulation of cerebellar-motor cortex connectivity is somatotopically specific to the effector being moved. Copyright © 2017 the authors 0270-6474/17/372377-10$15.00/0.

Enhancement of motor learning by focal intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) of either the primary motor (M1) or somatosensory area (S1) in healthy human subjects.

PubMed

Platz, Thomas; Adler-Wiebe, Marija; Roschka, Sybille; Lotze, Martin

2018-01-01

Motor rehabilitation after brain damage relies on motor re-learning as induced by specific training. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) can alter cortical excitability and thereby has a potential to enhance subsequent training-induced learning. Knowledge about any priming effects of NIBS on motor learning in healthy subjects can help to design targeted therapeutic applications in brain-damaged subjects. To examine whether complex motor learning in healthy subjects can be enhanced by intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) to primary motor or sensory cortical areas. Eighteen young healthy subjects trained eight different arm motor tasks (arm ability training, AAT) once a day for 5 days using their left non-dominant arm. Except for day 1 (baseline), training was performed after applying an excitatory form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (iTBS) to either (I) right M1 or (II) S1, or (III) sham stimulation to the right M1. Subjects were randomly assigned to conditions I, II, or III. A principal component analysis of the motor behaviour data suggested eight independent motor abilities corresponding to the 8 trained tasks. AAT induced substantial motor learning across abilities with generalisation to a non-trained test of finger dexterity (Nine-Hole-Peg-Test, NHPT). Participants receiving iTBS (to either M1 or S1) showed better performance with the AAT tasks over the period of training compared to sham stimulation as well as a bigger improvement with the generalisation task (NHPT) for the trained left hand after training completion. Priming with an excitatory repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as iTBS of either M1 or S1 can enhance motor learning across different sensorimotor abilities.

Learning in a Simple Motor System

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Broussard, Dianne M.; Kassardjian, Charles D.

2004-01-01

Motor learning is a very basic, essential form of learning that appears to share common mechanisms across different motor systems. We evaluate and compare a few conceptual models for learning in a relatively simple neural system, the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) of vertebrates. We also compare the different animal models that have been used to…

Decoupling analysis of a novel bearingless flux-switching permanent magnet motor

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Zhao, Chenyin; Zhu, Huangqiu; Qin, Yuemei

2017-05-01

In this paper, a novel 12/10 stator/rotor pole bearingless flux-switching permanent magnet (BFSPM) motor is proposed to overcome the drawbacks of rotor permanent magnet type bearingless motors. The basic motor configuration, including motor configuration and winding configuration, is introduced firstly. Then, based on the principle of reverse direction magnetization for symmetrical rotor teeth, the radial suspension forces generation principle is analyzed in detail. Finally, decoupling performances between suspension force windings and torque windings are investigated. The results show that the proposed BFSPM not only ensures the merits of high torque output capability compared with conventional 12/10 stator/rotor pole FSPM motor, but also achieves stable radial suspension forces which have little mutual effect with torque. The validity of the proposed structure has been verified by finite element analysis (FEA).

[Nondeclarative memory--neuropsychological findings and neuroanatomic principles].

PubMed

Daum, I; Ackermann, H

1997-03-01

The contents of long-term memory will influence behaviour, even if the acquired knowledge or the original learning episode are not remembered. These phenomena have been termed "non-declarative" or "implicit" memory, and they are contrasted with "declarative" or "explicit" memory which is characterised by conscious search and retrieval procedures. Non-declarative memory encompasses non-associative learning, simple conditioning, priming effects as well as motor, perceptual and cognitive skill acquisition. The dissociation of both forms of memory is documented by studies in health subjects which indicated that experimental manipulations or drugs may differentially affect declarative and non-declarative memory processes. Damage to the medial temporal or the medial thalamic regions is known to result in declarative memory deficits whereas non-declarative memory is largely unaffected by such lesions. Animal research and clinical findings indicate that several components of non-declarative memory such as motor and cognitive skill acquisition or certain types of classical conditioning are dependent upon the integrity of the basal ganglia or the cerebellum. These issues are therefore of increasing importance for the understanding of extrapyramidal and cerebellar diseases. This paper presents recent neuropsychological findings and neuroanatomical data relating to the issue of non-declarative memory.

Neural substrates of visuomotor learning based on improved feedback control and prediction

PubMed Central

Grafton, Scott T.; Schmitt, Paul; Horn, John Van; Diedrichsen, Jörn

2008-01-01

Motor skills emerge from learning feedforward commands as well as improvements in feedback control. These two components of learning were investigated in a compensatory visuomotor tracking task on a trial-by-trial basis. Between trial learning was characterized with a state-space model to provide smoothed estimates of feedforward and feedback learning, separable from random fluctuations in motor performance and error. The resultant parameters were correlated with brain activity using magnetic resonance imaging. Learning related to the generation of a feedforward command correlated with activity in dorsal premotor cortex, inferior parietal lobule, supplementary motor area and cingulate motor area, supporting a role of these areas in retrieving and executing a predictive motor command. Modulation of feedback control was associated with activity in bilateral posterior superior parietal lobule as well as right ventral premotor cortex. Performance error correlated with activity in a widespread cortical and subcortical network including bilateral parietal, premotor and rostral anterior cingulate cortex as well as the cerebellar cortex. Finally, trial-by-trial changes of kinematics, as measured by mean absolute hand acceleration, correlated with activity in motor cortex and anterior cerebellum. The results demonstrate that incremental, learning dependent changes can be modeled on a trial-by-trial basis and neural substrates for feedforward control of novel motor programs are localized to secondary motor areas. PMID:18032069

Physiotherapists use a great variety of motor learning options in neurological rehabilitation, from which they choose through an iterative process: a retrospective think-aloud study.

PubMed

Kleynen, Melanie; Moser, Albine; Haarsma, Frederike A; Beurskens, Anna J; Braun, Susy M

2017-08-01

The goal of this study was to examine which motor learning options are applied by experienced physiotherapists in neurological rehabilitation, and how they choose between the different options. A descriptive qualitative approach was used. A purposive sample of five expert physiotherapists from the neurological ward of a rehabilitation center participated. Data were collected using nine videotaped therapy situations. During retrospective think-aloud interviews, the physiotherapists were instructed to constantly "think aloud" while they were watching their own videos. Five "operators" were identified: "act", "know", "observe", "assess" and "argue". The "act" operator consisted of 34 motor learning options, which were clustered into "instruction", "feedback" and "organization". The "know", "observe", "assess" and "argue" operators explained how therapists chose one of these options. The four operators seem to be interrelated and together lead to a decision to apply a particular motor learning option. Results show that the participating physiotherapists used a great variety of motor learning options in their treatment sessions. Further, the decision-making process with regard to these motor learning options was identified. Results may support future intervention studies that match the content and process of therapy in daily practice. The study should be repeated with other physiotherapists. Implications for Rehabilitation The study provided insight into the way experienced therapist handle the great variety of possible motor learning options, including concrete ideas on how to operationalize these options in specific situations. Despite differences in patients' abilities, it seems that therapists use the same underlying clinical reasoning process when choosing a particular motor learning option. Participating physiotherapists used more than the in guidelines suggested motor learning options and considered more than the suggested factors, hence adding practice based options of motor learning to the recommended ones in the guidelines. A think-aloud approach can be considered for peer-to-peer and student coaching to enhance discussion on the motor learning options applied and the underlying choices and to encourage research by practicing clinicians.

Agricultural Electricity. Electric Motors. Student Manual.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Benson, Robert T.

Addressed to the student, this manual, which includes supplementary diagrams, discusses the following topics and principles: Electromagnetic fields, electromagnets, parts of an electric motor, determining speed of an electric motor, types of electric motors in common use (split-phase, capacitor, repulsion-induction, three-phase), the electric…

A safety mechanism for observational learning.

PubMed

Badets, Arnaud; Boutin, Arnaud; Michelet, Thomas

2018-04-01

This empirical article presents the first evidence of a "safety mechanism" based on an observational-learning paradigm. It is accepted that during observational learning, a person can use different strategies to learn a motor skill, but it is unknown whether the learner is able to circumvent the encoding of an uncompleted observed skill. In this study, participants were tested in a dyadic protocol in which an observer watched a participant practicing two different motor sequences during a learning phase. During this phase, one of the two motor sequences was interrupted by a stop signal that precluded motor learning. The results of the subsequent retention test revealed that both groups learned the two motor sequences, but only the physical practice group showed worse performance for the interrupted sequence. The observers were consequently able to use a safety strategy to learn both sequences equally. Our findings are discussed in light of the implications of the action observation network for sequence learning and the cognitive mechanisms of error-based observation.

Video games and rehabilitation: using design principles to enhance engagement in physical therapy.

PubMed

Lohse, Keith; Shirzad, Navid; Verster, Alida; Hodges, Nicola; Van der Loos, H F Machiel

2013-12-01

Patient nonadherence with therapy is a major barrier to rehabilitation. Recovery is often limited and requires prolonged, intensive rehabilitation that is time-consuming, expensive, and difficult. We review evidence for the potential use of video games in rehabilitation with respect to the behavioral, physiological, and motivational effects of gameplay. In this Special Interest article, we offer a method to evaluate effects of video game play on motor learning and their potential to increase patient engagement with therapy, particularly commercial games that can be interfaced with adapted control systems. We take the novel approach of integrating research across game design, motor learning, neurophysiology changes, and rehabilitation science to provide criteria by which therapists can assist patients in choosing games appropriate for rehabilitation. Research suggests that video games are beneficial for cognitive and motor skill learning in both rehabilitation science and experimental studies with healthy subjects. Physiological data suggest that gameplay can induce neuroplastic reorganization that leads to long-term retention and transfer of skill; however, more clinical research in this area is needed. There is interdisciplinary evidence suggesting that key factors in game design, including choice, reward, and goals, lead to increased motivation and engagement. We maintain that video game play could be an effective supplement to traditional therapy. Motion controllers can be used to practice rehabilitation-relevant movements, and well-designed game mechanics can augment patient engagement and motivation in rehabilitation. We recommend future research and development exploring rehabilitation-relevant motions to control games and increase time in therapy through gameplay.Video Abstract available (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A61) for more insights from the authors.

Virtual reality for gait training: can it induce motor learning to enhance complex walking and reduce fall risk in patients with Parkinson's disease?

PubMed

Mirelman, Anat; Maidan, Inbal; Herman, Talia; Deutsch, Judith E; Giladi, Nir; Hausdorff, Jeffrey M

2011-02-01

Gait and cognitive disturbances are common in Parkinson's disease (PD). These deficits exacerbate fall risk and difficulties with mobility, especially during complex or dual-task walking. Traditional gait training generally fails to fully address these complex gait activities. Virtual reality (VR) incorporates principles of motor learning while delivering engaging and challenging training in complex environments. We hypothesized that VR may be applied to address the multifaceted deficits associated with fall risk in PD. Twenty patients received 18 sessions (3 per week) of progressive intensive treadmill training with virtual obstacles (TT + VR). Outcome measures included gait under usual-walking and dual-task conditions and while negotiating physical obstacles. Cognitive function and functional performance were also assessed. Patients were 67.1 ± 6.5 years and had a mean disease duration of 9.8 ± 5.6 years. Posttraining, gait speed significantly improved during usual walking, during dual task, and while negotiating overground obstacles. Dual-task gait variability decreased (ie, improved) and Trail Making Test times (parts A and B) improved. Gains in functional performance measures and retention effects, 1 month later, were also observed. To our knowledge, this is the first time that TT + VR has been used for gait training in PD. The results indicate that TT + VR is viable in PD and may significantly improve physical performance, gait during complex challenging conditions, and even certain aspects of cognitive function. These findings have important implications for understanding motor learning in the presence of PD and for treating fall risk in PD, aging, and others who share a heightened risk of falls.

Translating Principles of Neural Plasticity into Research on Speech Motor Control Recovery and Rehabilitation

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ludlow, Christy L.; Hoit, Jeannette; Kent, Raymond; Ramig, Lorraine O.; Shrivastav, Rahul; Strand, Edythe; Yorkston, Kathryn; Sapienza, Christine M.

2008-01-01

Purpose: To review the principles of neural plasticity and make recommendations for research on the neural bases for rehabilitation of neurogenic speech disorders. Method: A working group in speech motor control and disorders developed this report, which examines the potential relevance of basic research on the brain mechanisms involved in neural…

A balanced motor primitive framework can simultaneously explain motor learning in unimanual and bimanual movements.

PubMed

Takiyama, Ken; Sakai, Yutaka

2017-02-01

Certain theoretical frameworks have successfully explained motor learning in either unimanual or bimanual movements. However, no single theoretical framework can comprehensively explain motor learning in both types of movement because the relationship between these two types of movement remains unclear. Although our recent model of a balanced motor primitive framework attempted to simultaneously explain motor learning in unimanual and bimanual movements, this model focused only on a limited subset of bimanual movements and therefore did not elucidate the relationships between unimanual movements and various bimanual movements. Here, we extend the balanced motor primitive framework to simultaneously explain motor learning in unimanual and various bimanual movements as well as the transfer of learning effects between unimanual and various bimanual movements; these phenomena can be simultaneously explained if the mean activity of each primitive for various unimanual movements is balanced with the corresponding mean activity for various bimanual movements. Using this balanced condition, we can reproduce the results of prior behavioral and neurophysiological experiments. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the balanced condition can be implemented in a simple neural network model. Copyright © 2016 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Effective reinforcement learning following cerebellar damage requires a balance between exploration and motor noise.

PubMed

Therrien, Amanda S; Wolpert, Daniel M; Bastian, Amy J

2016-01-01

Reinforcement and error-based processes are essential for motor learning, with the cerebellum thought to be required only for the error-based mechanism. Here we examined learning and retention of a reaching skill under both processes. Control subjects learned similarly from reinforcement and error-based feedback, but showed much better retention under reinforcement. To apply reinforcement to cerebellar patients, we developed a closed-loop reinforcement schedule in which task difficulty was controlled based on recent performance. This schedule produced substantial learning in cerebellar patients and controls. Cerebellar patients varied in their learning under reinforcement but fully retained what was learned. In contrast, they showed complete lack of retention in error-based learning. We developed a mechanistic model of the reinforcement task and found that learning depended on a balance between exploration variability and motor noise. While the cerebellar and control groups had similar exploration variability, the patients had greater motor noise and hence learned less. Our results suggest that cerebellar damage indirectly impairs reinforcement learning by increasing motor noise, but does not interfere with the reinforcement mechanism itself. Therefore, reinforcement can be used to learn and retain novel skills, but optimal reinforcement learning requires a balance between exploration variability and motor noise. © The Author (2015). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain.

Effective reinforcement learning following cerebellar damage requires a balance between exploration and motor noise

PubMed Central

Therrien, Amanda S.; Wolpert, Daniel M.

2016-01-01

Abstract See Miall and Galea (doi: 10.1093/awv343 ) for a scientific commentary on this article. Reinforcement and error-based processes are essential for motor learning, with the cerebellum thought to be required only for the error-based mechanism. Here we examined learning and retention of a reaching skill under both processes. Control subjects learned similarly from reinforcement and error-based feedback, but showed much better retention under reinforcement. To apply reinforcement to cerebellar patients, we developed a closed-loop reinforcement schedule in which task difficulty was controlled based on recent performance. This schedule produced substantial learning in cerebellar patients and controls. Cerebellar patients varied in their learning under reinforcement but fully retained what was learned. In contrast, they showed complete lack of retention in error-based learning. We developed a mechanistic model of the reinforcement task and found that learning depended on a balance between exploration variability and motor noise. While the cerebellar and control groups had similar exploration variability, the patients had greater motor noise and hence learned less. Our results suggest that cerebellar damage indirectly impairs reinforcement learning by increasing motor noise, but does not interfere with the reinforcement mechanism itself. Therefore, reinforcement can be used to learn and retain novel skills, but optimal reinforcement learning requires a balance between exploration variability and motor noise. PMID:26626368

Generalization of perceptual and motor learning: a causal link with memory encoding and consolidation?

PubMed

Censor, N

2013-10-10

In both perceptual and motor learning, numerous studies have shown specificity of learning to the trained eye or hand and to the physical features of the task. However, generalization of learning is possible in both perceptual and motor domains. Here, I review evidence for perceptual and motor learning generalization, suggesting that generalization patterns are affected by the way in which the original memory is encoded and consolidated. Generalization may be facilitated during fast learning, with possible engagement of higher-order brain areas recurrently interacting with the primary visual or motor cortices encoding the stimuli or movements' memories. Such generalization may be supported by sleep, involving functional interactions between low and higher-order brain areas. Repeated exposure to the task may alter generalization patterns of learning and overall offline learning. Development of unifying frameworks across learning modalities and better understanding of the conditions under which learning can generalize may enable to gain insight regarding the neural mechanisms underlying procedural learning and have useful clinical implications. Copyright © 2013 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Action observation as a tool for neurorehabilitation to moderate motor deficits and aphasia following stroke

PubMed Central

Ertelt, Denis; Binkofski, Ferdinand

2012-01-01

The mirror neuron system consists of a set of brain areas capable of matching action observation with action execution. One core feature of the mirror neuron system is the activation of motor areas by action observation alone. This unique capacity of the mirror neuron system to match action perception and action execution stimulated the idea that mirror neuron system plays a crucial role in the understanding of the content of observed actions and may participate in procedural learning. These features bear a high potential for neurorehabilitation of motor deficits and of aphasia following stroke. Since the first articles exploring this principle were published, a growing number of follow-up studies have been conducted in the last decade. Though, the combination of action observation with practice of the observed actions seems to constitute the most powerful approach. In the present review, we present the existing studies analyzing the effects of this neurorehabilitative approach in clinical settings especially in the rehabilitation of stroke associated motor deficits and give a perspective on the ongoing trials by our research group. The data obtained up to date showed significant positive effect of action observation on recovery of motor functions of the upper limbs even in the chronic state after stroke, indicating that our approach might become a new standardized add-on feature of modern neurorehabilitative treatment schemes. PMID:25624838

NanoShuttles: Harnessing Motor Proteins to Transport Cargo in Synthetic Environments

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Vogel, V.; Hess, H.

Motors have become a crucial commodity in our daily lives, from transportation to driving conveyor belts that enable the sequential assembly of cars and other industrial machines. For the sequential assembly of building blocks at the nanoscale that would not assemble spontaneously into larger functional systems, however, active transport systems are not yet available. In contrast, cells have evolved sophisticated molecular machinery that drives movement and active transport. Driven by the conversion of chemical into mechanical energy, namely through hydrolysis of the biological fuel ATP, molecular motors enable cells to operate far away from equilibrium by transporting organelles and molecules to designated locations within the cell, often against concentration gradients. Inspired by the biological concept of active transport, major efforts are underway to learn how to build nanoscale transport systems that are driven by molecular motors. Emerging engineering principles are discussed of how to build tracks and junctions to guide such nanoshuttles, how to load them with cargo and control their speed, how to use active transport to assemble mesoscopic structures that would otherwise not assemble spontaneously and what polymeric materials to choose to integrate motors into MEMS and other biohybrid devices. Finally, two applications that exploit the physical properties of microtubules are discussed, surface imaging by a swarm of microtubules and a self-assembled picoNewton force meter to probe receptor-ligand interactions.

[Use of nondeclarative and automatic memory processes in motor learning: how to mitigate the effects of aging].

PubMed

Chauvel, Guillaume; Maquestiaux, François; Didierjean, André; Joubert, Sven; Dieudonné, Bénédicte; Verny, Marc

2011-12-01

Does normal aging inexorably lead to diminished motor learning abilities? This article provides an overview of the literature on the question, with particular emphasis on the functional dissociation between two sets of memory processes: declarative, effortful processes, and non-declarative, automatic processes. There is abundant evidence suggesting that aging does impair learning when past memories of former actions are required (episodic memory) and recollected through controlled processing (working memory). However, other studies have shown that aging does not impair learning when motor actions are performed non verbally and automatically (tapping procedural memory). These findings led us to hypothesize that one can minimize the impact of aging on the ability to learn new motor actions by favouring procedural learning. Recent data validating this hypothesis are presented. Our findings underline the importance of developing new motor learning strategies, which "bypass" declarative, effortful memory processes.

Toward an autonomous brain machine interface: integrating sensorimotor reward modulation and reinforcement learning.

PubMed

Marsh, Brandi T; Tarigoppula, Venkata S Aditya; Chen, Chen; Francis, Joseph T

2015-05-13

For decades, neurophysiologists have worked on elucidating the function of the cortical sensorimotor control system from the standpoint of kinematics or dynamics. Recently, computational neuroscientists have developed models that can emulate changes seen in the primary motor cortex during learning. However, these simulations rely on the existence of a reward-like signal in the primary sensorimotor cortex. Reward modulation of the primary sensorimotor cortex has yet to be characterized at the level of neural units. Here we demonstrate that single units/multiunits and local field potentials in the primary motor (M1) cortex of nonhuman primates (Macaca radiata) are modulated by reward expectation during reaching movements and that this modulation is present even while subjects passively view cursor motions that are predictive of either reward or nonreward. After establishing this reward modulation, we set out to determine whether we could correctly classify rewarding versus nonrewarding trials, on a moment-to-moment basis. This reward information could then be used in collaboration with reinforcement learning principles toward an autonomous brain-machine interface. The autonomous brain-machine interface would use M1 for both decoding movement intention and extraction of reward expectation information as evaluative feedback, which would then update the decoding algorithm as necessary. In the work presented here, we show that this, in theory, is possible. Copyright © 2015 the authors 0270-6474/15/357374-14$15.00/0.

Assisting Movement Training and Execution With Visual and Haptic Feedback.

PubMed

Ewerton, Marco; Rother, David; Weimar, Jakob; Kollegger, Gerrit; Wiemeyer, Josef; Peters, Jan; Maeda, Guilherme

2018-01-01

In the practice of motor skills in general, errors in the execution of movements may go unnoticed when a human instructor is not available. In this case, a computer system or robotic device able to detect movement errors and propose corrections would be of great help. This paper addresses the problem of how to detect such execution errors and how to provide feedback to the human to correct his/her motor skill using a general, principled methodology based on imitation learning. The core idea is to compare the observed skill with a probabilistic model learned from expert demonstrations. The intensity of the feedback is regulated by the likelihood of the model given the observed skill. Based on demonstrations, our system can, for example, detect errors in the writing of characters with multiple strokes. Moreover, by using a haptic device, the Haption Virtuose 6D, we demonstrate a method to generate haptic feedback based on a distribution over trajectories, which could be used as an auxiliary means of communication between an instructor and an apprentice. Additionally, given a performance measurement, the haptic device can help the human discover and perform better movements to solve a given task. In this case, the human first tries a few times to solve the task without assistance. Our framework, in turn, uses a reinforcement learning algorithm to compute haptic feedback, which guides the human toward better solutions.

Dissociation between the Procedural Learning of Letter Names and Motor Sequences in Developmental Dyslexia

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Gabay, Yafit; Schiff, Rachel; Vakil, Eli

2012-01-01

Motor sequence learning has been studied extensively in Developmental dyslexia (DD). The purpose of the present research was to examine procedural learning of letter names and motor sequences in individuals with DD and control groups. Both groups completed the Serial Search Task which enabled the assessment of learning of letter names and motor…

Toward an Interdisciplinary Perspective: A Review of Adult Learning Frameworks and Theoretical Models of Motor Learning

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Roessger, Kevin M.

2012-01-01

Researchers have yet to agree on an approach that supports how adults best learn novel motor skills in formal educational contexts. The literature fails to adequately discuss adult motor learning from the standpoint of adult education. Instead, the subject is addressed by other disciplines. This review attempts to integrate perspectives across…

Repeated Exposure to Ketamine-Xylazine during Early Development Impairs Motor Learning-dependent Dendritic Spine Plasticity in Adulthood

PubMed Central

Huang, Lianyan; Yang, Guang

2014-01-01

Background Recent studies in rodents suggest that repeated and prolonged anesthetic exposure at early stages of development leads to cognitive and behavioral impairments later in life. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we tested whether exposure to general anesthesia during early development will disrupt the maturation of synaptic circuits and compromise learning-related synaptic plasticity later in life. Methods Mice received ketamine/xylazine (20/3 mg/kg) anesthesia for one or three times, starting at either early [postnatal day 14 (P14)] or late (P21) stages of development (n=105). Control mice received saline injections (n=34). At P30, mice were subjected to rotarod motor training and fear conditioning. Motor learning-induced synaptic remodeling was examined in vivo by repeatedly imaging fluorescently-labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines in the primary motor cortex before and after training using two-photon microscopy. Results Three exposures to ketamine/xylazine anesthesia between P14–18 impair the animals’ motor learning and learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity [new spine formation, 8.4 ± 1.3% (mean ± SD) versus 13.4 ± 1.8%, P = 0.002] without affecting fear memory and cell apoptosis. One exposure at P14 or three exposures between P21–25 has no effects on the animals’ motor learning or spine plasticity. Finally, enriched motor experience ameliorates anesthesia-induced motor learning impairment and synaptic deficits. Conclusion Our study demonstrates that repeated exposures to ketamine/xylazine during early development impair motor learning and learning-dependent dendritic spine plasticity later in life. The reduction in synaptic structural plasticity may underlie anesthesia-induced behavioral impairment. PMID:25575163

Neural correlates of skill acquisition: decreased cortical activity during a serial interception sequence learning task.

PubMed

Gobel, Eric W; Parrish, Todd B; Reber, Paul J

2011-10-15

Learning of complex motor skills requires learning of component movements as well as the sequential structure of their order and timing. Using a Serial Interception Sequence Learning (SISL) task, participants learned a sequence of precisely timed interception responses through training with a repeating sequence. Following initial implicit learning of the repeating sequence, functional MRI data were collected during performance of that known sequence and compared with activity evoked during novel sequences of actions, novel timing patterns, or both. Reduced activity was observed during the practiced sequence in a distributed bilateral network including extrastriate occipital, parietal, and premotor cortical regions. These reductions in evoked activity likely reflect improved efficiency in visuospatial processing, spatio-motor integration, motor planning, and motor execution for the trained sequence, which is likely supported by nondeclarative skill learning. In addition, the practiced sequence evoked increased activity in the left ventral striatum and medial prefrontal cortex, while the posterior cingulate was more active during periods of better performance. Many prior studies of perceptual-motor skill learning have found increased activity in motor areas of the frontal cortex (e.g., motor and premotor cortex, SMA) and striatal areas (e.g., the putamen). The change in activity observed here (i.e., decreased activity across a cortical network) may reflect skill learning that is predominantly expressed through more accurate performance rather than decreased reaction time. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Neural Correlates of Skill Acquisition: Decreased Cortical Activity During a Serial Interception Sequence Learning Task

PubMed Central

Gobel, Eric W.; Parrish, Todd B.; Reber, Paul J.

2011-01-01

Learning of complex motor skills requires learning of component movements as well as the sequential structure of their order and timing. Using a Serial Interception Sequence Learning (SISL) task, participants learned a sequence of precisely timed interception responses through training with a repeating sequence. Following initial implicit learning of the repeating sequence, functional MRI data were collected during performance of that known sequence and compared with activity evoked during novel sequences of actions, novel timing patterns, or both. Reduced activity was observed during the practiced sequence in a distributed bilateral network including extrastriate occipital, parietal, and premotor cortical regions. These reductions in evoked activity likely reflect improved efficiency in visuospatial processing, spatio-motor integration, motor planning, and motor execution for the trained sequence, which is likely supported by nondeclarative skill learning. In addition, the practiced sequence evoked increased activity in the left ventral striatum and medial prefrontal cortex, while the posterior cingulate was more active during periods of better performance. Many prior studies of perceptual-motor skill learning have found increased activity in motor areas of frontal cortex (e.g., motor and premotor cortex, SMA) and striatal areas (e.g., the putamen). The change in activity observed here (i.e., decreased activity across a cortical network) may reflect skill learning that is predominantly expressed through more accurate performance rather than decreased reaction time. PMID:21771663

Exploring the bases for a mixed reality stroke rehabilitation system, Part I: A unified approach for representing action, quantitative evaluation, and interactive feedback

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Background Although principles based in motor learning, rehabilitation, and human-computer interfaces can guide the design of effective interactive systems for rehabilitation, a unified approach that connects these key principles into an integrated design, and can form a methodology that can be generalized to interactive stroke rehabilitation, is presently unavailable. Results This paper integrates phenomenological approaches to interaction and embodied knowledge with rehabilitation practices and theories to achieve the basis for a methodology that can support effective adaptive, interactive rehabilitation. Our resulting methodology provides guidelines for the development of an action representation, quantification of action, and the design of interactive feedback. As Part I of a two-part series, this paper presents key principles of the unified approach. Part II then describes the application of this approach within the implementation of the Adaptive Mixed Reality Rehabilitation (AMRR) system for stroke rehabilitation. Conclusions The accompanying principles for composing novel mixed reality environments for stroke rehabilitation can advance the design and implementation of effective mixed reality systems for the clinical setting, and ultimately be adapted for home-based application. They furthermore can be applied to other rehabilitation needs beyond stroke. PMID:21875441

Learning fast accurate movements requires intact frontostriatal circuits

PubMed Central

Shabbott, Britne; Ravindran, Roshni; Schumacher, Joseph W.; Wasserman, Paula B.; Marder, Karen S.; Mazzoni, Pietro

2013-01-01

The basal ganglia are known to play a crucial role in movement execution, but their importance for motor skill learning remains unclear. Obstacles to our understanding include the lack of a universally accepted definition of motor skill learning (definition confound), and difficulties in distinguishing learning deficits from execution impairments (performance confound). We studied how healthy subjects and subjects with a basal ganglia disorder learn fast accurate reaching movements. We addressed the definition and performance confounds by: (1) focusing on an operationally defined core element of motor skill learning (speed-accuracy learning), and (2) using normal variation in initial performance to separate movement execution impairment from motor learning abnormalities. We measured motor skill learning as performance improvement in a reaching task with a speed-accuracy trade-off. We compared the performance of subjects with Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative basal ganglia disorder, to that of premanifest carriers of the HD mutation and of control subjects. The initial movements of HD subjects were less skilled (slower and/or less accurate) than those of control subjects. To factor out these differences in initial execution, we modeled the relationship between learning and baseline performance in control subjects. Subjects with HD exhibited a clear learning impairment that was not explained by differences in initial performance. These results support a role for the basal ganglia in both movement execution and motor skill learning. PMID:24312037

Space Shuttle Reusable Solid Rocket Motor Program Overview and Lessons Learned

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Graves, Stan R.; McCool, Alex (Technical Monitor)

2001-01-01

An overview of the Space Shuttle Reusable Solid Rocket Motor (RSRM) program is provided with a summary of lessons learned since the first test firing in 1977. Fifteen different lessons learned are discussed that fundamentally changed the motor's design, processing, and RSRM program risk management systems. The evolution of the rocket motor design is presented including the baseline or High Performance Solid Rocket Motor (HPM), the Filament Wound Case (FWC), the RSRM, and the proposed Five-Segment Booster (FSB).

Primary motor and premotor cortex in implicit sequence learning--evidence for competition between implicit and explicit human motor memory systems.

PubMed

Kantak, Shailesh S; Mummidisetty, Chaithanya K; Stinear, James W

2012-09-01

Implicit and explicit memory systems for motor skills compete with each other during and after motor practice. Primary motor cortex (M1) is known to be engaged during implicit motor learning, while dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) is critical for explicit learning. To elucidate the neural substrates underlying the interaction between implicit and explicit memory systems, adults underwent a randomized crossover experiment of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (AtDCS) applied over M1, PMd or sham stimulation during implicit motor sequence (serial reaction time task, SRTT) practice. We hypothesized that M1-AtDCS during practice will enhance online performance and offline learning of the implicit motor sequence. In contrast, we also hypothesized that PMd-AtDCS will attenuate performance and retention of the implicit motor sequence. Implicit sequence performance was assessed at baseline, at the end of acquisition (EoA), and 24 h after practice (retention test, RET). M1-AtDCS during practice significantly improved practice performance and supported offline stabilization compared with Sham tDCS. Performance change from EoA to RET revealed that PMd-AtDCS during practice attenuated offline stabilization compared with M1-AtDCS and sham stimulation. The results support the role of M1 in implementing online performance gains and offline stabilization for implicit motor sequence learning. In contrast, enhancing the activity within explicit motor memory network nodes such as the PMd during practice may be detrimental to offline stabilization of the learned implicit motor sequence. These results support the notion of competition between implicit and explicit motor memory systems and identify underlying neural substrates that are engaged in this competition. © 2012 The Authors. European Journal of Neuroscience © 2012 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Brain Activation in Motor Sequence Learning Is Related to the Level of Native Cortical Excitability

PubMed Central

Lissek, Silke; Vallana, Guido S.; Güntürkün, Onur; Dinse, Hubert; Tegenthoff, Martin

2013-01-01

Cortical excitability may be subject to changes through training and learning. Motor training can increase cortical excitability in motor cortex, and facilitation of motor cortical excitability has been shown to be positively correlated with improvements in performance in simple motor tasks. Thus cortical excitability may tentatively be considered as a marker of learning and use-dependent plasticity. Previous studies focused on changes in cortical excitability brought about by learning processes, however, the relation between native levels of cortical excitability on the one hand and brain activation and behavioral parameters on the other is as yet unknown. In the present study we investigated the role of differential native motor cortical excitability for learning a motor sequencing task with regard to post-training changes in excitability, behavioral performance and involvement of brain regions. Our motor task required our participants to reproduce and improvise over a pre-learned motor sequence. Over both task conditions, participants with low cortical excitability (CElo) showed significantly higher BOLD activation in task-relevant brain regions than participants with high cortical excitability (CEhi). In contrast, CElo and CEhi groups did not exhibit differences in percentage of correct responses and improvisation level. Moreover, cortical excitability did not change significantly after learning and training in either group, with the exception of a significant decrease in facilitatory excitability in the CEhi group. The present data suggest that the native, unmanipulated level of cortical excitability is related to brain activation intensity, but not to performance quality. The higher BOLD mean signal intensity during the motor task might reflect a compensatory mechanism in CElo participants. PMID:23613956

The many facets of motor learning and their relevance for Parkinson's disease.

PubMed

Marinelli, Lucio; Quartarone, Angelo; Hallett, Mark; Frazzitta, Giuseppe; Ghilardi, Maria Felice

2017-07-01

The final goal of motor learning, a complex process that includes both implicit and explicit (or declarative) components, is the optimization and automatization of motor skills. Motor learning involves different neural networks and neurotransmitters systems depending on the type of task and on the stage of learning. After the first phase of acquisition, a motor skill goes through consolidation (i.e., becoming resistant to interference) and retention, processes in which sleep and long-term potentiation seem to play important roles. The studies of motor learning in Parkinson's disease have yielded controversial results that likely stem from the use of different experimental paradigms. When a task's characteristics, instructions, context, learning phase and type of measures are taken into consideration, it is apparent that, in general, only learning that relies on attentional resources and cognitive strategies is affected by PD, in agreement with the finding of a fronto-striatal deficit in this disease. Levodopa administration does not seem to reverse the learning deficits in PD, while deep brain stimulation of either globus pallidus or subthalamic nucleus appears to be beneficial. Finally and most importantly, patients with PD often show a decrease in retention of newly learned skill, a problem that is present even in the early stages of the disease. A thorough dissection and understanding of the processes involved in motor learning is warranted to provide solid bases for effective medical, surgical and rehabilitative approaches in PD. Copyright © 2017 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. All rights reserved.

Visuomotor learning by passive motor experience

PubMed Central

Sakamoto, Takashi; Kondo, Toshiyuki

2015-01-01

Humans can adapt to unfamiliar dynamic and/or kinematic transformations through the active motor experience. Recent studies of neurorehabilitation using robots or brain-computer interface (BCI) technology suggest that passive motor experience would play a measurable role in motor recovery, however our knowledge of passive motor learning is limited. To clarify the effects of passive motor experience on human motor learning, we performed arm reaching experiments guided by a robotic manipulandum. The results showed that the passive motor experience had an anterograde transfer effect on the subsequent motor execution, whereas no retrograde interference was confirmed in the ABA paradigm experiment. This suggests that the passive experience of the error between visual and proprioceptive sensations leads to the limited but actual compensation of behavior, although it is fragile and cannot be consolidated as a persistent motor memory. PMID:26029091

Online and Offline Performance Gains Following Motor Imagery Practice: A Comprehensive Review of Behavioral and Neuroimaging Studies.

PubMed

Di Rienzo, Franck; Debarnot, Ursula; Daligault, Sébastien; Saruco, Elodie; Delpuech, Claude; Doyon, Julien; Collet, Christian; Guillot, Aymeric

2016-01-01

There is now compelling evidence that motor imagery (MI) promotes motor learning. While MI has been shown to influence the early stages of the learning process, recent data revealed that sleep also contributes to the consolidation of the memory trace. How such "online" and "offline" processes take place and how they interact to impact the neural underpinnings of movements has received little attention. The aim of the present review is twofold: (i) providing an overview of recent applied and fundamental studies investigating the effects of MI practice (MIP) on motor learning; and (ii) detangling applied and fundamental findings in support of a sleep contribution to motor consolidation after MIP. We conclude with an integrative approach of online and offline learning resulting from intense MIP in healthy participants, and underline research avenues in the motor learning/clinical domains.

Online and Offline Performance Gains Following Motor Imagery Practice: A Comprehensive Review of Behavioral and Neuroimaging Studies

PubMed Central

Di Rienzo, Franck; Debarnot, Ursula; Daligault, Sébastien; Saruco, Elodie; Delpuech, Claude; Doyon, Julien; Collet, Christian; Guillot, Aymeric

2016-01-01

There is now compelling evidence that motor imagery (MI) promotes motor learning. While MI has been shown to influence the early stages of the learning process, recent data revealed that sleep also contributes to the consolidation of the memory trace. How such “online” and “offline” processes take place and how they interact to impact the neural underpinnings of movements has received little attention. The aim of the present review is twofold: (i) providing an overview of recent applied and fundamental studies investigating the effects of MI practice (MIP) on motor learning; and (ii) detangling applied and fundamental findings in support of a sleep contribution to motor consolidation after MIP. We conclude with an integrative approach of online and offline learning resulting from intense MIP in healthy participants, and underline research avenues in the motor learning/clinical domains. PMID:27445755

Key Principles of Open Motor-Skill Training for Peak Performance

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wang, Jin

2016-01-01

Motor-skill training is an imperative element contributing to overall sport performance. In order to help coaches, athletes and practitioners to capture the characteristics of motor skills, sport scientists have divided motor skills into different categories, such as open versus closed, serial or discrete, outcome- or process-oriented, and…

Emergence of a Stable Cortical Map for Neuroprosthetic Control

PubMed Central

Ganguly, Karunesh; Carmena, Jose M.

2009-01-01

Cortical control of neuroprosthetic devices is known to require neuronal adaptations. It remains unclear whether a stable cortical representation for prosthetic function can be stored and recalled in a manner that mimics our natural recall of motor skills. Especially in light of the mixed evidence for a stationary neuron-behavior relationship in cortical motor areas, understanding this relationship during long-term neuroprosthetic control can elucidate principles of neural plasticity as well as improve prosthetic function. Here, we paired stable recordings from ensembles of primary motor cortex neurons in macaque monkeys with a constant decoder that transforms neural activity to prosthetic movements. Proficient control was closely linked to the emergence of a surprisingly stable pattern of ensemble activity, indicating that the motor cortex can consolidate a neural representation for prosthetic control in the presence of a constant decoder. The importance of such a cortical map was evident in that small perturbations to either the size of the neural ensemble or to the decoder could reversibly disrupt function. Moreover, once a cortical map became consolidated, a second map could be learned and stored. Thus, long-term use of a neuroprosthetic device is associated with the formation of a cortical map for prosthetic function that is stable across time, readily recalled, resistant to interference, and resembles a putative memory engram. PMID:19621062

Cerebellar motor learning versus cerebellar motor timing: the climbing fibre story

PubMed Central

Llinás, Rodolfo R

2011-01-01

Abstract Theories concerning the role of the climbing fibre system in motor learning, as opposed to those addressing the olivocerebellar system in the organization of motor timing, are briefly contrasted. The electrophysiological basis for the motor timing hypothesis in relation to the olivocerebellar system is treated in detail. PMID:21486816

Gross Motor Engrams: An Important Spatial Learning Modality for Preschool Visually Handicapped Children. Vol. 1, No. 9.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Whitcraft, Carol

Investigations and theories concerning interrelationships of motoric experiences, perceptual-motor skills, and learning are reviewed, with emphasis on early engramming of form and space concepts. Covered are studies on haptic perception of form, the matching of perceptual data and motor information, Kephart's perceptual-motor theory, and…

Utilization of Historic Information in an Optimisation Task

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Boesser, T.

1984-01-01

One of the basic components of a discrete model of motor behavior and decision making, which describes tracking and supervisory control in unitary terms, is assumed to be a filtering mechanism which is tied to the representational principles of human memory for time-series information. In a series of experiments subjects used the time-series information with certain significant limitations: there is a range-effect; asymmetric distributions seem to be recognized, but it does not seem to be possible to optimize performance based on skewed distributions. Thus there is a transformation of the displayed data between the perceptual system and representation in memory involving a loss of information. This rules out a number of representational principles for time-series information in memory and fits very well into the framework of a comprehensive discrete model for control of complex systems, modelling continuous control (tracking), discrete responses, supervisory behavior and learning.

The gravitational field and brain function.

PubMed

Mei, L; Zhou, C D; Lan, J Q; Wang, Z G; Wu, W C; Xue, X M

1983-01-01

The frontal cortex is recognized as the highest adaptive control center of the human brain. The principle of the "frontalization" of human brain function offers new possibilities for brain research in space. There is evolutionary and experimental evidence indicating the validity of the principle, including it's role in nervous response to gravitational stimulation. The gravitational field is considered here as one of the more constant and comprehensive factors acting on brain evolution, which has undergone some successive crucial steps: "encephalization", "corticalization", "lateralization" and "frontalization". The dominating effects of electrical responses from the frontal cortex have been discovered 1) in experiments under gravitational stimulus; and 2) in processes potentially relating to gravitational adaptation, such as memory and learning, sensory information processing, motor programing, and brain state control. A brain research experiment during space flight is suggested to test the role of the frontal cortex in space adaptation and it's potentiality in brain control.

A quantitative meta-analysis and review of motor learning in the human brain

PubMed Central

Hardwick, Robert M.; Rottschy, Claudia; Miall, R. Chris; Eickhoff, Simon B.

2013-01-01

Neuroimaging studies have improved our understanding of which brain structures are involved in motor learning. Despite this, questions remain regarding the areas that contribute consistently across paradigms with different task demands. For instance, sensorimotor tasks focus on learning novel movement kinematics and dynamics, while serial response time task (SRTT) variants focus on sequence learning. These differing task demands are likely to elicit quantifiably different patterns of neural activity on top of a potentially consistent core network. The current study identified consistent activations across 70 motor learning experiments using activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis. A global analysis of all tasks revealed a bilateral cortical–subcortical network consistently underlying motor learning across tasks. Converging activations were revealed in the dorsal premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, superior parietal lobule, thalamus, putamen and cerebellum. These activations were broadly consistent across task specific analyses that separated sensorimotor tasks and SRTT variants. Contrast analysis indicated that activity in the basal ganglia and cerebellum was significantly stronger for sensorimotor tasks, while activity in cortical structures and the thalamus was significantly stronger for SRTT variants. Additional conjunction analyses then indicated that the left dorsal premotor cortex was activated across all analyses considered, even when controlling for potential motor confounds. The highly consistent activation of the left dorsal premotor cortex suggests it is a critical node in the motor learning network. PMID:23194819

Motor contingency learning and infants with Spina Bifida.

PubMed

Taylor, Heather B; Barnes, Marcia A; Landry, Susan H; Swank, Paul; Fletcher, Jack M; Huang, Furong

2013-02-01

Infants with Spina Bifida (SB) were compared to typically developing infants (TD) using a conjugate reinforcement paradigm at 6 months-of-age (n = 98) to evaluate learning, and retention of a sensory-motor contingency. Analyses evaluated infant arm-waving rates at baseline (wrist not tethered to mobile), during acquisition of the sensory-motor contingency (wrist tethered), and immediately after the acquisition phase and then after a delay (wrist not tethered), controlling for arm reaching ability, gestational age, and socioeconomic status. Although both groups responded to the contingency with increased arm-waving from baseline to acquisition, 15% to 29% fewer infants with SB than TD were found to learn the contingency depending on the criterion used to determine contingency learning. In addition, infants with SB who had learned the contingency had more difficulty retaining the contingency over time when sensory feedback was absent. The findings suggest that infants with SB do not learn motor contingencies as easily or at the same rate as TD infants, and are more likely to decrease motor responses when sensory feedback is absent. Results are discussed with reference to research on contingency learning in infants with and without neurodevelopmental disorders, and with reference to motor learning in school-age children with SB.

Perceptual learning in sensorimotor adaptation.

PubMed

Darainy, Mohammad; Vahdat, Shahabeddin; Ostry, David J

2013-11-01

Motor learning often involves situations in which the somatosensory targets of movement are, at least initially, poorly defined, as for example, in learning to speak or learning the feel of a proper tennis serve. Under these conditions, motor skill acquisition presumably requires perceptual as well as motor learning. That is, it engages both the progressive shaping of sensory targets and associated changes in motor performance. In the present study, we test the idea that perceptual learning alters somatosensory function and in so doing produces changes to human motor performance and sensorimotor adaptation. Subjects in these experiments undergo perceptual training in which a robotic device passively moves the subject's arm on one of a set of fan-shaped trajectories. Subjects are required to indicate whether the robot moved the limb to the right or the left and feedback is provided. Over the course of training both the perceptual boundary and acuity are altered. The perceptual learning is observed to improve both the rate and extent of learning in a subsequent sensorimotor adaptation task and the benefits persist for at least 24 h. The improvement in the present studies varies systematically with changes in perceptual acuity and is obtained regardless of whether the perceptual boundary shift serves to systematically increase or decrease error on subsequent movements. The beneficial effects of perceptual training are found to be substantially dependent on reinforced decision-making in the sensory domain. Passive-movement training on its own is less able to alter subsequent learning in the motor system. Overall, this study suggests perceptual learning plays an integral role in motor learning.

Changes in the neural control of a complex motor sequence during learning

PubMed Central

Otchy, Timothy M.; Goldberg, Jesse H.; Aronov, Dmitriy; Fee, Michale S.

2011-01-01

The acquisition of complex motor sequences often proceeds through trial-and-error learning, requiring the deliberate exploration of motor actions and the concomitant evaluation of the resulting performance. Songbirds learn their song in this manner, producing highly variable vocalizations as juveniles. As the song improves, vocal variability is gradually reduced until it is all but eliminated in adult birds. In the present study we examine how the motor program underlying such a complex motor behavior evolves during learning by recording from the robust nucleus of the arcopallium (RA), a motor cortex analog brain region. In young birds, neurons in RA exhibited highly variable firing patterns that throughout development became more precise, sparse, and bursty. We further explored how the developing motor program in RA is shaped by its two main inputs: LMAN, the output nucleus of a basal ganglia-forebrain circuit, and HVC, a premotor nucleus. Pharmacological inactivation of LMAN during singing made the song-aligned firing patterns of RA neurons adultlike in their stereotypy without dramatically affecting the spike statistics or the overall firing patterns. Removing the input from HVC, on the other hand, resulted in a complete loss of stereotypy of both the song and the underlying motor program. Thus our results show that a basal ganglia-forebrain circuit drives motor exploration required for trial-and-error learning by adding variability to the developing motor program. As learning proceeds and the motor circuits mature, the relative contribution of LMAN is reduced, allowing the premotor input from HVC to drive an increasingly stereotyped song. PMID:21543758

Cathodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Over Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Area Promotes Implicit Motor Learning in a Golf Putting Task.

PubMed

Zhu, Frank F; Yeung, Andrew Y; Poolton, Jamie M; Lee, Tatia M C; Leung, Gilberto K K; Masters, Rich S W

2015-01-01

Implicit motor learning is characterized by low dependence on working memory and stable performance despite stress, fatigue, or multi-tasking. However, current paradigms for implicit motor learning are based on behavioral interventions that are often task-specific and limited when applied in practice. To investigate whether cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) area during motor learning suppressed working memory activity and reduced explicit verbal-analytical involvement in movement control, thereby promoting implicit motor learning. Twenty-seven healthy individuals practiced a golf putting task during a Training Phase while receiving either real cathodal tDCS stimulation over the left DLPFC area or sham stimulation. Their performance was assessed during a Test phase on another day. Verbal working memory capacity was assessed before and after the Training Phase, and before the Test Phase. Compared to sham stimulation, real stimulation suppressed verbal working memory activity after the Training Phase, but enhanced golf putting performance during the Training Phase and the Test Phase, especially when participants were required to multi-task. Cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC may foster implicit motor learning and performance in complex real-life motor tasks that occur during sports, surgery or motor rehabilitation. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Disentangling perceptual from motor implicit sequence learning with a serial color-matching task.

PubMed

Gheysen, Freja; Gevers, Wim; De Schutter, Erik; Van Waelvelde, Hilde; Fias, Wim

2009-08-01

This paper contributes to the domain of implicit sequence learning by presenting a new version of the serial reaction time (SRT) task that allows unambiguously separating perceptual from motor learning. Participants matched the colors of three small squares with the color of a subsequently presented large target square. An identical sequential structure was tied to the colors of the target square (perceptual version, Experiment 1) or to the manual responses (motor version, Experiment 2). Short blocks of sequenced and randomized trials alternated and hence provided a continuous monitoring of the learning process. Reaction time measurements demonstrated clear evidence of independently learning perceptual and motor serial information, though revealed different time courses between both learning processes. No explicit awareness of the serial structure was needed for either of the two types of learning to occur. The paradigm introduced in this paper evidenced that perceptual learning can occur with SRT measurements and opens important perspectives for future imaging studies to answer the ongoing question, which brain areas are involved in the implicit learning of modality specific (motor vs. perceptual) or general serial order.

Motor Synergies and the Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis

PubMed Central

Latash, Mark L.

2010-01-01

The article offers a way to unite three recent developments in the field of motor control and coordination: (1) The notion of synergies is introduced based on the principle of motor abundance; (2) The uncontrolled manifold hypothesis is described as offering a computational framework to identify and quantify synergies; and (3) The equilibrium-point hypothesis is described for a single muscle, single joint, and multi-joint systems. Merging these concepts into a single coherent scheme requires focusing on control variables rather than performance variables. The principle of minimal final action is formulated as the guiding principle within the referent configuration hypothesis. Motor actions are associated with setting two types of variables by a controller, those that ultimately define average performance patterns and those that define associated synergies. Predictions of the suggested scheme are reviewed, such as the phenomenon of anticipatory synergy adjustments, quick actions without changes in synergies, atypical synergies, and changes in synergies with practice. A few models are briefly reviewed. PMID:20702893

Motor synergies and the equilibrium-point hypothesis.

PubMed

Latash, Mark L

2010-07-01

The article offers a way to unite three recent developments in the field of motor control and coordination: (1) The notion of synergies is introduced based on the principle of motor abundance; (2) The uncontrolled manifold hypothesis is described as offering a computational framework to identify and quantify synergies; and (3) The equilibrium-point hypothesis is described for a single muscle, single joint, and multijoint systems. Merging these concepts into a single coherent scheme requires focusing on control variables rather than performance variables. The principle of minimal final action is formulated as the guiding principle within the referent configuration hypothesis. Motor actions are associated with setting two types of variables by a controller, those that ultimately define average performance patterns and those that define associated synergies. Predictions of the suggested scheme are reviewed, such as the phenomenon of anticipatory synergy adjustments, quick actions without changes in synergies, atypical synergies, and changes in synergies with practice. A few models are briefly reviewed.

Reduced asymmetry in motor skill learning in left-handed compared to right-handed individuals.

PubMed

McGrath, Robert L; Kantak, Shailesh S

2016-02-01

Hemispheric specialization for motor control influences how individuals perform and adapt to goal-directed movements. In contrast to adaptation, motor skill learning involves a process wherein one learns to synthesize novel movement capabilities in absence of perturbation such that they are performed with greater accuracy, consistency and efficiency. Here, we investigated manual asymmetry in acquisition and retention of a complex motor skill that requires speed and accuracy for optimal performance in right-handed and left-handed individuals. We further determined if degree of handedness influences motor skill learning. Ten right-handed (RH) and 10 left-handed (LH) adults practiced two distinct motor skills with their dominant or nondominant arms during separate sessions two-four weeks apart. Learning was quantified by changes in the speed-accuracy tradeoff function measured at baseline and one-day retention. Manual asymmetry was evident in the RH group but not the LH group. RH group demonstrated significantly greater skill improvement for their dominant-right hand than their nondominant-left hand. In contrast, for the LH group, both dominant and nondominant hands demonstrated comparable learning. Less strongly-LH individuals (lower EHI scores) exhibited more learning of their dominant hand. These results suggest that while hemispheric specialization influences motor skill learning, these effects may be influenced by handedness. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The basal ganglia is necessary for learning spectral, but not temporal features of birdsong

PubMed Central

Ali, Farhan; Fantana, Antoniu L.; Burak, Yoram; Ölveczky, Bence P.

2013-01-01

Executing a motor skill requires the brain to control which muscles to activate at what times. How these aspects of control - motor implementation and timing - are acquired, and whether the learning processes underlying them differ, is not well understood. To address this we used a reinforcement learning paradigm to independently manipulate both spectral and temporal features of birdsong, a complex learned motor sequence, while recording and perturbing activity in underlying circuits. Our results uncovered a striking dissociation in how neural circuits underlie learning in the two domains. The basal ganglia was required for modifying spectral, but not temporal structure. This functional dissociation extended to the descending motor pathway, where recordings from a premotor cortex analogue nucleus reflected changes to temporal, but not spectral structure. Our results reveal a strategy in which the nervous system employs different and largely independent circuits to learn distinct aspects of a motor skill. PMID:24075977

Changes in visual and sensory-motor resting-state functional connectivity support motor learning by observing.

PubMed

McGregor, Heather R; Gribble, Paul L

2015-07-01

Motor learning occurs not only through direct first-hand experience but also through observation (Mattar AA, Gribble PL. Neuron 46: 153-160, 2005). When observing the actions of others, we activate many of the same brain regions involved in performing those actions ourselves (Malfait N, Valyear KF, Culham JC, Anton JL, Brown LE, Gribble PL. J Cogn Neurosci 22: 1493-1503, 2010). Links between neural systems for vision and action have been reported in neurophysiological (Strafella AP, Paus T. Neuroreport 11: 2289-2292, 2000; Watkins KE, Strafella AP, Paus T. Neuropsychologia 41: 989-994, 2003), brain imaging (Buccino G, Binkofski F, Fink GR, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Seitz RJ, Zilles K, Rizzolatti G, Freund HJ. Eur J Neurosci 13: 400-404, 2001; Iacoboni M, Woods RP, Brass M, Bekkering H, Mazziotta JC, Rizzolatti G. Science 286: 2526-2528, 1999), and eye tracking (Flanagan JR, Johansson RS. Nature 424: 769-771, 2003) studies. Here we used a force field learning paradigm coupled with resting-state fMRI to investigate the brain areas involved in motor learning by observing. We examined changes in resting-state functional connectivity (FC) after an observational learning task and found a network consisting of V5/MT, cerebellum, and primary motor and somatosensory cortices in which changes in FC were correlated with the amount of motor learning achieved through observation, as assessed behaviorally after resting-state fMRI scans. The observed FC changes in this network are not due to visual attention to motion or observation of movement errors but rather are specifically linked to motor learning. These results support the idea that brain networks linking action observation and motor control also facilitate motor learning. Copyright © 2015 the American Physiological Society.

Changes in visual and sensory-motor resting-state functional connectivity support motor learning by observing

PubMed Central

McGregor, Heather R.

2015-01-01

Motor learning occurs not only through direct first-hand experience but also through observation (Mattar AA, Gribble PL. Neuron 46: 153–160, 2005). When observing the actions of others, we activate many of the same brain regions involved in performing those actions ourselves (Malfait N, Valyear KF, Culham JC, Anton JL, Brown LE, Gribble PL. J Cogn Neurosci 22: 1493–1503, 2010). Links between neural systems for vision and action have been reported in neurophysiological (Strafella AP, Paus T. Neuroreport 11: 2289–2292, 2000; Watkins KE, Strafella AP, Paus T. Neuropsychologia 41: 989–994, 2003), brain imaging (Buccino G, Binkofski F, Fink GR, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Seitz RJ, Zilles K, Rizzolatti G, Freund HJ. Eur J Neurosci 13: 400–404, 2001; Iacoboni M, Woods RP, Brass M, Bekkering H, Mazziotta JC, Rizzolatti G. Science 286: 2526–2528, 1999), and eye tracking (Flanagan JR, Johansson RS. Nature 424: 769–771, 2003) studies. Here we used a force field learning paradigm coupled with resting-state fMRI to investigate the brain areas involved in motor learning by observing. We examined changes in resting-state functional connectivity (FC) after an observational learning task and found a network consisting of V5/MT, cerebellum, and primary motor and somatosensory cortices in which changes in FC were correlated with the amount of motor learning achieved through observation, as assessed behaviorally after resting-state fMRI scans. The observed FC changes in this network are not due to visual attention to motion or observation of movement errors but rather are specifically linked to motor learning. These results support the idea that brain networks linking action observation and motor control also facilitate motor learning. PMID:25995349

Laterality effects in motor learning by mental practice in right-handers.

PubMed

Gentili, R J; Papaxanthis, C

2015-06-25

Converging evidences suggest that mental movement simulation and actual movement production share similar neurocognitive and learning processes. Although a large body of data is available in the literature regarding mental states involving the dominant arm, examinations for the nondominant arm are sparse. Does mental training, through motor-imagery practice, with the dominant arm or the nondominant arm is equally efficient for motor learning? In the current study, we investigated laterality effects in motor learning by motor-imagery practice. Four groups of right-hander adults mentally and physically performed as fast and accurately as possible (speed/accuracy trade-off paradigm) successive reaching movements with their dominant or nondominant arm (physical-training-dominant-arm, mental-training-dominant-arm, physical-training-nondominant-arm, and mental-training-nondominant-arm groups). Movement time was recorded and analyzed before, during, and after the training sessions. We found that physical and mental practice had a positive effect on the motor performance (i.e., decrease in movement time) of both arms through similar learning process (i.e., similar exponential learning curves). However, movement time reduction in the posttest session was significantly higher after physical practice than motor-imagery practice for both arms. More importantly, motor-imagery practice with the dominant arm resulted in larger and more robust improvements in movement speed compared to motor-imagery practice with the nondominant arm. No such improvements were observed in the control group. Our results suggest a superiority of the dominant arm in motor learning by mental practice. We discussed these findings from the perspective of the internal models theory. Copyright © 2015 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Exploration of joint redundancy but not task space variability facilitates supervised motor learning.

PubMed

Singh, Puneet; Jana, Sumitash; Ghosal, Ashitava; Murthy, Aditya

2016-12-13

The number of joints and muscles in a human arm is more than what is required for reaching to a desired point in 3D space. Although previous studies have emphasized how such redundancy and the associated flexibility may play an important role in path planning, control of noise, and optimization of motion, whether and how redundancy might promote motor learning has not been investigated. In this work, we quantify redundancy space and investigate its significance and effect on motor learning. We propose that a larger redundancy space leads to faster learning across subjects. We observed this pattern in subjects learning novel kinematics (visuomotor adaptation) and dynamics (force-field adaptation). Interestingly, we also observed differences in the redundancy space between the dominant hand and nondominant hand that explained differences in the learning of dynamics. Taken together, these results provide support for the hypothesis that redundancy aids in motor learning and that the redundant component of motor variability is not noise.

Exploration of joint redundancy but not task space variability facilitates supervised motor learning

PubMed Central

Singh, Puneet; Jana, Sumitash; Ghosal, Ashitava; Murthy, Aditya

2016-01-01

The number of joints and muscles in a human arm is more than what is required for reaching to a desired point in 3D space. Although previous studies have emphasized how such redundancy and the associated flexibility may play an important role in path planning, control of noise, and optimization of motion, whether and how redundancy might promote motor learning has not been investigated. In this work, we quantify redundancy space and investigate its significance and effect on motor learning. We propose that a larger redundancy space leads to faster learning across subjects. We observed this pattern in subjects learning novel kinematics (visuomotor adaptation) and dynamics (force-field adaptation). Interestingly, we also observed differences in the redundancy space between the dominant hand and nondominant hand that explained differences in the learning of dynamics. Taken together, these results provide support for the hypothesis that redundancy aids in motor learning and that the redundant component of motor variability is not noise. PMID:27911808

A Preliminary Comparison of Motor Learning Across Different Non-invasive Brain Stimulation Paradigms Shows No Consistent Modulations.

PubMed

Lopez-Alonso, Virginia; Liew, Sook-Lei; Fernández Del Olmo, Miguel; Cheeran, Binith; Sandrini, Marco; Abe, Mitsunari; Cohen, Leonardo G

2018-01-01

Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has been widely explored as a way to safely modulate brain activity and alter human performance for nearly three decades. Research using NIBS has grown exponentially within the last decade with promising results across a variety of clinical and healthy populations. However, recent work has shown high inter-individual variability and a lack of reproducibility of previous results. Here, we conducted a small preliminary study to explore the effects of three of the most commonly used excitatory NIBS paradigms over the primary motor cortex (M1) on motor learning (Sequential Visuomotor Isometric Pinch Force Tracking Task) and secondarily relate changes in motor learning to changes in cortical excitability (MEP amplitude and SICI). We compared anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), paired associative stimulation (PAS 25 ), and intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), along with a sham tDCS control condition. Stimulation was applied prior to motor learning. Participants ( n = 28) were randomized into one of the four groups and were trained on a skilled motor task. Motor learning was measured immediately after training (online), 1 day after training (consolidation), and 1 week after training (retention). We did not find consistent differential effects on motor learning or cortical excitability across groups. Within the boundaries of our small sample sizes, we then assessed effect sizes across the NIBS groups that could help power future studies. These results, which require replication with larger samples, are consistent with previous reports of small and variable effect sizes of these interventions on motor learning.

A Preliminary Comparison of Motor Learning Across Different Non-invasive Brain Stimulation Paradigms Shows No Consistent Modulations

PubMed Central

Lopez-Alonso, Virginia; Liew, Sook-Lei; Fernández del Olmo, Miguel; Cheeran, Binith; Sandrini, Marco; Abe, Mitsunari; Cohen, Leonardo G.

2018-01-01

Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has been widely explored as a way to safely modulate brain activity and alter human performance for nearly three decades. Research using NIBS has grown exponentially within the last decade with promising results across a variety of clinical and healthy populations. However, recent work has shown high inter-individual variability and a lack of reproducibility of previous results. Here, we conducted a small preliminary study to explore the effects of three of the most commonly used excitatory NIBS paradigms over the primary motor cortex (M1) on motor learning (Sequential Visuomotor Isometric Pinch Force Tracking Task) and secondarily relate changes in motor learning to changes in cortical excitability (MEP amplitude and SICI). We compared anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), paired associative stimulation (PAS25), and intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), along with a sham tDCS control condition. Stimulation was applied prior to motor learning. Participants (n = 28) were randomized into one of the four groups and were trained on a skilled motor task. Motor learning was measured immediately after training (online), 1 day after training (consolidation), and 1 week after training (retention). We did not find consistent differential effects on motor learning or cortical excitability across groups. Within the boundaries of our small sample sizes, we then assessed effect sizes across the NIBS groups that could help power future studies. These results, which require replication with larger samples, are consistent with previous reports of small and variable effect sizes of these interventions on motor learning. PMID:29740271

Changes in Cerebral Hemodynamics during Complex Motor Learning by Character Entry into Touch-Screen Terminals.

PubMed

Sagari, Akira; Iso, Naoki; Moriuchi, Takefumi; Ogahara, Kakuya; Kitajima, Eiji; Tanaka, Koji; Tabira, Takayuki; Higashi, Toshio

2015-01-01

Studies of cerebral hemodynamics during motor learning have mostly focused on neurorehabilitation interventions and their effectiveness. However, only a few imaging studies of motor learning and the underlying complex cognitive processes have been performed. We measured cerebral hemodynamics using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in relation to acquisition patterns of motor skills in healthy subjects using character entry into a touch-screen terminal. Twenty healthy, right-handed subjects who had no previous experience with character entry using a touch-screen terminal participated in this study. They were asked to enter the characters of a randomly formed Japanese syllabary into the touch-screen terminal. All subjects performed the task with their right thumb for 15 s alternating with 25 s of rest for 30 repetitions. Performance was calculated by subtracting the number of incorrect answers from the number of correct answers, and gains in motor skills were evaluated according to the changes in performance across cycles. Behavioral and oxygenated hemoglobin concentration changes across task cycles were analyzed using Spearman's rank correlations. Performance correlated positively with task cycle, thus confirming motor learning. Hemodynamic activation over the left sensorimotor cortex (SMC) showed a positive correlation with task cycle, whereas activations over the right prefrontal cortex (PFC) and supplementary motor area (SMA) showed negative correlations. We suggest that increases in finger momentum with motor learning are reflected in the activity of the left SMC. We further speculate that the right PFC and SMA were activated during the early phases of motor learning, and that this activity was attenuated with learning progress.

Course 3: Modelling Motor Protein Systems

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Duke, T.

Contents 1 Making a move: Principles of energy transduction 1.1 Motor proteins and Carnot engines 1.2 Simple Brownian ratchet 1.3 Polymerization ratchet 1.4 Isothermal ratchets 1.5 Motor proteins as isothermal ratchets 1.6 Design principles for effective motors 2 Pulling together: Mechano-chemical model of actomyosin 2.1 Swinging lever-arm model 2.2 Mechano-chemical coupling 2.3 Equivalent isothermal ratchet 2.4 Many motors working together 2.5 Designed to work 2.6 Force-velocity relation 2.7 Dynamical instability and biochemical synchronization 2.8 Transient response ofmuscle 3 Motors at work: Collective properties of motor proteins 3.1 Dynamical instabilities 3.2 Bidirectional movement 3.3 Critical behaviour 3.4 Oscillations 3.5 Dynamic buckling instability 3.6 Undulation of flagella 4 Sense and sensitivity: Mechano-sensation in hearing 4.1 System performance 4.2 Mechano-sensors: Hair bundles 4.3 Active amplification 4.4 Self-tuned criticality 4.5 Motor-driven oscillations 4.6 Channel compliance and relaxation oscillations 4.7 Channel-driven oscillations 4.8 Hearing at the noise limit

Adaptive, fast walking in a biped robot under neuronal control and learning.

PubMed

Manoonpong, Poramate; Geng, Tao; Kulvicius, Tomas; Porr, Bernd; Wörgötter, Florentin

2007-07-01

Human walking is a dynamic, partly self-stabilizing process relying on the interaction of the biomechanical design with its neuronal control. The coordination of this process is a very difficult problem, and it has been suggested that it involves a hierarchy of levels, where the lower ones, e.g., interactions between muscles and the spinal cord, are largely autonomous, and where higher level control (e.g., cortical) arises only pointwise, as needed. This requires an architecture of several nested, sensori-motor loops where the walking process provides feedback signals to the walker's sensory systems, which can be used to coordinate its movements. To complicate the situation, at a maximal walking speed of more than four leg-lengths per second, the cycle period available to coordinate all these loops is rather short. In this study we present a planar biped robot, which uses the design principle of nested loops to combine the self-stabilizing properties of its biomechanical design with several levels of neuronal control. Specifically, we show how to adapt control by including online learning mechanisms based on simulated synaptic plasticity. This robot can walk with a high speed (>3.0 leg length/s), self-adapting to minor disturbances, and reacting in a robust way to abruptly induced gait changes. At the same time, it can learn walking on different terrains, requiring only few learning experiences. This study shows that the tight coupling of physical with neuronal control, guided by sensory feedback from the walking pattern itself, combined with synaptic learning may be a way forward to better understand and solve coordination problems in other complex motor tasks.

Links between motor control and classroom behaviors: Moderation by low birth weight

PubMed Central

Razza, Rachel A.; Martin, Anne; Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne

2016-01-01

It is unclear from past research on effortful control whether one of its components, motor control, independently contributes to adaptive classroom behaviors. The goal of this study was to identify associations between early motor control, measured by the walk-a-line task at age 3, and teacher-reported learning-related behaviors (approaches to learning and attention problems) and behavior problems in kindergarten classrooms. Models tested whether children who were vulnerable to poorer learning behaviors and more behavior problems due to having been born low birth weight benefited more, less, or the same as other children from better motor control. Data were drawn from the national Fragile Families and Child-Wellbeing Study (n = 751). Regression models indicated that motor control was significantly associated with better approaches to learning and fewer behavior problems. Children who were low birth weight benefitted more than normal birth weight children from better motor control with respect to their approaches to learning, but equally with respect to behavior problems. Additionally, for low but not normal birth weight children, better motor control predicted fewer attention problems. These findings suggest that motor control follows a compensatory model of development for low birth weight children and classroom behaviors. PMID:27594776

Habituation in non-neural organisms: evidence from slime moulds.

PubMed

Boisseau, Romain P; Vogel, David; Dussutour, Audrey

2016-04-27

Learning, defined as a change in behaviour evoked by experience, has hitherto been investigated almost exclusively in multicellular neural organisms. Evidence for learning in non-neural multicellular organisms is scant, and only a few unequivocal reports of learning have been described in single-celled organisms. Here we demonstrate habituation, an unmistakable form of learning, in the non-neural organism Physarum polycephalum In our experiment, using chemotaxis as the behavioural output and quinine or caffeine as the stimulus, we showed that P. polycephalum learnt to ignore quinine or caffeine when the stimuli were repeated, but responded again when the stimulus was withheld for a certain time. Our results meet the principle criteria that have been used to demonstrate habituation: responsiveness decline and spontaneous recovery. To distinguish habituation from sensory adaptation or motor fatigue, we also show stimulus specificity. Our results point to the diversity of organisms lacking neurons, which likely display a hitherto unrecognized capacity for learning, and suggest that slime moulds may be an ideal model system in which to investigate fundamental mechanisms underlying learning processes. Besides, documenting learning in non-neural organisms such as slime moulds is centrally important to a comprehensive, phylogenetic understanding of when and where in the tree of life the earliest manifestations of learning evolved. © 2016 The Author(s).

Habituation in non-neural organisms: evidence from slime moulds

PubMed Central

Boisseau, Romain P.; Vogel, David; Dussutour, Audrey

2016-01-01

Learning, defined as a change in behaviour evoked by experience, has hitherto been investigated almost exclusively in multicellular neural organisms. Evidence for learning in non-neural multicellular organisms is scant, and only a few unequivocal reports of learning have been described in single-celled organisms. Here we demonstrate habituation, an unmistakable form of learning, in the non-neural organism Physarum polycephalum. In our experiment, using chemotaxis as the behavioural output and quinine or caffeine as the stimulus, we showed that P. polycephalum learnt to ignore quinine or caffeine when the stimuli were repeated, but responded again when the stimulus was withheld for a certain time. Our results meet the principle criteria that have been used to demonstrate habituation: responsiveness decline and spontaneous recovery. To distinguish habituation from sensory adaptation or motor fatigue, we also show stimulus specificity. Our results point to the diversity of organisms lacking neurons, which likely display a hitherto unrecognized capacity for learning, and suggest that slime moulds may be an ideal model system in which to investigate fundamental mechanisms underlying learning processes. Besides, documenting learning in non-neural organisms such as slime moulds is centrally important to a comprehensive, phylogenetic understanding of when and where in the tree of life the earliest manifestations of learning evolved. PMID:27122563

Educating the adult brain: How the neuroscience of learning can inform educational policy

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Knowland, Victoria C. P.; Thomas, Michael S. C.

2014-05-01

The acquisition of new skills in adulthood can positively affect an individual's quality of life, including their earning potential. In some cases, such as the learning of literacy in developing countries, it can provide an avenue to escape from poverty. In developed countries, job retraining in adulthood contributes to the flexibility of labour markets. For all adults, learning opportunities increase participation in society and family life. However, the popular view is that adults are less able to learn for an intrinsic reason: their brains are less plastic than in childhood. This article reviews what is currently known from neuroscientific research about how brain plasticity changes with age, with a particular focus on the ability to acquire new skills in adulthood. Anchoring their review in the examples of the adult acquisition of literacy and new motor skills, the authors address five specific questions: (1) Are sensitive periods in brain development relevant to learning complex educational skills like literacy? (2) Can adults become proficient in a new skill? (3) Can everyone learn equally effectively in adulthood? (4) What is the role of the learning environment? (5) Does adult education cost too much? They identify areas where further research is needed and conclude with a summary of principles for enhancing adult learning now established on a neuroscience foundation.

Region and task-specific activation of Arc in primary motor cortex of rats following motor skill learning.

PubMed

Hosp, J A; Mann, S; Wegenast-Braun, B M; Calhoun, M E; Luft, A R

2013-10-10

Motor learning requires protein synthesis within the primary motor cortex (M1). Here, we show that the immediate early gene Arc/Arg3.1 is specifically induced in M1 by learning a motor skill. Arc mRNA was quantified using a fluorescent in situ hybridization assay in adult Long-Evans rats learning a skilled reaching task (SRT), in rats performing reaching-like forelimb movement without learning (ACT) and in rats that were trained in the operant but not the motor elements of the task (controls). Apart from M1, Arc expression was assessed within the rostral motor area (RMA), primary somatosensory cortex (S1), striatum (ST) and cerebellum. In SRT animals, Arc mRNA levels in M1 contralateral to the trained limb were 31% higher than ipsilateral (p<0.001), 31% higher than in the contralateral M1 of ACT animals (p<0.001) and 48% higher than in controls (p<0.001). Arc mRNA expression in SRT was positively correlated with learning success between two sessions (r=0.52; p=0.026). For RMA, S1, ST or cerebellum no significant differences in Arc mRNA expression were found between hemispheres or across behaviors. As Arc expression has been related to different forms of cellular plasticity, these findings suggest a link between M1 Arc expression and motor skill learning in rats. Copyright © 2013 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sub-processes of motor learning revealed by a robotic manipulandum for rodents.

PubMed

Lambercy, O; Schubring-Giese, M; Vigaru, B; Gassert, R; Luft, A R; Hosp, J A

2015-02-01

Rodent models are widely used to investigate neural changes in response to motor learning. Usually, the behavioral readout of motor learning tasks used for this purpose is restricted to a binary measure of performance (i.e. "successful" movement vs. "failure"). Thus, the assignability of research in rodents to concepts gained in human research - implying diverse internal models that constitute motor learning - is still limited. To solve this problem, we recently introduced a three-degree-of-freedom robotic platform designed for rats (the ETH-Pattus) that combines an accurate behavioral readout (in the form of kinematics) with the possibility to invasively assess learning related changes within the brain (e.g. by performing immunohistochemistry or electrophysiology in acute slice preparations). Here, we validate this platform as a tool to study motor learning by establishing two forelimb-reaching paradigms that differ in degree of skill. Both conditions can be precisely differentiated in terms of their temporal pattern and performance levels. Based on behavioral data, we hypothesize the presence of several sub-processes contributing to motor learning. These share close similarities with concepts gained in humans or primates. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Plasticity in the Human Speech Motor System Drives Changes in Speech Perception

PubMed Central

Lametti, Daniel R.; Rochet-Capellan, Amélie; Neufeld, Emily; Shiller, Douglas M.

2014-01-01

Recent studies of human speech motor learning suggest that learning is accompanied by changes in auditory perception. But what drives the perceptual change? Is it a consequence of changes in the motor system? Or is it a result of sensory inflow during learning? Here, subjects participated in a speech motor-learning task involving adaptation to altered auditory feedback and they were subsequently tested for perceptual change. In two separate experiments, involving two different auditory perceptual continua, we show that changes in the speech motor system that accompany learning drive changes in auditory speech perception. Specifically, we obtained changes in speech perception when adaptation to altered auditory feedback led to speech production that fell into the phonetic range of the speech perceptual tests. However, a similar change in perception was not observed when the auditory feedback that subjects' received during learning fell into the phonetic range of the perceptual tests. This indicates that the central motor outflow associated with vocal sensorimotor adaptation drives changes to the perceptual classification of speech sounds. PMID:25080594

Untrivial Pursuit: Measuring Motor Procedures Learning in Children with Autism.

PubMed

Sparaci, Laura; Formica, Domenico; Lasorsa, Francesca Romana; Mazzone, Luigi; Valeri, Giovanni; Vicari, Stefano

2015-08-01

Numerous studies have underscored prevalence of motor impairments in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but only few of them have analyzed motor strategies exploited by ASD children when learning a new motor procedure. To evaluate motor procedure learning and performance strategies in both ASD and typically developing (TD) children, we built a virtual pursuit rotor (VPR) task, requiring tracking a moving target on a computer screen using a digitalized pen and tablet. Procedural learning was measured as increased time on target (TT) across blocks of trials on the same day and consolidation was assessed after a 24-hour rest. The program and the experimental setting (evaluated in a first experiment considering two groups of TD children) allowed also measures of continuous time on target (CTT), distance from target (DT) and distance from path (DP), as well as 2D reconstructions of children's trajectories. Results showed that the VPR was harder for children with ASD than for TD controls matched for chronological age and intelligence quotient, but both groups displayed comparable motor procedure learning (i.e., similarly incremented their TT). However, closer analysis of CTT, DT, and DP as well as 2D trajectories, showed different motor performance strategies in ASD, highlighting difficulties in overall actions planning. Data underscore the need for deeper investigations of motor strategies exploited by children with ASD when learning a new motor procedure. © 2015 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Speech Motor Sequence Learning: Effect of Parkinson Disease and Normal Aging on Dual-Task Performance.

PubMed

Whitfield, Jason A; Goberman, Alexander M

2017-06-22

Everyday communication is carried out concurrently with other tasks. Therefore, determining how dual tasks interfere with newly learned speech motor skills can offer insight into the cognitive mechanisms underlying speech motor learning in Parkinson disease (PD). The current investigation examines a recently learned speech motor sequence under dual-task conditions. A previously learned sequence of 6 monosyllabic nonwords was examined using a dual-task paradigm. Participants repeated the sequence while concurrently performing a visuomotor task, and performance on both tasks was measured in single- and dual-task conditions. The younger adult group exhibited little to no dual-task interference on the accuracy and duration of the sequence. The older adult group exhibited variability in dual-task costs, with the group as a whole exhibiting an intermediate, though significant, amount of dual-task interference. The PD group exhibited the largest degree of bidirectional dual-task interference among all the groups. These data suggest that PD affects the later stages of speech motor learning, as the dual-task condition interfered with production of the recently learned sequence beyond the effect of normal aging. Because the basal ganglia is critical for the later stages of motor sequence learning, the observed deficits may result from the underlying neural dysfunction associated with PD.

Motor Contingency Learning and Infants with Spina Bifida

PubMed Central

Taylor, Heather B.; Barnes, Marcia A.; Landry, Susan H.; Swank, Paul; Fletcher, Jack M.; Huang, Furong

2014-01-01

Infants with Spina Bifida (SB) were compared to typically developing infants (TD) using a conjugate reinforcement paradigm at 6 months-of-age (n = 98) to evaluate learning, and retention of a sensory-motor contingency. Analyses evaluated infant arm-waving rates at baseline (wrist not tethered to mobile), during acquisition of the sensory-motor contingency (wrist tethered), and immediately after the acquisition phase and then after a delay (wrist not tethered), controlling for arm reaching ability, gestational age, and socioeconomic status. Although both groups responded to the contingency with increased arm-waving from baseline to acquisition, 15% to 29% fewer infants with SB than TD were found to learn the contingency depending on the criterion used to determine contingency learning. In addition, infants with SB who had learned the contingency had more difficulty retaining the contingency over time when sensory feedback was absent. The findings suggest that infants with SB do not learn motor contingencies as easily or at the same rate as TD infants, and are more likely to decrease motor responses when sensory feedback is absent. Results are discussed with reference to research on contingency learning in infants with and without neurodevelopmental disorders, and with reference to motor learning in school-age children with SB. PMID:23298791

The Diagnosis of Sensory-Motor Disabilities.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Zaeske, Arnold

The importance of motor and perceptual learning in the educational process is discussed. It is hypothesized that an internalization of sensory-motor learnings is important to the perceptual and cognitive development of a child. Developmental and corrective motor training by physical educationalists is suggested. It is concluded that although the…

Motor Learning Enhances Use-Dependent Plasticity

PubMed Central

2017-01-01

Motor behaviors are shaped not only by current sensory signals but also by the history of recent experiences. For instance, repeated movements toward a particular target bias the subsequent movements toward that target direction. This process, called use-dependent plasticity (UDP), is considered a basic and goal-independent way of forming motor memories. Most studies consider movement history as the critical component that leads to UDP (Classen et al., 1998; Verstynen and Sabes, 2011). However, the effects of learning (i.e., improved performance) on UDP during movement repetition have not been investigated. Here, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation in two experiments to assess plasticity changes occurring in the primary motor cortex after individuals repeated reinforced and nonreinforced actions. The first experiment assessed whether learning a skill task modulates UDP. We found that a group that successfully learned the skill task showed greater UDP than a group that did not accumulate learning, but made comparable repeated actions. The second experiment aimed to understand the role of reinforcement learning in UDP while controlling for reward magnitude and action kinematics. We found that providing subjects with a binary reward without visual feedback of the cursor led to increased UDP effects. Subjects in the group that received comparable reward not associated with their actions maintained the previously induced UDP. Our findings illustrate how reinforcing consistent actions strengthens use-dependent memories and provide insight into operant mechanisms that modulate plastic changes in the motor cortex. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Performing consistent motor actions induces use-dependent plastic changes in the motor cortex. This plasticity reflects one of the basic forms of human motor learning. Past studies assumed that this form of learning is exclusively affected by repetition of actions. However, here we showed that success-based reinforcement signals could affect the human use-dependent plasticity (UDP) process. Our results indicate that learning augments and interacts with UDP. This effect is important to the understanding of the interplay between the different forms of motor learning and suggests that reinforcement is not only important to learning new behaviors, but can shape our subsequent behavior via its interaction with UDP. PMID:28143961

Peripersonal Space and Margin of Safety around the Body: Learning Visuo-Tactile Associations in a Humanoid Robot with Artificial Skin.

PubMed

Roncone, Alessandro; Hoffmann, Matej; Pattacini, Ugo; Fadiga, Luciano; Metta, Giorgio

2016-01-01

This paper investigates a biologically motivated model of peripersonal space through its implementation on a humanoid robot. Guided by the present understanding of the neurophysiology of the fronto-parietal system, we developed a computational model inspired by the receptive fields of polymodal neurons identified, for example, in brain areas F4 and VIP. The experiments on the iCub humanoid robot show that the peripersonal space representation i) can be learned efficiently and in real-time via a simple interaction with the robot, ii) can lead to the generation of behaviors like avoidance and reaching, and iii) can contribute to the understanding the biological principle of motor equivalence. More specifically, with respect to i) the present model contributes to hypothesizing a learning mechanisms for peripersonal space. In relation to point ii) we show how a relatively simple controller can exploit the learned receptive fields to generate either avoidance or reaching of an incoming stimulus and for iii) we show how the robot can select arbitrary body parts as the controlled end-point of an avoidance or reaching movement.

Mild cognitive impairment affects motor control and skill learning.

PubMed

Wu, Qiaofeng; Chan, John S Y; Yan, Jin H

2016-02-01

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a transitional phase between normal cognitive aging and dementia. As the world population is aging rapidly, more MCI patients will be identified, posing significant problems to society. Normal aging is associated with cognitive and motor decline, and MCI brings additional impairments. Compared to healthy older adults, MCI patients show poorer motor control in a variety of tasks. Efficient motor control and skill learning are essential for occupational and leisure purposes; degradation of motor behaviors in MCI patients often adversely affects their health and quality of life. In this article, we first define MCI and describe its pathology and neural correlates. After this, we review cognitive changes and motor control and skill learning in normal aging. This section is followed by a discussion of MCI-related degradation of motor behaviors. Finally, we propose that multicomponent interventions targeting both cognitive and motor domains can improve MCI patients' motor functions. Future research directions are also raised.

The Effect of an Acute Bout of Moderate-Intensity Aerobic Exercise on Motor Learning of a Continuous Tracking Task

PubMed Central

Snow, Nicholas J.; Mang, Cameron S.; Roig, Marc; Boyd, Lara A.

2016-01-01

Introduction There is evidence for beneficial effects of acute and long-term exercise interventions on several forms of memory, including procedural motor learning. In the present study we examined how performing a single bout of continuous moderate intensity aerobic exercise would impact motor skill acquisition and retention in young healthy adults, compared to a period of rest. We hypothesized that exercise would improve motor skill acquisition and retention, compared to motor practice alone. Materials and Methods Sixteen healthy adults completed sessions of aerobic exercise or seated rest that were immediately followed by practice of a novel motor task (practice). Exercise consisted of 30 minutes of continuous cycling at 60% peak O2 uptake. Twenty-four hours after practice, we assessed motor learning with a no-exercise retention test (retention). We also quantified changes in offline motor memory consolidation, which occurred between practice and retention (offline). Tracking error was separated into indices of temporal precision and spatial accuracy. Results There were no differences between conditions in the timing of movements during practice (p = 0.066), at retention (p = 0.761), or offline (p = 0.966). However, the exercise condition enabled participants to maintain spatial accuracy during practice (p = 0.477); whereas, following rest performance diminished (p = 0.050). There were no significant differences between conditions at retention (p = 0.532) or offline (p = 0.246). Discussion An acute bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise facilitated the maintenance of motor performance during skill acquisition, but did not influence motor learning. Given past work showing that pairing high intensity exercise with skilled motor practice benefits learning, it seems plausible that intensity is a key modulator of the effects of acute aerobic exercise on changes in complex motor behavior. Further work is necessary to establish a dose-response relationship between aerobic exercise and motor learning. PMID:26901664

Consolidating the effects of waking and sleep on motor-sequence learning.

PubMed

Brawn, Timothy P; Fenn, Kimberly M; Nusbaum, Howard C; Margoliash, Daniel

2010-10-20

Sleep is widely believed to play a critical role in memory consolidation. Sleep-dependent consolidation has been studied extensively in humans using an explicit motor-sequence learning paradigm. In this task, performance has been reported to remain stable across wakefulness and improve significantly after sleep, making motor-sequence learning the definitive example of sleep-dependent enhancement. Recent work, however, has shown that enhancement disappears when the task is modified to reduce task-related inhibition that develops over a training session, thus questioning whether sleep actively consolidates motor learning. Here we use the same motor-sequence task to demonstrate sleep-dependent consolidation for motor-sequence learning and explain the discrepancies in results across studies. We show that when training begins in the morning, motor-sequence performance deteriorates across wakefulness and recovers after sleep, whereas performance remains stable across both sleep and subsequent waking with evening training. This pattern of results challenges an influential model of memory consolidation defined by a time-dependent stabilization phase and a sleep-dependent enhancement phase. Moreover, the present results support a new account of the behavioral effects of waking and sleep on explicit motor-sequence learning that is consistent across a wide range of tasks. These observations indicate that current theories of memory consolidation that have been formulated to explain sleep-dependent performance enhancements are insufficient to explain the range of behavioral changes associated with sleep.

Cognitive and Temperament Predictors of Executive Ability: Principles for Developing Leadership Capacity

DTIC Science & Technology

1993-05-01

experience essays. Salmoni, A. W ., Schmidt, R. A., & Walter , C. B. (1985). Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal...Individuals as producers of their own development: A life-span perspective. New York: Academic Press. Tornow , W . W ., & Pinto, P. R. (1976). The development of...0a S C c -0 0 o 0, olt z - 1:.- 6 is a E 3 0: 060 ac g C : a o , ’ V1 0~ ~ OON g ~ ow aa Ab w .2 c C - too U0b 0b a- - 0 0 C O X WE-- 0 c a0 a = Cc

Twelve tips for utilizing principles of learning to support medical education.

PubMed

Cutting, Maris F; Saks, Norma Susswein

2012-01-01

Research in the cognitive sciences on learning and memory conducted across a range of domains, settings, and age groups has resulted in the identification and formulation of a set of generic learning principles. These learning principles have proven relevant and applicable to a wide range of learning situations in a variety of settings, and can be useful in supporting medical education. They can provide guidance to medical students for efficient and effective study, and can be helpful to faculty to support instructional planning and decisions relating to curriculum. This article discusses evidence-based principles of learning and their relationship to effective learning, teaching, pedagogy and curriculum development. We reviewed important principles of learning to determine those most relevant to improving medical student learning, guiding faculty toward more effective teaching, and in designing a curriculum. Our analysis has resulted in the articulation of key learning principles and specific strategies that are broadly applicable to medical school learning, teaching, and instructional planning. The twelve tips highlight principles of learning that can be effectively applied in the complex learning environment of medical education.

Motor Decline in Clinically Presymptomatic Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 Gene Carriers

PubMed Central

Velázquez-Perez, Luis; Díaz, Rosalinda; Pérez-González, Ruth; Canales, Nalia; Rodríguez-Labrada, Roberto; Medrano, Jacquelín; Sánchez, Gilberto; Almaguer-Mederos, Luis; Torres, Cira; Fernandez-Ruiz, Juan

2009-01-01

Background Motor deficits are a critical component of the clinical characteristics of patients with spinocerebellar ataxia type 2. However, there is no current information on the preclinical manifestation of those motor deficits in presymptomatic gene carriers. To further understand and characterize the onset of the clinical manifestation in this disease, we tested presymptomatic spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 gene carriers, and volunteers, in a task that evaluates their motor performance and their motor learning capabilities. Methods and Findings 28 presymptomatic spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 gene carriers and an equal number of control volunteers matched for age and gender participated in the study. Both groups were tested in a prism adaptation task known to be sensible to both motor performance and visuomotor learning deficits. Our results clearly show that although motor learning capabilities are intact, motor performance deficits are present even years before the clinical manifestation of the disease start. Conclusions The results show a clear deficit in motor performance that can be detected years before the clinical onset of the disease. This motor performance deficit appears before any motor learning or clinical manifestations of the disease. These observations identify the performance coefficient as an objective and quantitative physiological biomarker that could be useful to assess the efficiency of different therapeutic agents. PMID:19401771

Learning a stick-balancing task involves task-specific coupling between posture and hand displacements.

PubMed

Cluff, Tyler; Boulet, Jason; Balasubramaniam, Ramesh

2011-08-01

Theories of motor learning argue that the acquisition of novel motor skills requires a task-specific organization of sensory and motor subsystems. We examined task-specific coupling between motor subsystems as subjects learned a novel stick-balancing task. We focused on learning-induced changes in finger movements and body sway and investigated the effect of practice on their coupling. Eight subjects practiced balancing a cylindrical wooden stick for 30 min a day during a 20 day learning period. Finger movements and center of pressure trajectories were recorded in every fifth practice session (4 in total) using a ten camera VICON motion capture system interfaced with two force platforms. Motor learning was quantified using average balancing trial lengths, which increased with practice and confirmed that subjects learned the task. Nonlinear time series and phase space reconstruction methods were subsequently used to investigate changes in the spatiotemporal properties of finger movements, body sway and their progressive coupling. Systematic increases in subsystem coupling were observed despite reduced autocorrelation and differences in the temporal properties of center of pressure and finger trajectories. The average duration of these coupled trajectories increased systematically across the learning period. In short, the abrupt transition between coupled and decoupled subsystem dynamics suggested that stick balancing is regulated by a hierarchical control mechanism that switches from collective to independent control of the finger and center of pressure. In addition to traditional measures of motor performance, dynamical analyses revealed changes in motor subsystem organization that occurred when subjects learned a novel stick-balancing task.

"The effects of family-centered physiotherapy on the cognitive and motor performance in premature infants".

PubMed

Elbasan, Bulent; Kocyigit, Murat Fatih; Soysal-Acar, A Sebnem; Atalay, Yıldız; Gucuyener, Kivilcim

2017-11-01

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of family centered physiotherapy according to the neurodevelopmental treatment (NDT) principles on mental and motor performance in premature infants. A total of 156 infant, ≥24/36 week+6days gestational age included in the study. All the infants were diagnosed by a child neurologist and referred to psychology and physiotherapy department for their neurodevelopmental assessment and treatment. Bayley Scale of Infant II (BSI-II) was used for neurodevelopmental assessment and Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) was used for assessing their motor performance. Seventy-eight of the infants were in the study group and 76 were recruited as age matched controls according to the classification of their gestational age. Family centered physiotherapy according to the neurodevelopmental treatment principles was used as an intervention and all the mothers are trained accordingly. Cognitive Development Scores and Motor Development Scores of Bayley II were recorded for the 3., 6., 9., and 12 months respectively. Between the 3. and 12. month of gestational age, within-groups measurements in both Cognitive Development Scores (p<0.001) and Motor Development Scores (p<0.001) were significantly increased. However, the improvements in both Cognitive Development Scores (p=0.059) and Motor Development Scores (p=0.334) between the groups was not different. Family centered physiotherapy with NDT principles may not be enough to improve motor and cognitive performance in preterm infants at the first year of age. For supporting the motor and cognitive development of the preterm infants other intervention modalities also should be considered. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Reliability of the Motor Learning Strategy Rating Instrument for Children and Youth with Acquired Brain Injury

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kamath, Trishna; Pfeifer, Megan; Banerjee-Guenette, Priyanka; Hunter, Theresa; Ito, Julia; Salbach, Nancy M.; Wright, Virginia; Levac, Danielle

2012-01-01

Purpose: To evaluate reliability and feasibility of the Motor Learning Strategy Rating Instrument (MLSRI) in children with acquired brain injury (ABI). The MLSRI quantifies the extent to which motor learning strategies (MLS) are used within physiotherapy (PT) interventions. Methods: PT sessions conducted by ABI team physiotherapists with a…

Does Sleep Facilitate the Consolidation of Allocentric or Egocentric Representations of Implicitly Learned Visual-Motor Sequence Learning?

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Viczko, Jeremy; Sergeeva, Valya; Ray, Laura B.; Owen, Adrian M.; Fogel, Stuart M.

2018-01-01

Sleep facilitates the consolidation (i.e., enhancement) of simple, explicit (i.e., conscious) motor sequence learning (MSL). MSL can be dissociated into egocentric (i.e., motor) or allocentric (i.e., spatial) frames of reference. The consolidation of the allocentric memory representation is sleep-dependent, whereas the egocentric consolidation…

Temporal course of gene expression during motor memory formation in primary motor cortex of rats.

PubMed

Hertler, B; Buitrago, M M; Luft, A R; Hosp, J A

2016-12-01

Motor learning is associated with plastic reorganization of neural networks in primary motor cortex (M1) that depends on changes in gene expression. Here, we investigate the temporal profile of these changes during motor memory formation in response to a skilled reaching task in rats. mRNA-levels were measured 1h, 7h and 24h after the end of a training session using microarray technique. To assure learning specificity, trained animals were compared to a control group. In response to motor learning, genes are sequentially regulated with high time-point specificity and a shift from initial suppression to later activation. The majority of regulated genes can be linked to learning-related plasticity. In the gene-expression cascade following motor learning, three different steps can be defined: (1) an initial suppression of genes influencing gene transcription. (2) Expression of genes that support translation of mRNA in defined compartments. (3) Expression of genes that immediately mediates plastic changes. Gene expression peaks after 24h - this is a much slower time-course when compared to hippocampus-dependent learning, where peaks of gene-expression can be observed 6-12h after training ended. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Computerized visual feedback: an adjunct to robotic-assisted gait training.

PubMed

Banz, Raphael; Bolliger, Marc; Colombo, Gery; Dietz, Volker; Lünenburger, Lars

2008-10-01

Robotic devices for walking rehabilitation allow new possibilities for providing performance-related information to patients during gait training. Based on motor learning principles, augmented feedback during robotic-assisted gait training might improve the rehabilitation process used to regain walking function. This report presents a method to provide visual feedback implemented in a driven gait orthosis (DGO). The purpose of the study was to compare the immediate effect on motor output in subjects during robotic-assisted gait training when they used computerized visual feedback and when they followed verbal instructions of a physical therapist. Twelve people with neurological gait disorders due to incomplete spinal cord injury participated. Subjects were instructed to walk within the DGO in 2 different conditions. They were asked to increase their motor output by following the instructions of a therapist and by observing visual feedback. In addition, the subjects' opinions about using visual feedback were investigated by a questionnaire. Computerized visual feedback and verbal instructions by the therapist were observed to result in a similar change in motor output in subjects when walking within the DGO. Subjects reported that they were more motivated and concentrated on their movements when using computerized visual feedback compared with when no form of feedback was provided. Computerized visual feedback is a valuable adjunct to robotic-assisted gait training. It represents a relevant tool to increase patients' motor output, involvement, and motivation during gait training, similar to verbal instructions by a therapist.

Executive Function Is Associated With Off-Line Motor Learning in People With Chronic Stroke.

PubMed

Al-Dughmi, Mayis; Al-Sharman, Alham; Stevens, Suzanne; Siengsukon, Catherine F

2017-04-01

Sleep has been shown to promote off-line motor learning in individuals following stroke. Executive function ability has been shown to be a predictor of participation in rehabilitation and motor recovery following stroke. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between executive function and off-line motor learning in individuals with chronic stroke compared with healthy control participants. Seventeen individuals with chronic stroke (>6 months poststroke) and 9 healthy adults were included in the study. Participants underwent 3 consecutive nights of polysomnography, practiced a continuous tracking task the morning of the third day, and underwent a retention test the morning after the third night. Participants underwent testing on 4 executive function tests after the continuous tracking task retention test. Participants with stroke showed a significant positive correlation between the off-line motor learning score and performance on the Trail-Making Test from Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (r = 0.652; P = 0.005), while the healthy control participants did not. Regression analysis showed that the Trail-Making Test-Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System is a significant predictor of off-line motor learning (P = 0.008). This is the first study to demonstrate that better performance on an executive function test of attention and set-shifting predicts a higher magnitude of off-line motor learning in individuals with chronic stroke. This emphasizes the need to consider attention and set-shifting abilities of individuals following stroke as these abilities are associated with motor learning. This in turn could affect learning of activities of daily living and impact functional recovery following stroke.Video Abstract available for more insights from the authors (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A166).

Motor Education: Educational Development Programs.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Tansley, A. E.

This booklet presents educational programs and activities focusing on motor skills for 5- to 9-year-old children and older children with learning problems. The premise of the activities is that the acquisition of motor skills is essential to basic learning. The role of language as a mediator and controller of motor development is emphasized. The…

Dissociable contributions of motor-execution and action-observation to intramanual transfer.

PubMed

Hayes, Spencer J; Elliott, Digby; Andrew, Matthew; Roberts, James W; Bennett, Simon J

2012-09-01

We examined the hypothesis that different processes and representations are associated with the learning of a movement sequence through motor-execution and action-observation. Following a pre-test in which participants attempted to achieve an absolute, and relative, time goal in a sequential goal-directed aiming movement, participants received either physical or observational practice with feedback. Post-test performance indicated that motor-execution and action-observation participants learned equally well. Participants then transferred to conditions where the gain between the limb movements and their visual consequences were manipulated. Under both bigger and smaller transfer conditions, motor-execution and action-observation participants exhibited similar intramanual transfer of absolute timing. However, participants in the action-observation group exhibited superior transfer of relative timing than the motor-execution group. These findings suggest that learning via action-observation is underpinned by a visual-spatial representation, while learning via motor-execution depends more on specific force-time planning (feed forward) and afferent processing associated with sensorimotor feedback. These behavioural effects are discussed with reference to neural processes associated with striatum, cerebellum and motor cortical regions (pre-motor cortex; SMA; pre-SMA).

Cognitive ability predicts motor learning on a virtual reality game in patients with TBI.

PubMed

O'Neil, Rochelle L; Skeel, Reid L; Ustinova, Ksenia I

2013-01-01

Virtual reality games and simulations have been utilized successfully for motor rehabilitation of individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Little is known, however, how TBI-related cognitive decline affects learning of motor tasks in virtual environments. To fill this gap, we examined learning within a virtual reality game involving various reaching motions in 14 patients with TBI and 15 healthy individuals with different cognitive abilities. All participants practiced ten 90-second gaming trials to assess various aspects of motor learning. Cognitive abilities were assessed with a battery of tests including measures of memory, executive functioning, and visuospatial ability. Overall, participants with TBI showed both reduced performance and a slower learning rate in the virtual reality game compared to healthy individuals. Numerous correlations between overall performance and several of the cognitive ability domains were revealed for both the patient and control groups, with the best predictor being overall cognitive ability. The results may provide a starting point for rehabilitation programs regarding which cognitive domains interact with motor learning.

A neural circuit mechanism for regulating vocal variability during song learning in zebra finches.

PubMed

Garst-Orozco, Jonathan; Babadi, Baktash; Ölveczky, Bence P

2014-12-15

Motor skill learning is characterized by improved performance and reduced motor variability. The neural mechanisms that couple skill level and variability, however, are not known. The zebra finch, a songbird, presents a unique opportunity to address this question because production of learned song and induction of vocal variability are instantiated in distinct circuits that converge on a motor cortex analogue controlling vocal output. To probe the interplay between learning and variability, we made intracellular recordings from neurons in this area, characterizing how their inputs from the functionally distinct pathways change throughout song development. We found that inputs that drive stereotyped song-patterns are strengthened and pruned, while inputs that induce variability remain unchanged. A simple network model showed that strengthening and pruning of action-specific connections reduces the sensitivity of motor control circuits to variable input and neural 'noise'. This identifies a simple and general mechanism for learning-related regulation of motor variability.

The Influence of Guided Error-Based Learning on Motor Skills Self-Efficacy and Achievement.

PubMed

Chien, Kuei-Pin; Chen, Sufen

2018-01-01

The authors investigated the role of errors in motor skills teaching, specifically the influence of errors on skills self-efficacy and achievement. The participants were 75 undergraduate students enrolled in pétanque courses. The experimental group (guided error-based learning, n = 37) received a 6-week period of instruction based on the students' errors, whereas the control group (correct motion instruction, n = 38) received a 6-week period of instruction emphasizing correct motor skills. The experimental group had significantly higher scores in motor skills self-efficacy and outcomes than did the control group. Novices' errors reflect their schema in motor skills learning, which provides a basis for instructors to implement student-centered instruction and to facilitate the learning process. Guided error-based learning can effectively enhance beginners' skills self-efficacy and achievement in precision sports such as pétanque.

Circuit mechanisms of sensorimotor learning

PubMed Central

Makino, Hiroshi; Hwang, Eun Jung; Hedrick, Nathan G.; Komiyama, Takaki

2016-01-01

SUMMARY The relationship between the brain and the environment is flexible, forming the foundation for our ability to learn. Here we review the current state of our understanding of the modifications in the sensorimotor pathway related to sensorimotor learning. We divide the process in three hierarchical levels with distinct goals: 1) sensory perceptual learning, 2) sensorimotor associative learning, and 3) motor skill learning. Perceptual learning optimizes the representations of important sensory stimuli. Associative learning and the initial phase of motor skill learning are ensured by feedback-based mechanisms that permit trial-and-error learning. The later phase of motor skill learning may primarily involve feedback-independent mechanisms operating under the classic Hebbian rule. With these changes under distinct constraints and mechanisms, sensorimotor learning establishes dedicated circuitry for the reproduction of stereotyped neural activity patterns and behavior. PMID:27883902

Task-specificity of unilateral anodal and dual-M1 tDCS effects on motor learning.

PubMed

Karok, Sophia; Fletcher, David; Witney, Alice G

2017-01-08

Task-specific effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on motor learning were investigated in 30 healthy participants. In a sham-controlled, mixed design, participants trained on 3 different motor tasks (Purdue Pegboard Test, Visuomotor Grip Force Tracking Task and Visuomotor Wrist Rotation Speed Control Task) over 3 consecutive days while receiving either unilateral anodal over the right primary motor cortex (M1), dual-M1 or sham stimulation. Retention sessions were administered 7 and 28 days after the end of training. In the Purdue Pegboard Test, both anodal and dual-M1 stimulation reduced average completion time approximately equally, an improvement driven by online learning effects and maintained for about 1 week. The Visuomotor Grip Force Tracking Task and the Visuomotor Wrist Rotation Speed Control Task were associated with an advantage of dual-M1 tDCS in consolidation processes both between training sessions and when testing at long-term retention; both were maintained for at least 1 month. This study demonstrates that M1-tDCS enhances and sustains motor learning with different electrode montages. Stimulation-induced effects emerged at different learning phases across the tasks, which strongly suggests that the influence of tDCS on motor learning is dynamic with respect to the functional recruitment of the distributed motor system at the time of stimulation. Divergent findings regarding M1-tDCS effects on motor learning may partially be ascribed to task-specific consequences and the effects of offline consolidation. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The NMDA receptor partial agonist d-cycloserine does not enhance motor learning.

PubMed

Günthner, Jan; Scholl, Jacqueline; Favaron, Elisa; Harmer, Catherine J; Johansen-Berg, Heidi; Reinecke, Andrea

2016-10-01

There has recently been increasing interest in pharmacological manipulations that could potentially enhance exposure-based cognitive behaviour therapy for anxiety disorders. One such medication is the partial NMDA agonist d-cycloserine. It has been suggested that d-cycloserine enhances cognitive behaviour therapy by making learning faster. While animal studies have supported this view of the drug accelerating learning, evidence in human studies has been mixed. We therefore designed an experiment to measure the effects of d-cycloserine on human motor learning. Fifty-four healthy human volunteers were randomly assigned to a single dose of 250mg d-cycloserine versus placebo in a double-blind design. They then performed a motor sequence learning task. D-cycloserine did not increase the speed of motor learning or the overall amount learnt. However, we noted that participants on d-cycloserine tended to respond more carefully (shifting towards slower, but more correct responses). The results suggest that d-cycloserine does not exert beneficial effects on psychological treatments via mechanisms involved in motor learning. Further studies are needed to clarify the influence on other cognitive mechanisms. © The Author(s) 2016.

Principle and Basic Characteristics of a Hybrid Variable-Magnetic-Force Motor

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Sakai, Kazuto; Kuramochi, Satoru

Reduction in the power consumed by motors is important for energy saving in the case of electrical appliances and electric vehicles (EVs). The motors used for operating these devices operate at variable speeds. Further, the motors operate with a small load in the stationary mode and a large load in the starting mode. A permanent magnet motor can be operated at the rated power with a high efficiency. However, the efficiency is low at a small load or at a high speed because the large constant magnetic force results in substantial core loss. Furthermore, the flux-weakening current that decreases the voltage at a high speed leads to significant copper loss and core loss. Therefore, we have developed a new technique for controlling the magnetic force of a permanent magnet on the basis of the load or speed of the motor. In this paper, we propose a novel motor that can vary the magnetic flux of a permanent magnet and clarify the principle and basic characteristics of the motor. The new motor has a permanent magnet that is magnetized by the magnetizing coil of the stator. The analysis results show that the magnetic flux linkage of the motor can be changed from 37% to 100% that a high torque can be produced.

Socially assistive robotics for stroke and mild TBI rehabilitation.

PubMed

Matarić, Maja; Tapus, Adriana; Winstein, Carolee; Eriksson, Jon

2009-01-01

This paper describes an interdisciplinary research project aimed at developing and evaluating effective and user-friendly non-contact robot-assisted therapy, aimed at in-home use. The approach stems from the emerging field of social cognitive neuroscience that seeks to understand phenomena in terms of interactions between the social, cognitive, and neural levels of analysis. This technology-assisted therapy is designed to be safe and affordable, and relies on novel human-robot interaction methods for accelerated recovery of upper-extremity function after lesion-induced hemiparesis. The work is based on the combined expertise in the science and technology of non-contact socially assistive robotics and the clinical science of neurorehabilitation and motor learning, brought together to study how to best enhance recovery after stroke and mild traumatic brain injury. Our approach is original and promising in that it combines several ingredients that individually have been shown to be important for learning and long-term efficacy in motor neurorehabilitation: (1) intensity of task specific training and (2) engagement and self-management of goal-directed actions. These principles motivate and guide the strategies used to develop novel user activity sensing and provide the rationale for development of socially assistive robotics therapy for monitoring and coaching users toward personalized and optimal rehabilitation programs.

Relationships between motor unit size and recruitment threshold in older adults: implications for size principle.

PubMed

Fling, Brett W; Knight, Christopher A; Kamen, Gary

2009-08-01

As a part of the aging process, motor unit reorganization occurs in which small motoneurons reinnervate predominantly fast-twitch muscle fibers that have lost their innervation. We examined the relationship between motor unit size and the threshold force for recruitment in two muscles to determine whether older individuals might develop an alternative pattern of motor unit activation. Young and older adults performed isometric contractions ranging from 0 to 50% of maximal voluntary contraction in both the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles. Muscle fiber action potentials were recorded with an intramuscular needle electrode and motor unit size was computed using spike-triggered averaging of the global EMG signal (macro EMG), which was also obtained from the intramuscular needle electrode. As expected, older individuals exhibited larger motor units than young subjects in both the FDI and the TA. However, moderately strong correlations were obtained for the macro EMG amplitude versus recruitment threshold relationship in both the young and older adults within both muscles, suggesting that the size principle of motor unit recruitment seems to be preserved in older adults.

Learning redundant motor tasks with and without overlapping dimensions: facilitation and interference effects.

PubMed

Ranganathan, Rajiv; Wieser, Jon; Mosier, Kristine M; Mussa-Ivaldi, Ferdinando A; Scheidt, Robert A

2014-06-11

Prior learning of a motor skill creates motor memories that can facilitate or interfere with learning of new, but related, motor skills. One hypothesis of motor learning posits that for a sensorimotor task with redundant degrees of freedom, the nervous system learns the geometric structure of the task and improves performance by selectively operating within that task space. We tested this hypothesis by examining if transfer of learning between two tasks depends on shared dimensionality between their respective task spaces. Human participants wore a data glove and learned to manipulate a computer cursor by moving their fingers. Separate groups of participants learned two tasks: a prior task that was unique to each group and a criterion task that was common to all groups. We manipulated the mapping between finger motions and cursor positions in the prior task to define task spaces that either shared or did not share the task space dimensions (x-y axes) of the criterion task. We found that if the prior task shared task dimensions with the criterion task, there was an initial facilitation in criterion task performance. However, if the prior task did not share task dimensions with the criterion task, there was prolonged interference in learning the criterion task due to participants finding inefficient task solutions. These results show that the nervous system learns the task space through practice, and that the degree of shared task space dimensionality influences the extent to which prior experience transfers to subsequent learning of related motor skills. Copyright © 2014 the authors 0270-6474/14/348289-11$15.00/0.

Plasticity of cortical inhibition in dystonia is impaired after motor learning and Paired-Associative Stimulation

PubMed Central

Meunier, Sabine; Russmann, Heike; Shamim, Ejaz; Lamy, Jean-Charles; Hallett, Mark

2012-01-01

Summary Artificial induction of plasticity by paired associative stimulation (PAS) in healthy subjects (HV) demonstrates Hebbian-like plasticity in selected inhibitory networks as well as excitatory ones. In a group of 17 patients with focal hand dystonia and a group of 19 HV, we evaluated how PAS and the learning of a simple motor task influence the circuits supporting long interval intracortical inhibition (LICI, reflecting activity of GABAB interneurons) and long latency afferent inhibition (LAI, reflecting activity of somatosensory inputs to the motor cortex). In HV, PAS and motor learning induced LTP-like plasticity of excitatory networks and a lasting decrease of LAI and LICI in the motor representation of the targeted or trained muscle. The better the motor performance, the larger was the decrease of LAI. Although motor performance in the patient group was similar to that of the control group, LAI did not decrease during the motor learning as it did in the control group. In contrast, LICI was normally modulated. In patients the results after PAS did not match those obtained after motor learning: LAI was paradoxically increased and LICI did not exhibit any change. In the normal situation, decreased excitability in inhibitory circuits after induction of LTP-like plasticity may help to shape the cortical maps according to the new sensorimotor task. In patients, the abnormal or absent modulation of afferent and intracortical long-interval inhibition might indicate maladaptive plasticity that possibly contributes to the difficulty that they have to learn a new sensorimotor task.“ PMID:22429246

Quantitative evaluation of human cerebellum-dependent motor learning through prism adaptation of hand-reaching movement.

PubMed

Hashimoto, Yuji; Honda, Takeru; Matsumura, Ken; Nakao, Makoto; Soga, Kazumasa; Katano, Kazuhiko; Yokota, Takanori; Mizusawa, Hidehiro; Nagao, Soichi; Ishikawa, Kinya

2015-01-01

The cerebellum plays important roles in motor coordination and learning. However, motor learning has not been quantitatively evaluated clinically. It thus remains unclear how motor learning is influenced by cerebellar diseases or aging, and is related with incoordination. Here, we present a new application for testing human cerebellum-dependent motor learning using prism adaptation. In our paradigm, the participant wearing prism-equipped goggles touches their index finger to the target presented on a touchscreen in every trial. The whole test consisted of three consecutive sessions: (1) 50 trials with normal vision (BASELINE), (2) 100 trials wearing the prism that shifts the visual field 25° rightward (PRISM), and (3) 50 trials without the prism (REMOVAL). In healthy subjects, the prism-induced finger-touch error, i.e., the distance between touch and target positions, was decreased gradually by motor learning through repetition of trials. We found that such motor learning could be quantified using the "adaptability index (AI)", which was calculated by multiplying each probability of [acquisition in the last 10 trials of PRISM], [retention in the initial five trials of REMOVAL], and [extinction in the last 10 trials of REMOVAL]. The AI of cerebellar patients less than 70 years old (mean, 0.227; n = 62) was lower than that of age-matched healthy subjects (0.867, n = 21; p < 0.0001). While AI did not correlate with the magnitude of dysmetria in ataxic patients, it declined in parallel with disease progression, suggesting a close correlation between the impaired cerebellar motor leaning and the dysmetria. Furthermore, AI decreased with aging in the healthy subjects over 70 years old compared with that in the healthy subjects less than 70 years old. We suggest that our paradigm of prism adaptation may allow us to quantitatively assess cerebellar motor learning in both normal and diseased conditions.

Quantitative Evaluation of Human Cerebellum-Dependent Motor Learning through Prism Adaptation of Hand-Reaching Movement

PubMed Central

Hashimoto, Yuji; Honda, Takeru; Matsumura, Ken; Nakao, Makoto; Soga, Kazumasa; Katano, Kazuhiko; Yokota, Takanori; Mizusawa, Hidehiro; Nagao, Soichi; Ishikawa, Kinya

2015-01-01

The cerebellum plays important roles in motor coordination and learning. However, motor learning has not been quantitatively evaluated clinically. It thus remains unclear how motor learning is influenced by cerebellar diseases or aging, and is related with incoordination. Here, we present a new application for testing human cerebellum-dependent motor learning using prism adaptation. In our paradigm, the participant wearing prism-equipped goggles touches their index finger to the target presented on a touchscreen in every trial. The whole test consisted of three consecutive sessions: (1) 50 trials with normal vision (BASELINE), (2) 100 trials wearing the prism that shifts the visual field 25° rightward (PRISM), and (3) 50 trials without the prism (REMOVAL). In healthy subjects, the prism-induced finger-touch error, i.e., the distance between touch and target positions, was decreased gradually by motor learning through repetition of trials. We found that such motor learning could be quantified using the “adaptability index (AI)”, which was calculated by multiplying each probability of [acquisition in the last 10 trials of PRISM], [retention in the initial five trials of REMOVAL], and [extinction in the last 10 trials of REMOVAL]. The AI of cerebellar patients less than 70 years old (mean, 0.227; n = 62) was lower than that of age-matched healthy subjects (0.867, n = 21; p < 0.0001). While AI did not correlate with the magnitude of dysmetria in ataxic patients, it declined in parallel with disease progression, suggesting a close correlation between the impaired cerebellar motor leaning and the dysmetria. Furthermore, AI decreased with aging in the healthy subjects over 70 years old compared with that in the healthy subjects less than 70 years old. We suggest that our paradigm of prism adaptation may allow us to quantitatively assess cerebellar motor learning in both normal and diseased conditions. PMID:25785588

Motor Sequence Learning Performance in Parkinson's Disease Patients Depends on the Stage of Disease

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Stephan, Marianne A.; Meier, Beat; Zaugg, Sabine Weber; Kaelin-Lang, Alain

2011-01-01

It is still unclear, whether patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) are impaired in the incidental learning of different motor sequences in short succession, although such a deficit might greatly impact their daily life. The aim of this study was thus to clarify the relation between disease parameters of PD and incidental motor learning of two…

Investigating speech motor practice and learning in people who stutter.

PubMed

Namasivayam, Aravind Kumar; van Lieshout, Pascal

2008-03-01

In this exploratory study, we investigated whether or not people who stutter (PWS) show motor practice and learning changes similar to those of people who do not stutter (PNS). To this end, five PWS and five PNS repeated a set of non-words at two different rates (normal and fast) across three test sessions (T1, T2 on the same day and T3 on a separate day, at least 1 week apart). The results indicated that PWS and PNS may resemble each other on a number of performance variables (such as movement amplitude and duration), but they differ in terms of practice and learning on variables that relate to movement stability and strength of coordination patterns. These findings are interpreted in support of recent claims about speech motor skill limitations in PWS. The reader will be able to: (1) define oral articulatory changes associated with motor practice and learning and their measurement; (2) summarize findings from previous studies examining motor practice and learning in PWS; and (3) discuss hypotheses that could account for the present findings that suggest PWS and PNS differ in their speech motor learning abilities.

Resting-state Functional Connectivity is an Age-dependent Predictor of Motor Learning Abilities.

PubMed

Mary, Alison; Wens, Vincent; Op de Beeck, Marc; Leproult, Rachel; De Tiège, Xavier; Peigneux, Philippe

2017-10-01

This magnetoencephalography study investigates how ageing modulates the relationship between pre-learning resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and subsequent learning. Neuromagnetic resting-state activity was recorded 5 min before motor sequence learning in 14 young (19-30 years) and 14 old (66-70 years) participants. We used a seed-based beta-band power envelope correlation approach to estimate rsFC maps, with the seed located in the right primary sensorimotor cortex. In each age group, the relation between individual rsFC and learning performance was investigated using Pearson's correlation analyses. Our results show that rsFC is predictive of subsequent motor sequence learning but involves different cross-network interactions in the two age groups. In young adults, decreased coupling between the sensorimotor network and the cortico-striato-cerebellar network is associated with better motor learning, whereas a similar relation is found in old adults between the sensorimotor, the dorsal-attentional and the DMNs. Additionally, age-related correlational differences were found in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, known to subtend attentional and controlled processes. These findings suggest that motor skill learning depends-in an age-dependent manner-on subtle interactions between resting-state networks subtending motor activity on the one hand, and controlled and attentional processes on the other hand. © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.

The relationship of neurogenesis and growth of brain regions to song learning

PubMed Central

Kirn, John R.

2009-01-01

Song learning, maintenance and production require coordinated activity across multiple auditory, sensory-motor, and neuromuscular structures. Telencephalic components of the sensory-motor circuitry are unique to avian species that engage in song learning. The song system shows protracted development that begins prior to hatching but continues well into adulthood. The staggered developmental timetable for construction of the song system provides clues of subsystems involved in specific stages of song learning and maintenance. Progressive events, including neurogenesis and song system growth, as well as regressive events such as apoptosis and synapse elimination, occur during periods of song learning and the transitions between stereotyped and variable song during both development and adulthood. There is clear evidence that gonadal steroids influence the development of song attributes and shape the underlying neural circuitry. Some aspects of song system development are influenced by sensory, motor and social experience, while other aspects of neural development appear to be experience-independent. Although there are species differences in the extent to which song learning continues into adulthood, growing evidence suggests that despite differences in learning trajectories, adult refinement of song motor control and song maintenance can require remarkable behavioral and neural flexibility reminiscent of sensory-motor learning. PMID:19853905

Structural and Functional Bases for Individual Differences in Motor Learning

PubMed Central

Tomassini, Valentina; Jbabdi, Saad; Kincses, Zsigmond T.; Bosnell, Rose; Douaud, Gwenaelle; Pozzilli, Carlo; Matthews, Paul M.; Johansen-Berg, Heidi

2013-01-01

People vary in their ability to learn new motor skills. We hypothesize that between-subject variability in brain structure and function can explain differences in learning. We use brain functional and structural MRI methods to characterize such neural correlates of individual variations in motor learning. Healthy subjects applied isometric grip force of varying magnitudes with their right hands cued visually to generate smoothly-varying pressures following a regular pattern. We tested whether individual variations in motor learning were associated with anatomically colocalized variations in magnitude of functional MRI (fMRI) signal or in MRI differences related to white and grey matter microstructure. We found that individual motor learning was correlated with greater functional activation in the prefrontal, premotor, and parietal cortices, as well as in the basal ganglia and cerebellum. Structural MRI correlates were found in the premotor cortex [for fractional anisotropy (FA)] and in the cerebellum [for both grey matter density and FA]. The cerebellar microstructural differences were anatomically colocalized with fMRI correlates of learning. This study thus suggests that variations across the population in the function and structure of specific brain regions for motor control explain some of the individual differences in skill learning. This strengthens the notion that brain structure determines some limits to cognitive function even in a healthy population. Along with evidence from pathology suggesting a role for these regions in spontaneous motor recovery, our results also highlight potential targets for therapeutic interventions designed to maximize plasticity for recovery of similar visuomotor skills after brain injury. PMID:20533562

Fast but fleeting: adaptive motor learning processes associated with aging and cognitive decline.

PubMed

Trewartha, Kevin M; Garcia, Angeles; Wolpert, Daniel M; Flanagan, J Randall

2014-10-01

Motor learning has been shown to depend on multiple interacting learning processes. For example, learning to adapt when moving grasped objects with novel dynamics involves a fast process that adapts and decays quickly-and that has been linked to explicit memory-and a slower process that adapts and decays more gradually. Each process is characterized by a learning rate that controls how strongly motor memory is updated based on experienced errors and a retention factor determining the movement-to-movement decay in motor memory. Here we examined whether fast and slow motor learning processes involved in learning novel dynamics differ between younger and older adults. In addition, we investigated how age-related decline in explicit memory performance influences learning and retention parameters. Although the groups adapted equally well, they did so with markedly different underlying processes. Whereas the groups had similar fast processes, they had different slow processes. Specifically, the older adults exhibited decreased retention in their slow process compared with younger adults. Within the older group, who exhibited considerable variation in explicit memory performance, we found that poor explicit memory was associated with reduced retention in the fast process, as well as the slow process. These findings suggest that explicit memory resources are a determining factor in impairments in the both the fast and slow processes for motor learning but that aging effects on the slow process are independent of explicit memory declines. Copyright © 2014 the authors 0270-6474/14/3413411-11$15.00/0.

Birds, primates, and spoken language origins: behavioral phenotypes and neurobiological substrates

PubMed Central

Petkov, Christopher I.; Jarvis, Erich D.

2012-01-01

Vocal learners such as humans and songbirds can learn to produce elaborate patterns of structurally organized vocalizations, whereas many other vertebrates such as non-human primates and most other bird groups either cannot or do so to a very limited degree. To explain the similarities among humans and vocal-learning birds and the differences with other species, various theories have been proposed. One set of theories are motor theories, which underscore the role of the motor system as an evolutionary substrate for vocal production learning. For instance, the motor theory of speech and song perception proposes enhanced auditory perceptual learning of speech in humans and song in birds, which suggests a considerable level of neurobiological specialization. Another, a motor theory of vocal learning origin, proposes that the brain pathways that control the learning and production of song and speech were derived from adjacent motor brain pathways. Another set of theories are cognitive theories, which address the interface between cognition and the auditory-vocal domains to support language learning in humans. Here we critically review the behavioral and neurobiological evidence for parallels and differences between the so-called vocal learners and vocal non-learners in the context of motor and cognitive theories. In doing so, we note that behaviorally vocal-production learning abilities are more distributed than categorical, as are the auditory-learning abilities of animals. We propose testable hypotheses on the extent of the specializations and cross-species correspondences suggested by motor and cognitive theories. We believe that determining how spoken language evolved is likely to become clearer with concerted efforts in testing comparative data from many non-human animal species. PMID:22912615

Keeping an Eye on Noisy Movements: On Different Approaches to Perceptual-Motor Skill Research and Training.

PubMed

Dicks, Matt; Button, Chris; Davids, Keith; Chow, Jia Yi; van der Kamp, John

2017-04-01

Contemporary theorizing on the complementary nature of perception and action in expert performance has led to different emphases in the study of movement coordination and gaze behavior. On the one hand, coordination research has examined the role of variability in movement control, evidencing that variability facilitates individualized adaptations during both learning and performance. On the other hand, and at odds with this principle, the majority of gaze behavior studies have tended to average data over participants and trials, proposing the importance of universal 'optimal' gaze patterns in a given task, for all performers, irrespective of stage of learning. In this article, we discuss new lines of inquiry with the aim of reconciling these two distinct approaches. We consider the role of inter- and intra-individual variability in gaze behaviors and suggest directions for future research.

LTD, RP, and Motor Learning.

PubMed

Hirano, Tomoo; Yamazaki, Yoshito; Nakamura, Yoji

2016-02-01

Long-term depression (LTD) at excitatory synapses between parallel fibers and a Purkinje cell has been regarded as a critical cellular mechanism for motor learning. However, it was demonstrated that normal motor learning occurs under LTD suppression, suggesting that cerebellar plasticity mechanisms other than LTD also contribute to motor learning. One candidate for such plasticity is rebound potentiation (RP), which is long-term potentiation at inhibitory synapses between a stellate cell and a Purkinje cell. Both LTD and RP are induced by the increase in postsynaptic Ca(2+) concentration, and work to suppress the activity of a Purkinje cell. Thus, LTD and RP might work synergistically, and one might compensate defects of the other. RP induction is dependent on the interaction between GABAA receptor and GABAA receptor binding protein (GABARAP). Transgenic mice expressing a peptide which inhibits binding of GABARAP and GABAA receptor only in Purkinje cells show defects in both RP and adaptation of vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), a motor learning paradigm. However, another example of motor learning, adaptation of optokinetic response (OKR), is normal in the transgenic mice. Both VOR and OKR are reflex eye movements suppressing the slip of visual image on the retina during head movement. Previously, we reported that delphilin knockout mice show facilitated LTD induction and enhanced OKR adaptation, but we recently found that VOR adaptation was not enhanced in the knockout mice. These results together suggest that animals might use LTD and RP differently depending on motor learning tasks.

Monoaminergic Modulation of Motor Cortex Function

PubMed Central

Vitrac, Clément; Benoit-Marand, Marianne

2017-01-01

Elaboration of appropriate responses to behavioral situations rests on the ability of selecting appropriate motor outcomes in accordance to specific environmental inputs. To this end, the primary motor cortex (M1) is a key structure for the control of voluntary movements and motor skills learning. Subcortical loops regulate the activity of the motor cortex and thus contribute to the selection of appropriate motor plans. Monoamines are key mediators of arousal, attention and motivation. Their firing pattern enables a direct encoding of different states thus promoting or repressing the selection of actions adapted to the behavioral context. Monoaminergic modulation of motor systems has been extensively studied in subcortical circuits. Despite evidence of converging projections of multiple neurotransmitters systems in the motor cortex pointing to a direct modulation of local circuits, their contribution to the execution and learning of motor skills is still poorly understood. Monoaminergic dysregulation leads to impaired plasticity and motor function in several neurological and psychiatric conditions, thus it is critical to better understand how monoamines modulate neural activity in the motor cortex. This review aims to provide an update of our current understanding on the monoaminergic modulation of the motor cortex with an emphasis on motor skill learning and execution under physiological conditions. PMID:29062274

Effect of Error Augmentation on Brain Activation and Motor Learning of a Complex Locomotor Task

PubMed Central

Marchal-Crespo, Laura; Michels, Lars; Jaeger, Lukas; López-Olóriz, Jorge; Riener, Robert

2017-01-01

Up to date, the functional gains obtained after robot-aided gait rehabilitation training are limited. Error augmenting strategies have a great potential to enhance motor learning of simple motor tasks. However, little is known about the effect of these error modulating strategies on complex tasks, such as relearning to walk after a neurologic accident. Additionally, neuroimaging evaluation of brain regions involved in learning processes could provide valuable information on behavioral outcomes. We investigated the effect of robotic training strategies that augment errors—error amplification and random force disturbance—and training without perturbations on brain activation and motor learning of a complex locomotor task. Thirty-four healthy subjects performed the experiment with a robotic stepper (MARCOS) in a 1.5 T MR scanner. The task consisted in tracking a Lissajous figure presented on a display by coordinating the legs in a gait-like movement pattern. Behavioral results showed that training without perturbations enhanced motor learning in initially less skilled subjects, while error amplification benefited better-skilled subjects. Training with error amplification, however, hampered transfer of learning. Randomly disturbing forces induced learning and promoted transfer in all subjects, probably because the unexpected forces increased subjects' attention. Functional MRI revealed main effects of training strategy and skill level during training. A main effect of training strategy was seen in brain regions typically associated with motor control and learning, such as, the basal ganglia, cerebellum, intraparietal sulcus, and angular gyrus. Especially, random disturbance and no perturbation lead to stronger brain activation in similar brain regions than error amplification. Skill-level related effects were observed in the IPS, in parts of the superior parietal lobe (SPL), i.e., precuneus, and temporal cortex. These neuroimaging findings indicate that gait-like motor learning depends on interplay between subcortical, cerebellar, and fronto-parietal brain regions. An interesting observation was the low activation observed in the brain's reward system after training with error amplification compared to training without perturbations. Our results suggest that to enhance learning of a locomotor task, errors should be augmented based on subjects' skill level. The impacts of these strategies on motor learning, brain activation, and motivation in neurological patients need further investigation. PMID:29021739

Taking the brakes off the learning curve.

PubMed

Gheysen, Freja; Lasne, Gabriel; Pélégrini-Issac, Mélanie; Albouy, Genevieve; Meunier, Sabine; Benali, Habib; Doyon, Julien; Popa, Traian

2017-03-01

Motor learning is characterized by patterns of cerebello-striato-cortical activations shifting in time, yet the early dynamic and function of these activations remains unclear. Five groups of subjects underwent either continuous or intermittent theta-burst stimulation of one cerebellar hemisphere, or no stimulation just before learning a new motor sequence during fMRI scanning. We identified three phases during initial learning: one rapid, one slow, and one quasi-asymptotic performance phase. These phases were not changed by left cerebellar stimulation. Right cerebellar inhibition, however, accelerated learning and enhanced brain activation in critical motor learning-related areas during the first phase, continuing with reduced brain activation but high-performance in late phase. Right cerebellar excitation did not affect the early learning process, but slowed learning significantly in late phase, along with increased brain activation. We conclude that the right cerebellum is a key factor coordinating other neuronal loops in the early acquisition of an explicit motor sequential skill. Hum Brain Mapp 38:1676-1691, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Visuo-motor and cognitive procedural learning in children with basal ganglia pathology.

PubMed

Mayor-Dubois, C; Maeder, P; Zesiger, P; Roulet-Perez, E

2010-06-01

We investigated procedural learning in 18 children with basal ganglia (BG) lesions or dysfunctions of various aetiologies, using a visuo-motor learning test, the Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task, and a cognitive learning test, the Probabilistic Classification Learning (PCL) task. We compared patients with early (<1 year old, n=9), later onset (>6 years old, n=7) or progressive disorder (idiopathic dystonia, n=2). All patients showed deficits in both visuo-motor and cognitive domains, except those with idiopathic dystonia, who displayed preserved classification learning skills. Impairments seem to be independent from the age of onset of pathology. As far as we know, this study is the first to investigate motor and cognitive procedural learning in children with BG damage. Procedural impairments were documented whatever the aetiology of the BG damage/dysfunction and time of pathology onset, thus supporting the claim of very early skill learning development and lack of plasticity in case of damage. Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Does Post-task Declarative Learning Have an Influence on Early Motor Memory Consolidation Over Day? An fMRI Study

PubMed Central

Rothkirch, Inken; Wolff, Stephan; Margraf, Nils G.; Pedersen, Anya; Witt, Karsten

2018-01-01

Previous studies demonstrated the influence of the post-learning period on procedural motor memory consolidation. In an early period after the acquisition, motor skills are vulnerable to modifications during wakefulness. Indeed, specific interventions such as world-list learning within this early phase of motor memory consolidation seem to enhance motor performance as an indicator for successful consolidation. This finding highlights the idea that manipulations of procedural and declarative memory systems during the early phase of memory consolidation over wakefulness may influence off-line consolidation. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during initial motor sequence learning and motor sequence recall, we indirectly assess the influence of a secondary task taken place in the early phase of memory consolidation. All participants were scanned using fMRI during the learning phase of a serial reaction time task (SRTT) at 8 a.m. Afterwards, they were randomly assigned to one of five conditions. One group performed a declarative verbal, one a declarative nonverbal learning task. Two groups worked on attention tasks. A control group passed a resting condition. Participants stayed awake the whole day and performed the SRTT in the MRI scanner 12 h later at 8 p.m. At the behavioral level, the analysis of the reaction times failed to show a significant group difference. The primary analysis assessing fMRI data based on the contrast (sequence – random) between learning and retrieval also did not show any significant group differences. Therefore, our main analysis do not support the hypothesis that a secondary task influences the retrieval of the SRTT. In a more liberal fMRI analysis, we compared only the sequence blocks of the SRTT from learning to recall. BOLD signal decreased in the ipsilateral cerebellum and the supplementary motor area solely in the verbal learning group. Although our primary analysis failed to show significant changes between our groups, results of the secondary analysis could be an indication for a beneficial effect of the verbal declarative task in the early post-learning phase. A nonverbal learning task did not affect the activation within the motor network. Further studies are needed to replicate this finding and to assess the usefulness of this manipulation. PMID:29755315

Does Post-task Declarative Learning Have an Influence on Early Motor Memory Consolidation Over Day? An fMRI Study.

PubMed

Rothkirch, Inken; Wolff, Stephan; Margraf, Nils G; Pedersen, Anya; Witt, Karsten

2018-01-01

Previous studies demonstrated the influence of the post-learning period on procedural motor memory consolidation. In an early period after the acquisition, motor skills are vulnerable to modifications during wakefulness. Indeed, specific interventions such as world-list learning within this early phase of motor memory consolidation seem to enhance motor performance as an indicator for successful consolidation. This finding highlights the idea that manipulations of procedural and declarative memory systems during the early phase of memory consolidation over wakefulness may influence off-line consolidation. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during initial motor sequence learning and motor sequence recall, we indirectly assess the influence of a secondary task taken place in the early phase of memory consolidation. All participants were scanned using fMRI during the learning phase of a serial reaction time task (SRTT) at 8 a.m. Afterwards, they were randomly assigned to one of five conditions. One group performed a declarative verbal, one a declarative nonverbal learning task. Two groups worked on attention tasks. A control group passed a resting condition. Participants stayed awake the whole day and performed the SRTT in the MRI scanner 12 h later at 8 p.m. At the behavioral level, the analysis of the reaction times failed to show a significant group difference. The primary analysis assessing fMRI data based on the contrast (sequence - random) between learning and retrieval also did not show any significant group differences. Therefore, our main analysis do not support the hypothesis that a secondary task influences the retrieval of the SRTT. In a more liberal fMRI analysis, we compared only the sequence blocks of the SRTT from learning to recall. BOLD signal decreased in the ipsilateral cerebellum and the supplementary motor area solely in the verbal learning group. Although our primary analysis failed to show significant changes between our groups, results of the secondary analysis could be an indication for a beneficial effect of the verbal declarative task in the early post-learning phase. A nonverbal learning task did not affect the activation within the motor network. Further studies are needed to replicate this finding and to assess the usefulness of this manipulation.

Motor unit recruitment for dynamic tasks: current understanding and future directions.

PubMed

Hodson-Tole, Emma F; Wakeling, James M

2009-01-01

Skeletal muscle contains many muscle fibres that are functionally grouped into motor units. For any motor task there are many possible combinations of motor units that could be recruited and it has been proposed that a simple rule, the 'size principle', governs the selection of motor units recruited for different contractions. Motor units can be characterised by their different contractile, energetic and fatigue properties and it is important that the selection of motor units recruited for given movements allows units with the appropriate properties to be activated. Here we review what is currently understood about motor unit recruitment patterns, and assess how different recruitment patterns are more or less appropriate for different movement tasks. During natural movements the motor unit recruitment patterns vary (not always holding to the size principle) and it is proposed that motor unit recruitment is likely related to the mechanical function of the muscles. Many factors such as mechanics, sensory feedback, and central control influence recruitment patterns and consequently an integrative approach (rather than reductionist) is required to understand how recruitment is controlled during different movement tasks. Currently, the best way to achieve this is through in vivo studies that relate recruitment to mechanics and behaviour. Various methods for determining motor unit recruitment patterns are discussed, in particular the recent wavelet-analysis approaches that have allowed motor unit recruitment to be assessed during natural movements. Directions for future studies into motor recruitment within and between functional task groups and muscle compartments are suggested.

The cerebellum and visual perceptual learning: evidence from a motion extrapolation task.

PubMed

Deluca, Cristina; Golzar, Ashkan; Santandrea, Elisa; Lo Gerfo, Emanuele; Eštočinová, Jana; Moretto, Giuseppe; Fiaschi, Antonio; Panzeri, Marta; Mariotti, Caterina; Tinazzi, Michele; Chelazzi, Leonardo

2014-09-01

Visual perceptual learning is widely assumed to reflect plastic changes occurring along the cerebro-cortical visual pathways, including at the earliest stages of processing, though increasing evidence indicates that higher-level brain areas are also involved. Here we addressed the possibility that the cerebellum plays an important role in visual perceptual learning. Within the realm of motor control, the cerebellum supports learning of new skills and recalibration of motor commands when movement execution is consistently perturbed (adaptation). Growing evidence indicates that the cerebellum is also involved in cognition and mediates forms of cognitive learning. Therefore, the obvious question arises whether the cerebellum might play a similar role in learning and adaptation within the perceptual domain. We explored a possible deficit in visual perceptual learning (and adaptation) in patients with cerebellar damage using variants of a novel motion extrapolation, psychophysical paradigm. Compared to their age- and gender-matched controls, patients with focal damage to the posterior (but not the anterior) cerebellum showed strongly diminished learning, in terms of both rate and amount of improvement over time. Consistent with a double-dissociation pattern, patients with focal damage to the anterior cerebellum instead showed more severe clinical motor deficits, indicative of a distinct role of the anterior cerebellum in the motor domain. The collected evidence demonstrates that a pure form of slow-incremental visual perceptual learning is crucially dependent on the intact cerebellum, bearing the notion that the human cerebellum acts as a learning device for motor, cognitive and perceptual functions. We interpret the deficit in terms of an inability to fine-tune predictive models of the incoming flow of visual perceptual input over time. Moreover, our results suggest a strong dissociation between the role of different portions of the cerebellum in motor versus non-motor functions, with only the posterior lobe being responsible for learning in the perceptual domain. Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

The Effect of Self-Regulated and Experimenter-Imposed Practice Schedules on Motor Learning for Tasks of Varying Difficulty

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Keetch, Katherine M.; Lee, Timothy D.

2007-01-01

Research suggests that allowing individuals to control their own practice schedule has a positive effect on motor learning. In this experiment we examined the effect of task difficulty and self-regulated practice strategies on motor learning. The task was to move a mouse-operated cursor through pattern arrays that differed in two levels of…

Examining the Potential of Web-Based Multimedia to Support Complex Fine Motor Skill Learning: An Empirical Study

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Papastergiou, Marina; Pollatou, Elisana; Theofylaktou, Ioannis; Karadimou, Konstantina

2014-01-01

Research on the utilization of the Web for complex fine motor skill learning that involves whole body movements is still scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the introduction of a multimedia web-based learning environment, which was targeted at a rhythmic gymnastics routine consisting of eight fine motor skills, into an…

Implicit motor learning promotes neural efficiency during laparoscopy.

PubMed

Zhu, Frank F; Poolton, Jamie M; Wilson, Mark R; Hu, Yong; Maxwell, Jon P; Masters, Rich S W

2011-09-01

An understanding of differences in expert and novice neural behavior can inform surgical skills training. Outside the surgical domain, electroencephalographic (EEG) coherence analyses have shown that during motor performance, experts display less coactivation between the verbal-analytic and motor planning regions than their less skilled counterparts. Reduced involvement of verbal-analytic processes suggests greater neural efficiency. The authors tested the utility of an implicit motor learning intervention specifically devised to promote neural efficiency by reducing verbal-analytic involvement in laparoscopic performance. In this study, 18 novices practiced a movement pattern on a laparoscopic trainer with either conscious awareness of the movement pattern (explicit motor learning) or suppressed awareness of the movement pattern (implicit motor learning). In a retention test, movement accuracy was compared between the conditions, and coactivation (EEG coherence) was assessed between the motor planning (Fz) region and both the verbal-analytic (T3) and the visuospatial (T4) cortical regions (T3-Fz and T4-Fz, respectively). Movement accuracy in the conditions was not different in a retention test (P = 0.231). Findings showed that the EEG coherence scores for the T3-Fz regions were lower for the implicit learners than for the explicit learners (P = 0.027), but no differences were apparent for the T4-Fz regions (P = 0.882). Implicit motor learning reduced EEG coactivation between verbal-analytic and motor planning regions, suggesting that verbal-analytic processes were less involved in laparoscopic performance. The findings imply that training techniques that discourage nonessential coactivation during motor performance may provide surgeons with more neural resources with which to manage other aspects of surgery.

BDNF Val66Met but not transcranial direct current stimulation affects motor learning after stroke.

PubMed

van der Vliet, Rick; Ribbers, Gerard M; Vandermeeren, Yves; Frens, Maarten A; Selles, Ruud W

tDCS is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that has been reported to improve motor skill learning after stroke. However, the contribution of tDCS to motor skill learning has only been investigated in a small number of studies. In addition, it is unclear if tDCS effects are mediated by activity-dependent BDNF release and dependent on timing of tDCS relative to training. Investigate the role of activity-dependent BDNF release and timing of tDCS relative to training in motor skill learning. Double-blind, between-subjects randomized controlled trial of circuit tracing task improvement (ΔMotor skill) in 80 chronic stroke patients who underwent tDCS and were genotyped for BDNF Val66Met. Patients received either short-lasting tDCS (20 min) during training (short-lasting online group), long-lasting tDCS (10 min-25 min break - 10 min) one day before training (long-lasting offline group), short-lasting tDCS one day before training (short-lasting offline group), or sham tDCS. ΔMotor skill was defined as the skill difference on the circuit tracing task between day one and day nine of the study. Having at least one BDNF Met allele was found to diminish ΔMotor skill (β BDNF,Met  = -0.217 95%HDI = [-0.431 -0.0116]), indicating activity-dependent BDNF release is important for motor skill learning after stroke. However, none of the tDCS protocols affected ΔMotor skill (β Short-lasting,online  = 0.0908 95%HDI = [-0.227 0.403]; β Long-lasting,offline  = 0.0242 95%HDI = [-0.292 0.349]; β Short-lasting,offline  = -0.108 95%HDI = [-0.433 0.210]). BDNF Val66Met is a determinant of motor skill learning after stroke and could be important for prognostic models. tDCS does not modulate motor skill learning in our study and might be less effective than previously assumed. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning new gait patterns: Exploratory muscle activity during motor learning is not predicted by motor modules

PubMed Central

Ranganathan, Rajiv; Krishnan, Chandramouli; Dhaher, Yasin Y.; Rymer, William Z.

2018-01-01

The motor module hypothesis in motor control proposes that the nervous system can simplify the problem of controlling a large number of muscles in human movement by grouping muscles into a smaller number of modules. Here, we tested one prediction of the modular organization hypothesis by examining whether there is preferential exploration along these motor modules during the learning of a new gait pattern. Healthy college-aged participants learned a new gait pattern which required increased hip and knee flexion during the swing phase while walking in a lower-extremity robot (Lokomat). The new gait pattern was displayed as a foot trajectory in the sagittal plane and participants attempted to match their foot trajectory to this template. We recorded EMG from 8 lower-extremity muscles and we extracted motor modules during both baseline walking and target-tracking using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF). Results showed increased trajectory variability in the first block of learning, indicating that participants were engaged in exploratory behavior. Critically, when we examined the muscle activity during this exploratory phase, we found that the composition of motor modules changed significantly within the first few strides of attempting the new gait pattern. The lack of persistence of the motor modules under even short time scales suggests that motor modules extracted during locomotion may be more indicative of correlated muscle activity induced by the task constraints of walking, rather than reflecting a modular control strategy. PMID:26916510

Instructional Feedback in Motor Skill Learning.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Dul, J.; And Others

1987-01-01

Presents a model of the role of instructional feedback in learning a motor skill and identifies six levels of motor skill output, each of which has a characteristic type of feedback. The usefulness of several feedback techniques reported in the literature is discussed. (Author/LRW)

The Gross Motor Skills of Children with Mild Learning Disabilities

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Nonis, Karen P.; Jernice, Tan Sing Yee

2014-01-01

Many international studies have examined the gross motor skills of children studying in special schools while local studies of such nature are limited. This study investigated the gross motor skills of children with Mild Learning Disabilities (MLD; n = 14, M age = 8.93 years, SD = 0.33) with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2, Ulrich,…

The Relationship between Gross Motor Skills and Academic Achievement in Children with Learning Disabilities

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Westendorp, Marieke; Hartman, Esther; Houwen, Suzanne; Smith, Joanne; Visscher, Chris

2011-01-01

The present study compared the gross motor skills of 7- to 12-year-old children with learning disabilities (n = 104) with those of age-matched typically developing children (n = 104) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Additionally, the specific relationships between subsets of gross motor skills and academic performance in reading,…

Children show limited movement repertoire when learning a novel motor skill.

PubMed

Lee, Mei-Hua; Farshchiansadegh, Ali; Ranganathan, Rajiv

2017-09-27

Examining age differences in motor learning using real-world tasks is often problematic due to task novelty and biomechanical confounds. Here, we investigated how children and adults acquire a novel motor skill in a virtual environment. Participants of three different age groups (9-year-olds, 12-year-olds, and adults) learned to use their upper body movements to control a cursor on a computer screen. Results showed that 9-year-old and 12-year-old children showed poorer ability to control the cursor at the end of practice. Critically, when we investigated the movement coordination, we found that the lower task performance of children was associated with limited exploration of their movement repertoire. These results reveal the critical role of motor exploration in understanding developmental differences in motor learning. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Plastic changes to dendritic spines on layer V pyramidal neurons are involved in the rectifying role of the prefrontal cortex during the fast period of motor learning.

PubMed

González-Tapia, David; Martínez-Torres, Nestor I; Hernández-González, Marisela; Guevara, Miguel Angel; González-Burgos, Ignacio

2016-02-01

The prefrontal cortex participates in the rectification of information related to motor activity that favors motor learning. Dendritic spine plasticity is involved in the modifications of motor patterns that underlie both motor activity and motor learning. To study this association in more detail, adult male rats were trained over six days in an acrobatic motor learning paradigm and they were subjected to a behavioral evaluation on each day of training. Also, a Golgi-based morphological study was carried out to determine the spine density and the proportion of the different spine types. In the learning paradigm, the number of errors diminished as motor training progressed. Concomitantly, spine density increased on days 1 and 3 of training, particularly reflecting an increase in the proportion of thin (day 1), stubby (day 1) and branched (days 1, 2 and 5) spines. Conversely, mushroom spines were less prevalent than in the control rats on days 5 and 6, as were stubby spines on day 6, together suggesting that this plasticity might enhance motor learning. The increase in stubby spines on day 1 suggests a regulation of excitability related to the changes in synaptic input to the prefrontal cortex. The plasticity to thin spines observed during the first 3 days of training could be related to the active rectification induced by the information relayed to the prefrontal cortex -as the behavioral findings indeed showed-, which in turn could be linked to the lower proportion of mushroom and stubby spines seen in the last days of training. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Combining d-cycloserine with motor training does not result in improved general motor learning in neurologically intact people or in people with stroke

PubMed Central

Cherry, Kendra M.; Lenze, Eric J.

2014-01-01

Neurological rehabilitation involving motor training has resulted in clinically meaningful improvements in function but is unable to eliminate many of the impairments associated with neurological injury. Thus there is a growing need for interventions that facilitate motor learning during rehabilitation therapy, to optimize recovery. d-Cycloserine (DCS), a partial N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist that enhances neurotransmission throughout the central nervous system (Ressler KJ, Rothbaum BO, Tannenbaum L, Anderson P, Graap K, Zimand E, Hodges L, Davis M. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61: 1136–1144, 2004), has been shown to facilitate declarative and emotional learning. We therefore tested whether combining DCS with motor training facilitates motor learning after stroke in a series of two experiments. Forty-one healthy adults participated in experiment I, and twenty adults with stroke participated in experiment II of this two-session, double-blind study. Session one consisted of baseline assessment, subject randomization, and oral administration of DCS or placebo (250 mg). Subjects then participated in training on a balancing task, a simulated feeding task, and a cognitive task. Subjects returned 1–3 days later for posttest assessment. We found that all subjects had improved performance from pretest to posttest on the balancing task, the simulated feeding task, and the cognitive task. Subjects who were given DCS before motor training, however, did not show enhanced learning on the balancing task, the simulated feeding task, or the associative recognition task compared with subjects given placebo. Moreover, training on the balancing task did not generalize to a similar, untrained balance task. Our findings suggest that DCS does not enhance motor learning or motor skill generalization in neurologically intact adults or in adults with stroke. PMID:24671538

Motor skill learning is associated with diffusion characteristics of white matter in individuals with chronic stroke.

PubMed

Borich, Michael R; Brown, Katlyn E; Boyd, Lara A

2014-07-01

Imaging advances allow investigation of white matter after stroke; a growing body of literature has shown links between diffusion-based measures of white matter microstructure and motor function. However, the relationship between these measures and motor skill learning has not been considered in individuals with stroke. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between posttraining white matter microstructural status, as indexed by diffusion tensor imaging within the ipsilesional posterior limb of the internal capsule (PLIC), and learning of a novel motor task in individuals with chronic stroke. A total of 13 participants with chronic stroke and 9 healthy controls practiced a visuomotor pursuit task across 5 sessions. Change in motor behavior associated with learning was indexed by comparing baseline performance with a delayed retention test. Fractional anisotropy (FA) indexed at the retention test was the primary diffusion tensor imaging-derived outcome measure. In individuals with chronic stroke, we discovered an association between posttraining ipsilesional PLIC FA and the magnitude of change associated with motor learning; hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses revealed that the combination of age, time poststroke, and ipsilesional PLIC FA posttraining was associated with motor learning-related change (R = 0.649; P = 0.02). Baseline motor performance was not related to posttraining ipsilesional PLIC FA. Diffusion characteristics of posttraining ipsilesional PLIC were linked to the magnitude of change in skilled motor behavior. These results imply that the microstructural properties of regional white matter indexed by diffusion behavior may be an important factor to consider when determining potential response to rehabilitation in persons with stroke. (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/JNPT/A59) for more insights from the authors.

Plasticity of cortical inhibition in dystonia is impaired after motor learning and paired-associative stimulation.

PubMed

Meunier, Sabine; Russmann, Heike; Shamim, Ejaz; Lamy, Jean-Charles; Hallett, Mark

2012-03-01

Artificial induction of plasticity by paired associative stimulation (PAS) in healthy volunteers (HV) demonstrates Hebbian-like plasticity in selected inhibitory networks as well as excitatory networks. In a group of 17 patients with focal hand dystonia and a group of 19 HV, we evaluated how PAS and the learning of a simple motor task influence the circuits supporting long-interval intracortical inhibition (LICI, reflecting activity of GABA(B) interneurons) and long-latency afferent inhibition (LAI, reflecting activity of somatosensory inputs to the motor cortex). In HV, PAS and motor learning induced long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity of excitatory networks and a lasting decrease of LAI and LICI in the motor representation of the targeted or trained muscle. The better the motor performance, the larger was the decrease of LAI. Although motor performance in the patient group was similar to that of the control group, LAI did not decrease during the motor learning as it did in the control group. In contrast, LICI was normally modulated. In patients the results after PAS did not match those obtained after motor learning: LAI was paradoxically increased and LICI did not exhibit any change. In the normal situation, decreased excitability in inhibitory circuits after induction of LTP-like plasticity may help to shape the cortical maps according to the new sensorimotor task. In patients, the abnormal or absent modulation of afferent and intracortical long-interval inhibition might indicate maladaptive plasticity that possibly contributes to the difficulty that they have to learn a new sensorimotor task. © 2012 The Authors. European Journal of Neuroscience © 2012 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Motor-Skill Learning in an Insect Inspired Neuro-Computational Control System

PubMed Central

Arena, Eleonora; Arena, Paolo; Strauss, Roland; Patané, Luca

2017-01-01

In nature, insects show impressive adaptation and learning capabilities. The proposed computational model takes inspiration from specific structures of the insect brain: after proposing key hypotheses on the direct involvement of the mushroom bodies (MBs) and on their neural organization, we developed a new architecture for motor learning to be applied in insect-like walking robots. The proposed model is a nonlinear control system based on spiking neurons. MBs are modeled as a nonlinear recurrent spiking neural network (SNN) with novel characteristics, able to memorize time evolutions of key parameters of the neural motor controller, so that existing motor primitives can be improved. The adopted control scheme enables the structure to efficiently cope with goal-oriented behavioral motor tasks. Here, a six-legged structure, showing a steady-state exponentially stable locomotion pattern, is exposed to the need of learning new motor skills: moving through the environment, the structure is able to modulate motor commands and implements an obstacle climbing procedure. Experimental results on a simulated hexapod robot are reported; they are obtained in a dynamic simulation environment and the robot mimicks the structures of Drosophila melanogaster. PMID:28337138

Tissue Plasminogen Activator Induction in Purkinje Neurons After Cerebellar Motor Learning

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Seeds, Nicholas W.; Williams, Brian L.; Bickford, Paula C.

1995-12-01

The cerebellar cortex is implicated in the learning of complex motor skills. This learning may require synaptic remodeling of Purkinje cell inputs. An extracellular serine protease, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), is involved in remodeling various nonneural tissues and is associated with developing and regenerating neurons. In situ hybridization showed that expression of tPA messenger RNA was increased in the Purkinje neurons of rats within an hour of their being trained for a complex motor task. Antibody to tPA also showed the induction of tPA protein associated with cerebellar Purkinje cells. Thus, the induction of tPA during motor learning may play a role in activity-dependent synaptic plasticity.

Interference from mere thinking: mental rehearsal temporarily disrupts recall of motor memory.

PubMed

Yin, Cong; Wei, Kunlin

2014-08-01

Interference between successively learned tasks is widely investigated to study motor memory. However, how simultaneously learned motor memories interact with each other has been rarely studied despite its prevalence in daily life. Assuming that motor memory shares common neural mechanisms with declarative memory system, we made unintuitive predictions that mental rehearsal, as opposed to further practice, of one motor memory will temporarily impair the recall of another simultaneously learned memory. Subjects simultaneously learned two sensorimotor tasks, i.e., visuomotor rotation and gain. They retrieved one memory by either practice or mental rehearsal and then had their memory evaluated. We found that mental rehearsal, instead of execution, impaired the recall of unretrieved memory. This impairment was content-independent, i.e., retrieving either gain or rotation impaired the other memory. Hence, conscious recollection of one motor memory interferes with the recall of another memory. This is analogous to retrieval-induced forgetting in declarative memory, suggesting a common neural process across memory systems. Our findings indicate that motor imagery is sufficient to induce interference between motor memories. Mental rehearsal, currently widely regarded as beneficial for motor performance, negatively affects memory recall when it is exercised for a subset of memorized items. Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.

Improved motor sequence retention by motionless listening.

PubMed

Lahav, Amir; Katz, Tal; Chess, Roxanne; Saltzman, Elliot

2013-05-01

This study examined the effect of listening to a newly learned musical piece on subsequent motor retention of the piece. Thirty-six non-musicians were trained to play an unfamiliar melody on a piano keyboard. Next, they were randomly assigned to participate in three follow-up listening sessions over 1 week. Subjects who, during their listening sessions, listened to the same initial piece showed significant improvements in motor memory and retention of the piece despite the absence of physical practice. These improvements included increased pitch accuracy, time accuracy, and dynamic intensity of key pressing. Similar improvements, though to a lesser degree, were observed in subjects who, during their listening sessions, were distracted by another task. Control subjects, who after learning the piece had listened to nonmusical sounds, showed impaired motoric retention of the piece at 1 week from the initial acquisition day. These results imply that motor sequences can be established in motor memory without direct access to motor-related information. In addition, the study revealed that the listening-induced improvements did not generalize to the learning of a new musical piece composed of the same notes as the initial piece learned, limiting the effects to musical motor sequences that are already part of the individual's motor repertoire.

Social defeat leads to changes in the endocannabinoid system: An overexpression of calreticulin and motor impairment in mice.

PubMed

Tomas-Roig, J; Piscitelli, F; Gil, V; Del Río, J A; Moore, T P; Agbemenyah, H; Salinas-Riester, G; Pommerenke, C; Lorenzen, S; Beißbarth, T; Hoyer-Fender, S; Di Marzo, V; Havemann-Reinecke, U

2016-04-15

Prolonged and sustained stimulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis have adverse effects on numerous brain regions, including the cerebellum. Motor coordination and motor learning are essential for animal and require the regulation of cerebellar neurons. The G-protein-coupled cannabinoid CB1 receptor coordinates synaptic transmission throughout the CNS and is of highest abundance in the cerebellum. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the long-lasting effects of chronic psychosocial stress on motor coordination and motor learning, CB1 receptor expression, endogenous cannabinoid ligands and gene expression in the cerebellum. After chronic psychosocial stress, motor coordination and motor learning were impaired as indicated the righting reflex and the rota-rod. The amount of the endocannabinoid 2-AG increased while CB1 mRNA and protein expression were downregulated after chronic stress. Transcriptome analysis revealed 319 genes differentially expressed by chronic psychosocial stress in the cerebellum; mainly involved in synaptic transmission, transmission of nerve impulse, and cell-cell signaling. Calreticulin was validated as a stress candidate gene. The present study provides evidence that chronic stress activates calreticulin and might be one of the pathological mechanisms underlying the motor coordination and motor learning dysfunctions seen in social defeat mice. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Adaptation and Retention of a Perceptual-Motor Task in Children: Effects of a Single Bout of Intense Endurance Exercise.

PubMed

Ferrer-Uris, Blai; Busquets, Albert; Angulo-Barroso, Rosa

2018-02-01

We assessed the effect of an acute intense exercise bout on the adaptation and consolidation of a visuomotor adaptation task in children. We also sought to assess if exercise and learning task presentation order could affect task consolidation. Thirty-three children were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) exercise before the learning task, (b) exercise after the learning task, and (c) only learning task. Baseline performance was assessed by practicing the learning task in a 0° rotation condition. Afterward, a 60° rotation-adaptation set was applied followed by three rotated retention sets after 1 hr, 24 hr, and 7 days. For the exercise groups, exercise was presented before or after the motor adaptation. Results showed no group differences during the motor adaptation while exercise seemed to enhance motor consolidation. Greater consolidation enhancement was found in participants who exercised before the learning task. Our data support the importance of exercise to improve motor-memory consolidation in children.

Tandem internal models execute motor learning in the cerebellum.

PubMed

Honda, Takeru; Nagao, Soichi; Hashimoto, Yuji; Ishikawa, Kinya; Yokota, Takanori; Mizusawa, Hidehiro; Ito, Masao

2018-06-25

In performing skillful movement, humans use predictions from internal models formed by repetition learning. However, the computational organization of internal models in the brain remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that a computational architecture employing a tandem configuration of forward and inverse internal models enables efficient motor learning in the cerebellum. The model predicted learning adaptations observed in hand-reaching experiments in humans wearing a prism lens and explained the kinetic components of these behavioral adaptations. The tandem system also predicted a form of subliminal motor learning that was experimentally validated after training intentional misses of hand targets. Patients with cerebellar degeneration disease showed behavioral impairments consistent with tandemly arranged internal models. These findings validate computational tandemization of internal models in motor control and its potential uses in more complex forms of learning and cognition. Copyright © 2018 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.

Nitric Oxide and the Biological Cascades Underlying Increased Neurogenesis, Enhanced Learning Ability, and Academic Ability as an Effect of Increased Bouts of Physical Activity

PubMed Central

HUNT, SAMUEL J.; NAVALTA, JAMES W.

2012-01-01

The consummate principle underlying all physiological research is corporeal adaptation at every level of the organism observed. With respect to humans, the body learns to function based on the external stimuli from the environment, beginning in the womb, throughout the developmental stages of life. Nitric Oxide (NO) appears to be the governor of the plasticity of several systems in mammals implicit in their proper development. It is the purpose of this review to describe the physiological pathways that lead to plasticity of not only the vasculature but also of the brain and how physical activity plays a key role in those alterations by initiating the mechanism that triggers NO production. Further, this review hopes to show a connection between these changes and learning, comprising both motor learning and cognitive learning. This review will show how NO plays a significant role in vascularization and neurogenesis, necessary to enhance the mind-body connection and comprehensive physical performance and adaptation. It is our belief that this review effectively demonstrates, using a multidisciplinary approach, the causal mechanisms underlying the increases in neurogenesis as related to improved learning and academic performance as a result of adequate bouts of physical activity of a vigorous nature. PMID:27182387

Sleep and memory consolidation: motor performance and proactive interference effects in sequence learning.

PubMed

Borragán, Guillermo; Urbain, Charline; Schmitz, Rémy; Mary, Alison; Peigneux, Philippe

2015-04-01

That post-training sleep supports the consolidation of sequential motor skills remains debated. Performance improvement and sensitivity to proactive interference are both putative measures of long-term memory consolidation. We tested sleep-dependent memory consolidation for visuo-motor sequence learning using a proactive interference paradigm. Thirty-three young adults were trained on sequence A on Day 1, then had Regular Sleep (RS) or were Sleep Deprived (SD) on the night after learning. After two recovery nights, they were tested on the same sequence A, then had to learn a novel, potentially competing sequence B. We hypothesized that proactive interference effects on sequence B due to the prior learning of sequence A would be higher in the RS condition, considering that proactive interference is an indirect marker of the robustness of sequence A, which should be better consolidated over post-training sleep. Results highlighted sleep-dependent improvement for sequence A, with faster RTs overnight for RS participants only. Moreover, the beneficial impact of sleep was specific to the consolidation of motor but not sequential skills. Proactive interference effects on learning a new material at Day 4 were similar between RS and SD participants. These results suggest that post-training sleep contributes to optimizing motor but not sequential components of performance in visuo-motor sequence learning. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The Homeostatic Interaction Between Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Motor Learning in Humans is Related to GABAA Activity.

PubMed

Amadi, Ugwechi; Allman, Claire; Johansen-Berg, Heidi; Stagg, Charlotte J

2015-01-01

The relative timing of plasticity-induction protocols is known to be crucial. For example, anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), which increases cortical excitability and typically enhances plasticity, can impair performance if it is applied before a motor learning task. Such timing-dependent effects have been ascribed to homeostatic plasticity, but the specific synaptic site of this interaction remains unknown. We wished to investigate the synaptic substrate, and in particular the role of inhibitory signaling, underpinning the behavioral effects of anodal tDCS in homeostatic interactions between anodal tDCS and motor learning. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to investigate cortical excitability and inhibitory signaling following tDCS and motor learning. Each subject participated in four experimental sessions and data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAs and post-hoc t-tests as appropriate. As predicted, we found that anodal tDCS prior to the motor task decreased learning rates. This worsening of learning after tDCS was accompanied by a correlated increase in GABAA activity, as measured by TMS-assessed short interval intra-cortical inhibition (SICI). This provides the first direct demonstration in humans that inhibitory synapses are the likely site for the interaction between anodal tDCS and motor learning, and further, that homeostatic plasticity at GABAA synapses has behavioral relevance in humans. Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Are individuals with Parkinson's disease capable of speech-motor learning? - A preliminary evaluation.

PubMed

Kaipa, Ramesh; Jones, Richard D; Robb, Michael P

2016-07-01

The benefits of different practice conditions in limb-based rehabilitation of motor disorders are well documented. Conversely, the role of practice structure in the treatment of motor-based speech disorders has only been minimally investigated. Considering this limitation, the current study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of selected practice conditions in spatial and temporal learning of novel speech utterances in individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD). Participants included 16 individuals with PD who were randomly and equally assigned to constant, variable, random, and blocked practice conditions. Participants in all four groups practiced a speech phrase for two consecutive days, and reproduced the speech phrase on the third day without further practice or feedback. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between participants across the four practice conditions with respect to either spatial or temporal learning of the speech phrase. Overall, PD participants demonstrated diminished spatial and temporal learning in comparison to healthy controls. Tests of strength of association between participants' demographic/clinical characteristics and speech-motor learning outcomes did not reveal any significant correlations. The findings from the current study suggest that repeated practice facilitates speech-motor learning in individuals with PD irrespective of the type of practice. Clinicians need to be cautious in applying practice conditions to treat speech deficits associated with PD based on the findings of non-speech-motor learning tasks. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Predicting future learning from baseline network architecture.

PubMed

Mattar, Marcelo G; Wymbs, Nicholas F; Bock, Andrew S; Aguirre, Geoffrey K; Grafton, Scott T; Bassett, Danielle S

2018-05-15

Human behavior and cognition result from a complex pattern of interactions between brain regions. The flexible reconfiguration of these patterns enables behavioral adaptation, such as the acquisition of a new motor skill. Yet, the degree to which these reconfigurations depend on the brain's baseline sensorimotor integration is far from understood. Here, we asked whether spontaneous fluctuations in sensorimotor networks at baseline were predictive of individual differences in future learning. We analyzed functional MRI data from 19 participants prior to six weeks of training on a new motor skill. We found that visual-motor connectivity was inversely related to learning rate: sensorimotor autonomy at baseline corresponded to faster learning in the future. Using three additional scans, we found that visual-motor connectivity at baseline is a relatively stable individual trait. These results suggest that individual differences in motor skill learning can be predicted from sensorimotor autonomy at baseline prior to task execution. Copyright © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Consecutive learning of opposing unimanual motor tasks using the right arm followed by the left arm causes intermanual interference

PubMed Central

Thürer, Benjamin; Stein, Thorsten

2017-01-01

Intermanual transfer (motor memory generalization across arms) and motor memory interference (impairment of retest performance in consecutive motor learning) are well-investigated motor learning phenomena. However, the interplay of these phenomena remains elusive, i.e., whether intermanual interference occurs when two unimanual tasks are consecutively learned using different arms. Here, we examine intermanual interference when subjects consecutively adapt their right and left arm movements to novel dynamics. We considered two force field tasks A and B which were of the same structure but mirrored orientation (B = -A). The first test group (ABA-group) consecutively learned task A using their right arm and task B using their left arm before being retested for task A with their right arm. Another test group (AAA-group) learned only task A in the same right-left-right arm schedule. Control subjects learned task A using their right arm without intermediate left arm learning. All groups were able to adapt their right arm movements to force field A and both test groups showed significant intermanual transfer of this initial learning to the contralateral left arm of 21.9% (ABA-group) and 27.6% (AAA-group). Consecutively, both test groups adapted their left arm movements to force field B (ABA-group) or force field A (AAA-group). For the ABA-group, left arm learning caused significant intermanual interference of the initially learned right arm task (68.3% performance decrease). The performance decrease of the AAA-group (10.2%) did not differ from controls (15.5%). These findings suggest that motor control and learning of right and left arm movements involve partly similar neural networks or underlie a vital interhemispheric connectivity. Moreover, our results suggest a preferred internal task representation in extrinsic Cartesian-based coordinates rather than in intrinsic joint-based coordinates because interference was absent when learning was performed in extrinsically equivalent fashion (AAA-group) but interference occurred when learning was performed in intrinsically equivalent fashion (ABA-group). PMID:28459833

Consecutive learning of opposing unimanual motor tasks using the right arm followed by the left arm causes intermanual interference.

PubMed

Stockinger, Christian; Thürer, Benjamin; Stein, Thorsten

2017-01-01

Intermanual transfer (motor memory generalization across arms) and motor memory interference (impairment of retest performance in consecutive motor learning) are well-investigated motor learning phenomena. However, the interplay of these phenomena remains elusive, i.e., whether intermanual interference occurs when two unimanual tasks are consecutively learned using different arms. Here, we examine intermanual interference when subjects consecutively adapt their right and left arm movements to novel dynamics. We considered two force field tasks A and B which were of the same structure but mirrored orientation (B = -A). The first test group (ABA-group) consecutively learned task A using their right arm and task B using their left arm before being retested for task A with their right arm. Another test group (AAA-group) learned only task A in the same right-left-right arm schedule. Control subjects learned task A using their right arm without intermediate left arm learning. All groups were able to adapt their right arm movements to force field A and both test groups showed significant intermanual transfer of this initial learning to the contralateral left arm of 21.9% (ABA-group) and 27.6% (AAA-group). Consecutively, both test groups adapted their left arm movements to force field B (ABA-group) or force field A (AAA-group). For the ABA-group, left arm learning caused significant intermanual interference of the initially learned right arm task (68.3% performance decrease). The performance decrease of the AAA-group (10.2%) did not differ from controls (15.5%). These findings suggest that motor control and learning of right and left arm movements involve partly similar neural networks or underlie a vital interhemispheric connectivity. Moreover, our results suggest a preferred internal task representation in extrinsic Cartesian-based coordinates rather than in intrinsic joint-based coordinates because interference was absent when learning was performed in extrinsically equivalent fashion (AAA-group) but interference occurred when learning was performed in intrinsically equivalent fashion (ABA-group).

Visuo-Motor and Cognitive Procedural Learning in Children with Basal Ganglia Pathology

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Mayor-Dubois, C.; Maeder, P.; Zesiger, P.; Roulet-Perez, E.

2010-01-01

We investigated procedural learning in 18 children with basal ganglia (BG) lesions or dysfunctions of various aetiologies, using a visuo-motor learning test, the Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task, and a cognitive learning test, the Probabilistic Classification Learning (PCL) task. We compared patients with early (less than 1 year old, n=9), later…

Students' Experiences of Learning Manual Clinical Skills through Simulation

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Johannesson, Eva; Silen, Charlotte; Kvist, Joanna; Hult, Hakan

2013-01-01

Learning manual skills is a fundamental part of health care education, and motor, sensory and cognitive learning processes are essential aspects of professional development. Simulator training has been shown to enhance factors that facilitate motor and cognitive learning. The present study aimed to investigate the students' experiences and…

Learning Activities for the Young Handicapped Child.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Bailey, Don; And Others

Presented is a collection of learning activities for the young handicapped child covering 295 individual learning objectives in six areas of development: gross motor skills, fine motor skills, social skills, self help skills, cognitive skills, and language skills. Provided for each learning activity are the teaching objective, teaching procedures,…

Children benefit differently from night- and day-time sleep in motor learning.

PubMed

Yan, Jin H

2017-08-01

Motor skill acquisition occurs while practicing (on-line) and when asleep or awake (off-line). However, developmental questions still remain about whether children of various ages benefit similarly or differentially from night- and day-time sleeping. The likely circadian effects (time-of-day) and the possible between-test-interference (order effects) associated with children's off-line motor learning are currently unknown. Therefore, this study examines the contributions of over-night sleeping and mid-day napping to procedural skill learning. One hundred and eight children were instructed to practice a finger sequence task using computer keyboards. After an equivalent 11-h interval in one of the three states (sleep, nap, wakefulness), children performed the same sequence in retention tests and a novel sequence in transfer tests. Changes in the movement time and sequence accuracy were evaluated between ages (6-7, 8-9, 10-11years) during practice, and from skill training to retrievals across three states. Results suggest that night-time sleeping and day-time napping improved the tapping speed, especially for the 6-year-olds. The circadian factor did not affect off-line motor learning in children. The interference between the two counter-balanced retrieval tests was not found for the off-line motor learning. This research offers possible evidence about the age-related motor learning characteristics in children and a potential means for enhancing developmental motor skills. The dynamics between age, experience, memory formation, and the theoretical implications of motor skill acquisition are discussed. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

32 CFR 634.26 - Traffic law enforcement principles.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... 32 National Defense 4 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Traffic law enforcement principles. 634.26... ENFORCEMENT AND CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC SUPERVISION Traffic Supervision § 634.26 Traffic law enforcement principles. (a) Traffic law enforcement should motivate drivers to operate vehicles...

32 CFR 634.26 - Traffic law enforcement principles.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... 32 National Defense 4 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 true Traffic law enforcement principles. 634.26... ENFORCEMENT AND CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC SUPERVISION Traffic Supervision § 634.26 Traffic law enforcement principles. (a) Traffic law enforcement should motivate drivers to operate vehicles...

41 CFR 102-34.220 - What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle?

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... 41 Public Contracts and Property Management 3 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle? 102-34.220 Section 102-34.220 Public Contracts....220 What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle? GSA reports the...

41 CFR 102-34.220 - What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle?

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 41 Public Contracts and Property Management 3 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle? 102-34.220 Section 102-34.220 Public Contracts....220 What does GSA do if it learns of unofficial use of a Government motor vehicle? GSA reports the...

Focus of Attention in Children's Motor Learning: Examining the Role of Age and Working Memory.

PubMed

Brocken, J E A; Kal, E C; van der Kamp, J

2016-01-01

The authors investigated the relative effectiveness of different attentional focus instructions on motor learning in primary school children. In addition, we explored whether the effect of attentional focus on motor learning was influenced by children's age and verbal working memory capacity. Novice 8-9-year old children (n = 30) and 11-12-year-old children (n = 30) practiced a golf putting task. For each age group, half the participants received instructions to focus (internally) on the swing of their arm, while the other half was instructed to focus (externally) on the swing of the club. Children's verbal working memory capacity was assessed with the Automated Working Memory Assessment. Consistent with many reports on adult's motor learning, children in the external groups demonstrated greater improvements in putting accuracy than children who practiced with an internal focus. This effect was similar across age groups. Verbal working memory capacity was not found to be predictive of motor learning, neither for children in the internal focus groups nor for children in the external focus groups. In conclusion, primary school children's motor learning is enhanced by external focus instructions compared to internal focus instructions. The purported modulatory roles of children's working memory, attentional capacity, or focus preferences require further investigation.

Cognitive modifiability of children with developmental disabilities: a multicentre study using Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment--Basic program.

PubMed

Kozulin, A; Lebeer, J; Madella-Noja, A; Gonzalez, F; Jeffrey, I; Rosenthal, N; Koslowsky, M

2010-01-01

The study aimed at exploring the effectiveness of cognitive intervention with the new "Instrumental Enrichment Basic" program (IE-basic), based on Feuerstein's theory of structural cognitive modifiability that contends that a child's cognitive functioning can be significantly modified through mediated learning intervention. The IE-basic progam is aimed at enhancing domain-general cognitive functioning in a number of areas (systematic perception, self-regulation abilities, conceptual vocabulary, planning, decoding emotions and social relations) as well as transferring learnt principles to daily life domains. Participants were children with DCD, CP, intellectual impairment of genetic origin, autistic spectrum disorder, ADHD or other learning disorders, with a mental age of 5-7 years, from Canada, Chile, Belgium, Italy and Israel. Children in the experimental groups (N=104) received 27-90 h of the program during 30-45 weeks; the comparison groups (N=72) received general occupational and sensory-motor therapy. Analysis of the pre- to post-test gain scores demonstrated significant (p<0.05) advantage of experimental over comparison groups in three WISC-R subtests ("Similarities", "Picture Completion", "Picture Arrangement") and Raven Coloured Matrices. Effect sizes ranged from 0.3 to 0.52. Results suggest that it is possible to improve cognitive functioning of children with developmental disability. No advantage was found for children with specific aetiology. Greater cognitive gains were demonstrated by children who received the program in an educational context where all teachers were committed to the principles of mediated learning. Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Motor Task Variation Induces Structural Learning

PubMed Central

Braun, Daniel A.; Aertsen, Ad; Wolpert, Daniel M.; Mehring, Carsten

2009-01-01

Summary When we have learned a motor skill, such as cycling or ice-skating, we can rapidly generalize to novel tasks, such as motorcycling or rollerblading [1–8]. Such facilitation of learning could arise through two distinct mechanisms by which the motor system might adjust its control parameters. First, fast learning could simply be a consequence of the proximity of the original and final settings of the control parameters. Second, by structural learning [9–14], the motor system could constrain the parameter adjustments to conform to the control parameters' covariance structure. Thus, facilitation of learning would rely on the novel task parameters' lying on the structure of a lower-dimensional subspace that can be explored more efficiently. To test between these two hypotheses, we exposed subjects to randomly varying visuomotor tasks of fixed structure. Although such randomly varying tasks are thought to prevent learning, we show that when subsequently presented with novel tasks, subjects exhibit three key features of structural learning: facilitated learning of tasks with the same structure, strong reduction in interference normally observed when switching between tasks that require opposite control strategies, and preferential exploration along the learned structure. These results suggest that skill generalization relies on task variation and structural learning. PMID:19217296

Motor task variation induces structural learning.

PubMed

Braun, Daniel A; Aertsen, Ad; Wolpert, Daniel M; Mehring, Carsten

2009-02-24

When we have learned a motor skill, such as cycling or ice-skating, we can rapidly generalize to novel tasks, such as motorcycling or rollerblading [1-8]. Such facilitation of learning could arise through two distinct mechanisms by which the motor system might adjust its control parameters. First, fast learning could simply be a consequence of the proximity of the original and final settings of the control parameters. Second, by structural learning [9-14], the motor system could constrain the parameter adjustments to conform to the control parameters' covariance structure. Thus, facilitation of learning would rely on the novel task parameters' lying on the structure of a lower-dimensional subspace that can be explored more efficiently. To test between these two hypotheses, we exposed subjects to randomly varying visuomotor tasks of fixed structure. Although such randomly varying tasks are thought to prevent learning, we show that when subsequently presented with novel tasks, subjects exhibit three key features of structural learning: facilitated learning of tasks with the same structure, strong reduction in interference normally observed when switching between tasks that require opposite control strategies, and preferential exploration along the learned structure. These results suggest that skill generalization relies on task variation and structural learning.

Foxp2 mutations impair auditory-motor association learning.

PubMed

Kurt, Simone; Fisher, Simon E; Ehret, Günter

2012-01-01

Heterozygous mutations of the human FOXP2 transcription factor gene cause the best-described examples of monogenic speech and language disorders. Acquisition of proficient spoken language involves auditory-guided vocal learning, a specialized form of sensory-motor association learning. The impact of etiological Foxp2 mutations on learning of auditory-motor associations in mammals has not been determined yet. Here, we directly assess this type of learning using a newly developed conditioned avoidance paradigm in a shuttle-box for mice. We show striking deficits in mice heterozygous for either of two different Foxp2 mutations previously implicated in human speech disorders. Both mutations cause delays in acquiring new motor skills. The magnitude of impairments in association learning, however, depends on the nature of the mutation. Mice with a missense mutation in the DNA-binding domain are able to learn, but at a much slower rate than wild type animals, while mice carrying an early nonsense mutation learn very little. These results are consistent with expression of Foxp2 in distributed circuits of the cortex, striatum and cerebellum that are known to play key roles in acquisition of motor skills and sensory-motor association learning, and suggest differing in vivo effects for distinct variants of the Foxp2 protein. Given the importance of such networks for the acquisition of human spoken language, and the fact that similar mutations in human FOXP2 cause problems with speech development, this work opens up a new perspective on the use of mouse models for understanding pathways underlying speech and language disorders.

Resonant Cholinergic Dynamics in Cognitive and Motor Decision-Making: Attention, Category Learning, and Choice in Neocortex, Superior Colliculus, and Optic Tectum.

PubMed

Grossberg, Stephen; Palma, Jesse; Versace, Massimiliano

2015-01-01

Freely behaving organisms need to rapidly calibrate their perceptual, cognitive, and motor decisions based on continuously changing environmental conditions. These plastic changes include sharpening or broadening of cognitive and motor attention and learning to match the behavioral demands that are imposed by changing environmental statistics. This article proposes that a shared circuit design for such flexible decision-making is used in specific cognitive and motor circuits, and that both types of circuits use acetylcholine to modulate choice selectivity. Such task-sensitive control is proposed to control thalamocortical choice of the critical features that are cognitively attended and that are incorporated through learning into prototypes of visual recognition categories. A cholinergically-modulated process of vigilance control determines if a recognition category and its attended features are abstract (low vigilance) or concrete (high vigilance). Homologous neural mechanisms of cholinergic modulation are proposed to focus attention and learn a multimodal map within the deeper layers of superior colliculus. This map enables visual, auditory, and planned movement commands to compete for attention, leading to selection of a winning position that controls where the next saccadic eye movement will go. Such map learning may be viewed as a kind of attentive motor category learning. The article hereby explicates a link between attention, learning, and cholinergic modulation during decision making within both cognitive and motor systems. Homologs between the mammalian superior colliculus and the avian optic tectum lead to predictions about how multimodal map learning may occur in the mammalian and avian brain and how such learning may be modulated by acetycholine.

Resonant Cholinergic Dynamics in Cognitive and Motor Decision-Making: Attention, Category Learning, and Choice in Neocortex, Superior Colliculus, and Optic Tectum

PubMed Central

Grossberg, Stephen; Palma, Jesse; Versace, Massimiliano

2016-01-01

Freely behaving organisms need to rapidly calibrate their perceptual, cognitive, and motor decisions based on continuously changing environmental conditions. These plastic changes include sharpening or broadening of cognitive and motor attention and learning to match the behavioral demands that are imposed by changing environmental statistics. This article proposes that a shared circuit design for such flexible decision-making is used in specific cognitive and motor circuits, and that both types of circuits use acetylcholine to modulate choice selectivity. Such task-sensitive control is proposed to control thalamocortical choice of the critical features that are cognitively attended and that are incorporated through learning into prototypes of visual recognition categories. A cholinergically-modulated process of vigilance control determines if a recognition category and its attended features are abstract (low vigilance) or concrete (high vigilance). Homologous neural mechanisms of cholinergic modulation are proposed to focus attention and learn a multimodal map within the deeper layers of superior colliculus. This map enables visual, auditory, and planned movement commands to compete for attention, leading to selection of a winning position that controls where the next saccadic eye movement will go. Such map learning may be viewed as a kind of attentive motor category learning. The article hereby explicates a link between attention, learning, and cholinergic modulation during decision making within both cognitive and motor systems. Homologs between the mammalian superior colliculus and the avian optic tectum lead to predictions about how multimodal map learning may occur in the mammalian and avian brain and how such learning may be modulated by acetycholine. PMID:26834535

Motor learning.

PubMed

Wolpert, Daniel M; Flanagan, J Randall

2010-06-08

Although learning a motor skill, such as a tennis stroke, feels like a unitary experience, researchers who study motor control and learning break the processes involved into a number of interacting components. These components can be organized into four main groups. First, skilled performance requires the effective and efficient gathering of sensory information, such as deciding where and when to direct one's gaze around the court, and thus an important component of skill acquisition involves learning how best to extract task-relevant information. Second, the performer must learn key features of the task such as the geometry and mechanics of the tennis racket and ball, the properties of the court surface, and how the wind affects the ball's flight. Third, the player needs to set up different classes of control that include predictive and reactive control mechanisms that generate appropriate motor commands to achieve the task goals, as well as compliance control that specifies, for example, the stiffness with which the arm holds the racket. Finally, the successful performer can learn higher-level skills such as anticipating and countering the opponent's strategy and making effective decisions about shot selection. In this Primer we shall consider these components of motor learning using as an example how we learn to play tennis. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The relationship of neurogenesis and growth of brain regions to song learning.

PubMed

Kirn, John R

2010-10-01

Song learning, maintenance and production require coordinated activity across multiple auditory, sensory-motor, and neuromuscular structures. Telencephalic components of the sensory-motor circuitry are unique to avian species that engage in song learning. The song system shows protracted development that begins prior to hatching but continues well into adulthood. The staggered developmental timetable for construction of the song system provides clues of subsystems involved in specific stages of song learning and maintenance. Progressive events, including neurogenesis and song system growth, as well as regressive events such as apoptosis and synapse elimination, occur during periods of song learning and the transitions between variable and stereotyped song during both development and adulthood. There is clear evidence that gonadal steroids influence the development of song attributes and shape the underlying neural circuitry. Some aspects of song system development are influenced by sensory, motor and social experience, while other aspects of neural development appear to be experience-independent. Although there are species differences in the extent to which song learning continues into adulthood, growing evidence suggests that despite differences in learning trajectories, adult refinement of song motor control and song maintenance can require remarkable behavioral and neural flexibility reminiscent of sensory-motor learning. Copyright © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The effect of fast and slow motor unit activation on whole-muscle mechanical performance: the size principle may not pose a mechanical paradox

PubMed Central

Holt, N. C.; Wakeling, J. M.; Biewener, A. A.

2014-01-01

The output of skeletal muscle can be varied by selectively recruiting different motor units. However, our knowledge of muscle function is largely derived from muscle in which all motor units are activated. This discrepancy may limit our understanding of in vivo muscle function. Hence, this study aimed to characterize the mechanical properties of muscle with different motor unit activation. We determined the isometric properties and isotonic force–velocity relationship of rat plantaris muscles in situ with all of the muscle active, 30% of the muscle containing predominately slower motor units active or 20% of the muscle containing predominately faster motor units active. There was a significant effect of active motor unit type on isometric force rise time (p < 0.001) and the force–velocity relationship (p < 0.001). Surprisingly, force rise time was longer and maximum shortening velocity higher when all motor units were active than when either fast or slow motor units were selectively activated. We propose this is due to the greater relative effects of factors such as series compliance and muscle resistance to shortening during sub-maximal contractions. The findings presented here suggest that recruitment according to the size principle, where slow motor units are activated first and faster ones recruited as demand increases, may not pose a mechanical paradox, as has been previously suggested. PMID:24695429

The effect of fast and slow motor unit activation on whole-muscle mechanical performance: the size principle may not pose a mechanical paradox.

PubMed

Holt, N C; Wakeling, J M; Biewener, A A

2014-05-22

The output of skeletal muscle can be varied by selectively recruiting different motor units. However, our knowledge of muscle function is largely derived from muscle in which all motor units are activated. This discrepancy may limit our understanding of in vivo muscle function. Hence, this study aimed to characterize the mechanical properties of muscle with different motor unit activation. We determined the isometric properties and isotonic force-velocity relationship of rat plantaris muscles in situ with all of the muscle active, 30% of the muscle containing predominately slower motor units active or 20% of the muscle containing predominately faster motor units active. There was a significant effect of active motor unit type on isometric force rise time (p < 0.001) and the force-velocity relationship (p < 0.001). Surprisingly, force rise time was longer and maximum shortening velocity higher when all motor units were active than when either fast or slow motor units were selectively activated. We propose this is due to the greater relative effects of factors such as series compliance and muscle resistance to shortening during sub-maximal contractions. The findings presented here suggest that recruitment according to the size principle, where slow motor units are activated first and faster ones recruited as demand increases, may not pose a mechanical paradox, as has been previously suggested.

In search of the motor engram: motor map plasticity as a mechanism for encoding motor experience.

PubMed

Monfils, Marie-H; Plautz, Erik J; Kleim, Jeffrey A

2005-10-01

Motor skill acquisition occurs through modification and organization of muscle synergies into effective movement sequences. The learning process is reflected neurophysiologically as a reorganization of movement representations within the primary motor cortex, suggesting that the motor map is a motor engram. However, the specific neural mechanisms underlying map plasticity are unknown. Here the authors review evidence that 1) motor map topography reflects the capacity for skilled movement, 2) motor skill learning induces reorganization of motor maps in a manner that reflects the kinematics of acquired skilled movement, 3) map plasticity is supported by a reorganization of cortical microcircuitry involving changes in synaptic efficacy, and 4) motor map integrity and topography are influenced by various neurochemical signals that coordinate changes in cortical circuitry to encode motor experience. Finally, the role of motor map plasticity in recovery of motor function after brain damage is discussed.

Principles of Unconventional Myosin Function and Targeting

PubMed Central

Hartman, M. Amanda; Finan, Dina; Sivaramakrishnan, Sivaraj; Spudich, James A.

2016-01-01

Unconventional myosins are a superfamily of actin-based motors implicated in diverse cellular processes. In recent years, much progress has been made in describing their biophysical properties, and headway has been made into analyzing their cellular functions. Here, we focus on the principles that guide in vivo motor function and targeting to specific cellular locations. Rather than describe each motor comprehensively, we outline the major themes that emerge from research across the superfamily and use specific examples to illustrate each. In presenting the data in this format, we seek to identify open questions in each field as well as to point out commonalities between them. To advance our understanding of myosins’ roles in vivo, clearly we must identify their cellular cargoes and the protein complexes that regulate motor attachment to fully appreciate their functions on the cellular and developmental levels. PMID:21639800

Learning trajectories for speech motor performance in children with specific language impairment.

PubMed

Richtsmeier, Peter T; Goffman, Lisa

2015-01-01

Children with specific language impairment (SLI) often perform below expected levels, including on tests of motor skill and in learning tasks, particularly procedural learning. In this experiment we examined the possibility that children with SLI might also have a motor learning deficit. Twelve children with SLI and thirteen children with typical development (TD) produced complex nonwords in an imitation task. Productions were collected across three blocks, with the first and second blocks on the same day and the third block one week later. Children's lip movements while producing the nonwords were recorded using an Optotrak camera system. Movements were then analyzed for production duration and stability. Movement analyses indicated that both groups of children produced shorter productions in later blocks (corroborated by an acoustic analysis), and the rate of change was comparable for the TD and SLI groups. A nonsignificant trend for more stable productions was also observed in both groups. SLI is regularly accompanied by a motor deficit, and this study does not dispute that. However, children with SLI learned to make more efficient productions at a rate similar to their peers with TD, revealing some modification of the motor deficit associated with SLI. The reader will learn about deficits commonly associated with specific language impairment (SLI) that often occur alongside the hallmark language deficit. The authors present an experiment showing that children with SLI improved speech motor performance at a similar rate compared to typically developing children. The implication is that speech motor learning is not impaired in children with SLI. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Changes in spinal reflex excitability associated with motor sequence learning.

PubMed

Lungu, Ovidiu; Frigon, Alain; Piché, Mathieu; Rainville, Pierre; Rossignol, Serge; Doyon, Julien

2010-05-01

There is ample evidence that motor sequence learning is mediated by changes in brain activity. Yet the question of whether this form of learning elicits changes detectable at the spinal cord level has not been addressed. To date, studies in humans have revealed that spinal reflex activity may be altered during the acquisition of various motor skills, but a link between motor sequence learning and changes in spinal excitability has not been demonstrated. To address this issue, we studied the modulation of H-reflex amplitude evoked in the flexor carpi radialis muscle of 14 healthy individuals between blocks of movements that involved the implicit acquisition of a sequence versus other movements that did not require learning. Each participant performed the task in three conditions: "sequence"-externally triggered, repeating and sequential movements, "random"-similar movements, but performed in an arbitrary order, and "simple"- involving alternating movements in a left-right or up-down direction only. When controlling for background muscular activity, H-reflex amplitude was significantly more reduced in the sequence (43.8 +/- 1.47%. mean +/- SE) compared with the random (38.2 +/- 1.60%) and simple (31.5 +/- 1.82%) conditions, while the M-response was not different across conditions. Furthermore, H-reflex changes were observed from the beginning of the learning process up to when subjects reached asymptotic performance on the motor task. Changes also persisted for >60 s after motor activity ceased. Such findings suggest that the excitability in some spinal reflex circuits is altered during the implicit learning process of a new motor sequence.

Learning piano melodies in visuo-motor or audio-motor training conditions and the neural correlates of their cross-modal transfer.

PubMed

Engel, Annerose; Bangert, Marc; Horbank, David; Hijmans, Brenda S; Wilkens, Katharina; Keller, Peter E; Keysers, Christian

2012-11-01

To investigate the cross-modal transfer of movement patterns necessary to perform melodies on the piano, 22 non-musicians learned to play short sequences on a piano keyboard by (1) merely listening and replaying (vision of own fingers occluded) or (2) merely observing silent finger movements and replaying (on a silent keyboard). After training, participants recognized with above chance accuracy (1) audio-motor learned sequences upon visual presentation (89±17%), and (2) visuo-motor learned sequences upon auditory presentation (77±22%). The recognition rates for visual presentation significantly exceeded those for auditory presentation (p<.05). fMRI revealed that observing finger movements corresponding to audio-motor trained melodies is associated with stronger activation in the left rolandic operculum than observing untrained sequences. This region was also involved in silent execution of sequences, suggesting that a link to motor representations may play a role in cross-modal transfer from audio-motor training condition to visual recognition. No significant differences in brain activity were found during listening to visuo-motor trained compared to untrained melodies. Cross-modal transfer was stronger from the audio-motor training condition to visual recognition and this is discussed in relation to the fact that non-musicians are familiar with how their finger movements look (motor-to-vision transformation), but not with how they sound on a piano (motor-to-sound transformation). Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Motor skill learning and offline-changes in TGA patients with acute hippocampal CA1 lesions.

PubMed

Döhring, Juliane; Stoldt, Anne; Witt, Karsten; Schönfeld, Robby; Deuschl, Günther; Born, Jan; Bartsch, Thorsten

2017-04-01

Learning and the formation of memory are reflected in various memory systems in the human brain such as the hippocampus based declarative memory system and the striatum-cortex based system involved in motor sequence learning. It is a matter of debate how both memory systems interact in humans during learning and consolidation and how this interaction is influenced by sleep. We studied the effect of an acute dysfunction of hippocampal CA1 neurons on the acquisition (on-line condition) and off-line changes of a motor skill in patients with a transient global amnesia (TGA). Sixteen patients (68 ± 4.4 yrs) were studied in the acute phase and during follow-up using a declarative and procedural test, and were compared to controls. Acute TGA patients displayed profound deficits in all declarative memory functions. During the acute amnestic phase, patients were able to acquire the motor skill task reflected by increasing finger tapping speed across the on-line condition, albeit to a lesser degree than during follow-up or compared to controls. Retrieval two days later indicated a greater off-line gain in motor speed in patients than controls. Moreover, this gain in motor skill performance was negatively correlated to the declarative learning deficit. Our results suggest a differential interaction between procedural and declarative memory systems during acquisition and consolidation of motor sequences in older humans. During acquisition, hippocampal dysfunction attenuates fast learning and thus unmasks the slow and rigid learning curve of striatum-based procedural learning. The stronger gains in the post-consolidation condition in motor skill in CA1 lesioned patients indicate a facilitated consolidation process probably occurring during sleep, and suggest a competitive interaction between the memory systems. These findings might be a reflection of network reorganization and plasticity in older humans and in the presence of CA1 hippocampal pathology. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Drosophila FoxP Mutants Are Deficient in Operant Self-Learning

PubMed Central

Mendoza, Ezequiel; Colomb, Julien; Rybak, Jürgen; Pflüger, Hans-Joachim; Zars, Troy

2014-01-01

Intact function of the Forkhead Box P2 (FOXP2) gene is necessary for normal development of speech and language. This important role has recently been extended, first to other forms of vocal learning in animals and then also to other forms of motor learning. The homology in structure and in function among the FoxP gene members raises the possibility that the ancestral FoxP gene may have evolved as a crucial component of the neural circuitry mediating motor learning. Here we report that genetic manipulations of the single Drosophila orthologue, dFoxP, disrupt operant self-learning, a form of motor learning sharing several conceptually analogous features with language acquisition. Structural alterations of the dFoxP locus uncovered the role of dFoxP in operant self-learning and habit formation, as well as the dispensability of dFoxP for operant world-learning, in which no motor learning occurs. These manipulations also led to subtle alterations in the brain anatomy, including a reduced volume of the optic glomeruli. RNAi-mediated interference with dFoxP expression levels copied the behavioral phenotype of the mutant flies, even in the absence of mRNA degradation. Our results provide evidence that motor learning and language acquisition share a common ancestral trait still present in extant invertebrates, manifest in operant self-learning. This ‘deep’ homology probably traces back to before the split between vertebrate and invertebrate animals. PMID:24964149

Neural dynamics and information representation in microcircuits of motor cortex.

PubMed

Tsubo, Yasuhiro; Isomura, Yoshikazu; Fukai, Tomoki

2013-01-01

The brain has to analyze and respond to external events that can change rapidly from time to time, suggesting that information processing by the brain may be essentially dynamic rather than static. The dynamical features of neural computation are of significant importance in motor cortex that governs the process of movement generation and learning. In this paper, we discuss these features based primarily on our recent findings on neural dynamics and information coding in the microcircuit of rat motor cortex. In fact, cortical neurons show a variety of dynamical behavior from rhythmic activity in various frequency bands to highly irregular spike firing. Of particular interest are the similarity and dissimilarity of the neuronal response properties in different layers of motor cortex. By conducting electrophysiological recordings in slice preparation, we report the phase response curves (PRCs) of neurons in different cortical layers to demonstrate their layer-dependent synchronization properties. We then study how motor cortex recruits task-related neurons in different layers for voluntary arm movements by simultaneous juxtacellular and multiunit recordings from behaving rats. The results suggest an interesting difference in the spectrum of functional activity between the superficial and deep layers. Furthermore, the task-related activities recorded from various layers exhibited power law distributions of inter-spike intervals (ISIs), in contrast to a general belief that ISIs obey Poisson or Gamma distributions in cortical neurons. We present a theoretical argument that this power law of in vivo neurons may represent the maximization of the entropy of firing rate with limited energy consumption of spike generation. Though further studies are required to fully clarify the functional implications of this coding principle, it may shed new light on information representations by neurons and circuits in motor cortex.

Studies in Motor Behavior: 75 Years of Research in Motor Development, Learning, and Control

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ulrich, Beverly D.; Reeve, T. Gilmour

2005-01-01

Research focused on human motor development, learning, and control has been a prominent feature in the Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) since it was first published in 1930. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the papers in the RQES that demonstrate the journal's contributions to the study of motor development,…

Development of Young Adults' Fine Motor Skills when Learning to Play Percussion Instruments

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Gzibovskis, Talis; Marnauza, Mara

2012-01-01

When playing percussion instruments, the main activity is done with the help of a motion or motor skills; to perform it, developed fine motor skills are necessary: the speed and precision of fingers, hands and palms. The aim of the research was to study and test the development of young adults' fine motor skills while learning to play percussion…

The role of motor memory in action selection and procedural learning: insights from children with typical and atypical development.

PubMed

Tallet, Jessica; Albaret, Jean-Michel; Rivière, James

2015-01-01

Motor memory is the process by which humans can adopt both persistent and flexible motor behaviours. Persistence and flexibility can be assessed through the examination of the cooperation/competition between new and old motor routines in the motor memory repertoire. Two paradigms seem to be particularly relevant to examine this competition/cooperation. First, a manual search task for hidden objects, namely the C-not-B task, which allows examining how a motor routine may influence the selection of action in toddlers. The second paradigm is procedural learning, and more precisely the consolidation stage, which allows assessing how a previously learnt motor routine becomes resistant to subsequent programming or learning of a new - competitive - motor routine. The present article defends the idea that results of both paradigms give precious information to understand the evolution of motor routines in healthy children. Moreover, these findings echo some clinical observations in developmental neuropsychology, particularly in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Such studies suggest that the level of equilibrium between persistence and flexibility of motor routines is an index of the maturity of the motor system.

The key to success in elite athletes? Explicit and implicit motor learning in youth elite and non-elite soccer players.

PubMed

Verburgh, L; Scherder, E J A; van Lange, P A M; Oosterlaan, J

2016-09-01

In sports, fast and accurate execution of movements is required. It has been shown that implicitly learned movements might be less vulnerable than explicitly learned movements to stressful and fast changing circumstances that exist at the elite sports level. The present study provides insight in explicit and implicit motor learning in youth soccer players with different expertise levels. Twenty-seven youth elite soccer players and 25 non-elite soccer players (aged 10-12) performed a serial reaction time task (SRTT). In the SRTT, one of the sequences must be learned explicitly, the other was implicitly learned. No main effect of group was found for implicit and explicit learning on mean reaction time (MRT) and accuracy. However, for MRT, an interaction was found between learning condition, learning phase and group. Analyses showed no group effects for the explicit learning condition, but youth elite soccer players showed better learning in the implicit learning condition. In particular, during implicit motor learning youth elite soccer showed faster MRTs in the early learning phase and earlier reached asymptote performance in terms of MRT. Present findings may be important for sports because children with superior implicit learning abilities in early learning phases may be able to learn more (durable) motor skills in a shorter time period as compared to other children.

Repeated-Slip Training: An Emerging Paradigm for Prevention of Slip-Related Falls Among Older Adults

PubMed Central

Pai, YC; Bhatt, TS

2009-01-01

Falls frequently cause injury-related hospitalization or death among older adults. This article reviews a new conceptual framework on dynamic stability and weight support in reducing the risk for falls resulting from a forward slip, based on the principles of motor control and learning, in the context of adaptation and longer-term retention induced by repeated-slip training. Although an unexpected slip is severely destabilizing, a recovery step often is adequate for regaining stability, regardless of age. Consequently, poor weight support (quantified by reduction in hip height), rather than instability, is the major determinant of slip-related fall risk. Promisingly, a single session of repeated-slip training can enhance neuromechanical control of dynamic stability and weight support to prevent falls, which can be retained for several months or longer. These principles provide the theoretical basis for establishing task-specific adaptive training that facilitates the development of protective strategies to reduce falls among older adults. PMID:17712033

Principles that Govern the Performance of Molecular Motors

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Eide, Jon; Chakraborty, Arup; Oster, George

2003-03-01

We have created a two dimensional polymeric coarse-grained model to simulate the power stroke from the F0F1 ATP synthase class of molecular motors. There has been much work to understand the structure and dynamics of this type of molecular motor using both constrained molecular dynamics and general Markov models but neither of them have been able to elucidate in a qualitative manner how a constant force is created and transferred in the motor at a nearly 100efficiency. Our model is a modified Rouse system using Brownian and Monte Carlo (with solvent) Dynamics, concentrating only on the catalytic site and protein structures that we think are important for motor motion and energy transfer. While modeling the real system as closely as possible, we have determined the optimum characteristics for maximum efficiency. The efficiency depends on the load against the polymer, the polymer flexibility, polymer and surface matching, and solvent interactions. Insight into the basic principles behind the mechanical motion of this system may have implications for many other molecular motors driven by nucleotide hydrolysis and help design synthetic devices that can carry out biomimetic tasks.

Development of human locomotion.

PubMed

Lacquaniti, Francesco; Ivanenko, Yuri P; Zago, Myrka

2012-10-01

Neural control of locomotion in human adults involves the generation of a small set of basic patterned commands directed to the leg muscles. The commands are generated sequentially in time during each step by neural networks located in the spinal cord, called Central Pattern Generators. This review outlines recent advances in understanding how motor commands are expressed at different stages of human development. Similar commands are found in several other vertebrates, indicating that locomotion development follows common principles of organization of the control networks. Movements show a high degree of flexibility at all stages of development, which is instrumental for learning and exploration of variable interactions with the environment. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Design of Learning Objects for Concept Learning: Effects of Multimedia Learning Principles and an Instructional Approach

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Chiu, Thomas K. F.; Churchill, Daniel

2016-01-01

Literature suggests using multimedia learning principles in the design of instructional material. However, these principles may not be sufficient for the design of learning objects for concept learning in mathematics. This paper reports on an experimental study that investigated the effects of an instructional approach, which includes two teaching…

Sleep promotes branch-specific formation of dendritic spines after learning

PubMed Central

Yang, Guang; Lai, Cora Sau Wan; Cichon, Joseph; Ma, Lei; Li, Wei; Gan, Wen-Biao

2015-01-01

How sleep helps learning and memory remains unknown. We report in mouse motor cortex that sleep after motor learning promotes the formation of postsynaptic dendritic spines on a subset of branches of individual layer V pyramidal neurons. New spines are formed on different sets of dendritic branches in response to different learning tasks and are protected from being eliminated when multiple tasks are learned. Neurons activated during learning of a motor task are reactivated during subsequent non-rapid eye movement sleep, and disrupting this neuronal reactivation prevents branch-specific spine formation. These findings indicate that sleep has a key role in promoting learning-dependent synapse formation and maintenance on selected dendritic branches, which contribute to memory storage. PMID:24904169

Integration of Temporal and Ordinal Information During Serial Interception Sequence Learning

PubMed Central

Gobel, Eric W.; Sanchez, Daniel J.; Reber, Paul J.

2011-01-01

The expression of expert motor skills typically involves learning to perform a precisely timed sequence of movements (e.g., language production, music performance, athletic skills). Research examining incidental sequence learning has previously relied on a perceptually-cued task that gives participants exposure to repeating motor sequences but does not require timing of responses for accuracy. Using a novel perceptual-motor sequence learning task, learning a precisely timed cued sequence of motor actions is shown to occur without explicit instruction. Participants learned a repeating sequence through practice and showed sequence-specific knowledge via a performance decrement when switched to an unfamiliar sequence. In a second experiment, the integration of representation of action order and timing sequence knowledge was examined. When either action order or timing sequence information was selectively disrupted, performance was reduced to levels similar to completely novel sequences. Unlike prior sequence-learning research that has found timing information to be secondary to learning action sequences, when the task demands require accurate action and timing information, an integrated representation of these types of information is acquired. These results provide the first evidence for incidental learning of fully integrated action and timing sequence information in the absence of an independent representation of action order, and suggest that this integrative mechanism may play a material role in the acquisition of complex motor skills. PMID:21417511

Consolidation of visuomotor adaptation memory with consistent and noisy environments

PubMed Central

Maeda, Rodrigo S.; McGee, Steven E.

2016-01-01

Our understanding of how we learn and retain motor behaviors is still limited. For instance, there is conflicting evidence as to whether the memory of a learned visuomotor perturbation consolidates; i.e., the motor memory becomes resistant to interference from learning a competing perturbation over time. Here, we sought to determine the factors that influence consolidation during visually guided walking. Subjects learned a novel mapping relationship, created by prism lenses, between the perceived location of two targets and the motor commands necessary to direct the feet to their positions. Subjects relearned this mapping 1 wk later. Different groups experienced protocols with or without a competing mapping (and with and without washout trials), presented either on the same day as initial learning or before relearning on day 2. We tested identical protocols under constant and noisy mapping structures. In the latter, we varied, on a trial-by-trial basis, the strength of prism lenses around a non-zero mean. We found that a novel visuomotor mapping is retained at least 1 wk after initial learning. We also found reduced foot-placement error with relearning in constant and noisy mapping groups, despite learning a competing mapping beforehand, and with the exception of one protocol, with and without washout trials. Exposure to noisy mappings led to similar performance on relearning compared with the equivalent constant mapping groups for most protocols. Overall, our results support the idea of motor memory consolidation during visually guided walking and suggest that constant and noisy practices are effective for motor learning. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The adaptation of movement is essential for many daily activities. To interact with targets, this often requires learning the mapping to produce appropriate motor commands based on visual input. Here, we show that a novel visuomotor mapping is retained 1 wk after initial learning in a visually guided walking task. Furthermore, we find that this motor memory consolidates (i.e., becomes more resistant to interference from learning a competing mapping) when learning in constant and noisy mapping environments. PMID:27784800

Musical Sequence Learning and EEG Correlates of Audiomotor Processing

PubMed Central

Schalles, Matt D.; Pineda, Jaime A.

2015-01-01

Our motor and auditory systems are functionally connected during musical performance, and functional imaging suggests that the association is strong enough that passive music listening can engage the motor system. As predictive coding constrains movement sequence selections, could the motor system contribute to sequential processing of musical passages? If this is the case, then we hypothesized that the motor system should respond preferentially to passages of music that contain similar sequential information, even if other aspects of music, such as the absolute pitch, have been altered. We trained piano naive subjects with a learn-to play-by-ear paradigm, to play a simple melodic sequence over five days. After training, we recorded EEG of subjects listening to the song they learned to play, a transposed version of that song, and a control song with different notes and sequence from the learned song. Beta band power over sensorimotor scalp showed increased suppression for the learned song, a moderate level of suppression for the transposed song, and no suppression for the control song. As beta power is associated with attention and motor processing, we interpret this as support of the motor system's activity during covert perception of music one can play and similar musical sequences. PMID:26527118

Individual differences in implicit motor learning: task specificity in sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning

PubMed Central

Raza, Meher; Ivry, Richard B.

2016-01-01

In standard taxonomies, motor skills are typically treated as representative of implicit or procedural memory. We examined two emblematic tasks of implicit motor learning, sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning, asking whether individual differences in learning are correlated between these tasks, as well as how individual differences within each task are related to different performance variables. As a prerequisite, it was essential to establish the reliability of learning measures for each task. Participants were tested twice on a visuomotor adaptation task and on a sequence learning task, either the serial reaction time task or the alternating reaction time task. Learning was evident in all tasks at the group level and reliable at the individual level in visuomotor adaptation and the alternating reaction time task but not in the serial reaction time task. Performance variability was predictive of learning in both domains, yet the relationship was in the opposite direction for adaptation and sequence learning. For the former, faster learning was associated with lower variability, consistent with models of sensorimotor adaptation in which learning rates are sensitive to noise. For the latter, greater learning was associated with higher variability and slower reaction times, factors that may facilitate the spread of activation required to form predictive, sequential associations. Interestingly, learning measures of the different tasks were not correlated. Together, these results oppose a shared process for implicit learning in sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning and provide insight into the factors that account for individual differences in learning within each task domain. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated individual differences in the ability to implicitly learn motor skills. As a prerequisite, we assessed whether individual differences were reliable across test sessions. We found that two commonly used tasks of implicit learning, visuomotor adaptation and the alternating serial reaction time task, exhibited good test-retest reliability in measures of learning and performance. However, the learning measures did not correlate between the two tasks, arguing against a shared process for implicit motor learning. PMID:27832611

Motor Learning as Young Gymnast's Talent Indicator.

PubMed

di Cagno, Alessandra; Battaglia, Claudia; Fiorilli, Giovanni; Piazza, Marina; Giombini, Arrigo; Fagnani, Federica; Borrione, Paolo; Calcagno, Giuseppe; Pigozzi, Fabio

2014-12-01

Talent identification plans are designed to select young athletes with the ability to achieve future success in sports. The aim of the study was to verify the predictive value of coordination and precision in skill acquisition during motor learning, as indicators of talent. One hundred gymnasts, both cadets (aged 11.5 ± 0.5 yr.) and juniors (aged 13.3 ± 0.5 years), competing at the national level, were enrolled in the study. The assessment of motor coordination involved three tests of the validated Hirtz's battery (1985), and motor skill learning involved four technical tests, specific of rhythmic gymnastics. All the tests were correlated with ranking and performance scores reached by each gymnast in the 2011, 2012, and 2013 National Championships. Coordination tests were significantly correlated to 2013 Championships scores (p < 0.01) and ranking (p < 0.05) of elite cadet athletes. Precision, in skill acquisition test results, was positively and significantly associated with scores in 2013 (adj. R(2) = 0.26, p < 0.01). Gymnasts with the best results in coordination and motor learning tests went on to achieve better competition results in three- year time. Key pointsIn talent identification and selection procedures it is better to include the evaluation of coordination and motor learning ability.Motor learning assessment concerns performance improvement and the ability to develop it, rather than evaluating the athlete's current performance.In this manner talent identification processes should be focused on the future performance capabilities of athletes.

Motor Learning as Young Gymnast’s Talent Indicator

PubMed Central

di Cagno, Alessandra; Battaglia, Claudia; Fiorilli, Giovanni; Piazza, Marina; Giombini, Arrigo; Fagnani, Federica; Borrione, Paolo; Calcagno, Giuseppe; Pigozzi, Fabio

2014-01-01

Talent identification plans are designed to select young athletes with the ability to achieve future success in sports. The aim of the study was to verify the predictive value of coordination and precision in skill acquisition during motor learning, as indicators of talent. One hundred gymnasts, both cadets (aged 11.5 ± 0.5 yr.) and juniors (aged 13.3 ± 0.5 years), competing at the national level, were enrolled in the study. The assessment of motor coordination involved three tests of the validated Hirtz’s battery (1985), and motor skill learning involved four technical tests, specific of rhythmic gymnastics. All the tests were correlated with ranking and performance scores reached by each gymnast in the 2011, 2012, and 2013 National Championships. Coordination tests were significantly correlated to 2013 Championships scores (p < 0.01) and ranking (p < 0.05) of elite cadet athletes. Precision, in skill acquisition test results, was positively and significantly associated with scores in 2013 (adj. R2 = 0.26, p < 0.01). Gymnasts with the best results in coordination and motor learning tests went on to achieve better competition results in three- year time. Key points In talent identification and selection procedures it is better to include the evaluation of coordination and motor learning ability. Motor learning assessment concerns performance improvement and the ability to develop it, rather than evaluating the athlete’s current performance. In this manner talent identification processes should be focused on the future performance capabilities of athletes. PMID:25435768

Normalized Index of Synergy for Evaluating the Coordination of Motor Commands

PubMed Central

Togo, Shunta; Imamizu, Hiroshi

2015-01-01

Humans perform various motor tasks by coordinating the redundant motor elements in their bodies. The coordination of motor outputs is produced by motor commands, as well properties of the musculoskeletal system. The aim of this study was to dissociate the coordination of motor commands from motor outputs. First, we conducted simulation experiments where the total elbow torque was generated by a model of a simple human right and left elbow with redundant muscles. The results demonstrated that muscle tension with signal-dependent noise formed a coordinated structure of trial-to-trial variability of muscle tension. Therefore, the removal of signal-dependent noise effects was required to evaluate the coordination of motor commands. We proposed a method to evaluate the coordination of motor commands, which removed signal-dependent noise from the measured variability of muscle tension. We used uncontrolled manifold analysis to calculate a normalized index of synergy. Simulation experiments confirmed that the proposed method could appropriately represent the coordinated structure of the variability of motor commands. We also conducted experiments in which subjects performed the same task as in the simulation experiments. The normalized index of synergy revealed that the subjects coordinated their motor commands to achieve the task. Finally, the normalized index of synergy was applied to a motor learning task to determine the utility of the proposed method. We hypothesized that a large part of the change in the coordination of motor outputs through learning was because of changes in motor commands. In a motor learning task, subjects tracked a target trajectory of the total torque. The change in the coordination of muscle tension through learning was dominated by that of motor commands, which supported the hypothesis. We conclude that the normalized index of synergy can be used to evaluate the coordination of motor commands independently from the properties of the musculoskeletal system. PMID:26474043

Functional connectivity in the resting-state motor networks influences the kinematic processes during motor sequence learning

PubMed Central

Bonzano, Laura; Palmaro, Eleonora; Teodorescu, Roxana; Fleysher, Lazar; Inglese, Matilde; Bove, Marco

2014-01-01

Neuroimaging studies support the involvement of the cerebello-cortical and striato-cortical motor loops in motor sequence learning. Here, we investigated whether the gain of motor sequence learning could depend on a priori resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) between motor areas and structures belonging to these circuits. Fourteen healthy subjects underwent a resting-state fMRI session. Afterward, they were asked to reproduce a verbally-learned sequence of finger opposition movements as fast and accurate as possible. All subjects increased their movement rate with practice, by reducing touch duration and/or inter tapping interval. The rsFC analysis showed that at rest left and right M1 and left and right supplementary motor cortex (SMA) were mainly connected with other motor areas. The covariate analysis taking into account the different kinematic parameters indicated that the subjects achieving greater movement rate increase were those showing stronger rsFC of the left M1 and SMA with the right lobule VIII of the cerebellum. Notably, the subjects with greater inter tapping interval reduction showed stronger rsFC of the left M1 and SMA with the association nuclei of the thalamus. Conversely, the regression analysis with the right M1 and SMA seeds showed only few significant clusters for the different covariates not located in the cerebellum and thalamus. No common clusters were found between right M1 and SMA. All these findings indicate important functional connections at rest of those neural circuits responsible of motor learning improvement, involving the motor areas related to the hemisphere directly controlling the finger movements, the thalamus and the cerebellum. PMID:25328043

The effect of cerebellar transplantation and enforced physical activity on motor skills and spatial learning in adult Lurcher mutant mice.

PubMed

Cendelín, Jan; Korelusová, Ivana; Vozeh, Frantisek

2009-03-01

Lurcher mutant mice represent a model of olivocerebellar degeneration. They are used to investigate cerebellar functions, consequences of cerebellar degeneration and methods of therapy influencing them. The aim of the work was to assess the effect of foetal cerebellar graft transplantation, repeated enforced physical activity and the combination of both these types of treatment on motor skills, spontaneous motor activity and spatial learning ability in adult B6CBA Lurcher mice. Foetal cerebellar grafts were applied into the cerebellum of Lurchers in the form of solid tissue pieces. Enforced motor activity was realised through rotarod training. Motor functions were examined using bar, ladder and rotarod tests. Spatial learning was tested in the Morris water maze. Spontaneous motor activity in the open field was observed. The presence of the graft was examined histologically. Enforced physical activity led to moderate improvement of some motor skills and to a significant amelioration of spatial learning ability in Lurchers. The transplantation of cerebellar tissue did not influence motor functions significantly but led to an improvement of spatial learning ability. Mutual advancement of the effects of both types of treatment was not observed. Spontaneous motor activity was influenced neither by physical activity nor by the transplantation. Physical activity did not influence the graft survival and development. Because nerve sprouting and cell migration from the graft to the host cerebellum was poor, the functional effects of the graft should be explained with regard to its trophic influence rather than with any involvement of the grafted cells into neural circuitries.

Motor Learning in Childhood Reveals Distinct Mechanisms for Memory Retention and Re-Learning

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Musselman, Kristin E.; Roemmich, Ryan T.; Garrett, Ben; Bastian, Amy J.

2016-01-01

Adults can easily learn and access multiple versions of the same motor skill adapted for different conditions (e.g., walking in water, sand, snow). Following even a single session of adaptation, adults exhibit clear day-to-day retention and faster re-learning of the adapted pattern. Here, we studied the retention and re-learning of an adapted…

A Hebbian learning rule gives rise to mirror neurons and links them to control theoretic inverse models.

PubMed

Hanuschkin, A; Ganguli, S; Hahnloser, R H R

2013-01-01

Mirror neurons are neurons whose responses to the observation of a motor act resemble responses measured during production of that act. Computationally, mirror neurons have been viewed as evidence for the existence of internal inverse models. Such models, rooted within control theory, map-desired sensory targets onto the motor commands required to generate those targets. To jointly explore both the formation of mirrored responses and their functional contribution to inverse models, we develop a correlation-based theory of interactions between a sensory and a motor area. We show that a simple eligibility-weighted Hebbian learning rule, operating within a sensorimotor loop during motor explorations and stabilized by heterosynaptic competition, naturally gives rise to mirror neurons as well as control theoretic inverse models encoded in the synaptic weights from sensory to motor neurons. Crucially, we find that the correlational structure or stereotypy of the neural code underlying motor explorations determines the nature of the learned inverse model: random motor codes lead to causal inverses that map sensory activity patterns to their motor causes; such inverses are maximally useful, by allowing the imitation of arbitrary sensory target sequences. By contrast, stereotyped motor codes lead to less useful predictive inverses that map sensory activity to future motor actions. Our theory generalizes previous work on inverse models by showing that such models can be learned in a simple Hebbian framework without the need for error signals or backpropagation, and it makes new conceptual connections between the causal nature of inverse models, the statistical structure of motor variability, and the time-lag between sensory and motor responses of mirror neurons. Applied to bird song learning, our theory can account for puzzling aspects of the song system, including necessity of sensorimotor gating and selectivity of auditory responses to bird's own song (BOS) stimuli.

A Hebbian learning rule gives rise to mirror neurons and links them to control theoretic inverse models

PubMed Central

Hanuschkin, A.; Ganguli, S.; Hahnloser, R. H. R.

2013-01-01

Mirror neurons are neurons whose responses to the observation of a motor act resemble responses measured during production of that act. Computationally, mirror neurons have been viewed as evidence for the existence of internal inverse models. Such models, rooted within control theory, map-desired sensory targets onto the motor commands required to generate those targets. To jointly explore both the formation of mirrored responses and their functional contribution to inverse models, we develop a correlation-based theory of interactions between a sensory and a motor area. We show that a simple eligibility-weighted Hebbian learning rule, operating within a sensorimotor loop during motor explorations and stabilized by heterosynaptic competition, naturally gives rise to mirror neurons as well as control theoretic inverse models encoded in the synaptic weights from sensory to motor neurons. Crucially, we find that the correlational structure or stereotypy of the neural code underlying motor explorations determines the nature of the learned inverse model: random motor codes lead to causal inverses that map sensory activity patterns to their motor causes; such inverses are maximally useful, by allowing the imitation of arbitrary sensory target sequences. By contrast, stereotyped motor codes lead to less useful predictive inverses that map sensory activity to future motor actions. Our theory generalizes previous work on inverse models by showing that such models can be learned in a simple Hebbian framework without the need for error signals or backpropagation, and it makes new conceptual connections between the causal nature of inverse models, the statistical structure of motor variability, and the time-lag between sensory and motor responses of mirror neurons. Applied to bird song learning, our theory can account for puzzling aspects of the song system, including necessity of sensorimotor gating and selectivity of auditory responses to bird's own song (BOS) stimuli. PMID:23801941

Gender Expression and Homophobia: A Motor Development and Learning Perspective

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Garcia, Clersida

2011-01-01

Homosexuality and homophobia are rarely discussed in schools, yet they are relevant in motor-development and motor-learning settings because people hold gender-stereotyped beliefs about movement and about lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered individuals. This article addresses homophobia and related stereotypes in physical education settings…

Applying Serious Games to Motor Learning in Sport

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wiemeyer, Josef; Schneider, Philipp

2012-01-01

Considering the wide use of Serious Games in application fields like cognitive learning, health education and rehabilitation and the recent developments of sensor and interface technology it is surprising that applications to motor learning in sport are rare. The aim of this study is to examine whether a specific learning effect can be elicited by…

Implicit Procedural Learning in Fragile X and Down Syndrome

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Bussy, G.; Charrin, E.; Brun, A.; Curie, A.; des Portes, V.

2011-01-01

Background: Procedural learning refers to rule-based motor skill learning and storage. It involves the cerebellum, striatum and motor areas of the frontal lobe network. Fragile X syndrome, which has been linked with anatomical abnormalities within the striatum, may result in implicit procedural learning deficit. Methods: To address this issue, a…

A Review: Principles of Design and Analysis of Learning Systems

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Durney, Carl H.

1973-01-01

Analyzes a traditional and an innovative course in terms of learning principles, involving Erickson's management methods and Gagne's learning activities. Suggests that learning systems should be designed by applying all principles rather than emphasizing one or two of them. (CC)

PKC in motorneurons underlies self-learning, a form of motor learning in Drosophila.

PubMed

Colomb, Julien; Brembs, Björn

2016-01-01

Tethering a fly for stationary flight allows for exquisite control of its sensory input, such as visual or olfactory stimuli or a punishing infrared laser beam. A torque meter measures the turning attempts of the tethered fly around its vertical body axis. By punishing, say, left turning attempts (in a homogeneous environment), one can train a fly to restrict its behaviour to right turning attempts. It was recently discovered that this form of operant conditioning (called operant self-learning), may constitute a form of motor learning in Drosophila. Previous work had shown that Protein Kinase C (PKC) and the transcription factor dFoxP were specifically involved in self-learning, but not in other forms of learning. These molecules are specifically involved in various forms of motor learning in other animals, such as compulsive biting in Aplysia, song-learning in birds, procedural learning in mice or language acquisition in humans. Here we describe our efforts to decipher which PKC gene is involved in self-learning in Drosophila. We also provide evidence that motorneurons may be one part of the neuronal network modified during self-learning experiments. The collected evidence is reminiscent of one of the simplest, clinically relevant forms of motor learning in humans, operant reflex conditioning, which also relies on motorneuron plasticity.

Enhancing the Therapy Experience Using Principles of Video Game Design.

PubMed

Folkins, John Wm; Brackenbury, Tim; Krause, Miriam; Haviland, Allison

2016-02-01

This article considers the potential benefits that applying design principles from contemporary video games may have on enhancing therapy experiences. Six principles of video game design are presented, and their relevance for enriching clinical experiences is discussed. The motivational and learning benefits of each design principle have been discussed in the education literature as having positive impacts on student motivation and learning and are related here to aspects of clinical practice. The essential experience principle suggests connecting all aspects of the experience around a central emotion or cognitive connection. The discovery principle promotes indirect learning in focused environments. The risk-taking principle addresses the uncertainties clients face when attempting newly learned skills in novel situations. The generalization principle encourages multiple opportunities for skill transfer. The reward system principle directly relates to the scaffolding of frequent and varied feedback in treatment. Last, the identity principle can assist clients in using their newly learned communication skills to redefine self-perceptions. These principles highlight areas for research and interventions that may be used to reinforce or advance current practice.

The "Motor" in Implicit Motor Sequence Learning: A Foot-stepping Serial Reaction Time Task.

PubMed

Du, Yue; Clark, Jane E

2018-05-03

This protocol describes a modified serial reaction time (SRT) task used to study implicit motor sequence learning. Unlike the classic SRT task that involves finger-pressing movements while sitting, the modified SRT task requires participants to step with both feet while maintaining a standing posture. This stepping task necessitates whole body actions that impose postural challenges. The foot-stepping task complements the classic SRT task in several ways. The foot-stepping SRT task is a better proxy for the daily activities that require ongoing postural control, and thus may help us better understand sequence learning in real-life situations. In addition, response time serves as an indicator of sequence learning in the classic SRT task, but it is unclear whether response time, reaction time (RT) representing mental process, or movement time (MT) reflecting the movement itself, is a key player in motor sequence learning. The foot-stepping SRT task allows researchers to disentangle response time into RT and MT, which may clarify how motor planning and movement execution are involved in sequence learning. Lastly, postural control and cognition are interactively related, but little is known about how postural control interacts with learning motor sequences. With a motion capture system, the movement of the whole body (e.g., the center of mass (COM)) can be recorded. Such measures allow us to reveal the dynamic processes underlying discrete responses measured by RT and MT, and may aid in elucidating the relationship between postural control and the explicit and implicit processes involved in sequence learning. Details of the experimental set-up, procedure, and data processing are described. The representative data are adopted from one of our previous studies. Results are related to response time, RT, and MT, as well as the relationship between the anticipatory postural response and the explicit processes involved in implicit motor sequence learning.

Be FAIR to students: four principles that lead to more effective learning.

PubMed

Harden, Ronald M; Laidlaw, Jennifer M

2013-01-01

A teacher is a professional not a technician. An understanding of some basic principles about learning can inform the teacher or trainer in their day-to-day practice as a teacher or a trainer. The FAIR principles are: provide feedback to the student, engage the student in active learning, individualise the learning to the personal needs of the student and make the learning relevant. Application of the principles can lead to more effective learning - the poor teacher can become a good teacher and the good teacher an excellent teacher.

Abnormal experimentally- and behaviorally-induced LTP-like plasticity in focal hand dystonia.

PubMed

Belvisi, Daniele; Suppa, Antonio; Marsili, Luca; Di Stasio, Flavio; Parvez, Ahmad Khandker; Agostino, Rocco; Fabbrini, Giovanni; Berardelli, Alfredo

2013-02-01

Idiopathic focal hand dystonia (FHD) arises from abnormal plasticity in the primary motor cortex (M1) possibly reflecting abnormal sensori-motor integration processes. In this transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) study in FHD, we evaluated changes in motor evoked potentials (MEPs) after intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) and paired associative stimulation (PAS), techniques that elicit different forms of experimentally-induced long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity in M1. We also examined behaviorally-induced LTP-like plasticity as reflected by early motor learning of a simple motor task. We studied 14 patients with FHD and 14 healthy subjects. MEPs were recorded before and after iTBS and PAS at the 25 ms interstimulus interval (PAS(25)) in separate sessions. Subjects did a simple motor task entailing repetitive index finger abductions. To measure early motor learning we tested practice-related improvement in peak velocity and peak acceleration. In FHD patients iTBS failed to elicit the expected MEP changes and PAS(25) induced abnormally increased MEPs in target and non-target muscles. In the experiment testing early motor learning, patients lacked the expected practice-related changes in kinematic variables. In FHD, the degree of early motor learning correlated with patients' clinical features. We conclude that experimentally-induced (iTBS and PAS) and behaviorally-induced LTP-like plasticity are both altered in FHD. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Peripersonal Space and Margin of Safety around the Body: Learning Visuo-Tactile Associations in a Humanoid Robot with Artificial Skin

PubMed Central

Roncone, Alessandro; Fadiga, Luciano; Metta, Giorgio

2016-01-01

This paper investigates a biologically motivated model of peripersonal space through its implementation on a humanoid robot. Guided by the present understanding of the neurophysiology of the fronto-parietal system, we developed a computational model inspired by the receptive fields of polymodal neurons identified, for example, in brain areas F4 and VIP. The experiments on the iCub humanoid robot show that the peripersonal space representation i) can be learned efficiently and in real-time via a simple interaction with the robot, ii) can lead to the generation of behaviors like avoidance and reaching, and iii) can contribute to the understanding the biological principle of motor equivalence. More specifically, with respect to i) the present model contributes to hypothesizing a learning mechanisms for peripersonal space. In relation to point ii) we show how a relatively simple controller can exploit the learned receptive fields to generate either avoidance or reaching of an incoming stimulus and for iii) we show how the robot can select arbitrary body parts as the controlled end-point of an avoidance or reaching movement. PMID:27711136

Simultaneous Brain–Cervical Cord fMRI Reveals Intrinsic Spinal Cord Plasticity during Motor Sequence Learning

PubMed Central

Cohen-Adad, Julien; Marchand-Pauvert, Veronique; Benali, Habib; Doyon, Julien

2015-01-01

The spinal cord participates in the execution of skilled movements by translating high-level cerebral motor representations into musculotopic commands. Yet, the extent to which motor skill acquisition relies on intrinsic spinal cord processes remains unknown. To date, attempts to address this question were limited by difficulties in separating spinal local effects from supraspinal influences through traditional electrophysiological and neuroimaging methods. Here, for the first time, we provide evidence for local learning-induced plasticity in intact human spinal cord through simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spinal cord during motor sequence learning. Specifically, we show learning-related modulation of activity in the C6–C8 spinal region, which is independent from that of related supraspinal sensorimotor structures. Moreover, a brain–spinal cord functional connectivity analysis demonstrates that the initial linear relationship between the spinal cord and sensorimotor cortex gradually fades away over the course of motor sequence learning, while the connectivity between spinal activity and cerebellum gains strength. These data suggest that the spinal cord not only constitutes an active functional component of the human motor learning network but also contributes distinctively from the brain to the learning process. The present findings open new avenues for rehabilitation of patients with spinal cord injuries, as they demonstrate that this part of the central nervous system is much more plastic than assumed before. Yet, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this intrinsic functional plasticity in the spinal cord warrant further investigations. PMID:26125597

Simultaneous Brain-Cervical Cord fMRI Reveals Intrinsic Spinal Cord Plasticity during Motor Sequence Learning.

PubMed

Vahdat, Shahabeddin; Lungu, Ovidiu; Cohen-Adad, Julien; Marchand-Pauvert, Veronique; Benali, Habib; Doyon, Julien

2015-06-01

The spinal cord participates in the execution of skilled movements by translating high-level cerebral motor representations into musculotopic commands. Yet, the extent to which motor skill acquisition relies on intrinsic spinal cord processes remains unknown. To date, attempts to address this question were limited by difficulties in separating spinal local effects from supraspinal influences through traditional electrophysiological and neuroimaging methods. Here, for the first time, we provide evidence for local learning-induced plasticity in intact human spinal cord through simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spinal cord during motor sequence learning. Specifically, we show learning-related modulation of activity in the C6-C8 spinal region, which is independent from that of related supraspinal sensorimotor structures. Moreover, a brain-spinal cord functional connectivity analysis demonstrates that the initial linear relationship between the spinal cord and sensorimotor cortex gradually fades away over the course of motor sequence learning, while the connectivity between spinal activity and cerebellum gains strength. These data suggest that the spinal cord not only constitutes an active functional component of the human motor learning network but also contributes distinctively from the brain to the learning process. The present findings open new avenues for rehabilitation of patients with spinal cord injuries, as they demonstrate that this part of the central nervous system is much more plastic than assumed before. Yet, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this intrinsic functional plasticity in the spinal cord warrant further investigations.

Compensatory Motor Network Connectivity is Associated with Motor Sequence Learning after Subcortical Stroke

PubMed Central

Wadden, Katie P.; Woodward, Todd S.; Metzak, Paul D.; Lavigne, Katie M.; Lakhani, Bimal; Auriat, Angela M.; Boyd, Lara A.

2015-01-01

Following stroke, functional networks reorganize and the brain demonstrates widespread alterations in cortical activity. Implicit motor learning is preserved after stroke. However the manner in which brain reorganization occurs, and how it supports behaviour within the damaged brain remains unclear. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we evaluated whole brain patterns of functional connectivity during the performance of an implicit tracking task at baseline and retention, following 5 days of practice. Following motor practice, a significant difference in connectivity within a motor network, consisting of bihemispheric activation of the sensory and motor cortices, parietal lobules, cerebellar and occipital lobules, was observed at retention. Healthy subjects demonstrated greater activity within this motor network during sequence learning compared to random practice. The stroke group did not show the same level of functional network integration, presumably due to the heterogeneity of functional reorganization following stroke. In a secondary analysis, a binary mask of the functional network activated from the aforementioned whole brain analyses was created to assess within-network connectivity, decreasing the spatial distribution and large variability of activation that exists within the lesioned brain. The stroke group demonstrated reduced clusters of connectivity within the masked brain regions as compared to the whole brain approach. Connectivity within this smaller motor network correlated with repeated sequence performance on the retention test. Increased functional integration within the motor network may be an important neurophysiological predictor of motor learning-related change in individuals with stroke. PMID:25757996

Multimedia Principle in Teaching Lessons

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kari Jabbour, Khayrazad

2012-01-01

Multimedia learning principle occurs when we create mental representations from combining text and relevant graphics into lessons. This article discusses the learning advantages that result from adding multimedia learning principle into instructions; and how to select graphics that support learning. There is a balance that instructional designers…

Impaired Retention of Motor Learning of Writing Skills in Patients with Parkinson's Disease with Freezing of Gait.

PubMed

Heremans, Elke; Nackaerts, Evelien; Vervoort, Griet; Broeder, Sanne; Swinnen, Stephan P; Nieuwboer, Alice

2016-01-01

Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and freezing of gait (FOG) suffer from more impaired motor and cognitive functioning than their non-freezing counterparts. This underlies an even higher need for targeted rehabilitation programs in this group. However, so far it is unclear whether FOG affects the ability for consolidation and generalization of motor learning and thus the efficacy of rehabilitation. To investigate the hallmarks of motor learning in people with FOG compared to those without by comparing the effects of an intensive motor learning program to improve handwriting. Thirty five patients with PD, including 19 without and 16 with FOG received six weeks of handwriting training consisting of exercises provided on paper and on a touch-sensitive writing tablet. Writing training was based on single- and dual-task writing and was supported by means of visual target zones. To investigate automatization, generalization and retention of learning, writing performance was assessed before and after training in the presence and absence of cues and dual tasking and after a six-week retention period. Writing amplitude was measured as primary outcome measure and variability of writing and dual-task accuracy as secondary outcomes. Significant learning effects were present on all outcome measures in both groups, both for writing under single- and dual-task conditions. However, the gains in writing amplitude were not retained after a retention period of six weeks without training in the patient group without FOG. Furthermore, patients with FOG were highly dependent on the visual target zones, reflecting reduced generalization of learning in this group. Although short-term learning effects were present in both groups, generalization and retention of motor learning were specifically impaired in patients with PD and FOG. The results of this study underscore the importance of individualized rehabilitation protocols.

Sleep-dependent learning and motor-skill complexity

PubMed Central

Kuriyama, Kenichi; Stickgold, Robert; Walker, Matthew P.

2004-01-01

Learning of a procedural motor-skill task is known to progress through a series of unique memory stages. Performance initially improves during training, and continues to improve, without further rehearsal, across subsequent periods of sleep. Here, we investigate how this delayed sleep-dependent learning is affected when the task characteristics are varied across several degrees of difficulty, and whether this improvement differentially enhances individual transitions of the motor-sequence pattern being learned. We report that subjects show similar overnight improvements in speed whether learning a five-element unimanual sequence (17.7% improvement), a nine-element unimanual sequence (20.2%), or a five-element bimanual sequence (17.5%), but show markedly increased overnight improvement (28.9%) with a nine-element bimanual sequence. In addition, individual transitions within the motor-sequence pattern that appeared most difficult at the end of training showed a significant 17.8% increase in speed overnight, whereas those transitions that were performed most rapidly at the end of training showed only a non-significant 1.4% improvement. Together, these findings suggest that the sleep-dependent learning process selectively provides maximum benefit to motor-skill procedures that proved to be most difficult prior to sleep. PMID:15576888

Cooperative Learning Principles Enhance Online Interaction

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Jacobs, George; Seow, Peter

2014-01-01

This paper describes eight principles that can be used to promote cooperative interactions among students working in online environments. The principles derive from a well-established approach to education, known variously as cooperative learning and collaborative learning. Each principle is explained as to what it means, why it is important and…

An Exploratory Review of Design Principles in Constructivist Gaming Learning Environments

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Rosario, Roberto A. Munoz; Widmeyer, George R.

2009-01-01

Creating a design theory for Constructivist Gaming Learning Environment necessitates, among other things, the establishment of design principles. These principles have the potential to help designers produce games, where users achieve higher levels of learning. This paper focuses on twelve design principles: Probing, Distributed, Multiple Routes,…

Understanding Self-Controlled Motor Learning Protocols through the Self-Determination Theory

PubMed Central

Sanli, Elizabeth A.; Patterson, Jae T.; Bray, Steven R.; Lee, Timothy D.

2013-01-01

The purpose of the present review was to provide a theoretical understanding of the learning advantages underlying a self-controlled practice context through the tenets of the self-determination theory (SDT). Three micro-theories within the macro-theory of SDT (Basic psychological needs theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and Organismic Integration Theory) are used as a framework for examining the current self-controlled motor learning literature. A review of 26 peer-reviewed, empirical studies from the motor learning and medical training literature revealed an important limitation of the self-controlled research in motor learning: that the effects of motivation have been assumed rather than quantified. The SDT offers a basis from which to include measurements of motivation into explanations of changes in behavior. This review suggests that a self-controlled practice context can facilitate such factors as feelings of autonomy and competence of the learner, thereby supporting the psychological needs of the learner, leading to long term changes to behavior. Possible tools for the measurement of motivation and regulation in future studies are discussed. The SDT not only allows for a theoretical reinterpretation of the extant motor learning research supporting self-control as a learning variable, but also can help to better understand and measure the changes occurring between the practice environment and the observed behavioral outcomes. PMID:23430980

Speech Motor Sequence Learning: Acquisition and Retention in Parkinson Disease and Normal Aging.

PubMed

Whitfield, Jason A; Goberman, Alexander M

2017-06-10

The aim of the current investigation was to examine speech motor sequence learning in neurologically healthy younger adults, neurologically healthy older adults, and individuals with Parkinson disease (PD) over a 2-day period. A sequential nonword repetition task was used to examine learning over 2 days. Participants practiced a sequence of 6 monosyllabic nonwords that was retested following nighttime sleep. The speed and accuracy of the nonword sequence were measured, and learning was inferred by examining performance within and between sessions. Though all groups exhibited comparable improvements of the nonword sequence performance during the initial session, between-session retention of the nonword sequence differed between groups. Younger adult controls exhibited offline gains, characterized by an increase in the speed and accuracy of nonword sequence performance across sessions, whereas older adults exhibited stable between-session performance. Individuals with PD exhibited offline losses, marked by an increase in sequence duration between sessions. The current results demonstrate that both PD and normal aging affect retention of speech motor learning. Furthermore, these data suggest that basal ganglia dysfunction associated with PD may affect the later stages of speech motor learning. Findings from the current investigation are discussed in relation to studies examining consolidation of nonspeech motor learning.

The Effect of Haptic Guidance on Learning a Hybrid Rhythmic-Discrete Motor Task.

PubMed

Marchal-Crespo, Laura; Bannwart, Mathias; Riener, Robert; Vallery, Heike

2015-01-01

Bouncing a ball with a racket is a hybrid rhythmic-discrete motor task, combining continuous rhythmic racket movements with discrete impact events. Rhythmicity is exceptionally important in motor learning, because it underlies fundamental movements such as walking. Studies suggested that rhythmic and discrete movements are governed by different control mechanisms at different levels of the Central Nervous System. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of fixed/fading haptic guidance on learning to bounce a ball to a desired apex in virtual reality with varying gravity. Changing gravity changes dominance of rhythmic versus discrete control: The higher the value of gravity, the more rhythmic the task; lower values reduce the bouncing frequency and increase dwell times, eventually leading to a repetitive discrete task that requires initiation and termination, resembling target-oriented reaching. Although motor learning in the ball-bouncing task with varying gravity has been studied, the effect of haptic guidance on learning such a hybrid rhythmic-discrete motor task has not been addressed. We performed an experiment with thirty healthy subjects and found that the most effective training condition depended on the degree of rhythmicity: Haptic guidance seems to hamper learning of continuous rhythmic tasks, but it seems to promote learning for repetitive tasks that resemble discrete movements.

Understanding Self-Controlled Motor Learning Protocols through the Self-Determination Theory.

PubMed

Sanli, Elizabeth A; Patterson, Jae T; Bray, Steven R; Lee, Timothy D

2012-01-01

The purpose of the present review was to provide a theoretical understanding of the learning advantages underlying a self-controlled practice context through the tenets of the self-determination theory (SDT). Three micro-theories within the macro-theory of SDT (Basic psychological needs theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory, and Organismic Integration Theory) are used as a framework for examining the current self-controlled motor learning literature. A review of 26 peer-reviewed, empirical studies from the motor learning and medical training literature revealed an important limitation of the self-controlled research in motor learning: that the effects of motivation have been assumed rather than quantified. The SDT offers a basis from which to include measurements of motivation into explanations of changes in behavior. This review suggests that a self-controlled practice context can facilitate such factors as feelings of autonomy and competence of the learner, thereby supporting the psychological needs of the learner, leading to long term changes to behavior. Possible tools for the measurement of motivation and regulation in future studies are discussed. The SDT not only allows for a theoretical reinterpretation of the extant motor learning research supporting self-control as a learning variable, but also can help to better understand and measure the changes occurring between the practice environment and the observed behavioral outcomes.

A Deep Learning Approach for Fault Diagnosis of Induction Motors in Manufacturing

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Shao, Si-Yu; Sun, Wen-Jun; Yan, Ru-Qiang; Wang, Peng; Gao, Robert X.

2017-11-01

Extracting features from original signals is a key procedure for traditional fault diagnosis of induction motors, as it directly influences the performance of fault recognition. However, high quality features need expert knowledge and human intervention. In this paper, a deep learning approach based on deep belief networks (DBN) is developed to learn features from frequency distribution of vibration signals with the purpose of characterizing working status of induction motors. It combines feature extraction procedure with classification task together to achieve automated and intelligent fault diagnosis. The DBN model is built by stacking multiple-units of restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM), and is trained using layer-by-layer pre-training algorithm. Compared with traditional diagnostic approaches where feature extraction is needed, the presented approach has the ability of learning hierarchical representations, which are suitable for fault classification, directly from frequency distribution of the measurement data. The structure of the DBN model is investigated as the scale and depth of the DBN architecture directly affect its classification performance. Experimental study conducted on a machine fault simulator verifies the effectiveness of the deep learning approach for fault diagnosis of induction motors. This research proposes an intelligent diagnosis method for induction motor which utilizes deep learning model to automatically learn features from sensor data and realize working status recognition.

Impact of online visual feedback on motor acquisition and retention when learning to reach in a force field.

PubMed

Batcho, C S; Gagné, M; Bouyer, L J; Roy, J S; Mercier, C

2016-11-19

When subjects learn a novel motor task, several sources of feedback (proprioceptive, visual or auditory) contribute to the performance. Over the past few years, several studies have investigated the role of visual feedback in motor learning, yet evidence remains conflicting. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the role of online visual feedback (VFb) on the acquisition and retention stages of motor learning associated with training in a reaching task. Thirty healthy subjects made ballistic reaching movements with their dominant arm toward two targets, on 2 consecutive days using a robotized exoskeleton (KINARM). They were randomly assigned to a group with (VFb) or without (NoVFb) VFb of index position during movement. On day 1, the task was performed before (baseline) and during the application of a velocity-dependent resistive force field (adaptation). To assess retention, participants repeated the task with the force field on day 2. Motor learning was characterized by: (1) the final endpoint error (movement accuracy) and (2) the initial angle (iANG) of deviation (motor planning). Even though both groups showed motor adaptation, the NoVFb-group exhibited slower learning and higher final endpoint error than the VFb-group. In some condition, subjects trained without visual feedback used more curved initial trajectories to anticipate for the perturbation. This observation suggests that learning to reach targets in a velocity-dependent resistive force field is possible even when feedback is limited. However, the absence of VFb leads to different strategies that were only apparent when reaching toward the most challenging target. Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Exploring the Basic Principles of Electric Motors and Generators with a Low-Cost Sophomore-Level Experiment

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Schubert, T. F.; Jacobitz, F. G.; Kim, E. M.

2009-01-01

In order to meet changing curricular needs, an electric motor and generator laboratory experience was designed, implemented, and assessed. The experiment is unusual in its early placement in the curriculum and in that it focuses on modeling electric motors, predicting their performance, and measuring efficiency of energy conversion. While…

Solid rocket motor certification to meet space shuttle requirements from challenge to achievement

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Miller, J. Q.; Kilminster, J. C.

1985-01-01

Three solid rocket motor (SRM) design requirements for the Space Shuttle were discussed. No existing solid rocket motor experience was available for the requirement for a thrust-time trace, twenty uses for the principle hardware, and a moveable nozzle with an 8 deg. omnivaxial vectoring capability. The solutions to these problems are presented.

Neutralization of Nogo-A Enhances Synaptic Plasticity in the Rodent Motor Cortex and Improves Motor Learning in Vivo

PubMed Central

Weinmann, Oliver; Kellner, Yves; Yu, Xinzhu; Vicente, Raul; Gullo, Miriam; Kasper, Hansjörg; Lussi, Karin; Ristic, Zorica; Luft, Andreas R.; Rioult-Pedotti, Mengia; Zuo, Yi; Zagrebelsky, Marta; Schwab, Martin E.

2014-01-01

The membrane protein Nogo-A is known as an inhibitor of axonal outgrowth and regeneration in the CNS. However, its physiological functions in the normal adult CNS remain incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the role of Nogo-A in cortical synaptic plasticity and motor learning in the uninjured adult rodent motor cortex. Nogo-A and its receptor NgR1 are present at cortical synapses. Acute treatment of slices with function-blocking antibodies (Abs) against Nogo-A or against NgR1 increased long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by stimulation of layer 2/3 horizontal fibers. Furthermore, anti-Nogo-A Ab treatment increased LTP saturation levels, whereas long-term depression remained unchanged, thus leading to an enlarged synaptic modification range. In vivo, intrathecal application of Nogo-A-blocking Abs resulted in a higher dendritic spine density at cortical pyramidal neurons due to an increase in spine formation as revealed by in vivo two-photon microscopy. To investigate whether these changes in synaptic plasticity correlate with motor learning, we trained rats to learn a skilled forelimb-reaching task while receiving anti-Nogo-A Abs. Learning of this cortically controlled precision movement was improved upon anti-Nogo-A Ab treatment. Our results identify Nogo-A as an influential molecular modulator of synaptic plasticity and as a regulator for learning of skilled movements in the motor cortex. PMID:24966370

Effects of different electrical brain stimulation protocols on subcomponents of motor skill learning.

PubMed

Prichard, George; Weiller, Cornelius; Fritsch, Brita; Reis, Janine

2014-01-01

Noninvasive electrical brain stimulation (NEBS) with transcranial direct current (tDCS) or random noise stimulation (tRNS) applied to the primary motor cortex (M1) can augment motor learning. We tested whether different types of stimulation alter particular aspects of learning a tracing task over three consecutive days, namely skill acquisition (online/within session effects) or consolidation (offline/between session effects). Motor training on a tracing task over three consecutive days was combined with different types and montages of stimulation (tDCS, tRNS). Unilateral M1 stimulation using tRNS as well as unilateral and bilateral M1 tDCS all enhanced motor skill learning compared to sham stimulation. In all groups, this appeared to be driven by online effects without an additional offline effect. Unilateral tDCS resulted in large skill gains immediately following the onset of stimulation, while tRNS exerted more gradual effects. Control stimulation of the right temporal lobe did not enhance skill learning relative to sham. The mechanisms of action of tDCS and tRNS are likely different. Hence, the time course of skill improvement within sessions could point to specific and temporally distinct interactions with the physiological process of motor skill learning. Exploring the parameters of NEBS on different tasks and in patients with brain injury will allow us to maximize the benefits of NEBS for neurorehabilitation. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

DC motor proportional control system for orthotic devices

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Blaise, H. T.; Allen, J. R.

1972-01-01

Multi-channel proportional control system for operation of dc motors for use with externally-powered orthotic arm braces is described. Components of circuitry and principles of operation are described. Schematic diagram of control circuit is provided.

The direction of bilateral transfer depends on the performance parameter.

PubMed

Pan, Zhujun; van Gemmert, Arend W A

2013-10-01

To acquire a more comprehensive understanding of the learning benefits associated with bilateral transfer and to gain knowledge of possible mechanisms behind bilateral transfer, we investigated the transfer direction of several parameters which are assumed to represent important features of movement control in a visuo-motor task. During the study, participants learned a multidirectional point-to-point drawing task in which the visual feedback was rotated 45° and the gain was increased. Performance changes of the untrained hand in movement time, trajectory length, normalized jerk, initial direction error, ratio of the primary sub-movement time to the total movement time, and the accuracy of the aiming movement after the primary sub-movement were investigated as indices of learning from bilateral transfer. The results showed that performance parameters related to the initial production of the movement, such as the initial direction, ratio of primary sub-movement to the total movement time, and movement accuracy after the primary sub-movement, only transferred to the non-dominant, while hand performance variables related to the overall outcome, such as movement duration, movement smoothness, and trajectory length, transferred in both directions. The findings of the current study support the basic principle of the "dynamic dominance model" because it is suggested that overall improvements in the non-dominant system are controlled by trajectory parameters in visuo-motor tasks, which resulted in transference of the afore mentioned production parameters to rather occur to the non-dominant hand as opposed to transference to the dominant hand. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Gating of neural error signals during motor learning

PubMed Central

Kimpo, Rhea R; Rinaldi, Jacob M; Kim, Christina K; Payne, Hannah L; Raymond, Jennifer L

2014-01-01

Cerebellar climbing fiber activity encodes performance errors during many motor learning tasks, but the role of these error signals in learning has been controversial. We compared two motor learning paradigms that elicited equally robust putative error signals in the same climbing fibers: learned increases and decreases in the gain of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). During VOR-increase training, climbing fiber activity on one trial predicted changes in cerebellar output on the next trial, and optogenetic activation of climbing fibers to mimic their encoding of performance errors was sufficient to implant a motor memory. In contrast, during VOR-decrease training, there was no trial-by-trial correlation between climbing fiber activity and changes in cerebellar output, and climbing fiber activation did not induce VOR-decrease learning. Our data suggest that the ability of climbing fibers to induce plasticity can be dynamically gated in vivo, even under conditions where climbing fibers are robustly activated by performance errors. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02076.001 PMID:24755290

Self-Controlled Practice Enhances Motor Learning in Introverts and Extroverts

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kaefer, Angélica; Chiviacowsky, Suzete; Meira, Cassio de Miranda, Jr.; Tani, Go

2014-01-01

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of self-controlled feedback on the learning of a sequential-timing motor task in introverts and extroverts. Method: Fifty-six university students were selected by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. They practiced a motor task consisting of pressing computer keyboard keys…

Comparison of Auditory/Visual and Visual/Motor Practice on the Spelling Accuracy of Learning Disabled Children.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Aleman, Cheryl; And Others

1990-01-01

Compares auditory/visual practice to visual/motor practice in spelling with seven elementary school learning-disabled students enrolled in a resource room setting. Finds that the auditory/visual practice was superior to the visual/motor practice on the weekly spelling performance for all seven students. (MG)

Competing Motor Responses: A Reply to Black

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Maier, Steven F.

1977-01-01

In his comment, Black (AA 526 155) argued that Maier and Seligman (EJ 138 911) incorrectly interpreted competing motor response explanations of the learned helplessness effect. Here, it is argued that no article that has proposed a competing motor response explanation of the learned helplessness effect has alluded to a mechanism similar to the one…

Sleep-Related Improvements in Motor Learning Following Mental Practice

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Debarnot, Ursula; Creveaux, Thomas; Collet, Christian; Gemignani, Angelo; Massarelli, Raphael; Doyon, Julien; Guillot, Aymeric

2009-01-01

A wide range of experimental studies have provided evidence that a night of sleep may enhance motor performance following physical practice (PP), but little is known, however, about its effect after motor imagery (MI). Using an explicitly learned pointing task paradigm, thirty participants were assigned to one of three groups that differed in the…

Behind Mathematical Learning Disabilities: What about Visual Perception and Motor Skills?

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Pieters, Stefanie; Desoete, Annemie; Roeyers, Herbert; Vanderswalmen, Ruth; Van Waelvelde, Hilde

2012-01-01

In a sample of 39 children with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) and 106 typically developing controls belonging to three control groups of three different ages, we found that visual perception, motor skills and visual-motor integration explained a substantial proportion of the variance in either number fact retrieval or procedural…

Sensori-Motor Learning with Movement Sonification: Perspectives from Recent Interdisciplinary Studies.

PubMed

Bevilacqua, Frédéric; Boyer, Eric O; Françoise, Jules; Houix, Olivier; Susini, Patrick; Roby-Brami, Agnès; Hanneton, Sylvain

2016-01-01

This article reports on an interdisciplinary research project on movement sonification for sensori-motor learning. First, we describe different research fields which have contributed to movement sonification, from music technology including gesture-controlled sound synthesis, sonic interaction design, to research on sensori-motor learning with auditory-feedback. In particular, we propose to distinguish between sound-oriented tasks and movement-oriented tasks in experiments involving interactive sound feedback. We describe several research questions and recently published results on movement control, learning and perception. In particular, we studied the effect of the auditory feedback on movements considering several cases: from experiments on pointing and visuo-motor tracking to more complex tasks where interactive sound feedback can guide movements, or cases of sensory substitution where the auditory feedback can inform on object shapes. We also developed specific methodologies and technologies for designing the sonic feedback and movement sonification. We conclude with a discussion on key future research challenges in sensori-motor learning with movement sonification. We also point out toward promising applications such as rehabilitation, sport training or product design.

Simultaneous acquisition of multiple auditory-motor transformations in speech

PubMed Central

Rochet-Capellan, Amelie; Ostry, David J.

2011-01-01

The brain easily generates the movement that is needed in a given situation. Yet surprisingly, the results of experimental studies suggest that it is difficult to acquire more than one skill at a time. To do so, it has generally been necessary to link the required movement to arbitrary cues. In the present study, we show that speech motor learning provides an informative model for the acquisition of multiple sensorimotor skills. During training, subjects are required to repeat aloud individual words in random order while auditory feedback is altered in real-time in different ways for the different words. We find that subjects can quite readily and simultaneously modify their speech movements to correct for these different auditory transformations. This multiple learning occurs effortlessly without explicit cues and without any apparent awareness of the perturbation. The ability to simultaneously learn several different auditory-motor transformations is consistent with the idea that in speech motor learning, the brain acquires instance specific memories. The results support the hypothesis that speech motor learning is fundamentally local. PMID:21325534

Human θ burst stimulation enhances subsequent motor learning and increases performance variability.

PubMed

Teo, James T H; Swayne, Orlando B C; Cheeran, Binith; Greenwood, Richard J; Rothwell, John C

2011-07-01

Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) transiently increases motor cortex excitability in healthy humans by a process thought to involve synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP), and this is enhanced by nicotine. Acquisition of a ballistic motor task is likewise accompanied by increased excitability and presumed intracortical LTP. Here, we test how iTBS and nicotine influences subsequent motor learning. Ten healthy subjects participated in a double-blinded placebo-controlled trial testing the effects of iTBS and nicotine. iTBS alone increased the rate of learning but this increase was blocked by nicotine. We then investigated factors other than synaptic strengthening that may play a role. Behavioral analysis and modeling suggested that iTBS increased performance variability, which correlated with learning outcome. A control experiment confirmed the increase in motor output variability by showing that iTBS increased the dispersion of involuntary transcranial magnetic stimulation-evoked thumb movements. We suggest that in addition to the effect on synaptic plasticity, iTBS may have facilitated performance by increasing motor output variability; nicotine negated this effect on variability perhaps via increasing the signal-to-noise ratio in cerebral cortex.

Developing Metacognitive Behaviour in Physical Education Classes: The Use of Task-Pertinent Learning Strategies

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lidor, Ronnie

2004-01-01

Research in motor learning and sport pedagogy has shown that task-pertinent learning strategies enhance the learning and performance of self-paced motor tasks. Strategy research has typically been conducted under laboratory conditions in which artificial self-paced tasks were executed under well-controlled conditions. The purpose of this study was…

Schema-based learning of adaptable and flexible prey-catching in anurans I. The basic architecture.

PubMed

Corbacho, Fernando; Nishikawa, Kiisa C; Weerasuriya, Ananda; Liaw, Jim-Shih; Arbib, Michael A

2005-12-01

A motor action often involves the coordination of several motor synergies and requires flexible adjustment of the ongoing execution based on feedback signals. To elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying the construction and selection of motor synergies, we study prey-capture in anurans. Experimental data demonstrate the intricate interaction between different motor synergies, including the interplay of their afferent feedback signals (Weerasuriya 1991; Anderson and Nishikawa 1996). Such data provide insights for the general issues concerning two-way information flow between sensory centers, motor circuits and periphery in motor coordination. We show how different afferent feedback signals about the status of the different components of the motor apparatus play a critical role in motor control as well as in learning. This paper, along with its companion paper, extend the model by Liaw et al. (1994) by integrating a number of different motor pattern generators, different types of afferent feedback, as well as the corresponding control structure within an adaptive framework we call Schema-Based Learning. We develop a model of the different MPGs involved in prey-catching as a vehicle to investigate the following questions: What are the characteristic features of the activity of a single muscle? How can these features be controlled by the premotor circuit? What are the strategies employed to generate and synchronize motor synergies? What is the role of afferent feedback in shaping the activity of a MPG? How can several MPGs share the same underlying circuitry and yet give rise to different motor patterns under different input conditions? In the companion paper we also extend the model by incorporating learning components that give rise to more flexible, adaptable and robust behaviors. To show these aspects we incorporate studies on experiments on lesions and the learning processes that allow the animal to recover its proper functioning.

Consensus: “Can tDCS and TMS enhance motor learning and memory formation?”

PubMed Central

Reis, Janine; Robertson, Edwin; Krakauer, John W.; Rothwell, John; Marshall, Lisa; Gerloff, Christian; Wassermann, Eric; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro; Hummel, Friedhelm; Celnik, Pablo A.; Classen, Joseph; Floel, Agnes; Ziemann, Ulf; Paulus, Walter; Siebner, Hartwig R.; Born, Jan; Cohen, Leonardo G.

2009-01-01

Noninvasive brain stimulation has developed as a promising tool for cognitive neuroscientists. Transcranial magnetic (TMS) and direct current (tDCS) stimulation allow researchers to purposefully enhance or decrease excitability in focal areas of the brain. The purpose of this paper is to review information on the use of TMS and tDCS as research tools to facilitate motor memory formation, motor performance and motor learning in healthy volunteers. Studies implemented so far have mostly focused on the ability of TMS and tDCS to elicit relatively short lasting motor improvements and the mechanisms underlying these changes have been only partially investigated. Despite limitations including the scarcity of data, work that has been already accomplished raises the exciting hypothesis that currently available noninvasive transcranial stimulation techniques could modulate motor learning and memory formation in healthy humans and potentially in patients with neurological and psychiatric disorders. PMID:19802336

Confirmatory factor analysis of teaching and learning guiding principles instrument among teacher educators in higher education institutions

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Masuwai, Azwani; Tajudin, Nor'ain Mohd; Saad, Noor Shah

2017-05-01

The purpose of this study is to develop and establish the validity and reliability of an instrument to generate teaching and learning guiding principles using Teaching and Learning Guiding Principles Instrument (TLGPI). Participants consisted of 171 Malaysian teacher educators. It is an essential instrument to reflect in generating the teaching and learning guiding principles in higher education level in Malaysia. Confirmatory Factor Analysis has validated all 19 items of TLGPI whereby all items indicated high reliability and internal consistency. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis also confirmed that a single factor model was used to generate teaching and learning guiding principles.

Behavioural and neural basis of anomalous motor learning in children with autism.

PubMed

Marko, Mollie K; Crocetti, Deana; Hulst, Thomas; Donchin, Opher; Shadmehr, Reza; Mostofsky, Stewart H

2015-03-01

Autism spectrum disorder is a developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social and communication skills and repetitive and stereotyped interests and behaviours. Although not part of the diagnostic criteria, individuals with autism experience a host of motor impairments, potentially due to abnormalities in how they learn motor control throughout development. Here, we used behavioural techniques to quantify motor learning in autism spectrum disorder, and structural brain imaging to investigate the neural basis of that learning in the cerebellum. Twenty children with autism spectrum disorder and 20 typically developing control subjects, aged 8-12, made reaching movements while holding the handle of a robotic manipulandum. In random trials the reach was perturbed, resulting in errors that were sensed through vision and proprioception. The brain learned from these errors and altered the motor commands on the subsequent reach. We measured learning from error as a function of the sensory modality of that error, and found that children with autism spectrum disorder outperformed typically developing children when learning from errors that were sensed through proprioception, but underperformed typically developing children when learning from errors that were sensed through vision. Previous work had shown that this learning depends on the integrity of a region in the anterior cerebellum. Here we found that the anterior cerebellum, extending into lobule VI, and parts of lobule VIII were smaller than normal in children with autism spectrum disorder, with a volume that was predicted by the pattern of learning from visual and proprioceptive errors. We suggest that the abnormal patterns of motor learning in children with autism spectrum disorder, showing an increased sensitivity to proprioceptive error and a decreased sensitivity to visual error, may be associated with abnormalities in the cerebellum. © The Author (2015). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.

High variability impairs motor learning regardless of whether it affects task performance.

PubMed

Cardis, Marco; Casadio, Maura; Ranganathan, Rajiv

2018-01-01

Motor variability plays an important role in motor learning, although the exact mechanisms of how variability affects learning are not well understood. Recent evidence suggests that motor variability may have different effects on learning in redundant tasks, depending on whether it is present in the task space (where it affects task performance) or in the null space (where it has no effect on task performance). We examined the effect of directly introducing null and task space variability using a manipulandum during the learning of a motor task. Participants learned a bimanual shuffleboard task for 2 days, where their goal was to slide a virtual puck as close as possible toward a target. Critically, the distance traveled by the puck was determined by the sum of the left- and right-hand velocities, which meant that there was redundancy in the task. Participants were divided into five groups, based on both the dimension in which the variability was introduced and the amount of variability that was introduced during training. Results showed that although all groups were able to reduce error with practice, learning was affected more by the amount of variability introduced rather than the dimension in which variability was introduced. Specifically, groups with higher movement variability during practice showed larger errors at the end of practice compared with groups that had low variability during learning. These results suggest that although introducing variability can increase exploration of new solutions, this may adversely affect the ability to retain the learned solution. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We examined the role of introducing variability during motor learning in a redundant task. The presence of redundancy allows variability to be introduced in different dimensions: the task space (where it affects task performance) or the null space (where it does not affect task performance). We found that introducing variability affected learning adversely, but the amount of variability was more critical than the dimension in which variability was introduced.

Quantifying transfer after perceptual-motor sequence learning: how inflexible is implicit learning?

PubMed

Sanchez, Daniel J; Yarnik, Eric N; Reber, Paul J

2015-03-01

Studies of implicit perceptual-motor sequence learning have often shown learning to be inflexibly tied to the training conditions during learning. Since sequence learning is seen as a model task of skill acquisition, limits on the ability to transfer knowledge from the training context to a performance context indicates important constraints on skill learning approaches. Lack of transfer across contexts has been demonstrated by showing that when task elements are changed following training, this leads to a disruption in performance. These results have typically been taken as suggesting that the sequence knowledge relies on integrated representations across task elements (Abrahamse, Jiménez, Verwey, & Clegg, Psychon Bull Rev 17:603-623, 2010a). Using a relatively new sequence learning task, serial interception sequence learning, three experiments are reported that quantify this magnitude of performance disruption after selectively manipulating individual aspects of motor performance or perceptual information. In Experiment 1, selective disruption of the timing or order of sequential actions was examined using a novel response manipulandum that allowed for separate analysis of these two motor response components. In Experiments 2 and 3, transfer was examined after selective disruption of perceptual information that left the motor response sequence intact. All three experiments provided quantifiable estimates of partial transfer to novel contexts that suggest some level of information integration across task elements. However, the ability to identify quantifiable levels of successful transfer indicates that integration is not all-or-none and that measurement sensitivity is a key in understanding sequence knowledge representations.

Spike-Based Bayesian-Hebbian Learning of Temporal Sequences

PubMed Central

Lindén, Henrik; Lansner, Anders

2016-01-01

Many cognitive and motor functions are enabled by the temporal representation and processing of stimuli, but it remains an open issue how neocortical microcircuits can reliably encode and replay such sequences of information. To better understand this, a modular attractor memory network is proposed in which meta-stable sequential attractor transitions are learned through changes to synaptic weights and intrinsic excitabilities via the spike-based Bayesian Confidence Propagation Neural Network (BCPNN) learning rule. We find that the formation of distributed memories, embodied by increased periods of firing in pools of excitatory neurons, together with asymmetrical associations between these distinct network states, can be acquired through plasticity. The model’s feasibility is demonstrated using simulations of adaptive exponential integrate-and-fire model neurons (AdEx). We show that the learning and speed of sequence replay depends on a confluence of biophysically relevant parameters including stimulus duration, level of background noise, ratio of synaptic currents, and strengths of short-term depression and adaptation. Moreover, sequence elements are shown to flexibly participate multiple times in the sequence, suggesting that spiking attractor networks of this type can support an efficient combinatorial code. The model provides a principled approach towards understanding how multiple interacting plasticity mechanisms can coordinate hetero-associative learning in unison. PMID:27213810

Effect of a mixed reality-based intervention on arm, hand, and finger function on chronic stroke.

PubMed

Colomer, Carolina; Llorens, Roberto; Noé, Enrique; Alcañiz, Mariano

2016-05-11

Virtual and mixed reality systems have been suggested to promote motor recovery after stroke. Basing on the existing evidence on motor learning, we have developed a portable and low-cost mixed reality tabletop system that transforms a conventional table in a virtual environment for upper limb rehabilitation. The system allows intensive and customized training of a wide range of arm, hand, and finger movements and enables interaction with tangible objects, while providing audiovisual feedback of the participants' performance in gamified tasks. This study evaluates the clinical effectiveness and the acceptance of an experimental intervention with the system in chronic stroke survivors. Thirty individuals with stroke were included in a reversal (A-B-A) study. Phase A consisted of 30 sessions of conventional physical therapy. Phase B consisted of 30 training sessions with the experimental system. Both interventions involved flexion and extension of the elbow, wrist, and fingers, and grasping of different objects. Sessions were 45-min long and were administered three to five days a week. The body structures (Modified Ashworth Scale), functions (Motricity Index, Fugl-Meyer Assessment Scale), activities (Manual Function Test, Wolf Motor Function Test, Box and Blocks Test, Nine Hole Peg Test), and participation (Motor Activity Log) were assessed before and after each phase. Acceptance of the system was also assessed after phase B (System Usability Scale, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory). Significant improvement was detected after the intervention with the system in the activity, both in arm function measured by the Wolf Motor Function Test (p < 0.01) and finger dexterity measured by the Box and Blocks Test (p < 0.01) and the Nine Hole Peg Test (p < 0.01); and participation (p < 0.01), which was maintained to the end of the study. The experimental system was reported as highly usable, enjoyable, and motivating. Our results support the clinical effectiveness of mixed reality interventions that satisfy the motor learning principles for upper limb rehabilitation in chronic stroke survivors. This characteristic, together with the low cost of the system, its portability, and its acceptance could promote the integration of these systems in the clinical practice as an alternative to more expensive systems, such as robotic instruments.

BDNF Val66Met polymorphism is associated with abnormal interhemispheric transfer of a newly acquired motor skill.

PubMed

Morin-Moncet, Olivier; Beaumont, Vincent; de Beaumont, Louis; Lepage, Jean-Francois; Théoret, Hugo

2014-05-01

Recent data suggest that the Val66Met polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene can alter cortical plasticity within the motor cortex of carriers, which exhibits abnormally low rates of cortical reorganization after repetitive motor tasks. To verify whether long-term retention of a motor skill is also modulated by the presence of the polymorphism, 20 participants (10 Val66Val, 10 Val66Met) were tested twice at a 1-wk interval. During each visit, excitability of the motor cortex was measured by transcranial magnetic stimulations (TMS) before and after performance of a procedural motor learning task (serial reaction time task) designed to study sequence-specific learning of the right hand and sequence-specific transfer from the right to the left hand. Behavioral results showed a motor learning effect that persisted for at least a week and task-related increases in corticospinal excitability identical for both sessions and without distinction for genetic group. Sequence-specific transfer of the motor skill from the right hand to the left hand was greater in session 2 than in session 1 only in the Val66Met genetic group. Further analysis revealed that the sequence-specific transfer occurred equally at both sessions in the Val66Val genotype group. In the Val66Met genotype group, sequence-specific transfer did not occur at session 1 but did at session 2. These data suggest a limited impact of Val66Met polymorphism on the learning and retention of a complex motor skill and its associated changes in corticospinal excitability over time, and a possible modulation of the interhemispheric transfer of procedural learning. Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.

Applying Brain-Based Learning Principles to Athletic Training Education

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Craig, Debbie I.

2007-01-01

Objective: To present different concepts and techniques related to the application of brain-based learning principles to Athletic Training clinical education. Background: The body of knowledge concerning how our brains physically learn continues to grow. Brain-based learning principles, developed by numerous authors, offer advice on how to…

Using Mobile Devices for Motor-Learning Laboratory Exercises

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Hill, Kory

2014-01-01

When teaching motor-learning concepts, laboratory experiments can be valuable tools for promoting learning. In certain circumstances, traditional laboratory exercises are often impractical due to facilities, time, or cost. Inexpensive or free applications (apps) that run on mobile devices can serve as useful alternatives. This article details…

Perceptual-motor skill learning in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Evidence for multiple procedural learning and memory systems.

PubMed

Marsh, Rachel; Alexander, Gerianne M; Packard, Mark G; Zhu, Hongtu; Peterson, Bradley S

2005-01-01

Procedural learning and memory systems likely comprise several skills that are differentially affected by various illnesses of the central nervous system, suggesting their relative functional independence and reliance on differing neural circuits. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a movement disorder that involves disturbances in the structure and function of the striatum and related circuitry. Recent studies suggest that patients with GTS are impaired in performance of a probabilistic classification task that putatively involves the acquisition of stimulus-response (S-R)-based habits. Assessing the learning of perceptual-motor skills and probabilistic classification in the same samples of GTS and healthy control subjects may help to determine whether these various forms of procedural (habit) learning rely on the same or differing neuroanatomical substrates and whether those substrates are differentially affected in persons with GTS. Therefore, we assessed perceptual-motor skill learning using the pursuit-rotor and mirror tracing tasks in 50 patients with GTS and 55 control subjects who had previously been compared at learning a task of probabilistic classifications. The GTS subjects did not differ from the control subjects in performance of either the pursuit rotor or mirror-tracing tasks, although they were significantly impaired in the acquisition of a probabilistic classification task. In addition, learning on the perceptual-motor tasks was not correlated with habit learning on the classification task in either the GTS or healthy control subjects. These findings suggest that the differing forms of procedural learning are dissociable both functionally and neuroanatomically. The specific deficits in the probabilistic classification form of habit learning in persons with GTS are likely to be a consequence of disturbances in specific corticostriatal circuits, but not the same circuits that subserve the perceptual-motor form of habit learning.

EFFECTS OF SENSORI-MOTOR LEARNING ON MELODY PROCESSING ACROSS DEVELOPMENT

PubMed Central

WAKEFIELD, Elizabeth M.; JAMES, Karin H.

2014-01-01

Actions influence perceptions, but how this occurs may change across the lifespan. Studies have investigated how object-directed actions (e.g., learning about objects through manipulation) affect subsequent perception, but how abstract actions affect perception, and how this may change across development, have not been well studied. In the present study, we address this question, teaching children (4–7 year-olds) and adults sung melodies, with or without an abstract motor component, and using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to determine how these melodies are subsequently processed. Results demonstrated developmental change in the motor cortices and Middle Temporal Gyrus. Results have implications for understanding sensori-motor integration in the developing brain, and may provide insight into motor learning use in some music education techniques. PMID:25653926

How is a motor skill learned? Change and invariance at the levels of task success and trajectory control

PubMed Central

Krakauer, John W.; Mazzoni, Pietro

2012-01-01

The public pays large sums of money to watch skilled motor performance. Notably, however, in recent decades motor skill learning (performance improvement beyond baseline levels) has received less experimental attention than motor adaptation (return to baseline performance in the setting of an external perturbation). Motor skill can be assessed at the levels of task success and movement quality, but the link between these levels remains poorly understood. We devised a motor skill task that required visually guided curved movements of the wrist without a perturbation, and we defined skill learning at the task level as a change in the speed–accuracy trade-off function (SAF). Practice in restricted speed ranges led to a global shift of the SAF. We asked how the SAF shift maps onto changes in trajectory kinematics, to establish a link between task-level performance and fine motor control. Although there were small changes in mean trajectory, improved performance largely consisted of reduction in trial-to-trial variability and increase in movement smoothness. We found evidence for improved feedback control, which could explain the reduction in variability but does not preclude other explanations such as an increased signal-to-noise ratio in cortical representations. Interestingly, submovement structure remained learning invariant. The global generalization of the SAF across a wide range of difficulty suggests that skill for this task is represented in a temporally scalable network. We propose that motor skill acquisition can be characterized as a slow reduction in movement variability, which is distinct from faster model-based learning that reduces systematic error in adaptation paradigms. PMID:22514286

[The mirror neuron system in motor and sensory rehabilitation].

PubMed

Oouchida, Yutaka; Izumi, Shinichi

2014-06-01

The discovery of the mirror neuron system has dramatically changed the study of motor control in neuroscience. The mirror neuron system provides a conceptual framework covering the aspects of motor as well as sensory functions in motor control. Previous studies of motor control can be classified as studies of motor or sensory functions, and these two classes of studies appear to have advanced independently. In rehabilitation requiring motor learning, such as relearning movement after limb paresis, however, sensory information of feedback for motor output as well as motor command are essential. During rehabilitation from chronic pain, motor exercise is one of the most effective treatments for pain caused by dysfunction in the sensory system. In rehabilitation where total intervention unifying the motor and sensory aspects of motor control is important, learning through imitation, which is associated with the mirror neuron system can be effective and suitable. In this paper, we introduce the clinical applications of imitated movement in rehabilitation from motor impairment after brain damage and phantom limb pain after limb amputation.

Variable training does not lead to better motor learning compared to repetitive training in children with and without DCD when exposed to active video games.

PubMed

Bonney, Emmanuel; Jelsma, Dorothee; Ferguson, Gillian; Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien

2017-03-01

Little is known about the influence of practice schedules on motor learning and skills transfer in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Understanding how practice schedules affect motor learning is necessary for motor skills development and rehabilitation. The study investigated whether active video games (exergames) training delivered under variable practice led to better learning and transfer than repetitive practice. 111 children aged 6-10 years (M=8.0, SD=1.0) with no active exergaming experience were randomized to receive exergames training delivered under variable (Variable Game Group (VGG), n=56) or repetitive practice schedule (Repetitive Game Group (RGG), n=55). Half the participants were identified as DCD using the DSM-5 criteria, while the rest were typically developing (TD), age-matched children. Both groups participated in two 20min sessions per week for 5 weeks. Both participant groups (TD and DCD) improved equally well on game performance. There was no significant difference in positive transfer to balance tasks between practice schedules (Repetitive and Variable) and participant groups (TD and DCD). Children with and without DCD learn balance skills quite well when exposed to exergames. Gains in learning and transfer are similar regardless of the form of practice schedule employed. This is the first paper to compare the effect of practice schedules on learning in children with DCD and those with typical development. No differences in motor learning were found between repetitive and variable practice schedules. When children with and without DCD spend the same amount of time on exergames, they do not show any differences in acquisition of motor skills. Transfer of motor skills is similar in children with and without DCD regardless of differences in practice schedules. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Motor learning in a complex balance task and associated neuroplasticity: a comparison between endurance athletes and nonathletes.

PubMed

Seidel, Oliver; Carius, Daniel; Kenville, Rouven; Ragert, Patrick

2017-09-01

Studies suggested that motor expertise is associated with functional and structural brain alterations, which positively affect sensorimotor performance and learning capabilities. The purpose of the present study was to unravel differences in motor skill learning and associated functional neuroplasticity between endurance athletes (EA) and nonathletes (NA). For this purpose, participants had to perform a multimodal balance task (MBT) training on 2 sessions, which were separated by 1 wk. Before and after MBT training, a static balance task (SBT) had to be performed. MBT-induced functional neuroplasticity and neuromuscular alterations were assessed by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electromyography (EMG) during SBT performance. We hypothesized that EA would showed superior initial SBT performance and stronger MBT-induced improvements in SBT learning rates compared with NA. On a cortical level, we hypothesized that MBT training would lead to differential learning-dependent functional changes in motor-related brain regions [such as primary motor cortex (M1)] during SBT performance. In fact, EA showed superior initial SBT performance, whereas learning rates did not differ between groups. On a cortical level, fNIRS recordings (time × group interaction) revealed a stronger MBT-induced decrease in left M1 and inferior parietal lobe (IPL) for deoxygenated hemoglobin in EA. Even more interesting, learning rates were correlated with fNIRS changes in right M1/IPL. On the basis of these findings, we provide novel evidence for superior MBT training-induced functional neuroplasticity in highly trained athletes. Future studies should investigate these effects in different sports disciplines to strengthen previous work on experience-dependent neuroplasticity. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Motor expertise is associated with functional/structural brain plasticity. How such neuroplastic reorganization translates into altered motor learning processes remains elusive. We investigated endurance athletes (EA) and nonathletes (NA) in a multimodal balance task (MBT). EA showed superior static balance performance (SBT), whereas MBT-induced SBT improvements did not differ between groups. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy recordings revealed a differential MBT training-induced decrease of deoxygenated hemoglobin in left primary motor cortex and inferior parietal lobe between groups. Copyright © 2017 the American Physiological Society.

Action observation and mirror neuron network: a tool for motor stroke rehabilitation.

PubMed

Sale, P; Franceschini, M

2012-06-01

Mirror neurons are a specific class of neurons that are activated and discharge both during observation of the same or similar motor act performed by another individual and during the execution of a motor act. Different studies based on non invasive neuroelectrophysiological assessment or functional brain imaging techniques have demonstrated the presence of the mirror neuron and their mechanism in humans. Various authors have demonstrated that in the human these networks are activated when individuals learn motor actions via execution (as in traditional motor learning), imitation, observation (as in observational learning) and motor imagery. Activation of these brain areas (inferior parietal lobe and the ventral premotor cortex, as well as the caudal part of the inferior frontal gyrus [IFG]) following observation or motor imagery may thereby facilitate subsequent movement execution by directly matching the observed or imagined action to the internal simulation of that action. It is therefore believed that this multi-sensory action-observation system enables individuals to (re) learn impaired motor functions through the activation of these internal action-related representations. In humans, the mirror mechanism is also located in various brain segment: in Broca's area, which is involved in language processing and speech production and not only in centres that mediate voluntary movement, but also in cortical areas that mediate visceromotor emotion-related behaviours. On basis of this finding, during the last 10 years various studies were carry out regarding the clinical use of action observation for motor rehabilitation of sub-acute and chronic stroke patients.

Role of cerebellum in learning postural tasks.

PubMed

Ioffe, M E; Chernikova, L A; Ustinova, K I

2007-01-01

For a long time, the cerebellum has been known to be a structure related to posture and equilibrium control. According to the anatomic structure of inputs and internal structure of the cerebellum, its role in learning was theoretically reasoned and experimentally proved. The hypothesis of an inverse internal model based on feedback-error learning mechanism combines feedforward control by the cerebellum and feedback control by the cerebral motor cortex. The cerebellar cortex is suggested to acquire internal models of the body and objects in the external world. During learning of a new tool the motor cortex receives feedback from the realized movement while the cerebellum produces only feedforward command. To realize a desired movement without feedback of the realized movement, the cerebellum needs to form an inverse model of the hand/arm system. This suggestion was supported by FMRi data. The role of cerebellum in learning new postural tasks mainly concerns reorganization of natural synergies. A learned postural pattern in dogs has been shown to be disturbed after lesions of the cerebral motor cortex or cerebellar nuclei. In humans, learning voluntary control of center of pressure position is greatly disturbed after cerebellar lesions. However, motor cortex and basal ganglia are also involved in the feedback learning postural tasks.

A Model for the Transfer of Perceptual-Motor Skill Learning in Human Behaviors

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Rosalie, Simon M.; Muller, Sean

2012-01-01

This paper presents a preliminary model that outlines the mechanisms underlying the transfer of perceptual-motor skill learning in sport and everyday tasks. Perceptual-motor behavior is motivated by performance demands and evolves over time to increase the probability of success through adaptation. Performance demands at the time of an event…

A School-Based Movement Programme for Children with Motor Learning Difficulty

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Mannisto, Juha-Pekka; Cantell, Marja; Huovinen, Tommi; Kooistra, Libbe; Larkin, Dawne

2006-01-01

The study investigated the effectiveness of a school-based movement programme for a population of 5 to 7 year old children. Performance profiles on the Movement ABC were used to classify the children and to assess skill changes over time. Children were assigned to four different groups: motor learning difficulty (n = 10), borderline motor learning…

Skill Acquisition in Physical Education: A Speculative Perspective

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Smith, Wayne W.

2011-01-01

How we learn motor skills has always been of interest to physical educators. Contemporary conceptual frameworks about motor skill learning draw from earlier behavioral and cognitive psychology learning theories. As a point of departure this paper foregrounds complexity theorizing, arguing that skill is contingent upon the performer's physical and…

Sleep-Dependent Learning and Motor-Skill Complexity

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kuriyama, Kenichi; Stickgold, Robert; Walker, Matthew P.

2004-01-01

Learning of a procedural motor-skill task is known to progress through a series of unique memory stages. Performance initially improves during training, and continues to improve, without further rehearsal, across subsequent periods of sleep. Here, we investigate how this delayed sleep-dependent learning is affected when the task characteristics…

The Relationship of Neurogenesis and Growth of Brain Regions to Song Learning

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kirn, John R.

2010-01-01

Song learning, maintenance and production require coordinated activity across multiple auditory, sensory-motor, and neuromuscular structures. Telencephalic components of the sensory-motor circuitry are unique to avian species that engage in song learning. The song system shows protracted development that begins prior to hatching but continues well…

MOVEMENT BEHAVIOR AND MOTOR LEARNING. SECOND EDITION.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

CRATTY, BRYANT J.

TO BRING TOGETHER DATA RELEVANT TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN MOVEMENT WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO LEARNING, THE TEXT SURVEYS THE CONCERN OF SEVERAL DISCIPLINES WITH MOTOR BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING. WORDS AND DEFINITIONS ARE ESTABLISHED, AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN ACTION SYSTEM IS DISCUSSED. A CONSIDERATION OF PERCEPTION TREATS THE PROCESS OF…

Temporally Coordinated Deep Brain Stimulation in the Dorsal and Ventral Striatum Synergistically Enhances Associative Learning.

PubMed

Katnani, Husam A; Patel, Shaun R; Kwon, Churl-Su; Abdel-Aziz, Samer; Gale, John T; Eskandar, Emad N

2016-01-04

The primate brain has the remarkable ability of mapping sensory stimuli into motor behaviors that can lead to positive outcomes. We have previously shown that during the reinforcement of visual-motor behavior, activity in the caudate nucleus is correlated with the rate of learning. Moreover, phasic microstimulation in the caudate during the reinforcement period was shown to enhance associative learning, demonstrating the importance of temporal specificity to manipulate learning related changes. Here we present evidence that extends upon our previous finding by demonstrating that temporally coordinated phasic deep brain stimulation across both the nucleus accumbens and caudate can further enhance associative learning. Monkeys performed a visual-motor associative learning task and received stimulation at time points critical to learning related changes. Resulting performance revealed an enhancement in the rate, ceiling, and reaction times of learning. Stimulation of each brain region alone or at different time points did not generate the same effect.

Motor proteins and molecular motors: how to operate machines at the nanoscale.

PubMed

Kolomeisky, Anatoly B

2013-11-20

Several classes of biological molecules that transform chemical energy into mechanical work are known as motor proteins or molecular motors. These nanometer-sized machines operate in noisy stochastic isothermal environments, strongly supporting fundamental cellular processes such as the transfer of genetic information, transport, organization and functioning. In the past two decades motor proteins have become a subject of intense research efforts, aimed at uncovering the fundamental principles and mechanisms of molecular motor dynamics. In this review, we critically discuss recent progress in experimental and theoretical studies on motor proteins. Our focus is on analyzing fundamental concepts and ideas that have been utilized to explain the non-equilibrium nature and mechanisms of molecular motors.

Contributions of the cerebellum and the motor cortex to acquisition and retention of motor memories

PubMed Central

Herzfeld, David J.; Pastor, Damien; Haith, Adrian M.; Rossetti, Yves; Shadmehr, Reza; O’Shea, Jacinta

2014-01-01

We investigated the contributions of the cerebellum and the motor cortex (M1) to acquisition and retention of human motor memories in a force field reaching task. We found that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the cerebellum, a technique that is thought to increase neuronal excitability, increased the ability to learn from error and form an internal model of the field, while cathodal cerebellar stimulation reduced this error-dependent learning. In addition, cathodal cerebellar stimulation disrupted the ability to respond to error within a reaching movement, reducing the gain of the sensory-motor feedback loop. By contrast, anodal M1 stimulation had no significant effects on these variables. During sham stimulation, early in training the acquired motor memory exhibited rapid decay in error-clamp trials. With further training the rate of decay decreased, suggesting that with training the motor memory was transformed from a labile to a more stable state. Surprisingly, neither cerebellar nor M1 stimulation altered these decay patterns. Participants returned 24 hours later and were re-tested in error-clamp trials without stimulation. The cerebellar group that had learned the task with cathodal stimulation exhibited significantly impaired retention, and retention was not improved by M1 anodal stimulation. In summary, non-invasive cerebellar stimulation resulted in polarity-dependent up- or down-regulation of error-dependent motor learning. In addition, cathodal cerebellar stimulation during acquisition impaired the ability to retain the motor memory overnight. Thus, in the force field task we found a critical role for the cerebellum in both formation of motor memory and its retention. PMID:24816533

Can fast-twitch muscle fibres be selectively recruited during lengthening contractions? Review and applications to sport movements.

PubMed

Chalmers, Gordon R

2008-01-01

Literature examining the recruitment order of motor units during lengthening (eccentric) contractions was reviewed to determine if fast-twitch motor units can be active while lower threshold slow-twitch motor units are not active. Studies utilizing surface electromyogram (EMG) amplitude, single motor unit activity, spike amplitude-frequency analyses, EMG power spectrum, mechanomyographic, and phosphocreatine-to-creatine ratio (PCr/Cr) techniques were reviewed. Only single motor unit and PCr/Cr data were found to be suitable to address the goals of this review. Nine of ten single motor unit studies, examining joint movement velocities up to 225 degrees/s and forces up to 53% of a maximum voluntary contraction, found that the size principle of motor unit recruitment applied during lengthening contractions. Deviation from the size principle was demonstrated by one study examining movements within a small range of low velocities and modest forces, although other studies examining similar low forces and lengthening velocities reported size-ordered recruitment. The PCr/Cr data demonstrated the activation of all fibre types in lengthening maximal contractions. Most evidence indicates that for lengthening contractions of a wide range of efforts and speeds, fast-twitch muscle fibres cannot be selectively recruited without activity of the slow-twitch fibres of the same muscle.

Perceptual and Motor Development in Infants and Children. Second Edition.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Cratty, Bryant J.

Motor behavior, motor performance, and motor learning are discussed at length within the context of infant and child development. Individual chapters focus on the following: the sensory-motor behavior of infants; analysis of selected perceptual-motor programs; beginnings of movement in infants; gross motor attributes in early childhood; visual…

Inter-individual differences in the initial 80 minutes of motor learning of handrim wheelchair propulsion.

PubMed

Vegter, Riemer J K; Lamoth, Claudine J; de Groot, Sonja; Veeger, Dirkjan H E J; van der Woude, Lucas H V

2014-01-01

Handrim wheelchair propulsion is a cyclic skill that needs to be learned during rehabilitation. Yet it is unclear how inter-individual differences in motor learning impact wheelchair propulsion practice. Therefore we studied how early-identified motor learning styles in novice able-bodied participants impact the outcome of a low-intensity wheelchair-practice intervention. Over a 12-minute pre-test, 39 participants were split in two groups based on a relative 10% increase in mechanical efficiency. Following the pretest the participants continued one of four different low-intensity wheelchair practice interventions, yet all performed in the same trial-setup with a total 80-minute dose at 1.11 m/s at 0.20 W/kg. Instead of focusing on the effect of the different interventions, we focused on differences in motor learning between participants over the intervention. Twenty-six participants started the pretest with a lower mechanical efficiency and a less optimal propulsion technique, but showed a fast improvement during the first 12 minutes and this effect continued over the 80 minutes of practice. Eventually these initially fast improvers benefitted more from the given practice indicated by a better propulsion technique (like reduced frequency and increased stroke angle) and a higher mechanical efficiency. The initially fast improvers also had a higher intra-individual variability in the pre and posttest, which possibly relates to the increased motor learning of the initially fast improvers. Further exploration of the common characteristics of different types of learners will help to better tailor rehabilitation to the needs of wheelchair-dependent persons and improve our understanding of cyclic motor learning processes.

Enhanced Muscle Afferent Signals during Motor Learning in Humans.

PubMed

Dimitriou, Michael

2016-04-25

Much has been revealed concerning human motor learning at the behavioral level [1, 2], but less is known about changes in the involved neural circuits and signals. By examining muscle spindle responses during a classic visuomotor adaptation task [3-6] performed by fully alert humans, I found substantial modulation of sensory afferent signals as a function of adaptation state. Specifically, spindle control was independent of concurrent muscle activity but was specific to movement direction (representing muscle lengthening versus shortening) and to different stages of learning. Increased spindle afferent responses to muscle stretch occurring early during learning reflected individual error size and were negatively related to subsequent antagonist activity (i.e., 60-80 ms thereafter). Relative increases in tonic afferent output early during learning were predictive of the subjects' adaptation rate. I also found that independent spindle control during sensory realignment (the "washout" stage) induced afferent signal "linearization" with respect to muscle length (i.e., signals were more tuned to hand position). The results demonstrate for the first time that motor learning also involves independent and state-related modulation of sensory mechanoreceptor signals. The current findings suggest that adaptive motor performance also relies on the independent control of sensors, not just of muscles. I propose that the "γ" motor system innervating spindles acts to facilitate the acquisition and extraction of task-relevant information at the early stages of sensorimotor adaptation. This designates a more active and targeted role for the human proprioceptive system during motor learning. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Performing a reaching task with one arm while adapting to a visuomotor rotation with the other can lead to complete transfer of motor learning across the arms

PubMed Central

Lei, Yuming; Binder, Jeffrey R.

2015-01-01

The extent to which motor learning is generalized across the limbs is typically very limited. Here, we investigated how two motor learning hypotheses could be used to enhance the extent of interlimb transfer. According to one hypothesis, we predicted that reinforcement of successful actions by providing binary error feedback regarding task success or failure, in addition to terminal error feedback, during initial training would increase the extent of interlimb transfer following visuomotor adaptation (experiment 1). According to the other hypothesis, we predicted that performing a reaching task repeatedly with one arm without providing performance feedback (which prevented learning the task with this arm), while concurrently adapting to a visuomotor rotation with the other arm, would increase the extent of transfer (experiment 2). Results indicate that providing binary error feedback, compared with continuous visual feedback that provided movement direction and amplitude information, had no influence on the extent of transfer. In contrast, repeatedly performing (but not learning) a specific task with one arm while visuomotor adaptation occurred with the other arm led to nearly complete transfer. This suggests that the absence of motor instances associated with specific effectors and task conditions is the major reason for limited interlimb transfer and that reinforcement of successful actions during initial training is not beneficial for interlimb transfer. These findings indicate crucial contributions of effector- and task-specific motor instances, which are thought to underlie (a type of) model-free learning, to optimal motor learning and interlimb transfer. PMID:25632082

Isolating Visual and Proprioceptive Components of Motor Sequence Learning in ASD.

PubMed

Sharer, Elizabeth A; Mostofsky, Stewart H; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro; Oberman, Lindsay M

2016-05-01

In addition to defining impairments in social communication skills, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) also show impairments in more basic sensory and motor skills. Development of new skills involves integrating information from multiple sensory modalities. This input is then used to form internal models of action that can be accessed when both performing skilled movements, as well as understanding those actions performed by others. Learning skilled gestures is particularly reliant on integration of visual and proprioceptive input. We used a modified serial reaction time task (SRTT) to decompose proprioceptive and visual components and examine whether patterns of implicit motor skill learning differ in ASD participants as compared with healthy controls. While both groups learned the implicit motor sequence during training, healthy controls showed robust generalization whereas ASD participants demonstrated little generalization when visual input was constant. In contrast, no group differences in generalization were observed when proprioceptive input was constant, with both groups showing limited degrees of generalization. The findings suggest, when learning a motor sequence, individuals with ASD tend to rely less on visual feedback than do healthy controls. Visuomotor representations are considered to underlie imitative learning and action understanding and are thereby crucial to social skill and cognitive development. Thus, anomalous patterns of implicit motor learning, with a tendency to discount visual feedback, may be an important contributor in core social communication deficits that characterize ASD. Autism Res 2016, 9: 563-569. © 2015 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2015 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gestalt Principles in the Control of Motor Action

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Klapp, Stuart T.; Jagacinski, Richard J.

2011-01-01

We argue that 4 fundamental gestalt phenomena in perception apply to the control of motor action. First, a motor gestalt, like a perceptual gestalt, is holistic in the sense that it is processed as a single unit. This notion is consistent with reaction time results indicating that all gestures for a brief unit of action must be programmed prior to…

Individual differences in implicit motor learning: task specificity in sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning.

PubMed

Stark-Inbar, Alit; Raza, Meher; Taylor, Jordan A; Ivry, Richard B

2017-01-01

In standard taxonomies, motor skills are typically treated as representative of implicit or procedural memory. We examined two emblematic tasks of implicit motor learning, sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning, asking whether individual differences in learning are correlated between these tasks, as well as how individual differences within each task are related to different performance variables. As a prerequisite, it was essential to establish the reliability of learning measures for each task. Participants were tested twice on a visuomotor adaptation task and on a sequence learning task, either the serial reaction time task or the alternating reaction time task. Learning was evident in all tasks at the group level and reliable at the individual level in visuomotor adaptation and the alternating reaction time task but not in the serial reaction time task. Performance variability was predictive of learning in both domains, yet the relationship was in the opposite direction for adaptation and sequence learning. For the former, faster learning was associated with lower variability, consistent with models of sensorimotor adaptation in which learning rates are sensitive to noise. For the latter, greater learning was associated with higher variability and slower reaction times, factors that may facilitate the spread of activation required to form predictive, sequential associations. Interestingly, learning measures of the different tasks were not correlated. Together, these results oppose a shared process for implicit learning in sensorimotor adaptation and sequence learning and provide insight into the factors that account for individual differences in learning within each task domain. We investigated individual differences in the ability to implicitly learn motor skills. As a prerequisite, we assessed whether individual differences were reliable across test sessions. We found that two commonly used tasks of implicit learning, visuomotor adaptation and the alternating serial reaction time task, exhibited good test-retest reliability in measures of learning and performance. However, the learning measures did not correlate between the two tasks, arguing against a shared process for implicit motor learning. Copyright © 2017 the American Physiological Society.

Does Language Matter in Multimedia Learning? Personalization Principle Revisited

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kartal, Gunizi

2010-01-01

This study examines one of the design principles of multimedia learning in a context dissimilar to the one in which it was originally tested. Personalization principle states that the amount of learning increases when the style of language is informal and conversational. In an attempt to uncover the relationship between learning and language…

Principles for Public Funding of Workplace Learning. A Review To Identify Models of Workplace Learning & Funding Principles.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Hawke, Geof; Mawer, Giselle; Connole, Helen; Solomon, Nicky

Models of workplace learning and principles for funding workplace learning in Australia were identified through case studies and a literature review. A diverse array of workplace-based approaches to delivering nationally recognized qualifications were identified. The following were among the nine funding proposals formulated: (1) funding…

Validation of "Teaching and Learning Guiding Principles Instrument" for Malaysian Higher Learning Institutions

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Rahman, Nurulhuda Abd; Masuwai, Azwani; Tajudin, Nor'ain Mohd; Tek, Ong Eng; Adnan, Mazlini

2016-01-01

Purpose: This study was aimed at establishing, through the validation of the "Teaching and Learning Guiding Principles Instrument" (TLGPI), the validity and reliability of the underlying factor structure of the Teaching and Learning Guiding Principles (TLGP) generated by a previous study. Method: A survey method was used to collect data…

Improving Motor Control in Walking: A Randomized Clinical Trial in Older Adults with Subclinical Walking Difficulty

PubMed Central

Brach, Jennifer S.; Lowry, Kristin; Perera, Subashan; Hornyak, Victoria; Wert, David; Studenski, Stephanie A.; VanSwearingen, Jessie M.

2016-01-01

Objective The objective was to test the proposed mechanism of action of a task-specific motor learning intervention by examining its effect on measures of the motor control of gait. Design Single blinded randomized clinical trial. Setting University research laboratory. Participants Forty older adults 65 years of age and older, with gait speed >1.0 m/s and impaired motor skill (Figure of 8 walk time > 8 secs). Interventions The two interventions included a task-oriented motor learning and a standard exercise program. Both interventions lasted 12 weeks, with twice weekly one hour physical therapist supervised sessions. Main Outcome Measures Two measure of the motor control of gait, gait variability and smoothness of walking, were assessed pre and post intervention by assessors masked to treatment arm. Results Of 40 randomized subjects; 38 completed the trial (mean age 77.1±6.0 years). Motor control group improved more than standard group in double support time variability (0.13 vs. 0.05 m/s; adjusted difference, AD=0.006, p=0.03). Smoothness of walking in the anterior/posterior direction improved more in motor control than standard for all conditions (usual: AD=0.53, p=0.05; narrow: AD=0.56, p=0.01; dual task: AD=0.57, p=0.04). Conclusions Among older adults with subclinical walking difficulty, there is initial evidence that task-oriented motor learning exercise results in gains in the motor control of walking, while standard exercise does not. Task-oriented motor learning exercise is a promising intervention for improving timing and coordination deficits related to mobility difficulties in older adults, and needs to be evaluated in a definitive larger trial. PMID:25448244

Promoting Neuroplasticity for Motor Rehabilitation After Stroke: Considering the Effects of Aerobic Exercise and Genetic Variation on Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor

PubMed Central

Mang, Cameron S.; Campbell, Kristin L.; Ross, Colin J.D.

2013-01-01

Recovery of motor function after stroke involves relearning motor skills and is mediated by neuroplasticity. Recent research has focused on developing rehabilitation strategies that facilitate such neuroplasticity to maximize functional outcome poststroke. Although many molecular signaling pathways are involved, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has emerged as a key facilitator of neuroplasticity involved in motor learning and rehabilitation after stroke. Thus, rehabilitation strategies that optimize BDNF effects on neuroplasticity may be especially effective for improving motor function poststroke. Two potential poststroke rehabilitation strategies that consider the importance of BDNF are the use of aerobic exercise to enhance brain function and the incorporation of genetic information to individualize therapy. Converging evidence demonstrates that aerobic exercise increases BDNF production and consequently enhances learning and memory processes. Nevertheless, a common genetic variant reduces activity-dependent secretion of the BDNF protein. Thus, BDNF gene variation may affect response to motor rehabilitation training and potentially modulate the effects of aerobic exercise on neuroplasticity. This perspective article discusses evidence that aerobic exercise promotes neuroplasticity by increasing BDNF production and considers how aerobic exercise may facilitate the acquisition and retention of motor skills for poststroke rehabilitation. Next, the impact of the BDNF gene val66met polymorphism on motor learning and response to rehabilitation is explored. It is concluded that the effects of aerobic exercise on BDNF and motor learning may be better exploited if aerobic exercise is paired more closely in time with motor training. Additionally, information about BDNF genotype could provide insight into the type and magnitude of effects that aerobic exercise may have across individuals and potentially help guide an individualized prescription of aerobic exercise to enhance motor rehabilitation poststroke. PMID:23907078

Convergent transcriptional specializations in the brains of humans and song-learning birds

PubMed Central

Pfenning, Andreas R.; Hara, Erina; Whitney, Osceola; Rivas, Miriam V.; Wang, Rui; Roulhac, Petra L.; Howard, Jason T.; Wirthlin, Morgan; Lovell, Peter V.; Ganapathy, Ganeshkumar; Mouncastle, Jacquelyn; Moseley, M. Arthur; Thompson, J. Will; Soderblom, Erik J.; Iriki, Atsushi; Kato, Masaki; Gilbert, M. Thomas P.; Zhang, Guojie; Bakken, Trygve; Bongaarts, Angie; Bernard, Amy; Lein, Ed; Mello, Claudio V.; Hartemink, Alexander J.; Jarvis, Erich D.

2015-01-01

Song-learning birds and humans share independently evolved similarities in brain pathways for vocal learning that are essential for song and speech and are not found in most other species. Comparisons of brain transcriptomes of song-learning birds and humans relative to vocal nonlearners identified convergent gene expression specializations in specific song and speech brain regions of avian vocal learners and humans. The strongest shared profiles relate bird motor and striatal song-learning nuclei, respectively, with human laryngeal motor cortex and parts of the striatum that control speech production and learning. Most of the associated genes function in motor control and brain connectivity. Thus, convergent behavior and neural connectivity for a complex trait are associated with convergent specialized expression of multiple genes. PMID:25504733

Voluntary control of corticomuscular coherence through neurofeedback: a proof-of-principle study in healthy subjects.

PubMed

von Carlowitz-Ghori, K; Bayraktaroglu, Z; Waterstraat, G; Curio, G; Nikulin, V V

2015-04-02

Corticomuscular coherence (CMC) relates to synchronization between activity in the motor cortex and the muscle activity. The strength of CMC can be affected by motor behavior. In a proof-of-principle study, we examined whether independent of motor output parameters, healthy subjects are able to voluntarily modulate CMC in a neurofeedback paradigm. Subjects received visual online feedback of their instantaneous CMC strength, which was calculated between an optimized spatial projection of multichannel electroencephalography (EEG) and electromyography (EMG) in an individually defined target frequency range. The neurofeedback training consisted of either increasing or decreasing CMC strength using a self-chosen mental strategy while performing a simple motor task. Evaluation of instantaneous coherence showed that CMC strength was significantly larger when subjects had to increase than when to decrease CMC; this difference between the two task conditions did not depend on motor performance. The exclusion of confounding factors such as motor performance, attention and task complexity in study design provides evidence that subjects were able to voluntarily modify CMC independent of motor output parameters. Additional analysis further strengthened the assumption that the subjects' response was specifically shaped by the neurofeedback. In perspective, we suggest that CMC-based neurofeedback could provide a therapeutic approach in clinical conditions, such as motor stroke, where CMC is altered. Copyright © 2015 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Brain representations for acquiring and recalling visual-motor adaptations

PubMed Central

Bédard, Patrick; Sanes, Jerome N.

2014-01-01

Humans readily learn and remember new motor skills, a process that likely underlies adaptation to changing environments. During adaptation, the brain develops new sensory-motor relationships, and if consolidation occurs, a memory of the adaptation can be retained for extended periods. Considerable evidence exists that multiple brain circuits participate in acquiring new sensory-motor memories, though the networks engaged in recalling these and whether the same brain circuits participate in their formation and recall has less clarity. To address these issues, we assessed brain activation with functional MRI while young healthy adults learned and recalled new sensory-motor skills by adapting to world-view rotations of visual feedback that guided hand movements. We found cerebellar activation related to adaptation rate, likely reflecting changes related to overall adjustments to the visual rotation. A set of parietal and frontal regions, including inferior and superior parietal lobules, premotor area, supplementary motor area and primary somatosensory cortex, exhibited non-linear learning-related activation that peaked in the middle of the adaptation phase. Activation in some of these areas, including the inferior parietal lobule, intra-parietal sulcus and somatosensory cortex, likely reflected actual learning, since the activation correlated with learning after-effects. Lastly, we identified several structures having recall-related activation, including the anterior cingulate and the posterior putamen, since the activation correlated with recall efficacy. These findings demonstrate dynamic aspects of brain activation patterns related to formation and recall of a sensory-motor skill, such that non-overlapping brain regions participate in distinctive behavioral events. PMID:25019676

Self-Regulatory Skill Among Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder: An Exploratory Study.

PubMed

Sangster Jokić, Claire A; Whitebread, David

2016-11-01

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) experience difficulty learning and performing everyday motor tasks due to poor motor coordination. Recent research applying a cognitive learning paradigm has argued that children with DCD have less effective cognitive and metacognitive skills with which to effectively acquire motor skills. However, there is currently limited research examining individual differences in children's use of self-regulatory and metacognitive skill during motor learning. This exploratory study aimed to compare the self-regulatory performance of children with and without DCD. Using a mixed methods approach, this study observed and compared the self-regulatory behavior of 15 children with and without DCD, aged between 7 and 9 years, during socially mediated motor practice. Observation was conducted using a quantitative coding scheme and qualitative analysis of video-recorded sessions. This paper will focus on the results of quantitative analysis, while data arising from the qualitative analysis will be used to support quantitative findings. In general, findings indicate that children with DCD exhibit less independent and more ineffective self-regulatory skill during motor learning than their typically developing peers. In addition, children with DCD rely more heavily on external support for effective regulation and are more likely to exhibit negative patterns of motivational regulation. These findings provide further support for the notion that children with DCD experience difficulty effectively self-regulating motor learning. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.

Changes of motor-cortical oscillations associated with motor learning.

PubMed

Pollok, B; Latz, D; Krause, V; Butz, M; Schnitzler, A

2014-09-05

Motor learning results from practice but also between practice sessions. After skill acquisition early consolidation results in less interference with other motor tasks and even improved performance of the newly learned skill. A specific significance of the primary motor cortex (M1) for early consolidation has been suggested. Since synchronized oscillatory activity is assumed to facilitate neuronal plasticity, we here investigate alterations of motor-cortical oscillations by means of event-related desynchronization (ERD) at alpha (8-12 Hz) and beta (13-30 Hz) frequencies in healthy humans. Neuromagnetic activity was recorded using a 306-channel whole-head magnetoencephalography (MEG) system. ERD was investigated in 15 subjects during training on a serial reaction time task and 10 min after initial training. The data were compared with performance during a randomly varying sequence serving as control condition. The data reveal a stepwise decline of alpha-band ERD associated with faster reaction times replicating previous findings. The amount of beta-band suppression was significantly correlated with reduction of reaction times. While changes of alpha power have been related to lower cognitive control after initial skill acquisition, the present data suggest that the amount of beta suppression represents a neurophysiological marker of early cortical reorganization associated with motor learning. Copyright © 2014 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Experimental thermodynamics of single molecular motor.

PubMed

Toyabe, Shoichi; Muneyuki, Eiro

2013-01-01

Molecular motor is a nano-sized chemical engine that converts chemical free energy to mechanical motions. Hence, the energetics is as important as kinetics in order to understand its operation principle. We review experiments to evaluate the thermodynamic properties of a rotational F1-ATPase motor (F1-motor) at a single-molecule level. We show that the F1-motor achieves 100% thermo dynamic efficiency at the stalled state. Furthermore, the motor reduces the internal irreversible heat inside the motor to almost zero and achieves a highly-efficient free energy transduction close to 100% during rotations far from quasistatic process. We discuss the mechanism of how the F1-motor achieves such a high efficiency, which highlights the remarkable property of the nano-sized engine F1-motor.

Teaching and Assessing Manipulative Motor Skills in High School Physical Education

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Bert, Greg

2015-01-01

This article provides new ways to teach and assess motor skills in various lifetime sports such as tennis, golf, badminton, and other sports that students are likely to play as adults by focusing on five basic biomechanical principles.

Transformation of Cortex-wide Emergent Properties during Motor Learning.

PubMed

Makino, Hiroshi; Ren, Chi; Liu, Haixin; Kim, An Na; Kondapaneni, Neehar; Liu, Xin; Kuzum, Duygu; Komiyama, Takaki

2017-05-17

Learning involves a transformation of brain-wide operation dynamics. However, our understanding of learning-related changes in macroscopic dynamics is limited. Here, we monitored cortex-wide activity of the mouse brain using wide-field calcium imaging while the mouse learned a motor task over weeks. Over learning, the sequential activity across cortical modules became temporally more compressed, and its trial-by-trial variability decreased. Moreover, a new flow of activity emerged during learning, originating from premotor cortex (M2), and M2 became predictive of the activity of many other modules. Inactivation experiments showed that M2 is critical for the post-learning dynamics in the cortex-wide activity. Furthermore, two-photon calcium imaging revealed that M2 ensemble activity also showed earlier activity onset and reduced variability with learning, which was accompanied by changes in the activity-movement relationship. These results reveal newly emergent properties of macroscopic cortical dynamics during motor learning and highlight the importance of M2 in controlling learned movements. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Probabilistic Motor Sequence Yields Greater Offline and Less Online Learning than Fixed Sequence

PubMed Central

Du, Yue; Prashad, Shikha; Schoenbrun, Ilana; Clark, Jane E.

2016-01-01

It is well acknowledged that motor sequences can be learned quickly through online learning. Subsequently, the initial acquisition of a motor sequence is boosted or consolidated by offline learning. However, little is known whether offline learning can drive the fast learning of motor sequences (i.e., initial sequence learning in the first training session). To examine offline learning in the fast learning stage, we asked four groups of young adults to perform the serial reaction time (SRT) task with either a fixed or probabilistic sequence and with or without preliminary knowledge (PK) of the presence of a sequence. The sequence and PK were manipulated to emphasize either procedural (probabilistic sequence; no preliminary knowledge (NPK)) or declarative (fixed sequence; with PK) memory that were found to either facilitate or inhibit offline learning. In the SRT task, there were six learning blocks with a 2 min break between each consecutive block. Throughout the session, stimuli followed the same fixed or probabilistic pattern except in Block 5, in which stimuli appeared in a random order. We found that PK facilitated the learning of a fixed sequence, but not a probabilistic sequence. In addition to overall learning measured by the mean reaction time (RT), we examined the progressive changes in RT within and between blocks (i.e., online and offline learning, respectively). It was found that the two groups who performed the fixed sequence, regardless of PK, showed greater online learning than the other two groups who performed the probabilistic sequence. The groups who performed the probabilistic sequence, regardless of PK, did not display online learning, as indicated by a decline in performance within the learning blocks. However, they did demonstrate remarkably greater offline improvement in RT, which suggests that they are learning the probabilistic sequence offline. These results suggest that in the SRT task, the fast acquisition of a motor sequence is driven by concurrent online and offline learning. In addition, as the acquisition of a probabilistic sequence requires greater procedural memory compared to the acquisition of a fixed sequence, our results suggest that offline learning is more likely to take place in a procedural sequence learning task. PMID:26973502

Probabilistic Motor Sequence Yields Greater Offline and Less Online Learning than Fixed Sequence.

PubMed

Du, Yue; Prashad, Shikha; Schoenbrun, Ilana; Clark, Jane E

2016-01-01

It is well acknowledged that motor sequences can be learned quickly through online learning. Subsequently, the initial acquisition of a motor sequence is boosted or consolidated by offline learning. However, little is known whether offline learning can drive the fast learning of motor sequences (i.e., initial sequence learning in the first training session). To examine offline learning in the fast learning stage, we asked four groups of young adults to perform the serial reaction time (SRT) task with either a fixed or probabilistic sequence and with or without preliminary knowledge (PK) of the presence of a sequence. The sequence and PK were manipulated to emphasize either procedural (probabilistic sequence; no preliminary knowledge (NPK)) or declarative (fixed sequence; with PK) memory that were found to either facilitate or inhibit offline learning. In the SRT task, there were six learning blocks with a 2 min break between each consecutive block. Throughout the session, stimuli followed the same fixed or probabilistic pattern except in Block 5, in which stimuli appeared in a random order. We found that PK facilitated the learning of a fixed sequence, but not a probabilistic sequence. In addition to overall learning measured by the mean reaction time (RT), we examined the progressive changes in RT within and between blocks (i.e., online and offline learning, respectively). It was found that the two groups who performed the fixed sequence, regardless of PK, showed greater online learning than the other two groups who performed the probabilistic sequence. The groups who performed the probabilistic sequence, regardless of PK, did not display online learning, as indicated by a decline in performance within the learning blocks. However, they did demonstrate remarkably greater offline improvement in RT, which suggests that they are learning the probabilistic sequence offline. These results suggest that in the SRT task, the fast acquisition of a motor sequence is driven by concurrent online and offline learning. In addition, as the acquisition of a probabilistic sequence requires greater procedural memory compared to the acquisition of a fixed sequence, our results suggest that offline learning is more likely to take place in a procedural sequence learning task.

Semaphorin 6A knockout mice display abnormalities across ethologically-based topographies of exploration and in motor learning.

PubMed

Håkansson, Kerstin; Runker, Annette E; O'Sullivan, Gerard J; Mitchell, Kevin J; Waddington, John L; O'Tuathaigh, Colm M P

2017-02-22

Semaphorins are secreted or membrane-bound proteins implicated in neurodevelopmental processes of axon guidance and cell migration. Exploratory behaviour and motor learning was examined ethologically in Semaphorin 6A (Sema6A) mutant mice. The ethogram of initial exploration in Sema6A knockout mice was characterised by increased rearing to wall with decreased sifting; over subsequent habituation, locomotion, sniffing and rearing to wall were increased, with reduced habituation of rearing seated. Rotarod analysis indicated delayed motor learning in Sema6A heterozygous mutants. Disruption to the axonal guidance and cell migration processes regulated by Sema6A is associated with topographically specific disruption to fundamental aspects of behaviour, namely the ethogram of initial exploration and subsequent habituation to the environment, and motor learning. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: performance retention under physiological fatigue.

PubMed

Poolton, J M; Masters, R S W; Maxwell, J P

2007-06-01

Heuristics of evolutionary biology (e.g., survival of the fittest) dictate that phylogenetically older processes are inherently more stable and resilient to disruption than younger processes. On the grounds that non-declarative behaviour emerged long before declarative behaviour, Reber (1992) argues that implicit (non-declarative) learning is supported by neural processes that are evolutionarily older than those supporting explicit learning. Reber suggested that implicit learning thus leads to performance that is more robust than explicit learning. Applying this evolutionary framework to motor performance, we examined whether implicit motor learning, relative to explicit motor learning, conferred motor output that was resilient to physiological fatigue and durable over time. In Part One of the study a fatigued state was induced by a double Wingate Anaerobic test protocol. Fatigue had no affect on performance of participants in the implicit condition; whereas, performance of participants in the explicit condition deteriorated significantly. In Part Two of the study a convenience sample of participants was recalled following a one-year hiatus. In both the implicit and the explicit condition retention of performance was seen and, contrary to the findings in Part One, so was resilience to fatigue. The resilient performance in the explicit condition after one year may have resulted from forgetting (the decay of declarative knowledge) or from consolidation of declarative knowledge as implicit memories. In either case, implicit processes were left to more effectively support motor performance.

Probing for hemispheric specialization for motor skill learning: a transcranial direct current stimulation study

PubMed Central

Schambra, Heidi M.; Abe, Mitsunari; Luckenbaugh, David A.; Reis, Janine; Krakauer, John W.

2011-01-01

Convergent findings point to a left-sided specialization for the representation of learned actions in right-handed humans, but it is unknown whether analogous hemispheric specialization exists for motor skill learning. In the present study, we explored this question by comparing the effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over either left or right motor cortex (M1) on motor skill learning in either hand, using a tDCS montage to better isolate stimulation to one hemisphere. Results were compared with those previously found with a montage more commonly used in the field. Six groups trained for three sessions on a visually guided sequential pinch force modulation task with their right or left hand and received right M1, left M1, or sham tDCS. A linear mixed-model analysis for motor skill showed a significant main effect for stimulation group (left M1, right M1, sham) but not for hand (right, left) or their interaction. Left M1 tDCS induced significantly greater skill learning than sham when hand data were combined, a result consistent not only with the hypothesized left hemisphere specialization for motor skill learning but also with possible increased left M1 responsiveness to tDCS. The unihemispheric montage effect size was one-half that of the more common montage, and subsequent power analysis indicated that 75 subjects per group would be needed to detect differences seen with only 12 subjects with the customary bihemispheric montage. PMID:21613597

Motor learning induces plastic changes in Purkinje cell dendritic spines in the rat cerebellum.

PubMed

González-Tapia, D; González-Ramírez, M M; Vázquez-Hernández, N; González-Burgos, I

2017-12-14

The paramedian lobule of the cerebellum is involved in learning to correctly perform motor skills through practice. Dendritic spines are dynamic structures that regulate excitatory synaptic stimulation. We studied plastic changes occurring in the dendritic spines of Purkinje cells from the paramedian lobule of rats during motor learning. Adult male rats were trained over a 6-day period using an acrobatic motor learning paradigm; the density and type of dendritic spines were determined every day during the study period using a modified version of the Golgi method. The learning curve reflected a considerable decrease in the number of errors made by rats as the training period progressed. We observed more dendritic spines on days 2 and 6, particularly more thin spines on days 1, 3, and 6, fewer mushroom spines on day 3, fewer stubby spines on day 1, and more thick spines on days 4 and 6. The initial stage of motor learning may be associated with fast processing of the underlying synaptic information combined with an apparent "silencing" of memory consolidation processes, based on the regulation of the neuronal excitability. Copyright © 2017 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.

A literature review on observational learning for medical motor skills and anesthesia teaching.

PubMed

Cordovani, Ligia; Cordovani, Daniel

2016-12-01

Motor skill practice is very important to improve performance of medical procedures and could be enhanced by observational practice. Observational learning could be particularly important in the medical field considering that patients' safety prevails over students' training. The mechanism of observational learning is based on the mirror neuron system, originally discovered in the monkey pre-motor cortex. Today we know that humans have a similar system, and its role is to understand and reproduce the observed actions of others. Many studies conclude that humans are able to plan and to make movements based on visual information by mapping a representation of observed actions, especially when the motor system is committed to do it. Moreover most researchers considered observational learning effective for complex skills, such as medical procedures. Additionally, observational learning could play a relevant role during anesthesia training since the learner works in pairs most of the time (dyad practice). Some teaching approaches should be taken into consideration: an implicit engagement of the observer motor system is required, immediate feedback seems to have an important effect, and a combination of observational and physical practice could be better than physical practice alone. In an environment where effectiveness and efficacy are essential, observational learning seems to fit well.

Temporal components of the motor patterns expressed by the human spinal cord reflect foot kinematics.

PubMed

Ivanenko, Yuri P; Grasso, Renato; Zago, Myrka; Molinari, Marco; Scivoletto, Giorgio; Castellano, Vincenzo; Macellari, Velio; Lacquaniti, Francesco

2003-11-01

What are the building blocks with which the human spinal cord constructs the motor patterns of locomotion? In principle, they could correspond to each individual activity pattern in dozens of different muscles. Alternatively, there could exist a small set of constituent temporal components that are common to all activation patterns and reflect global kinematic goals. To address this issue, we studied patients with spinal injury trained to step on a treadmill with body weight support. Patients learned to produce foot kinematics similar to that of healthy subjects but with activity patterns of individual muscles generally different from the control group. Hidden in the muscle patterns, we found a basic set of five temporal components, whose flexible combination accounted for the wide range of muscle patterns recorded in both controls and patients. Furthermore, two of the components were systematically related to foot kinematics across different stepping speeds and loading conditions. We suggest that the components are related to control signals output by spinal pattern generators, normally under the influence of descending and afferent inputs.

Size principle and information theory.

PubMed

Senn, W; Wyler, K; Clamann, H P; Kleinle, J; Lüscher, H R; Müller, L

1997-01-01

The motor units of a skeletal muscle may be recruited according to different strategies. From all possible recruitment strategies nature selected the simplest one: in most actions of vertebrate skeletal muscles the recruitment of its motor units is by increasing size. This so-called size principle permits a high precision in muscle force generation since small muscle forces are produced exclusively by small motor units. Larger motor units are activated only if the total muscle force has already reached certain critical levels. We show that this recruitment by size is not only optimal in precision but also optimal in an information theoretical sense. We consider the motoneuron pool as an encoder generating a parallel binary code from a common input to that pool. The generated motoneuron code is sent down through the motoneuron axons to the muscle. We establish that an optimization of this motoneuron code with respect to its information content is equivalent to the recruitment of motor units by size. Moreover, maximal information content of the motoneuron code is equivalent to a minimal expected error in muscle force generation.

Somatic and Reinforcement-Based Plasticity in the Initial Stages of Human Motor Learning.

PubMed

Sidarta, Ananda; Vahdat, Shahabeddin; Bernardi, Nicolò F; Ostry, David J

2016-11-16

As one learns to dance or play tennis, the desired somatosensory state is typically unknown. Trial and error is important as motor behavior is shaped by successful and unsuccessful movements. As an experimental model, we designed a task in which human participants make reaching movements to a hidden target and receive positive reinforcement when successful. We identified somatic and reinforcement-based sources of plasticity on the basis of changes in functional connectivity using resting-state fMRI before and after learning. The neuroimaging data revealed reinforcement-related changes in both motor and somatosensory brain areas in which a strengthening of connectivity was related to the amount of positive reinforcement during learning. Areas of prefrontal cortex were similarly altered in relation to reinforcement, with connectivity between sensorimotor areas of putamen and the reward-related ventromedial prefrontal cortex strengthened in relation to the amount of successful feedback received. In other analyses, we assessed connectivity related to changes in movement direction between trials, a type of variability that presumably reflects exploratory strategies during learning. We found that connectivity in a network linking motor and somatosensory cortices increased with trial-to-trial changes in direction. Connectivity varied as well with the change in movement direction following incorrect movements. Here the changes were observed in a somatic memory and decision making network involving ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and second somatosensory cortex. Our results point to the idea that the initial stages of motor learning are not wholly motor but rather involve plasticity in somatic and prefrontal networks related both to reward and exploration. In the initial stages of motor learning, the placement of the limbs is learned primarily through trial and error. In an experimental analog, participants make reaching movements to a hidden target and receive positive feedback when successful. We identified sources of plasticity based on changes in functional connectivity using resting-state fMRI. The main finding is that there is a strengthening of connectivity between reward-related prefrontal areas and sensorimotor areas in the basal ganglia and frontal cortex. There is also a strengthening of connectivity related to movement exploration in sensorimotor circuits involved in somatic memory and decision making. The results indicate that initial stages of motor learning depend on plasticity in somatic and prefrontal networks related to reward and exploration. Copyright © 2016 the authors 0270-6474/16/3611682-11$15.00/0.

Somatic and Reinforcement-Based Plasticity in the Initial Stages of Human Motor Learning

PubMed Central

Sidarta, Ananda; Vahdat, Shahabeddin; Bernardi, Nicolò F.

2016-01-01

As one learns to dance or play tennis, the desired somatosensory state is typically unknown. Trial and error is important as motor behavior is shaped by successful and unsuccessful movements. As an experimental model, we designed a task in which human participants make reaching movements to a hidden target and receive positive reinforcement when successful. We identified somatic and reinforcement-based sources of plasticity on the basis of changes in functional connectivity using resting-state fMRI before and after learning. The neuroimaging data revealed reinforcement-related changes in both motor and somatosensory brain areas in which a strengthening of connectivity was related to the amount of positive reinforcement during learning. Areas of prefrontal cortex were similarly altered in relation to reinforcement, with connectivity between sensorimotor areas of putamen and the reward-related ventromedial prefrontal cortex strengthened in relation to the amount of successful feedback received. In other analyses, we assessed connectivity related to changes in movement direction between trials, a type of variability that presumably reflects exploratory strategies during learning. We found that connectivity in a network linking motor and somatosensory cortices increased with trial-to-trial changes in direction. Connectivity varied as well with the change in movement direction following incorrect movements. Here the changes were observed in a somatic memory and decision making network involving ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and second somatosensory cortex. Our results point to the idea that the initial stages of motor learning are not wholly motor but rather involve plasticity in somatic and prefrontal networks related both to reward and exploration. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the initial stages of motor learning, the placement of the limbs is learned primarily through trial and error. In an experimental analog, participants make reaching movements to a hidden target and receive positive feedback when successful. We identified sources of plasticity based on changes in functional connectivity using resting-state fMRI. The main finding is that there is a strengthening of connectivity between reward-related prefrontal areas and sensorimotor areas in the basal ganglia and frontal cortex. There is also a strengthening of connectivity related to movement exploration in sensorimotor circuits involved in somatic memory and decision making. The results indicate that initial stages of motor learning depend on plasticity in somatic and prefrontal networks related to reward and exploration. PMID:27852776

Motor learning in animal models of Parkinson’s Disease: Aberrant synaptic plasticity in the motor cortex

PubMed Central

Xu, Tonghui; Wang, Shaofang; Lalchandani, Rupa R.; Ding, Jun B

2017-01-01

In Parkinson’s disease (PD), dopamine depletion causes dramatic changes in the brain resulting in debilitating cognitive and motor deficits. PD neuropathology has been restricted to postmortem examinations, which are limited to only a single time point of PD progression. Models of PD where dopamine tone in the brain are chemically or physically disrupted are valuable tools in understanding the mechanisms of the disease. The basal ganglia have been well studied in the context of PD, and circuit changes in response to dopamine loss have been linked to the motor dysfunctions in PD. However, the etiology of the cognitive dysfunctions that are comorbid in PD patients has remained unclear until now. In this paper, we review recent studies exploring how dopamine depletion affects the motor cortex at the synaptic level. In particular, we highlight our recent findings on abnormal spine dynamics in the motor cortex of PD mouse models through in vivo, time-lapse imaging and motor-skill behavior assays. In combination with previous studies, a role of the motor cortex in skill-learning, and the impairment of this ability with the loss of dopamine, is becoming more apparent. Taken together, we conclude with a discussion on the potential role for the motor cortex in the motor-skill learning and cognitive impairments of PD, with the possibility of targeting the motor cortex for future PD therapeutics. PMID:28343366

Re-learning to see in cortical blindness

PubMed Central

Melnick, Michael D.; Tadin, Duje; Huxlin, Krystel R.

2016-01-01

The incidence of cortically induced blindness (CB) is increasing as our population ages. The major cause of CB is stroke affecting the primary visual cortex. While the impact of this form of vision loss is devastating to quality of life, the development of principled, effective rehabilitation strategies for this condition lags far behind those used to treat motor stroke victims. Here we summarize recent developments in the still emerging field of visual restitution therapy, and compare the relative effectiveness of different approaches. We also draw insights into the properties of recovered vision, its limitations and likely neural substrates. We hope that these insights will guide future research and bring us closer to the goal of providing much-needed rehabilitation solutions for this patient population. PMID:26659828

Quantifying transfer after perceptual-motor sequence learning: how inflexible is implicit learning?

PubMed Central

Sanchez, Daniel J.; Yarnik, Eric N.

2015-01-01

Studies of implicit perceptual-motor sequence learning have often shown learning to be inflexibly tied to the training conditions during learning. Since sequence learning is seen as a model task of skill acquisition, limits on the ability to transfer knowledge from the training context to a performance context indicates important constraints on skill learning approaches. Lack of transfer across contexts has been demonstrated by showing that when task elements are changed following training, this leads to a disruption in performance. These results have typically been taken as suggesting that the sequence knowledge relies on integrated representations across task elements (Abrahamse, Jiménez, Verwey, & Clegg, Psychon Bull Rev 17:603–623, 2010a). Using a relatively new sequence learning task, serial interception sequence learning, three experiments are reported that quantify this magnitude of performance disruption after selectively manipulating individual aspects of motor performance or perceptual information. In Experiment 1, selective disruption of the timing or order of sequential actions was examined using a novel response manipulandum that allowed for separate analysis of these two motor response components. In Experiments 2 and 3, transfer was examined after selective disruption of perceptual information that left the motor response sequence intact. All three experiments provided quantifiable estimates of partial transfer to novel contexts that suggest some level of information integration across task elements. However, the ability to identify quantifiable levels of successful transfer indicates that integration is not all-or-none and that measurement sensitivity is a key in understanding sequence knowledge representations. PMID:24668505

T & I--Electric Motors. Kit No. 621. Instructor's Manual and Student Learning Activity Guide.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Bomar, William

This instructor's manual and student learning activity guide comprise a kit for trade and industrial education (T & I) activities on electric motors. Purpose stated for the activities is to teach the student the four basic types of electric motors, the advantages and disadvantages of each, the types of jobs each can perform, and how to disassemble…

Primary Motor Cortex Involvement in Initial Learning during Visuomotor Adaptation

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Riek, Stephan; Hinder, Mark R.; Carson, Richard G.

2012-01-01

Human motor behaviour is continually modified on the basis of errors between desired and actual movement outcomes. It is emerging that the role played by the primary motor cortex (M1) in this process is contingent upon a variety of factors, including the nature of the task being performed, and the stage of learning. Here we used repetitive TMS to…

Computational validation of the motor contribution to speech perception.

PubMed

Badino, Leonardo; D'Ausilio, Alessandro; Fadiga, Luciano; Metta, Giorgio

2014-07-01

Action perception and recognition are core abilities fundamental for human social interaction. A parieto-frontal network (the mirror neuron system) matches visually presented biological motion information onto observers' motor representations. This process of matching the actions of others onto our own sensorimotor repertoire is thought to be important for action recognition, providing a non-mediated "motor perception" based on a bidirectional flow of information along the mirror parieto-frontal circuits. State-of-the-art machine learning strategies for hand action identification have shown better performances when sensorimotor data, as opposed to visual information only, are available during learning. As speech is a particular type of action (with acoustic targets), it is expected to activate a mirror neuron mechanism. Indeed, in speech perception, motor centers have been shown to be causally involved in the discrimination of speech sounds. In this paper, we review recent neurophysiological and machine learning-based studies showing (a) the specific contribution of the motor system to speech perception and (b) that automatic phone recognition is significantly improved when motor data are used during training of classifiers (as opposed to learning from purely auditory data). Copyright © 2014 Cognitive Science Society, Inc.

Motor learning and the use of videotape feedback after stroke.

PubMed

Gilmore, Paula E; Spaulding, Sandi J

2007-01-01

Efforts have been made to apply motor learning theories to the rehabilitation of individuals following stroke. Motor learning poststroke has not been well investigated in the literature. This research attempted to fill the gap regarding motor learning applied to practice. This two-group research study attempted to determine the effectiveness of an experimental therapy combining videotape feedback with occupational therapy compared to only occupational therapy in learning the motor skill of donning socks and shoes after stroke. Ten participants were randomly assigned to one of the two groups and all participants were videotaped during pretest and up to 10 treatment sessions aimed at donning socks and shoes. Only one group viewed their videotape replay. The acquisition of donning socks and shoes was measured using the socks and shoes subtests of the Klein-Bell Activities of Daily Living Scale and their scores on the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure. There was no significant difference between the two groups and both groups improved. However, the group that received videotape feedback thought they performed better and were more satisfied with their ability to don shoes, lending support for the use of videotape feedback poststroke to improve satisfaction with performance.

The Effects of Collectivism-Individualism on the Cooperative Learning of Motor Skill

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Luo, Yi; Sun, Yan; Strobel, Johannes

2013-01-01

This study examined how cultural background (collectivism vs. individualism) affects motor skill learning in a dyadic cooperative learning environment. The research context of this study was Nintendo™ Wii Tennis. Twenty college students from a Midwestern university participated in the study, among whom half were from an individualistic culture…

Exploiting Redundancy for Flexible Behavior: Unsupervised Learning in a Modular Sensorimotor Control Architecture

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Butz, Martin V.; Herbort, Oliver; Hoffmann, Joachim

2007-01-01

Autonomously developing organisms face several challenges when learning reaching movements. First, motor control is learned unsupervised or self-supervised. Second, knowledge of sensorimotor contingencies is acquired in contexts in which action consequences unfold in time. Third, motor redundancies must be resolved. To solve all 3 of these…

A Literature Review on Observational Learning for Medical Motor Skills and Anesthesia Teaching

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Cordovani, Ligia; Cordovani, Daniel

2016-01-01

Motor skill practice is very important to improve performance of medical procedures and could be enhanced by observational practice. Observational learning could be particularly important in the medical field considering that patients' safety prevails over students' training. The mechanism of observational learning is based on the mirror neuron…

Learning to "See" Less than Nothing: Putting Perceptual Skills to Work for Learning Numerical Structure

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Tsang, Jessica M.; Blair, Kristen P.; Bofferding, Laura; Schwartz, Daniel L.

2015-01-01

How can children's natural perceptuo-motor skills be harnessed for teaching and learning mathematical structure? We address this question in the case of the integers. Existing research suggests that adult mental representations of integers recruit perceptuo-motor functionalities involving symmetry. Building on these findings, we designed a…

Approximate Optimal Control as a Model for Motor Learning

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Berthier, Neil E.; Rosenstein, Michael T.; Barto, Andrew G.

2005-01-01

Current models of psychological development rely heavily on connectionist models that use supervised learning. These models adapt network weights when the network output does not match the target outputs computed by some agent. The authors present a model of motor learning in which the child uses exploration to discover appropriate ways of…

John Tracy Clinic Correspondence Learning Program for Parents of Preschool Deaf-Blind Children. Teacher's Guide.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Thielman, Virginia B.; And Others

The teacher's guide outlines lessons from a correspondence learning program for parents of preschool deaf blind children. Learning steps and objectives are listed for eight areas covered by the program: communication, gross motor development, fine motor development, eating, sleeping, toilet training, dressing/undressing, and personal hygiene.…

A Visual Haptic System for Children with Learning Disabilities: Software and Hardware Design Considerations

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Subrahmaniyan, Neeraja; Krishnaswamy, Swetha; Chowriappa, Ashirwad; Srimathveeravalli, Govindarajan; Bisantz, Ann; Shriber, Linda; Kesavadas, Thenkurussi

2012-01-01

Research has shown that children with learning disabilities exhibit considerable challenges with visual motor integration. While there are specialized Occupational Therapy interventions aimed at visual motor integration, computer games and virtual toys have now become increasingly popular, forming an integral part of children's learning and play.…

Effects of Acute Sleep Deprivation on Motor and Reversal Learning in Mice

PubMed Central

Varga, Andrew W.; Kang, Mihwa; Ramesh, Priyanka V.; Klann, Eric

2014-01-01

Sleep supports the formation of a variety of declarative and non-declarative memories, and sleep deprivation often impairs these types of memories. In human subjects, natural sleep either during a nap or overnight leads to long-lasting improvements in visuomotor and fine motor tasks, but rodent models recapitulating these findings have been scarce. Here we present evidence that 5 hours of acute sleep deprivation impairs mouse skilled reach learning compared to a matched period of ad libitum sleep. In sleeping mice, the duration of total sleep time during the 5 hours of sleep opportunity or during the first bout of sleep did not correlate with ultimate gain in motor performance. In addition, we observed that reversal learning during the skilled reaching task was also affected by sleep deprivation. Consistent with this observation, 5 hours of sleep deprivation also impaired reversal learning in the water-based Y-maze. In conclusion, acute sleep deprivation negatively impacts subsequent motor and reversal learning and memory. PMID:25046627

Motor learning characterization in people with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review

PubMed Central

de Moraes, Íbis Ariana Peña; Massetti, Thais; Crocetta, Tânia Brusque; da Silva, Talita Dias; de Menezes, Lilian Del Ciello; Monteiro, Carlos Bandeira de Mello; Magalhães, Fernando Henrique

2017-01-01

ABSTRACT Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder primarily characterized by deficits in social interaction, communication and implicit skill learning. OBJECTIVE: To analyse the results of research on "motor learning" and the means used for measuring "autistic disorder". METHODS: A systematic literature search was done using Medline/PubMed, Web of Science, BVS (virtual health library), and PsycINFO. We included articles that contained the keywords "autism" and "motor learning". The variables considered were the methodological aspects; results presented, and the methodological quality of the studies. RESULTS: A total of 42 studies were identified; 33 articles were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted from nine eligible studies and summarized. CONCLUSION: We concluded that although individuals with ASD showed performance difficulties in different memory and motor learning tasks, acquisition of skills still takes place in this population; however, this skill acquisition is related to heterogeneous events, occurring without the awareness of the individual. PMID:29213525

Effects of acute sleep deprivation on motor and reversal learning in mice.

PubMed

Varga, Andrew W; Kang, Mihwa; Ramesh, Priyanka V; Klann, Eric

2014-10-01

Sleep supports the formation of a variety of declarative and non-declarative memories, and sleep deprivation often impairs these types of memories. In human subjects, natural sleep either during a nap or overnight leads to long-lasting improvements in visuomotor and fine motor tasks, but rodent models recapitulating these findings have been scarce. Here we present evidence that 5h of acute sleep deprivation impairs mouse skilled reach learning compared to a matched period of ad libitum sleep. In sleeping mice, the duration of total sleep time during the 5h of sleep opportunity or during the first bout of sleep did not correlate with ultimate gain in motor performance. In addition, we observed that reversal learning during the skilled reaching task was also affected by sleep deprivation. Consistent with this observation, 5h of sleep deprivation also impaired reversal learning in the water-based Y-maze. In conclusion, acute sleep deprivation negatively impacts subsequent motor and reversal learning and memory. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Apparatus for Teaching Physics.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Minnix, Richard B.; Carpenter, D. Rae, Jr., Eds.

1982-01-01

Thirteen demonstrations using a capacitor-start induction motor fitted with an aluminum disk are described. Demonstrations illustrate principles from mechanics, fluids (Bernoulli's principle), waves (chladni patterns and doppler effect), magnetism, electricity, and light (mechanical color mixing). In addition, the instrument can measure friction…

Measurement of functional task difficulty during motor learning: What level of difficulty corresponds to the optimal challenge point?

PubMed

Akizuki, Kazunori; Ohashi, Yukari

2015-10-01

The relationship between task difficulty and learning benefit was examined, as was the measurability of task difficulty. Participants were required to learn a postural control task on an unstable surface at one of four different task difficulty levels. Results from the retention test showed an inverted-U relationship between task difficulty during acquisition and motor learning. The second-highest level of task difficulty was the most effective for motor learning, while learning was delayed at the most and least difficult levels. Additionally, the results indicate that salivary α-amylase and the performance dimension of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) are useful indices of task difficulty. Our findings suggested that instructors may be able to adjust task difficulty based on salivary α-amylase and the performance dimension of the NASA-TLX to enhance learning. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Merging Brain Research with Educational Learning Principles.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Saunders, Allyson D.; Vawdrey, Colleen

2002-01-01

Discusses how findings of recent neuroscience research can be combined with learning theories to derive brain-based learning principles. Suggests ways in which teachers can promote deeper learning. (SK)

Mapping the dynamics of cortical neuroplasticity of skilled motor learning using micro X-ray fluorescence and histofluorescence imaging of zinc in the rat

PubMed Central

Alaverdashvili, Mariam; Paterson, Phyllis G.

2017-01-01

Synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence imaging (XFI) of zinc (Zn) has been recently implemented to understand the efficiency of various therapeutic interventions targeting post-stroke neuroprotection and neuroplasticity. However, it is uncertain if micro XFI can resolve neuroplasticity-induced changes. Thus, we explored if learning-associated behavioral changes would be accompanied by changes in cortical Zn concentration measured by XFI in healthy adult rats. Proficiency in a skilled reach-to-eat task during early and late stages of motor learning served as a functional measure of neuroplasticity. c-Fos protein and vesicular Zn expression were employed as indirect neuronal measures of brain plasticity. A total Zn map (20 × 20 × 30 μm3 resolution) generated by micro XFI failed to reflect increases in either c-Fos or vesicular Zn in the motor cortex contralateral to the trained forelimb or improved proficiency in the skilled reaching task. Remarkably, vesicular Zn increased in the late stage of motor learning along with a concurrent decrease in the number of c-fos-ip neurons relative to the early stage of motor learning. This inverse dynamics of c-fos and vesicular Zn level as the motor skill advances suggest that a qualitatively different neural population, comprised of fewer active but more efficiently connected neurons, supports a skilled action in the late versus early stage of motor learning. The lack of sensitivity of the XFI-generated Zn map to visualize the plasticity-associated changes in vesicular Zn suggests that the Zn level measured by micro XFI should not be used as a surrogate marker of neuroplasticity in response to the acquisition of skilled motor actions. Nanoscopic XFI could be explored in future as a means of imaging these subtle physiological changes. PMID:27840249

cTBS disruption of the supplementary motor area perturbs cortical sequence representation but not behavioural performance.

PubMed

Solopchuk, Oleg; Alamia, Andrea; Dricot, Laurence; Duque, Julie; Zénon, Alexandre

2017-12-01

Neuroimaging studies have repeatedly emphasized the role of the supplementary motor area (SMA) in motor sequence learning, but interferential approaches have led to inconsistent findings. Here, we aimed to test the role of the SMA in motor skill learning by combining interferential and neuroimaging techniques. Sixteen subjects were trained on simple finger movement sequences for 4 days. Afterwards, they underwent two neuroimaging sessions, in which they executed both trained and novel sequences. Prior to entering the scanner, the subjects received inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the SMA or a control site. Using multivariate fMRI analysis, we confirmed that motor training enhances the neural representation of motor sequences in the SMA, in accordance with previous findings. However, although SMA inhibition altered sequence representation (i.e. between-sequence decoding accuracy) in this area, behavioural performance remained unimpaired. Our findings question the causal link between the neuroimaging correlate of elementary motor sequence representation in the SMA and sequence generation, calling for a more thorough investigation of the role of this region in performance of learned motor sequences. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Incidental Learning and Explicit Recall in Upper Extremity Prosthesis Use: Insights Into Functional Rehabilitation Challenges.

PubMed

Hughey, Laura; Wheaton, Lewis A

2016-01-01

Loss of an upper extremity and the resulting rehabilitation often requires individuals to learn how to use a prosthetic device for activities of daily living. It remains unclear how prostheses affect motor learning outcomes. The authors' aim was to evaluate whether incidental motor learning and explicit recall is affected in intact persons either using prostheses (n = 10) or the sound limb (n = 10), and a chronic amputee on a modified serial reaction time task. Latency and accuracy of task completion were recorded over six blocks, with a distractor task between blocks 5 and 6. Participants were also asked to recall the sequence immediately following the study and at a 24-hr follow-up. Prosthesis users demonstrate patterns consistent with implicit learning, with sustained error patterns with the distal terminal device. More intact individuals were able to explicitly recall the sequence initially, however there was no significant difference 24 hr following the study. Acute incidental motor learning does not appear to diminish task related error patterns or accompany with explicit recall in prosthesis users, which could present limitations for acute training of prosthesis use in amputees. This suggests differing mechanisms of visuospatial sequential learning and motor control with prostheses.

Fast social-like learning of complex behaviors based on motor motifs.

PubMed

Calvo Tapia, Carlos; Tyukin, Ivan Y; Makarov, Valeri A

2018-05-01

Social learning is widely observed in many species. Less experienced agents copy successful behaviors exhibited by more experienced individuals. Nevertheless, the dynamical mechanisms behind this process remain largely unknown. Here we assume that a complex behavior can be decomposed into a sequence of n motor motifs. Then a neural network capable of activating motor motifs in a given sequence can drive an agent. To account for (n-1)! possible sequences of motifs in a neural network, we employ the winnerless competition approach. We then consider a teacher-learner situation: one agent exhibits a complex movement, while another one aims at mimicking the teacher's behavior. Despite the huge variety of possible motif sequences we show that the learner, equipped with the provided learning model, can rewire "on the fly" its synaptic couplings in no more than (n-1) learning cycles and converge exponentially to the durations of the teacher's motifs. We validate the learning model on mobile robots. Experimental results show that the learner is indeed capable of copying the teacher's behavior composed of six motor motifs in a few learning cycles. The reported mechanism of learning is general and can be used for replicating different functions, including, for example, sound patterns or speech.

Fast social-like learning of complex behaviors based on motor motifs

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Calvo Tapia, Carlos; Tyukin, Ivan Y.; Makarov, Valeri A.

2018-05-01

Social learning is widely observed in many species. Less experienced agents copy successful behaviors exhibited by more experienced individuals. Nevertheless, the dynamical mechanisms behind this process remain largely unknown. Here we assume that a complex behavior can be decomposed into a sequence of n motor motifs. Then a neural network capable of activating motor motifs in a given sequence can drive an agent. To account for (n -1 )! possible sequences of motifs in a neural network, we employ the winnerless competition approach. We then consider a teacher-learner situation: one agent exhibits a complex movement, while another one aims at mimicking the teacher's behavior. Despite the huge variety of possible motif sequences we show that the learner, equipped with the provided learning model, can rewire "on the fly" its synaptic couplings in no more than (n -1 ) learning cycles and converge exponentially to the durations of the teacher's motifs. We validate the learning model on mobile robots. Experimental results show that the learner is indeed capable of copying the teacher's behavior composed of six motor motifs in a few learning cycles. The reported mechanism of learning is general and can be used for replicating different functions, including, for example, sound patterns or speech.

Additional Drive Circuitry for Piezoelectric Screw Motors

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Smythe, Robert; Palmer, Dean; Gursel, Yekta; Reder, Leonard; Savedra, Raymond

2004-01-01

Modules of additional drive circuitry have been developed to enhance the functionality of a family of commercially available positioning motors (Picomotor . or equivalent) that provide linear motion controllable, in principle, to within increments .30 nm. A motor of this type includes a piezoelectric actuator that turns a screw. Unlike traditional piezoelectrically actuated mechanisms, a motor of this type does not rely on the piezoelectric transducer to hold position: the screw does not turn except when the drive signal is applied to the actuator.

Mountain Plains Learning Experience Guide: Electric Motor Repair.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ziller, T.

This Electric Motor Repair Course is designed to provide the student with practical information for winding, repairing, and troubleshooting alternating current and direct current motors, and controllers. The course is comprised of eight units: (1) Electric Motor Fundamentals, (2) Rewinding, (3) Split-phase Induction Motors, (4) Capacitor Motors,…

Impaired Retention of Motor Learning of Writing Skills in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease with Freezing of Gait

PubMed Central

Heremans, Elke; Nackaerts, Evelien; Vervoort, Griet; Broeder, Sanne; Swinnen, Stephan P.; Nieuwboer, Alice

2016-01-01

Background Patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and freezing of gait (FOG) suffer from more impaired motor and cognitive functioning than their non-freezing counterparts. This underlies an even higher need for targeted rehabilitation programs in this group. However, so far it is unclear whether FOG affects the ability for consolidation and generalization of motor learning and thus the efficacy of rehabilitation. Objective To investigate the hallmarks of motor learning in people with FOG compared to those without by comparing the effects of an intensive motor learning program to improve handwriting. Methods Thirty five patients with PD, including 19 without and 16 with FOG received six weeks of handwriting training consisting of exercises provided on paper and on a touch-sensitive writing tablet. Writing training was based on single- and dual-task writing and was supported by means of visual target zones. To investigate automatization, generalization and retention of learning, writing performance was assessed before and after training in the presence and absence of cues and dual tasking and after a six-week retention period. Writing amplitude was measured as primary outcome measure and variability of writing and dual-task accuracy as secondary outcomes. Results Significant learning effects were present on all outcome measures in both groups, both for writing under single- and dual-task conditions. However, the gains in writing amplitude were not retained after a retention period of six weeks without training in the patient group without FOG. Furthermore, patients with FOG were highly dependent on the visual target zones, reflecting reduced generalization of learning in this group. Conclusions Although short-term learning effects were present in both groups, generalization and retention of motor learning were specifically impaired in patients with PD and FOG. The results of this study underscore the importance of individualized rehabilitation protocols. PMID:26862915

Cerebellar Plasticity and Motor Learning Deficits in a Copy Number Variation Mouse Model of Autism

PubMed Central

Piochon, Claire; Kloth, Alexander D; Grasselli, Giorgio; Titley, Heather K; Nakayama, Hisako; Hashimoto, Kouichi; Wan, Vivian; Simmons, Dana H; Eissa, Tahra; Nakatani, Jin; Cherskov, Adriana; Miyazaki, Taisuke; Watanabe, Masahiko; Takumi, Toru; Kano, Masanobu; Wang, Samuel S-H; Hansel, Christian

2014-01-01

A common feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is the impairment of motor control and learning, occurring in a majority of children with autism, consistent with perturbation in cerebellar function. Here we report alterations in motor behavior and cerebellar synaptic plasticity in a mouse model (patDp/+) for the human 15q11-13 duplication, one of the most frequently observed genetic aberrations in autism. These mice show ASD-resembling social behavior deficits. We find that in patDp/+ mice delay eyeblink conditioning—a form of cerebellum-dependent motor learning—is impaired, and observe deregulation of a putative cellular mechanism for motor learning, long-term depression (LTD) at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses. Moreover, developmental elimination of surplus climbing fibers—a model for activity-dependent synaptic pruning—is impaired. These findings point to deficits in synaptic plasticity and pruning as potential causes for motor problems and abnormal circuit development in autism. PMID:25418414

The Numerical Calculation and Experimental Measurement of the Inductance Parameters for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor in Electric Vehicle

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jiang, Chao; Qiao, Mingzhong; Zhu, Peng

2017-12-01

A permanent magnet synchronous motor with radial magnetic circuit and built-in permanent magnet is designed for the electric vehicle. Finite element numerical calculation and experimental measurement are adopted to obtain the direct axis and quadrature axis inductance parameters of the motor which are vital important for the motor control. The calculation method is simple, the measuring principle is clear, the results of numerical calculation and experimental measurement are mutual confirmation. A quick and effective method is provided to obtain the direct axis and quadrature axis inductance parameters of the motor, and then improve the design of motor or adjust the control parameters of the motor controller.

Classical eyeblink conditioning in Parkinson's disease.

PubMed

Daum, I; Schugens, M M; Breitenstein, C; Topka, H; Spieker, S

1996-11-01

Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) show impairments of a range of motor learning tasks, including tracking or serial reaction time task learning. Our study investigated whether such deficits would also be seen on a simple type of motor learning, classic conditioning of the eyeblink response. Medicated and unmediated patients with PD showed intact unconditioned eyeblink responses and significant learning across acquisition; the learning rates did not differ from those of healthy control subjects. The overall frequency of conditioned responses was significantly higher in the medicated patients with PD relative to control subjects, and there was also some evidence of facilitation in the unmedicated patients with PD. Conditioning of electrodermal and electrocortical responses was comparable in all groups. The findings are discussed in terms of enhanced excitability of brainstem pathways in PD and of the involvement of different neuronal circuits in different types of motor learning.