Energy Consumption and Renewable Energy Development Potential on Indian Lands

EIA Publications

2000-01-01

Includes information on the electricity use and needs of Indian households and tribes, the comparative electricity rates that Indian households are paying, and the potential for renewable resources development of Indian lands.

Disease burden due to biomass cooking-fuel-related household air pollution among women in India.

PubMed

Sehgal, Meena; Rizwan, Suliankatchi Abdulkader; Krishnan, Anand

2014-01-01

Household air pollution (HAP) due to biomass cooking fuel use is an important risk factor for a range of diseases, especially among adult women who are primary cooks, in India. About 80% of rural households in India use biomass fuel for cooking. The aim of this study is to estimate the attributable cases (AC) for four major diseases/conditions associated with biomass cooking fuel use among adult Indian women. We used the population attributable fraction (PAF) method to calculate the AC of chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis (TB), cataract, and stillbirths due to exposure to biomass cooking fuel. A number of data sources were accessed to obtain population totals and disease prevalence rates. A meta-analysis was conducted to obtain adjusted pooled odds ratios (ORs) for strength of association. Using this, PAF and AC were calculated using a standard formula. Results were presented as number of AC and 95% confidence intervals (CI). The fixed effects pooled OR obtained from the meta-analysis were 2.37 (95% CI: 1.59, 3.54) for chronic bronchitis, 2.33 (1.65, 3.28) for TB, 2.16 (1.42, 3.26) for cataract, and 1.26 (1.12, 1.43) for stillbirths. PAF varied across conditions being maximum (53%) for chronic bronchitis in rural areas and least (1%) for cataract in older age and urban areas. About 2.4 (95% CI: 1.4, 3.1) of 5.6 m cases of chronic bronchitis, 0.3 (0.2, 0.4) of 0.76 m cases of TB, 5.0 (2.8, 6.7) of 51.4 m cases of cataract among adult Indian women and 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) of 0.15 m stillbirths across India are attributable to HAP due to biomass cooking fuel. These estimates should be cautiously interpreted in the light of limitations discussed which relate to exposure assessment, exposure characterization, and age-specific prevalence of disease. HAP due to biomass fuel has diverse and major impacts on women's health in India. Although challenging, incorporating the agenda of universal clean fuel access or cleaner technology within the broader framework of rural development will go a long way in reducing disease burden.

Barriers to rural households' participation in low-skilled off-farm labor markets: theory and empirical results from northern Ethiopia.

PubMed

Bhatta, Bharat P; Arethun, Torbjørn

2013-12-01

Promotion of low-skilled off-farm rural labor market participation can be an important strategy to improve livelihoods and food security of the poor in developing countries. This paper investigates rural farm households' participation in low-skilled off-farm labor markets with disaggregate data from a survey of 400 households in Tigray, the northern highlands of Ethiopia. Adopting Heckman's two stage approach, we examined households' decisions to participate or not in markets by probit model in the first stage and level of participation by ordinary least squares procedures in the second stage. The results show that households' decision to enter into a labor market significantly depends on the characteristics of the households such as sex, age of the household heads and labor endowments in the households. Similarly, the level of participation in labor markets measured by the amount of off-farm wage income depends on labor endowments in the households and the place where the households are located. Since cash constrained rural households do not find themselves advantageous to participate in off-farm labor markets, the reduction of cash constraint is the major policy implication of the paper. This holds true in general for all cash constrained rural households in developing countries. Similarly, the empirical results in the paper suggest removal of locational barriers to access labor markets. This helps them to earn off-farm income. It is necessary to eliminate (or at least reduce) obstacles for rural households to enter into a market of off-farm wage earning activities. This holds true in general for all rural households in developing countries. This paper is therefore expected to contribute to frame appropriate policy that promotes participation in low-skilled off-farm rural labor markets in developing countries where many rural households are not only poor but also low-skilled.

Assessing the Impacts of Rural Electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Ethiopia

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Aragaw, Mekonnen Lulie

This study links rural electrification and the transition to modern energy services with poverty reduction and rural development in Ethiopia. Benefits of rural electrification in reducing poverty and accelerating rural development in low-income developing countries have been insufficiently researched. This study analyses available empirical evidence at a local level and examines how electricity access translates into productive use beyond powering radios and lighting. A survey of 336 households was conducted in Northern Ethiopia on impacts of electrification on four rural towns with varying number of years of access to electricity. Evidence at household and community levels shows that access to electricity was followed by an increase in household connectivity rate, and slow transition to modern energy services based on level of household income and number of years of a household's connection to electricity services. The pace of transition to modern energy services was slow, and household energy poverty and dependence on biomass fuels continued in most rural towns, having little impact on improved environmental management practices. Improvement in rural livelihood, poverty reduction, and delivery of public services was highest for those with more years of access to electricity, and higher income households. The fact that impacts of RE depend on number of years of a household's electricity connection implies gradual improvements rather than immediate benefits after connection. In the short-term, households improved their quality of life through better lighting and reduced indoor-air pollution. In the medium and longer-term, households and communities diversified their income and received improved public services such as education, health, and potable water. Further benefits were wider off-farm and non-farm employment, increased rural markets, and improved environment for rural development. Very poor households benefited least, while those better-off utilized opportunities created through rural electrification. Though necessary for development, rural electrification alone is insufficient, and requires strong government commitment and political will to invest in public services and infrastructure, and encourage private sector participation. Keywords: rural electrification, modern energy services, Sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia, energy transition, Poverty Reduction, Rural Development.

Socio-economic status and cardiovascular risk factors in rural and urban areas of Vellore, Tamilnadu, South India.

PubMed

Samuel, Prasanna; Antonisamy, Belavendra; Raghupathy, Palani; Richard, Joseph; Fall, Caroline H D

2012-10-01

We examined associations between socio-economic status (SES) indicators and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors among urban and rural South Indians. Data from a population-based birth cohort of 2218 men and women aged 26-32 years from Vellore, Tamilnadu were used. SES indicators included a household possessions score, attained education and paternal education. CVD risk factors included obesity, hypertension, impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes, plasma total cholesterol to high density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio and triglyceride levels and consumption of tobacco and alcohol. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to assess associations between SES indicators and risk factors. Most risk factors were positively associated with possessions score in urban and rural men and women, except for tobacco use, which was negatively associated. Trends were similar with the participants' own education and paternal education, though weaker and less consistent. In a concurrent analysis of all the three SES indicators, adjusted for gender and urban/rural residence, independent associations were observed only for the possessions score. Compared with those in the lowest fifth of the score, participants in the highest fifth had a higher risk of abdominal obesity [odds ratio (OR) =6.4, 95% CI 3.4-11.6], high total cholesterol to HDL ratio (OR=2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.5) and glucose intolerance (OR=2.8, 95% CI 1.9-4.1). Their tobacco use (OR=0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.6) was lower. Except for hypertension and glucose intolerance, risk factors were higher in urban than rural participants independently of SES. In this young cohort of rural and urban south Indians, higher SES was associated with a more adverse CVD risk factor profile but lower tobacco use.

Consistency of Use and Effectiveness of Household Water Treatment Practices among Urban and Rural Populations Claiming to Treat Their Drinking Water at Home: A Case Study in Zambia

PubMed Central

Rosa, Ghislaine; Kelly, Paul; Clasen, Thomas

2016-01-01

Household water treatment (HWT) can improve drinking water quality and prevent disease, if used correctly and consistently. While international monitoring suggests that 1.8 billion people practice HWT, these estimates are based on household surveys that may overstate the level of consistent use and do not address microbiological effectiveness. We sought to examine how HWT is practiced among households identified as HWT users according to international monitoring standards. Case studies were conducted in urban and rural Zambia. After a baseline survey (urban: 203 households, rural: 276 households) to identify HWT users, 95 urban and 82 rural households were followed up for 6 weeks. Consistency of HWT reporting was low; only 72.6% of urban and 50.0% of rural households reported to be HWT users in the subsequent visit. Similarly, availability of treated water was low, only 23.3% and 4.2% of urban and rural households, respectively, had treated water on all visits. Drinking water was significantly worse than source water in both settings. Only 19.6% of urban and 2.4% of rural households had drinking water free of thermotolerant coliforms on all visits. Our findings raise questions about the value of the data gathered through the international monitoring of HWT practices as predictors of water quality in the home. PMID:26572868

Women's autonomy in decision making for health care in South Asia.

PubMed

Senarath, Upul; Gunawardena, Nalika Sepali

2009-04-01

This article aims to discuss women's autonomy in decision making on health care, and its determinants in 3 South Asian countries, using nationally representative surveys. Women's participation either alone or jointly in household decisions on their own health care was considered as an indicator of women's autonomy in decision making. The results revealed that decisions of women's health care were made without their participation in the majority of Nepal (72.7%) and approximately half of Bangladesh (54.3%) and Indian (48.5%) households. In Sri Lanka, decision making for contraceptive use was a collective responsibility in the majority (79.7%). Women's participation in decision making significantly increased with age, education, and number of children. Women who were employed and earned cash had a stronger say in household decision making than women who did not work or worked not for cash. Rural and poor women were less likely to be involved in decision making than urban or rich women.

Social capital and basic goods: the cautionary tale of drinking water in India.

PubMed

Motiram, Sripad; Osberg, Lars

2010-01-01

This study uses micro-data from the 1998-99 Indian Time Use Survey (ITUS; covering 77,593 persons in 18,591 households in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Orissa, and Haryana) to argue that time use data provides a natural metric for measuring "social capital" building activities and for distinguishing between the relative importance of "bonding" into groups or "bridging" within communities. The study examines the correlation between inequality in landownership, caste status, measures of local social capital, and whether or not a household will have to collect water. In India, the probability that a rural household fetches water is 4.8% and 9.1% lower in communities in which the average time spent on social interaction and community-based activities at the district-level doubles, but it is 18.9% greater when the time in group-based activities doubles. Inequalities in landownership and home ownership are associated with considerably larger differences in local tap water availability.

Risk Factors for Rural Residential Fires

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Allareddy, Veerasathpurush; Peek-Asa, Corinne; Yang, Jingzhen; Zwerling, Craig

2007-01-01

Context and Purpose: Rural households report high fire-related mortality and injury rates, but few studies have examined the risk factors for fires. This study aims to identify occupant and household characteristics that are associated with residential fires in a rural cohort. Methods: Of 1,005 households contacted in a single rural county, 691…

Consistency of Use and Effectiveness of Household Water Treatment Practices Among Urban and Rural Populations Claiming to Treat Their Drinking Water at Home: A Case Study in Zambia.

PubMed

Rosa, Ghislaine; Kelly, Paul; Clasen, Thomas

2016-02-01

Household water treatment (HWT) can improve drinking water quality and prevent disease, if used correctly and consistently. While international monitoring suggests that 1.8 billion people practice HWT, these estimates are based on household surveys that may overstate the level of consistent use and do not address microbiological effectiveness. We sought to examine how HWT is practiced among households identified as HWT users according to international monitoring standards. Case studies were conducted in urban and rural Zambia. After a baseline survey (urban: 203 households, rural: 276 households) to identify HWT users, 95 urban and 82 rural households were followed up for 6 weeks. Consistency of HWT reporting was low; only 72.6% of urban and 50.0% of rural households reported to be HWT users in the subsequent visit. Similarly, availability of treated water was low, only 23.3% and 4.2% of urban and rural households, respectively, had treated water on all visits. Drinking water was significantly worse than source water in both settings. Only 19.6% of urban and 2.4% of rural households had drinking water free of thermotolerant coliforms on all visits. Our findings raise questions about the value of the data gathered through the international monitoring of HWT practices as predictors of water quality in the home. © The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Economic Growth, Rural Educational Investment and the Level and Distribution of Rural Incomes

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Badiani, Reena Chandu

2010-01-01

This dissertation examines two related questions. First, it estimates the effect of growth in the demand for skilled and unskilled labor on rural household incomes and the rural wage structure. Second, it examines the effect of growth in household incomes and in labor market returns to education on household educational investment. The…

Association between household size, residential area, and osteoporosis: analysis of 2008 to 2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

PubMed Central

Kim, Sung-Woo; Bae, Kwi-Hyun; Seo, Jung-Beom; Jeon, Jae-Han; Lee, Won-Kee; Lee, In-Kyu; Kim, Jung-Guk; Park, Keun-Gyu

2016-01-01

Background/Aims: The prevalence of single-person households has rapidly increased in Korea. Individuals living alone and in rural areas may have a higher risk of various metabolic diseases due to differences in lifestyle. However, few studies have investigated the association of household size and residential area with health-related problems. This study aimed to evaluate the association of household size and residential area with risk of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Methods: This cross-sectional study enrolled 3,058 postmenopausal women from the 2008 to 2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). We examined the association between bone mineral density (BMD) and household size and residential area. Results: Individuals living in rural areas had significantly lower BMD of the lumbar spine than those living in an urban area. Subsequently, we divided the participants into four groups according to household size and residential areas. Lumbar spine BMD was significantly lower in individuals living in rural single-person households than those in urban households with two or more individuals, even after adjustment for multiple confounding factors. In addition, individuals in rural single-person households had significantly greater odds of osteoporosis in the lumbar spine than those in urban households with two or more residents. Conclusions: Individuals in rural single-person households had significantly lower BMD and greater odds of osteoporosis in lumbar spine than urban households with two or more individuals. The results of this study suggest that individuals living in rural single-person households may benefit from more careful screening for osteoporosis. PMID:27079326

Association between household size, residential area, and osteoporosis: analysis of 2008 to 2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

PubMed

Kim, Sung-Woo; Bae, Kwi-Hyun; Seo, Jung-Beom; Jeon, Jae-Han; Lee, Won-Kee; Lee, In-Kyu; Kim, Jung-Guk; Park, Keun-Gyu

2016-07-01

The prevalence of single-person households has rapidly increased in Korea. Individuals living alone and in rural areas may have a higher risk of various metabolic diseases due to differences in lifestyle. However, few studies have investigated the association of household size and residential area with health-related problems. This study aimed to evaluate the association of household size and residential area with risk of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. This cross-sectional study enrolled 3,058 postmenopausal women from the 2008 to 2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). We examined the association between bone mineral density (BMD) and household size and residential area. Individuals living in rural areas had significantly lower BMD of the lumbar spine than those living in an urban area. Subsequently, we divided the participants into four groups according to household size and residential areas. Lumbar spine BMD was significantly lower in individuals living in rural single-person households than those in urban households with two or more individuals, even after adjustment for multiple confounding factors. In addition, individuals in rural single-person households had significantly greater odds of osteoporosis in the lumbar spine than those in urban households with two or more residents. Individuals in rural single-person households had significantly lower BMD and greater odds of osteoporosis in lumbar spine than urban households with two or more individuals. The results of this study suggest that individuals living in rural single-person households may benefit from more careful screening for osteoporosis.

Report on Urban and Rural Non-Reservation Indians (Task Force Eight: Urban and Rural Nonreservation Indians). Final Report to the American Indian Policy Review Commission. Committee Print.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Congress of the U.S., Washington, DC.

The result of a 12-month investigation of rural and urban nonreservation American Indian needs, this report is the final product of a task force assigned by the American Indian Policy Review Commission to: (1) examine statutes and procedures for granting Federal recognition and extending services to American Indians; (2) collect and compile data…

Family life course transitions and rural household economy during China's market reform.

PubMed

Chen, Feinian; Korinek, Kim

2010-11-01

This article investigates the effect of family life course transitions on labor allocation strategies in rural Chinese households. We highlight three types of economic activity that involve reallocation of household labor oriented toward a more diversified, nonfarm rural economy: involvement in wage employment, household entrepreneurship, and/or multiple activities that span economic sectors. With the use of data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS 1997, 2000, and 2004), our longitudinal analyses of rural household economic activity point to the significance of household demography, life course transitions, and local economic structures as factors facilitating household labor reallocation. First, as expected, a relatively youthful household structure is conducive to innovative economic behavior. Second, household entrances and exits are significant, but their impacts are not equal. Life events such as births, deaths, marriage, or leaving home for school or employment affect household economy in distinctive ways. Finally, the reallocations of household labor undertaken by households are shaped by local economic structures: in particular, the extent of village-level entrepreneurial activity, off-farm employment, and out-migration.

Family Life Course Transitions and Rural Household Economy During China’s Market Reform

PubMed Central

CHEN, FEINIAN; KORINEK, KIM

2010-01-01

This article investigates the effect of family life course transitions on labor allocation strategies in rural Chinese households. We highlight three types of economic activity that involve reallocation of household labor oriented toward a more diversified, nonfarm rural economy: involvement in wage employment, household entrepreneurship, and/or multiple activities that span economic sectors. With the use of data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS 1997, 2000, and 2004), our longitudinal analyses of rural household economic activity point to the significance of household demography, life course transitions, and local economic structures as factors facilitating household labor reallocation. First, as expected, a relatively youthful household structure is conducive to innovative economic behavior. Second, household entrances and exits are significant, but their impacts are not equal. Life events such as births, deaths, marriage, or leaving home for school or employment affect household economy in distinctive ways. Finally, the reallocations of household labor undertaken by households are shaped by local economic structures: in particular, the extent of village-level entrepreneurial activity, off-farm employment, and out-migration. PMID:21308566

Is distribution of health expenditure in Iran pro-poor?

PubMed

Emamgholipour, Sara; Agheli, Lotfali

2018-05-03

The size and distribution of households' health care expenditure indicate the financial burden on different income groups. Since the distribution of health expenditure evaluates the performance of health systems, this study aims to examine the health expenditure distribution among urban and rural households in Iran. This research was conducted on the distribution of health expenditure among urban and rural households in 2014. The effects of households' health expenditure on distribution of personal incomes were measured by using Kakwani and Reynolds-Smolensky indices. In addition, Theil T index was used to classify provinces based on inequality in health expenditure distribution. The calculations were made by using EXCEL. The Kakwani indices for urban and rural households were calculated around -0.572 and -0.485, respectively. Reynolds-Smolensky indices for urban and rural households were measured as much as -0.038 and -0.031, respectively. Regardless of income distribution, Theil T index shows that urban households face with the most unequal distribution in health expenditure. Based on calculations, the distribution of health expenditure is against the poor households. In addition, this distribution is more regressive in urban than rural households. As well, Reynolds-Smolensky indices indicate more uneven income distribution after paying for health care, and inequality is larger among urban than rural households. To this research, the health policymaking priorities should be given to the provinces with the highest inequality, and the expenditure burden of low-income households should be reduced through expanding insurance coverage. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Socio-economic patterning of tobacco use in Indian states

PubMed Central

Karan, A.; Selvaraj, S.; Bhan, N.; Subramanian, S. V.; Millett, C.

2013-01-01

BACKGROUND: Studies in India have identified marked variations in overall tobacco use between socio-economic groups. We examined whether associations between socio-economic status (SES) and tobacco use varied across individual Indian states by tobacco type. METHODS: Cross-sectional survey of 100 855 households in 24 Indian states and Union Territories conducted in 2009–2010. Outcome measures were household tobacco consumption by type. Logistic and linear regression models were used to examine associations at the household level between education, income and use and volume of tobacco consumed. RESULTS: Overall, 52% of households used any form of tobacco product; the predominant form was smokeless tobacco (22%), followed by bidi (17%) and cigarettes (4%). Increasing household income and higher education level were associated with a higher likelihood of cigarette use but a lower likelihood of bidi and smokeless tobacco use in some Indian states. Increasing household income was associated with higher volumes of cigarette and bidi use among consuming households; however, association between educational level and volume of tobacco consumption was inconsistent. CONCLUSION: SES has a varying impact on different types of tobacco use in Indian states. Policy makers should consider socio-economic patterning of tobacco use when designing, implementing and evaluating tobacco control interventions in different states of India. PMID:23827038

Disease burden due to biomass cooking-fuel-related household air pollution among women in India

PubMed Central

Sehgal, Meena; Rizwan, Suliankatchi Abdulkader; Krishnan, Anand

2014-01-01

Background Household air pollution (HAP) due to biomass cooking fuel use is an important risk factor for a range of diseases, especially among adult women who are primary cooks, in India. About 80% of rural households in India use biomass fuel for cooking. The aim of this study is to estimate the attributable cases (AC) for four major diseases/conditions associated with biomass cooking fuel use among adult Indian women. Methods We used the population attributable fraction (PAF) method to calculate the AC of chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis (TB), cataract, and stillbirths due to exposure to biomass cooking fuel. A number of data sources were accessed to obtain population totals and disease prevalence rates. A meta-analysis was conducted to obtain adjusted pooled odds ratios (ORs) for strength of association. Using this, PAF and AC were calculated using a standard formula. Results were presented as number of AC and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results The fixed effects pooled OR obtained from the meta-analysis were 2.37 (95% CI: 1.59, 3.54) for chronic bronchitis, 2.33 (1.65, 3.28) for TB, 2.16 (1.42, 3.26) for cataract, and 1.26 (1.12, 1.43) for stillbirths. PAF varied across conditions being maximum (53%) for chronic bronchitis in rural areas and least (1%) for cataract in older age and urban areas. About 2.4 (95% CI: 1.4, 3.1) of 5.6 m cases of chronic bronchitis, 0.3 (0.2, 0.4) of 0.76 m cases of TB, 5.0 (2.8, 6.7) of 51.4 m cases of cataract among adult Indian women and 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) of 0.15 m stillbirths across India are attributable to HAP due to biomass cooking fuel. These estimates should be cautiously interpreted in the light of limitations discussed which relate to exposure assessment, exposure characterization, and age-specific prevalence of disease. Conclusions HAP due to biomass fuel has diverse and major impacts on women’s health in India. Although challenging, incorporating the agenda of universal clean fuel access or cleaner technology within the broader framework of rural development will go a long way in reducing disease burden. PMID:25373414

The Impact of Entrepreneurial Competencies on Household Food Security Among Smallholder Farmers in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa.

PubMed

Sinyolo, Sikhulumile; Mudhara, Maxwell

2018-01-01

This paper investigates the impact of entrepreneurial competencies on food security among rural farming households in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (SA). A total of 513 rural households were randomly selected, and the descriptive results indicated that 51% of these households were food insecure, and they were somewhat negative about their entrepreneurial competencies. The estimated results indicated that entrepreneurship had a positive impact on food security. The study findings suggest that stimulating entrepreneurship through developing entrepreneurial competencies among the farming households is important for improved food security among rural households in SA.

Women: work and employment -- some notes.

PubMed

Mukherjee, M; Sujaya, C P; Jain, D

1994-01-01

This article discusses recent literature on women's work in India, provides commentary on some outcomes of women's work and research findings on women's work, identifies differences of opinion on policies and programs, and offers future strategies. The number of entries on Indian women's employment increases every year and offers a range of specialized information. Studies focus on the characteristics of women's work, debates about what should be considered as work, trends, market activity by occupation and gender, casual rural labor, inter-regional and inter-class variations, women's poverty and low wages, consequences of using the household as a unit of analysis, women's survival strategies, and home-based employment options. There is widespread agreement that almost all poor women are engaged in some form of income earning work. Among the Indian population without assets, women have higher work participation rates. In low resource households, women's earnings satisfy survival needs. Sex disaggregated data is needed at all levels. Women manage multiple roles that tax their nutritional status, create emotional pressure, and require an energy expenditure that is underestimated. Various groups of women are being recognized, such as female heads of households, widows, destitute women, and women impoverished due to male out-migration. Women's work tends to be the most backbreaking, laborious, low skilled, and poorly paid. Women's studies in the future must examine whether economic theories remain the same when a gendered analysis is accounted for. It is posited that women's work is not marginal but central. Development has not recognized this.

Trends of overweight and obesity among white and American Indian school children in South Dakota, 1998-2010.

PubMed

Hearst, Mary O; Biskeborn, Kristin; Christensen, Mathew; Cushing, Carrie

2013-01-01

To investigate the prevalence of overweight and obesity among white and American Indian children in a predominantly rural state. Using a repeated, cross-sectional design of school children's height and weight, the study sample included 361,352 measures of children who were 5.0-19.9 years, attending school across 13 academic calendar years. Trained staff measured height, weight, and recorded gender, age, and race. Data were voluntarily reported to the State Department of Health. American Indian children consistently had higher rates of overweight and obesity compared to white children. Across the years, 16.3% of white students were overweight, whereas 19.3% of American Indian students were overweight. In addition, 14.5% of white children were obese and 25.9% of American Indian children were obese. Examining by rural versus urban schools, prevalence of overweight had been increasing among white male and female students and American Indian female students living in rural areas. Obesity is also increasing among rural white females and male and female American Indian children. The findings here suggest that although American Indian children are at higher risk, in general, compared to white children, rural populations in general are experiencing increases in childhood overweight and obesity. Targeted rural interventions beginning at an early age are necessary to improve the health of rural children, especially in American Indian communities. Copyright © 2013 The Obesity Society.

Education Financing of Rural Households in China

PubMed Central

Moll, Henk

2010-01-01

The purpose of this paper was to examine children’s education financing alternatives among households in rural China. Data on education financing was from a household survey conducted in three poverty villages in Guizhou, China. The difference in financing education by households was verified through non-parametric testing. Findings show that private savings is dominant in financing education of children in school. Formal loans are almost absent even in the highest wealth group examined. The findings implied that the extension of financial services to children’s education could motivate parents to send their children for more education, increase disposable income of rural households by reducing precautionary savings, and provide better-educated labors in rural China. PMID:20835379

Education in Rural Peru: Exploring the Role of Household Electrification in School Enrollment

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kulkarni, Veena S.; Barnes, Douglas F.

2017-01-01

This study employs Peru's National Survey of Rural Household Energy Use data to investigate the correlation between household access to electricity and enrollment of children age 6-18 after taking into account individual-child and household level characteristics. Results indicate that children residing in households with access to electricity…

Household capacities, vulnerabilities and food insecurity: shifts in food insecurity in urban and rural Ethiopia during the 2008 food crisis.

PubMed

Hadley, Craig; Linzer, Drew A; Belachew, Tefera; Mariam, Abebe Gebre; Tessema, Fasil; Lindstrom, David

2011-11-01

The global food crisis of 2008 led to renewed interest in global food insecurity and how macro-level food prices impact household and individual level wellbeing. There is debate over the extent to which food price increases in 2008 eroded food security, the extent to which this effect was distributed across rural and urban locales, and the extent to which rural farmers might have benefited. Ethiopia's food prices increased particularly dramatically between 2005 and 2008 and here we ask whether there was a concomitant increase in household food insecurity, whether this decline was distributed equally across rural, urban, and semi-urban locales, and to what extent pre-crisis household capacities and vulnerabilities impacted 2008 household food insecurity levels. Data are drawn from a random sample of 2610 households in Southwest Ethiopia surveyed 2005/6 and again in mid to late 2008. Results show broad deterioration of household food insecurity relative to baseline but declines were most pronounced in the rural areas. Wealthier households and those that were relatively more food secure in 2005/6 tended to be more food secure in 2008, net of other factors, and these effects were most pronounced in urban areas. External shocks, such as a job loss or loss of crops, experienced by households were also associated with worse food insecurity in 2008 but few other household variables were associated with 2008 food insecurity. Our results also showed that rural farmers tended to produce small amounts for sale on markets, and thus were not able to enjoy the potential benefits that come from greater crop prices. We conclude that poverty, and not urban/rural difference, is the important variable for understanding the risk of food insecurity during a food crisis and that many rural farmers are too poor to take advantage of rapid rises in food prices. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Household capacities, vulnerabilities and food insecurity: Shifts in food insecurity in urban and rural Ethiopia during the 2008 food crisis

PubMed Central

Hadley, Craig; Linzer, Drew A.; Belachew, Tefera; Mariam, Abebe Gebre; Tessema, Fasil; Lindstrom, David

2014-01-01

The global food crisis of 2008 led to renewed interest in global food insecurity and how macro-level food prices impact household and individual level wellbeing. There is debate over the extent to which food price increases in 2008 eroded food security, the extent to which this effect was distributed across rural and urban locales, and the extent to which rural farmers might have benefited. Ethiopia’s food prices increased particularly dramatically between 2005 and 2008 and here we ask whether there was a concomitant increase in household food insecurity, whether this decline was distributed equally across rural, urban, and semi-urban locales, and to what extent pre-crisis household capacities and vulnerabilities impacted 2008 household food insecurity levels. Data are drawn from a random sample of 2610 households in Southwest Ethiopia surveyed 2005/6 and again in mid to late 2008. Results show broad deterioration of household food insecurity relative to baseline but declines were most pronounced in the rural areas. Wealthier households and those that were relatively more food secure in 2005/6 tended to be more food secure in 2008, net of other factors, and these effects were most pronounced in urban areas. External shocks, such as a job loss or loss of crops, experienced by households were also associated with worse food insecurity in 2008 but few other household variables were associated with 2008 food insecurity. Our results also showed that rural farmers tended to produce small amounts for sale on markets, and thus were not able to enjoy the potential benefits that come from greater crop prices. We conclude that poverty, and not urban/rural difference, is the important variable for understanding the risk of food insecurity during a food crisis and that many rural farmers are too poor to take advantage of rapid rises in food prices. PMID:21996022

Predictors of Wellness and American Indians

PubMed Central

Hodge, Felicia S.; Nandy, Karabi

2012-01-01

Wellness is an important American Indian (AI) concept, understood as being in balance with one’s body, mind, and environment. Wellness predictors are reported in this paper within the context of health. A cross-sectional randomized household survey of 457 AI adults at 13 rural health care sites in California was conducted. Measures included wellness perceptions, barriers, health status/health conditions, spirituality, cultural connectivity, high-risk behaviors and abuse history. Statistical analysis obtained the best predictive model for wellness. Predictors of wellness were general health status perception, participation in AI cultural practices and suicide ideation. Significant differences in wellness status were observed depending on experience of adverse events in childhood and adulthood (neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse). Cultural connectivity (speaking tribal language, participating in AI practices, and feeling connected to community) was also associated with perceptions of wellness. Recommendations are for culturally-appropriate education and interventions emphasizing community and cultural connectivity for improving wellness status. PMID:21841279

Why are rural Indian women so thin? Findings from a village in Maharashtra

PubMed Central

Chorghade, GP; Barker, M; Kanade, S; Fall, CHD

2009-01-01

Objective: To identify social, behavioural and cultural factors that explain the thinness of young women relative to their men in rural Maharashtra, India. Design: Twelve focus group discussions were conducted to explore the villagers' understanding of why women in their area might be thinner than men. Setting: Pabal village and surrounding hamlets, in the Pune district of Maharashtra, India. Subjects: Samples of young mothers and fathers, grandmothers and grandfathers were selected from families in the village with children below 10 years of age. Results: Four factors were identified that the villagers felt contributed to the disparity in thinness. First, marriage isolated girls from their own families and villages, and brought the expectation of early motherhood. Young brides were often unable to relax and eat adequately. Second, marriage increased the workload of young women. They were expected to do the heaviest household chores as well as farm work in this predominantly agricultural community. Third, women had no financial autonomy or freedom of movement, and were therefore denied access to supplementary food sources available to men. Fourth, young women felt responsible for their household's health and success. They were encouraged to fast regularly to ensure this. Despite feeling responsible, young women had no control over factors that might affect the household's well being. This made them anxious and worried a great deal of the time. Conclusions: Interventions to improve the nutritional status of young women in this region need to recognise the roles and responsibilities taken up by young brides. PMID:16480528

75 FR 35962 - Special Evaluation Assistance for Rural Communities and Households Program

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-06-24

... and Households (SEARCH) Program as authorized by Section 306(a)(2) of the Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act (CONACT) (7 U.S.C. 1926(a)(2)). The amendment added the new SEARCH grant program under which... Assistance for Rural Communities and Households Program (SEARCH). This catalog is available on a subscription...

Risk factors for rural residential fires.

PubMed

Allareddy, Veerasathpurush; Peek-Asa, Corinne; Yang, Jingzhen; Zwerling, Craig

2007-01-01

Rural households report high fire-related mortality and injury rates, but few studies have examined the risk factors for fires. This study aims to identify occupant and household characteristics that are associated with residential fires in a rural cohort. Of 1,005 households contacted in a single rural county, 691 (68.8%) agreed to participate. One household with missing information on a reported fire was excluded from the analysis. We used logistic regression to examine the independent association of occupant and household characteristics with reported fires, controlling for years lived in the residence. We also examined the association between the occurrence of previous fires and the adoption of safety measures. A total of 78 (11.3%) households reported a residential fire. Occupant characteristics that were associated with significantly higher odds of reported fires included the presence of an occupant with alcohol problems (OR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.01-3.28) and being married (OR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.14-3.91). Rural farm households were associated with significantly higher odds (OR = 1.72, 95% CI = 1.01-2.93) of reporting a fire when compared to residences in towns, after controlling for all other occupant and household characteristics. The presence of a fire extinguisher (OR = 2.00, 95% CI = 1.10-3.64) was the only fire safety measure that had a statistically significant association with reported fire. Rural farm households report higher incidences of fire when compared to households located in towns. Experiencing a fire is not associated with an increased likelihood of adopting safety measures to prevent injuries once a fire has started.

Maternal mobility across the rural-urban divide: empirical data from coastal Kenya

PubMed Central

Molyneux, C S; Mung’ala-Odera, V; Harpham, T; Snow, R W

2013-01-01

This paper describes the mobility patterns, rural-urban linkages and household structures for a low-income neighbourhood on the outskirts of Mombasa, Kenya’s main port, and a rural settlement 60 kilometres away. Drawing on interviews with a sample of mothers resident in each location, it documents their perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of rural and urban life, and shows the continuous interchange between the two areas. It also highlights how most rural to urban migrants are familiar with urban environments before moving and how, having moved, many maintain strong rural ties. The ways in which households are split across rural and urban areas is influenced by intra-household relations and by household efforts to balance the income-earning opportunities in town, the relatively low cost of living in rural areas and future family security. This produces dramatic differences between and among rural and urban mothers and suggests a need for policy makers and planners to recognize diversity and to build upon complex livelihood strategies that span the rural-urban divide. PMID:23814409

Complex association between rural/urban residence, household wealth and women's overweight: evidence from 30 cross-sectional national household surveys in Africa.

PubMed

Madise, Nyovani Janet; Letamo, Gobopamang

2017-01-01

We sought to demonstrate that the relationship between urban or rural residence and overweight status among women in Sub-Saharan Africa is complex and confounded by wealth status. We applied multilevel logistic regression to data from 30 sub-Saharan African countries which were collected between 2006 and 2012 to examine the association between women's overweight status (body mass index ≥ 25) and household wealth, rural or urban place of residence, and their interaction. Macro-level statistics from United Nations agencies were used as contextual variables to assess the link between progress in globalization and patterns of overweight. Household wealth was associated with increased odds of being overweight in nearly all of the countries. Urban/rural living and household wealth had a complex association with women's overweight status, shown by 3 patterns. In one group of countries, characterised by low national wealth (median per capita gross national income (GNI) = $660 in 2012) and lower overall prevalence of female overweight (median = 24 per cent in 2010), high household wealth and urban living had independent associations with increased risks of being overweight. In the second group of less poor countries (median per capita GNI = $870) and higher national levels of female overweight (median = 29), there was a cross-over association where rural women had lower risks of overweight than urban women at lower levels of household wealth, but in wealthier households, rural women had higher risks of overweight than urban women. In the final group of countries, household wealth was an important predictor of overweight status, but the association between urban or rural place of residence and overweight status was not statistically significant. The median per capita GNI for this third group was $800 and national prevalence of female overweight was high (median = 32% in 2010). As nations develop and household wealth increases, rural African women are at increased or higher risk of being overweight compared with urban women. Programmes and policies to address rising prevalence of overweight are needed in both rural and urban areas to avoid serious epidemics of non-communicable diseases.

Biomass fuel exposure and respiratory diseases in India.

PubMed

Prasad, Rajendra; Singh, Abhijeet; Garg, Rajiv; Giridhar, Giridhar B

2012-10-01

One half of the world's population relies on biomass fuel as the primary source of domestic energy. Biomass fuel exposure causes a high degree of morbidity and mortality in humans. This is especially true in the context of developing countries, which account for 99% of the world's biomass fuel use. Biomass fuel consists of fire wood, dung cakes, agricultural crop residues such as straw, grass, and shrubs, coal fuels and kerosene. Together, they supply 75% of the domestic energy in India. An estimated three-quarters of Indian households use biomass fuel as the primary means for domestic cooking. Ninety percent of rural households and 32% of urban households cook their meals on a biomass stove. There are wide variations between the rural and urban households regarding the specific type of biomass fuel used. Globally, almost 2 million deaths per year are attributable to solid fuel use, with more than 99% of these occurring in developing countries. Biomass fuel accounts for 5-6% of the national burden of disease. Burning biomass fuels emits toxic fumes into the air that consist of small solid particles, carbon monoxide, polyorganic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and formaldehyde. Exposure to biomass fuels has been found to be associated with many respiratory diseases such as acute lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, and asthma. Biomass fuel exposure is closely related to the burden of disease in India. Hopes are that future studies will examine the morbidity associated with biomass exposure and seek to prevent it. Concerted efforts to improve stove design and transition to high-efficiency low-emission fuels may reduce respiratory disease associated with biomass fuel exposure.

A cross-sectional study of determinants of indoor environmental exposures in households with and without chronic exposure to biomass fuel smoke.

PubMed

Pollard, Suzanne L; Williams, D'Ann L; Breysse, Patrick N; Baron, Patrick A; Grajeda, Laura M; Gilman, Robert H; Miranda, J Jaime; Checkley, William

2014-03-24

Burning biomass fuels indoors for cooking is associated with high concentrations of particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO). More efficient biomass-burning stoves and chimneys for ventilation have been proposed as solutions to reduce indoor pollution. We sought to quantify indoor PM and CO exposures in urban and rural households and determine factors associated with higher exposures. A secondary objective was to identify chronic vs. acute changes in cardiopulmonary biomarkers associated with exposure to biomass smoke. We conducted a census survey followed by a cross-sectional study of indoor environmental exposures and cardiopulmonary biomarkers in the main household cook in Puno, Peru. We measured 24-hour indoor PM and CO concentrations in 86 households. We also measured PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations gravimetrically for 24 hours in urban households and during cook times in rural households, and generated a calibration equation using PM2.5 measurements. In a census of 4903 households, 93% vs. 16% of rural vs. urban households used an open-fire stove; 22% of rural households had a homemade chimney; and <3% of rural households participated in a national program encouraging installation of a chimney. Median 24-hour indoor PM2.5 and CO concentrations were 130 vs. 22 μg/m3 and 5.8 vs. 0.4 ppm (all p<0.001) in rural vs. urban households. Having a chimney did not significantly reduce median concentrations in 24-hour indoor PM2.5 (119 vs. 137 μg/m3; p=0.40) or CO (4.6 vs. 7.2 ppm; p=0.23) among rural households with and without chimneys. Having a chimney did not significantly reduce median cook-time PM2.5 (360 vs. 298 μg/m3, p=0.45) or cook-time CO concentrations (15.2 vs. 9.4 ppm, p=0.23). Having a thatched roof (p=0.007) and hours spent cooking (p=0.02) were associated with higher 24-hour average PM concentrations. Rural participants had higher median exhaled CO (10 vs. 6 ppm; p=0.01) and exhaled carboxyhemoglobin (1.6% vs. 1.0%; p=0.04) than urban participants. Indoor air concentrations associated with biomass smoke were six-fold greater in rural vs. urban households. Having a homemade chimney did not reduce environmental exposures significantly. Measures of exhaled CO provide useful cardiopulmonary biomarkers for chronic exposure to biomass smoke.

A cross-sectional study of determinants of indoor environmental exposures in households with and without chronic exposure to biomass fuel smoke

PubMed Central

2014-01-01

Background Burning biomass fuels indoors for cooking is associated with high concentrations of particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO). More efficient biomass-burning stoves and chimneys for ventilation have been proposed as solutions to reduce indoor pollution. We sought to quantify indoor PM and CO exposures in urban and rural households and determine factors associated with higher exposures. A secondary objective was to identify chronic vs. acute changes in cardiopulmonary biomarkers associated with exposure to biomass smoke. Methods We conducted a census survey followed by a cross-sectional study of indoor environmental exposures and cardiopulmonary biomarkers in the main household cook in Puno, Peru. We measured 24-hour indoor PM and CO concentrations in 86 households. We also measured PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations gravimetrically for 24 hours in urban households and during cook times in rural households, and generated a calibration equation using PM2.5 measurements. Results In a census of 4903 households, 93% vs. 16% of rural vs. urban households used an open-fire stove; 22% of rural households had a homemade chimney; and <3% of rural households participated in a national program encouraging installation of a chimney. Median 24-hour indoor PM2.5 and CO concentrations were 130 vs. 22 μg/m3 and 5.8 vs. 0.4 ppm (all p<0.001) in rural vs. urban households. Having a chimney did not significantly reduce median concentrations in 24-hour indoor PM2.5 (119 vs. 137 μg/m3; p=0.40) or CO (4.6 vs. 7.2 ppm; p=0.23) among rural households with and without chimneys. Having a chimney did not significantly reduce median cook-time PM2.5 (360 vs. 298 μg/m3, p=0.45) or cook-time CO concentrations (15.2 vs. 9.4 ppm, p=0.23). Having a thatched roof (p=0.007) and hours spent cooking (p=0.02) were associated with higher 24-hour average PM concentrations. Rural participants had higher median exhaled CO (10 vs. 6 ppm; p=0.01) and exhaled carboxyhemoglobin (1.6% vs. 1.0%; p=0.04) than urban participants. Conclusions Indoor air concentrations associated with biomass smoke were six-fold greater in rural vs. urban households. Having a homemade chimney did not reduce environmental exposures significantly. Measures of exhaled CO provide useful cardiopulmonary biomarkers for chronic exposure to biomass smoke. PMID:24655424

Rural livestock asset portfolio in northern Ethiopia: a microeconomic analysis of choice and accumulation.

PubMed

Tegebu, Fredu Nega; Mathijs, Erik; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku; Nyssen, Jan; Tollens, Eric

2012-01-01

Livestock fulfill different functions. Depending on their livelihood strategies, households differ in their choice of what type of animal to keep and on accumulation of the chosen animal overtime. Using a panel data of 385 rural households in a mixed farming system in northern Ethiopia, this paper investigates the dynamic behavior of rural households' livestock holding to identify determinants of choice and accumulation of livestock overtime. Choice is analyzed for a principal animal, the animal that constituted the largest value of livestock assets a household possessed, using a multinomial logit model. Results indicate that rural households differ in their choice of what type of animal to keep. Agro-climatic conditions, sex and age of household head, presence of an adult male member in a household, and liquidity are the major factors that influence the type of principal animal households keep. Conditional on the principal animal selected, we analyzed the factors that determine the accumulation of the chosen animals by correcting for selection bias. Area of land cultivated is the most significant factor that explains the number of animals households keep. Other factors include sex of household head, diversification into nonfarm self-employment, and shocks.

The Structure of the Household Economy in Rural North Norway.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Nicholson, Beryl

In Norway, one of the world's most developed nations, a considerable proportion of households still obtain income from more than one source. From the time rural North Norway was settled, households have combined production for sale with production for their own consumption and have exploited various resources to do so. The household's requirements…

Disparities in pulmonary function in healthy children across the Indian urban-rural continuum.

PubMed

Sonnappa, Samatha; Lum, Sooky; Kirkby, Jane; Bonner, Rachel; Wade, Angela; Subramanya, Vinita; Lakshman, Padmanabha T; Rajan, Babitha; Nooyi, Shalini C; Stocks, Janet

2015-01-01

Marked socioeconomic health-care disparities are recognized in India, but lung health inequalities between urban and rural children have not been studied. We investigated whether differences exist in spirometric pulmonary function in healthy children across the Indian urban-rural continuum and compared results with those from Indian children living in the UK. Indian children aged 5 to 12 years were recruited from Indian urban, semiurban, and rural schools, and as part of the Size and Lung Function in Children study, London. Anthropometric and spirometric assessments were undertaken. Acceptable spirometric data were obtained from 728 (58% boys) children in India and 311 (50% boys) UK-Indian children. As an entire group, the India-resident children had significantly lower z FEV1 and z FVC than UK-Indian children (P < 0.0005), when expressed using Global Lung Function Initiative-2012 equations. However, when India-resident children were categorized according to residence, there were no differences in z FEV1 and z FVC between Indian-urban and UK-Indian children. There were, however, significant reductions of ∼ 0.5 z scores and 0.9 z scores in both FEV1 and FVC (with no difference in FEV1/FVC) in Indian-semiurban and Indian-rural children, respectively, when compared with Indian-urban children (P < 0.0005). z Body mass index, socioeconomic circumstances, tobacco, and biomass exposure were individually significantly associated with z FEV1 and z FVC (P < 0.0005). The presence of an urban-rural continuum of lung function within a specific ethnic group emphasizes the impact of environmental factors on lung growth in emerging nations such as India, which must be taken into account when developing ethnic-specific reference values or designing studies to optimize lung health.

A community survey of the pattern and determinants of household sources of energy for cooking in rural and urban south western, Nigeria.

PubMed

Desalu, Olufemi Olumuyiwa; Ojo, Ololade Olusola; Ariyibi, Ebenezer Kayode; Kolawole, Tolutope Fasanmi; Ogunleye, Ayodele Idowu

2012-01-01

The use of solid fuels for cooking is associated with indoor pollution and lung diseases. The objective of the study was to determine the pattern and determinants of household sources of energy for cooking in rural and urban South Western, Nigeria. We conducted a cross sectional study of households in urban (Ado-Ekiti) and rural (Ido-Ekiti) local council areas from April to July 2010. Female respondents in the households were interviewed by trained interviewers using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 670 households participated in the study. Majority of rural dwellers used single source of energy for cooking (55.6%) and urban dwellers used multiple source of energy (57.8%). Solid fuel use (SFU) was higher in rural (29.6%) than in urban areas (21.7%). Kerosene was the most common primary source of energy for cooking in both urban and rural areas (59.0% vs.66.6%) followed by gas (17.8%) and charcoal (6.6%) in the urban areas, and firewood (21.6%) and charcoal (7.1%) in the rural areas. The use of solid fuel was strongly associated with lack of ownership of dwellings and larger household size in urban areas, and lower level of education and lower level of wealth in the rural areas. Kerosene was associated with higher level of husband education and modern housing in urban areas and younger age and indoor cooking in rural areas. Gas was associated with high income and modern housing in the urban areas and high level of wealth in rural areas. Electricity was associated with high level of education, availability of electricity and old age in urban and rural areas respectively. The use of solid fuel is high in rural areas, there is a need to reduce poverty and improve the use of cleaner source of cooking energy particularly in rural areas and improve lung health.

A community survey of the pattern and determinants of household sources of energy for cooking in rural and urban south western, Nigeria

PubMed Central

Desalu, Olufemi Olumuyiwa; Ojo, Ololade Olusola; Ariyibi, Ebenezer Kayode; Kolawole, Tolutope Fasanmi; Ogunleye, Ayodele Idowu

2012-01-01

Introduction The use of solid fuels for cooking is associated with indoor pollution and lung diseases. The objective of the study was to determine the pattern and determinants of household sources of energy for cooking in rural and urban South Western, Nigeria. Methods We conducted a cross sectional study of households in urban (Ado-Ekiti) and rural (Ido-Ekiti) local council areas from April to July 2010. Female respondents in the households were interviewed by trained interviewers using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results A total of 670 households participated in the study. Majority of rural dwellers used single source of energy for cooking (55.6%) and urban dwellers used multiple source of energy (57.8%). Solid fuel use (SFU) was higher in rural (29.6%) than in urban areas (21.7%). Kerosene was the most common primary source of energy for cooking in both urban and rural areas (59.0% vs.66.6%) followed by gas (17.8%) and charcoal (6.6%) in the urban areas, and firewood (21.6%) and charcoal (7.1%) in the rural areas. The use of solid fuel was strongly associated with lack of ownership of dwellings and larger household size in urban areas, and lower level of education and lower level of wealth in the rural areas. Kerosene was associated with higher level of husband education and modern housing in urban areas and younger age and indoor cooking in rural areas. Gas was associated with high income and modern housing in the urban areas and high level of wealth in rural areas. Electricity was associated with high level of education, availability of electricity and old age in urban and rural areas respectively. Conclusion The use of solid fuel is high in rural areas, there is a need to reduce poverty and improve the use of cleaner source of cooking energy particularly in rural areas and improve lung health. PMID:22826727

Spatio-temporal measurement of indoor particulate matter concentrations using a wireless network of low-cost sensors in households using solid fuels.

PubMed

Patel, Sameer; Li, Jiayu; Pandey, Apoorva; Pervez, Shamsh; Chakrabarty, Rajan K; Biswas, Pratim

2017-01-01

Many households use solid fuels for cooking and heating purposes. There is currently a knowledge gap in our understanding of the variations in indoor air quality throughout the household as most of the studies focus on the areas in the close proximity of the cookstove. A low-cost wireless particulate matter (PM) sensor network was developed and deployed in households in Raipur, India to establish the spatio-temporal variation of PM concentrations. The data from multiple sensors were acquired in real-time with a wireless system. Data collected from the sensors agreed well (R 2 =0.713) with the reference data collected from a commercially available instrument. Low spatial variability was observed within the kitchen due to its small size and poor ventilation - a common feature of most rural Indian kitchens. Due to insufficient ventilation from open doors and windows, high PM concentrations similar to those found in the kitchen were also found in the adjoining rooms. The same household showed significantly different post-extinguished cookstove PM concentration decay rates (0.26mg/m 3 -min and 0.87mg/m 3 -min) on different days, owing to varying natural air exchange rates (7.68m 3 /min and 37.40m 3 /min). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Domestic and Environmental Factors of Chikungunya-affected Families in Thiruvananthapuram (Rural) District of Kerala, India

PubMed Central

Anish, TS; Vijayakumar, K; Leela, Itty Amma KR

2011-01-01

Background: The world is experiencing a pandemic of chikungunya which has swept across Indian Ocean and the Indian subcontinent. Kerala the southernmost state of India was affected by the chikungunya epidemic twice, first in 2006 and then in 2007. Kerala has got geography and climate which are highly favorable for the breeding of Aedes albopictus, the suspected vector. Aim: The aim of the study was to highlight the various domestic and environmental factors of the families affected by chikungunya in 2007 in Thiruvananthapuram district (rural) of Kerala. Settings and design:This is a cross-sectional survey conducted in Thiruvananthapuram (rural) district during November 2007. Settings and design: This is a cross-sectional survey conducted in Thiruvananthapuram (rural) district during November 2007 Materials and Methods: Samples were selected from field area under three Primary Health Centers.These areas represent the three terrains of the district namely the highland, midland, and lowland. The sample size was estimated to be 134 houses from each study area.The field area of health workers was selected as clusters and six subcenters from each primary health center were randomly selected (lot method). Results and Conclusions: The proportion of population affected by chikungunya fever is 39.9% (38.9-40.9%). The investigators observed water holding containers in the peri-domestic area of 95.6% of the houses. According to regression (binary logistic) analysis, the area of residence [adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 8.01 (6.06-14.60)], residing in a non-remote area [adjusted OR=0.25 (0.16-0.38)], perceived mosquito menace [adjusted OR=3.07 (2.31-4.64)], and containers/tires outside the house [adjusted OR=5.61 (2.74-27.58)] were the independent predictors of the occurrence of chikungunya in households. PMID:21572606

Association between maternal health literacy and child vaccination in India: a cross-sectional study

PubMed Central

Johri, Mira; Subramanian, S V; Sylvestre, Marie-Pierre; Dudeja, Sakshi; Chandra, Dinesh; Koné, Georges K; Sharma, Jitendar K; Pahwa, Smriti

2015-01-01

Background Education of mothers may improve child health. We investigated whether maternal health literacy, a rapidly modifiable factor related to mother's education, was associated with children's receipt of vaccines in two underserved Indian communities. Methods Cross-sectional surveys in an urban and a rural site. We assessed health literacy using Indian child health promotion materials. The outcome was receipt of three doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP3) vaccine. We used multivariate logistic regression to investigate the relationship between maternal health literacy and vaccination status independently in each site. For both sites, adjusted models considered maternal age, maternal and paternal education, child sex, birth order, household religion and wealth quintile. Rural analyses used multilevel models adjusted for service delivery characteristics. Urban analyses represented cluster characteristics through fixed effects. Results The rural analysis included 1170 women from 60 villages. The urban analysis included 670 women from nine slum clusters. In each site, crude and adjusted models revealed a positive association between maternal health literacy and DTP3. In the rural site, the adjusted OR was 1.57 (95% CI 1.11 to 2.21, p=0.010) for those with medium health literacy, and OR=1.30 (95% CI 0.89 to 1.91, p=0.172) for those with high health literacy. In the urban site, the adjusted OR was 1.10 (95% CI 0.65 to 1.88, p=0.705) for those with medium health literacy, and OR=2.06 (95% CI 1.06 to 3.99, p=0.032) for those with high health literacy. Conclusions In these study settings, maternal health literacy is independently associated with child vaccination. Initiatives targeting health literacy could improve vaccination coverage. PMID:25827469

Biogas Stoves Reduce Firewood Use, Household Air Pollution, and Hospital Visits in Odisha, India.

PubMed

Lewis, Jessica J; Hollingsworth, John W; Chartier, Ryan T; Cooper, Ellen M; Foster, William Michael; Gomes, Genna L; Kussin, Peter S; MacInnis, John J; Padhi, Bijaya K; Panigrahi, Pinaki; Rodes, Charles E; Ryde, Ian T; Singha, Ashok K; Stapleton, Heather M; Thornburg, Jonathan; Young, Cora J; Meyer, Joel N; Pattanayak, Subhrendu K

2017-01-03

Traditional cooking using biomass is associated with ill health, local environmental degradation, and regional climate change. Clean stoves (liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, and electric) are heralded as a solution, but few studies have demonstrated their environmental health benefits in field settings. We analyzed the impact of mainly biogas (as well as electric and LPG) stove use on social, environmental, and health outcomes in two districts in Odisha, India, where the Indian government has promoted household biogas. We established a cross-sectional observational cohort of 105 households that use either traditional mud stoves or improved cookstoves (ICS). Our multidisciplinary team conducted surveys, environmental air sampling, fuel weighing, and health measurements. We examined associations between traditional or improved stove use and primary outcomes, stratifying households by proximity to major industrial plants. ICS use was associated with 91% reduced use of firewood (p < 0.01), substantial time savings for primary cooks, a 72% reduction in PM 2.5 , a 78% reduction in PAH levels, and significant reductions in water-soluble organic carbon and nitrogen (p < 0.01) in household air samples. ICS use was associated with reduced time in the hospital with acute respiratory infection and reduced diastolic blood pressure but not with other health measurements. We find many significant gains from promoting rural biogas stoves in a context in which traditional stove use persists, although pollution levels in ICS households still remained above WHO guidelines.

Approximation of personal exposure to fine particulate matters (PM2.5) during cooking using solid biomass fuels in the kitchens of rural West Bengal, India.

PubMed

Nayek, Sukanta; Padhy, Pratap Kumar

2018-06-01

More than 85% of the rural Indian households use traditional solid biofuels (SBFs) for daily cooking. Burning of the easily available unprocessed solid fuels in inefficient earthen cooking stoves produce large quantities of particulate matters. Smaller particulates, especially with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM 2.5 ), largely generated during cooking, are considered to be health damaging in nature. In the present study, kitchen level exposure of women cooks to fine particulate matters during lunch preparation was assessed considering kitchen openness as surrogate to the ventilation condition. Two-way ANCOVA analysis considering meal quantity as a covariate revealed no significant interaction between the openness and the seasons explaining the variability of the personal exposure to the fine particulate matters in rural kitchen during cooking. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed the openness as the only significant predictor for personal exposure to the fine particulate matters. In the present study, the annual average fine particulate matter exposure concentration was found to be 974 μg m -3 .

Revealing the unequal household health footprints in China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Zhao, H.; Li, X.; Zhang, Q.

2017-12-01

Household consumption scale and patterns varies among rural and urban, rich and poor households across regions and nations, these bring uneven direct and indirect production related pollutant emissions and related health footprint. Here, by integrating four stat-of-the-art social-economical and physical models, we quantify PM2.5 related health burden from consumption of 12 income groups for rural and urban households in seven regions of China. We show that, despite earn and spend far less than urban residents, rural households show similar health footprints (3.4×10-4 deaths per capita) with that of urban (3.2×10-4 deaths per capita), primarily because 50% of its consumption related deaths were contributed by the less controlled direct biofuel consumption emissions. Income or expenditure is a main contributor of household health footprints, national averagely, the highest income brackets in rural and urban is 1.8 and 3.4 times of their lowest income groups, respectively. From regions perspective, the household in east coast regions show higher footprint than that of central and western regions, and part of their footprint were occurred in central and west regions through trade or atmospheric transportation. Our results indicate that urbanization will not solve the pollution effects, and efforts to reduce the household health impact should focus on the mitigation of the biofuel consumption emissions in rural area and encourage sustainable consumption in urban area.

An Empirical Analysis of Rural-Urban Differences in Out-Of-Pocket Health Expenditures in a Low-Income Society of China.

PubMed

Wang, Lidan; Wang, Anjue; Zhou, Detong; FitzGerald, Gerry; Ye, Dongqing; Jiang, Qicheng

2016-01-01

The paper examines whether out-of-pocket health care expenditure also has regional discrepancies, comparing to the equity between urban and rural areas, and across households. Sampled data were derived from Urban Household Survey and Rural Household Survey data for 2011/2012 for Anhui Province, and 11049 households were included in this study. The study compared differences in out-of-pocket expenditure on health care between regions (urban vs. rural areas) and years (2011 vs. 2012) using two-sample t-test, and also investigated the degree of inequality using Lorenz and concentration curves. Approximately 5% and 8% of total household consumption expenditure was spent on health care for urban and rural populations, respectively. In 2012, the wealthiest 20% of urban and rural population contributed 49.7% and 55.8% of urban and rural total health expenditure respectively, while the poorest 20% took only 4.7% and 4.4%. The concentration curve for out-of-pocket expenditure in 2012 fell below the corresponding concentration curve for 2011 for both urban and rural areas, and the difference between curves for rural areas was greater than that for urban areas. A substantial and increasing gap in health care expenditures existed between urban and rural areas in Anhui. The health care financing inequality merits ample attention, with need for policymaking to focus on improving the accessibility to essential health care services, particularly for rural and poor residents. This study may provide useful information on low income areas of China.

An Empirical Analysis of Rural-Urban Differences in Out-Of-Pocket Health Expenditures in a Low-Income Society of China

PubMed Central

Wang, Lidan; Wang, Anjue; Zhou, Detong; FitzGerald, Gerry; Ye, Dongqing; Jiang, Qicheng

2016-01-01

Objective The paper examines whether out-of-pocket health care expenditure also has regional discrepancies, comparing to the equity between urban and rural areas, and across households. Method Sampled data were derived from Urban Household Survey and Rural Household Survey data for 2011/2012 for Anhui Province, and 11049 households were included in this study. The study compared differences in out-of-pocket expenditure on health care between regions (urban vs. rural areas) and years (2011 vs. 2012) using two-sample t-test, and also investigated the degree of inequality using Lorenz and concentration curves. Result Approximately 5% and 8% of total household consumption expenditure was spent on health care for urban and rural populations, respectively. In 2012, the wealthiest 20% of urban and rural population contributed 49.7% and 55.8% of urban and rural total health expenditure respectively, while the poorest 20% took only 4.7% and 4.4%. The concentration curve for out-of-pocket expenditure in 2012 fell below the corresponding concentration curve for 2011 for both urban and rural areas, and the difference between curves for rural areas was greater than that for urban areas. Conclusion A substantial and increasing gap in health care expenditures existed between urban and rural areas in Anhui. The health care financing inequality merits ample attention, with need for policymaking to focus on improving the accessibility to essential health care services, particularly for rural and poor residents. This study may provide useful information on low income areas of China. PMID:27223811

Household food security is associated with growth of infants and young children in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Saha, Kuntal K; Frongillo, Edward A; Alam, Dewan S; Arifeen, Shams E; Persson, Lars A; Rasmussen, Kathleen M

2009-09-01

Despite a strong relationship between household food security and the health and nutritional status of adults and older children, the association of household food security with the growth of infants and young children has not been adequately studied, particularly in developing countries. We examined the association between household food security and subsequent growth of infants and young children in rural Bangladesh. We followed 1343 children from birth to 24 months of age who were born in the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Intervention in Matlab (MINIMat) study in rural Bangladesh. A food security scale was created from data collected on household food security from the mothers during pregnancy. Data on weight and length were collected monthly in the first year and quarterly in the second year of life. Anthropometric indices were calculated relative to the 2006 WHO child growth standards. Growth trajectories were modelled using multilevel models for change controlling for possible confounders. Household food security was associated (P < 0.05) with greater subsequent weight and length gain in this cohort. Attained weight, length and anthropometric indices from birth to 24 months were higher (P < 0.001) among those who were in food-secure households. Proportions of underweight and stunting were significantly (P < 0.05) lower in food-secure households. These results suggest that household food security is a determinant of child growth in rural Bangladesh, and that it may be necessary to ensure food security of these poor rural households to prevent highly prevalent undernutrition in this population and in similar settings elsewhere in the world.

Rural population survey of behavioral and demographic risk factors for loaded firearms

PubMed Central

Nordstrom, D; Zwerling, C; Stromquist, A; Burmeister, L; Merchant, J

2001-01-01

Objectives—In the United States, firearm deaths are almost as frequent as motor vehicle deaths. Firearm unintentional and suicide death rates are raised in rural areas. This study examines firearm prevalence and storage practices in three different types of rural households. Methods—Adults from a stratified random sample of 983 households in a rural Iowa county were interviewed. The χ2 test of independence was used to assess association between loaded, unlocked firearms and seven behavioral and demographic risk factors. Results—Nearly 67% of respondents reported firearms in their households. Nearly 7% of households had a loaded, unlocked gun. Prevalence of firearms at home was higher while prevalence of loaded, unlocked guns was lower than reported in other surveys. Prevalence of loaded, unlocked guns in farm households, 10.5%, was about twice the level in town households, 5.5% (χ2 test, p=0.033). Having taken a gun safety course was associated with more than double the prevalence of a loaded, unlocked gun, 13.5% v 5.1% (χ2 test, p=0.001). The prevalence of loaded, unlocked guns in households with a handgun, 19.3%, was four and one half times higher than in households with a long gun only, 4.2% (χ2 test, p=0.001). Households with someone with a lifetime prevalence of alcohol abuse or dependence were about twice as likely as other households, 13.0% v 6.6% (χ2 test, p=0.004), to report having loaded, unlocked firearms. Conclusions—Anyone interested in promoting safe storage of firearms in rural homes should consider these observations. PMID:11428557

An index of inequality in China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Guan, Dabo

2017-10-01

Household income is a typical measure of inequality, but it is limited by under-reporting, especially for rural Chinese households. A new study shows that energy consumption measures service flows of household durable electronics, which can provide more precise measurement of rural wealth inequalities and distributions.

Household Perspectives on School Attendance in Rural Tibet

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Postiglione, Gerard; Jiao, Ben; Gyatso, Sonam

2006-01-01

This study explores household perspectives on school access at the village level in rural Tibet. Data from two rural areas are compared. This paper argues that despite abolition of all school fees, the use of Tibetan as a medium of instruction, the provision of boarding schools, and other incentives, dropout rates in rural areas remain high. This…

Childhood mortality and its association with household wealth in rural and semi-urban Burkina Faso.

PubMed

Schoeps, Anja; Souares, Aurélia; Niamba, Louis; Diboulo, Eric; Kynast-Wolf, Gisela; Müller, Olaf; Sié, Ali; Becher, Heiko

2014-10-01

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between household wealth and under-5 year mortality in rural and semi-urban Burkina Faso. The study included 15 543 children born between 2005 and 2010 in the Nouna Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Information on household wealth was collected in 2009. Two separate wealth indicators were calculated by principal components analysis for the rural and the semi-urban households, which were then divided into quintiles accordingly. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression was used to study the effect of the respective wealth measure on under-5 mortality. We observed 1201 childhood deaths, corresponding to 5-year survival probability of 93.6% and 88% in the semi-urban and rural area, respectively. In the semi-urban area, household wealth was significantly related to under-5 mortality after adjustment for confounding. There was a similar but non-significant effect of household wealth on infant mortality, too. There was no effect of household wealth on under-5 mortality in rural children. Results from this study indicate that the more privileged children from the semi-urban area with access to piped water and electricity have an advantage in under-5 survival, while under-5 mortality in the rural area is rather homogeneous and still relatively high. © The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.

The effect of a soap promotion and hygiene education campaign on handwashing behaviour in rural India: a cluster randomised trial.

PubMed

Biran, Adam; Schmidt, Wolf-Peter; Wright, Richard; Jones, Therese; Seshadri, M; Isaac, Pradeep; Nathan, N A; Hall, Peter; McKenna, Joeleen; Granger, Stewart; Bidinger, Pat; Curtis, Val

2009-10-01

To investigate the effectiveness of a hygiene promotion intervention based on germ awareness in increasing handwashing with soap on key occasions (after faecal contact and before eating) in rural Indian households. Cluster randomised trial of a hygiene promotion intervention in five intervention and five control villages. Handwashing was assessed through structured observation in a random sample of 30 households per village. Additionally, soap use was monitored in a sub-sample of 10 households per village using electronic motion detectors embedded in soap bars. The intervention reached 40% of the target population. Germ awareness increased as well as reported handwashing (a possible indicator of perceived social norms). Observed handwashing with soap on key occasions was rare (6%), especially after faecal contact (2%). Observed handwashing with soap on key occasions did not change 4 weeks after the intervention in either the intervention arm (-1%, 95% CI -2%/+0.3%), or the control arm (+0.4%, 95% CI -1%/+2%). Data from motion detectors indicated a significant but small increase in overall soap use in the intervention arm. We cannot confidently identify the nature of this increase except to say that there was no change in a key measure of handwashing after defecation. The intervention proved scalable and effective in raising hygiene awareness. There was some evidence of an impact on soap use but not on the primary outcome of handwashing at key times. However, the results do not exclude that changes in knowledge and social norms may lay the foundations for behaviour change in the longer term.

Geographical Mobility, Income, Life Satisfaction and Family Size Preferences: An Empirical Study on Rural Households in Shaanxi and Henan Provinces in China.

PubMed

Chen, Jiangsheng; Yang, Hong

Employing data from the China rural-urban mobility survey conducted in 2010, this study investigates the influence of family demographic characteristics on the income, life satisfaction, and potential for rural-urban mobility at the rural household level of two provinces of China: Shaanxi and Henan. A larger labor force in a rural household was found to reduce a family's ability or inclination to move to a city. The findings reveal that family size negatively affects the average income per family member and reduces the marginal income of the labor force and that minor children can improve the life satisfaction of family members. We conclude that a larger family size does not translate to more benefits for a rural household. Family size preference is found to be a reflection of parents' concerns about elderly care and is deemed to be unfavorable for urbanization in P. R. China.

Can India’s primary care facilities deliver? A cross-sectional assessment of the Indian public health system’s capacity for basic delivery and newborn services

PubMed Central

Leslie, Hannah H; Regan, Mathilda; Nambiar, Devaki; Kruk, Margaret E

2018-01-01

Objectives To assess input and process capacity for basic delivery and newborn (intrapartum care hereafter) care in the Indian public health system and to describe differences in facility capacity between rural and urban areas and across states. Design Cross-sectional study. Setting Data from the nationally representative 2012–2014 District Level Household and Facility Survey, which includes a census of community health centres (CHC) and sample of primary health centres (PHC) across 30 states and union territories in India. Participants 8536 PHCs and 4810 CHCs. Outcome measures We developed a summative index of 33 structural and process capacity items matching the Indian Public Health Standards for PHCs as a metric of minimum facility capacity for intrapartum care. We assessed differences in performance on this index across facility type and location. Results About 30% of PHCs and 5% of CHCs reported not offering any intrapartum care. Among those offering services, volumes were low: median monthly delivery volume was 8 (IQR=13) in PHCs and 41 (IQR=73) in CHCs. Both PHCs and CHCs failed to meet the national standards for basic intrapartum care capacity. Mean facility capacity was low in PHCs in both urban (0.64) and rural (0.63) areas, while in CHCs, capacity was slightly higher in urban areas (0.77vs0.74). Gaps were most striking in availability of skilled human resources and emergency obstetric services. Poor capacity facilities were more concentrated in the more impoverished states, with 37% of districts from these states receiving scores in the lowest third of the facility capacity index (<0.70), compared with 21% of districts otherwise. Conclusions Basic intrapartum care capacity in Indian public primary care facilities is weak in both rural and urban areas, especially lacking in the poorest states with worst health outcomes. Improving maternal and newborn health outcomes will require focused attention to quality measurement, accountability mechanisms and quality improvement. Policies to address deficits in skilled providers and emergency service availability are urgently required. PMID:29866726

Can India's primary care facilities deliver? A cross-sectional assessment of the Indian public health system's capacity for basic delivery and newborn services.

PubMed

Sharma, Jigyasa; Leslie, Hannah H; Regan, Mathilda; Nambiar, Devaki; Kruk, Margaret E

2018-06-04

To assess input and process capacity for basic delivery and newborn (intrapartum care hereafter) care in the Indian public health system and to describe differences in facility capacity between rural and urban areas and across states. Cross-sectional study. Data from the nationally representative 2012-2014 District Level Household and Facility Survey, which includes a census of community health centres (CHC) and sample of primary health centres (PHC) across 30 states and union territories in India. 8536 PHCs and 4810 CHCs. We developed a summative index of 33 structural and process capacity items matching the Indian Public Health Standards for PHCs as a metric of minimum facility capacity for intrapartum care. We assessed differences in performance on this index across facility type and location. About 30% of PHCs and 5% of CHCs reported not offering any intrapartum care. Among those offering services, volumes were low: median monthly delivery volume was 8 (IQR=13) in PHCs and 41 (IQR=73) in CHCs. Both PHCs and CHCs failed to meet the national standards for basic intrapartum care capacity. Mean facility capacity was low in PHCs in both urban (0.64) and rural (0.63) areas, while in CHCs, capacity was slightly higher in urban areas (0.77vs0.74). Gaps were most striking in availability of skilled human resources and emergency obstetric services. Poor capacity facilities were more concentrated in the more impoverished states, with 37% of districts from these states receiving scores in the lowest third of the facility capacity index (<0.70), compared with 21% of districts otherwise. Basic intrapartum care capacity in Indian public primary care facilities is weak in both rural and urban areas, especially lacking in the poorest states with worst health outcomes. Improving maternal and newborn health outcomes will require focused attention to quality measurement, accountability mechanisms and quality improvement. Policies to address deficits in skilled providers and emergency service availability are urgently required. © Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.

Who perceives what? A demographic analysis of subjective perception in rural Thailand

PubMed Central

Meijer-Irons, Jacqueline

2016-01-01

Rural households that rely on natural resources for their livelihoods are expected to face increased vulnerability due to climate variability. A number of empirical papers have assessed the impact of environmental shocks on these households, including demographic research that has investigated the impact of shocks on migration. To date, few studies have explicitly modeled how individual and household characteristics influence a household respondent’s subjective perceptions of environmental or other shocks. My paper uses a unique panel dataset from rural Thailand to predict a respondent’s probability of attributing a reduction in income to an environmental shock based on household composition and income, as well as on community-level effects. Preliminary results suggest that household composition influences respondents’ perceptions of environmental risk, and that policies aimed at vulnerable communities should consider the life courses of the households within a given community. PMID:28058054

Substandard Housing.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Milkove, Daniel L., Comp.

1986-01-01

Defines substandard housing and summarizes newly derived data from the 1980 Census showing that 7.5% of all rural occupied housing in the Nation was substandard. Points out regional and rural-urban differences. Notes effects on rural housing of poverty rates, percentage of nonwhite households, average household size, growth in county population,…

Resource allocation decisions in low-income rural households.

PubMed

Franklin, D L; Harrell, M W

1985-05-01

This paper is based on the theory that a society's nutritional well-being is both a cause and a consequence of the developmental process within that society. An approach to the choices made by poor rural households regarding food acquisition and nurturing behavior is emerging from recent research based on the new economic theory of household production. The central thesis of this approach is that household decisions related to the fulfillment of basic needs are strongly determined by decisions on the allocation of time to household production activities. Summarized are the results of the estimation of a model of household production and consumption behavior with data from a cross-sectional survey of 30 rural communities in Veraguas Province, Panama. The struture of the model consists of allocation of resources to nurturing activities and to production activities. The resources to be allocated are time and market goods, and in theory, these are allocated according to relative prices. The empirical results of this study are generally consistent with the predictions of the neoclassical economic model of household resource allocation. The major conclusions that time allocations and market price conditions matter in the determination of well-being in low-income rural households and, importantly, that nurturing decisions significantly affect the product and factor market behavior of these households form the basis for a discussion on implucations for agricultural and rural development. Programs and policies that seek nutritional improvement should be determined with explicit recognition of the value of time and the importance of timing in the decisions of the poor.

Food insecurity and household eating patterns among vulnerable American-Indian families: associations with caregiver and food consumption characteristics.

PubMed

Mullany, Britta; Neault, Nicole; Tsingine, Danielle; Powers, Julia; Lovato, Ventura; Clitso, Lena; Massey, Sheree; Talgo, Adrienne; Speakman, Kristen; Barlow, Allison

2013-04-01

To identify factors associated with food insecurity and household eating patterns among American-Indian families with young children. Cross-sectional survey among households with young children that were receiving emergency food services. We collected information on food insecurity levels, household eating patterns, experiences with commercial and community food sources and demographics, and used multivariate regression techniques to examine associations among these variables. Four Southwestern American-Indian reservation communities. A total of 425 parents/caregivers of young children completed the survey. Twenty-nine per cent of children and 45 % of adults from households participating in the survey were classified as 'food insecure'. Larger household size was associated with increased food insecurity and worse eating patterns. Older respondents were more likely than younger respondents to have children with food insecurity (relative risk = 2·19, P < 0·001) and less likely to have healthy foods available at home (relative risk = 0·45, P < 0·01). Consumption of food from food banks, gas station/convenience stores or fast-food restaurants was not associated with food insecurity levels. Respondents with transportation barriers were 1·46 times more likely to be adult food insecure than respondents without transportation barriers (P < 0·001). High food costs were significantly associated with greater likelihoods of adult (relative risk = 1·47, P < 0·001) and child (relative risk = 1·65, P < 0·001) food insecurity. Interventions for American-Indian communities must address challenges such as expense and limited transportation to accessing healthy food. Results indicate a need for services targeted to older caregivers and larger households. Implications for innovative approaches to promoting nutrition among American-Indian communities, including mobile groceries and community gardening programmes, are discussed.

The dynamics of household dissolution and change in socio-economic position: A survival model in a rural South Africa

PubMed Central

Sartorius, Kurt; Sartorius, Benn KD; Collinson, Mark A; Tollman, Stephen M

2014-01-01

This paper investigates household dissolution and changes in asset wealth (socio-economic position) in a rural South African community containing settled refugees. Survival analysis applied to a longitudinal dataset indicated that the covariates increasing the risk of forced household dissolution were a reduction in socio-economic position (asset wealth), adult deaths and the permanent outmigration of more than 40% of the household. Conversely, the risk of dissolution was reduced by bigger households, state grants and older household heads. Significant spatial clusters of former refugee villages also showed a higher risk of dissolution after 20 years of permanent residence. A discussion of the dynamics of dissolution showed how an outflow/inflow of household assets (socio-economic position) was precipitated by each of the selected covariates. The paper shows how an understanding of the dynamics of forced household dissolution, combined with the use of geo-spatial mapping, can inform inter-disciplinary policy in a rural community. PMID:25937697

The dynamics of household dissolution and change in socio-economic position: A survival model in a rural South Africa.

PubMed

Sartorius, Kurt; Sartorius, Benn Kd; Collinson, Mark A; Tollman, Stephen M

2014-11-02

This paper investigates household dissolution and changes in asset wealth (socio-economic position) in a rural South African community containing settled refugees. Survival analysis applied to a longitudinal dataset indicated that the covariates increasing the risk of forced household dissolution were a reduction in socio-economic position (asset wealth), adult deaths and the permanent outmigration of more than 40% of the household. Conversely, the risk of dissolution was reduced by bigger households, state grants and older household heads. Significant spatial clusters of former refugee villages also showed a higher risk of dissolution after 20 years of permanent residence. A discussion of the dynamics of dissolution showed how an outflow/inflow of household assets (socio-economic position) was precipitated by each of the selected covariates. The paper shows how an understanding of the dynamics of forced household dissolution, combined with the use of geo-spatial mapping, can inform inter-disciplinary policy in a rural community.

Preference for Boys, Family Size, and Educational Attainment in India.

PubMed

Kugler, Adriana D; Kumar, Santosh

2017-06-01

Using data from nationally representative household surveys, we test whether Indian parents make trade-offs between the number of children and investments in education. To address the endogeneity due to the joint determination of quantity and quality of children, we instrument family size with the gender of the first child, which is plausibly random. Given a strong son preference in India, parents tend to have more children if the firstborn is a girl. Our instrumental variable results show that children from larger families have lower educational attainment and are less likely to be enrolled in school, with larger effects for rural, poorer, and low-caste families as well as for families with illiterate mothers.

SELCO: A model for solar rural electrification in India

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Hande, H. Harish

1999-11-01

The following thesis presents the concept of a Rural Energy Service Company in India, known as SELCO. The model is being set up as a sustainable proposition for the implementation of solar photovoltaics as a viable alternative to provide reliable home lighting in the rural areas of India. The SELCO approach has already achieved noteworthy social and commercial results. Institutional, policy and operational problems have long plagued the rural electrification programs in India, resulting in thousands of villages without access to electricity. SELCO is a solar energy service company operating in Southern India since 1995, focusing on the enormous untapped market for home lighting where thousands of households have no access to electricity and severe power shortages face those already connected to the electric grid. The Company has installed nearly 2,000 solar home lighting systems. From a modest two employees company in 1995, it has grown to 35 in 1997 and from one office to eight. The hypothesis to be tested in this study is that in rural India, in a market not subsidized by the government, a solar service company with available loans from local banks and cooperatives and with sales, installation, and maintenance personnel in the villages can be successful in introducing photovoltaic systems to provide basic amenities such as lighting and water pumping for the improvement of the quality of life, public health, and the environment. The initial success of SELCO lends considerable evidence to the acceptance of the hypothesis. To accomplish its mission, SELCO works with commercial, retail, and rural development banks with large rural branch networks to stimulate loans to SELCO's customers based on a standard set of attractive financing terms. SELCO through its successful model has convinced the policy makers that a way to increase rural families' access to consumer financing for solar home lighting systems is through the existing financial network available in the country. Private investments, loans, and conditional grants totaling approximately US$ 650,000 have provided the working capital to date. A successful SELCO project would serve as a model for the world. The project would serve as a model not only for the Indian Government, the State Electricity Boards, and other Indian companies, but for the bulk of the world's utilities that are finding it difficult to electrify the vast majority of their rural service territories.

Rural-to-urban migration and its implication for new cooperative medical scheme coverage and utilization in China.

PubMed

Qiu, Peiyuan; Yang, Yang; Zhang, Juying; Ma, Xiao

2011-06-30

China has been experiencing the largest rural to urban migration in history. Rural-to-urban migrants are those who leave their hometown for another place in order to work or live without changing their hukou status, which is a household registration system in China, categorizing people as either rural residents or urban residents. Rural-to-urban migrants typically find better job opportunities in destination cities, and these pay higher salaries than available in their home regions. This has served to improve the enrollment rates in the New Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS) of rural families, protecting households from falling into poverty due to diseases. However, current regulations stipulate that people who are registered in China's rural hukou can only participate in their local NCMS, which in turn poses barriers when migrants seek medical services in the health facilities of their destination cities. To examine this issue in greater depth, this study examined the associations between migration, economic status of rural households, and NCMS enrollment rate, as well as NCMS utilization of rural-to-urban migrants. A multistage cluster sampling procedure was adopted. Our sample included 9,097 households and 36,720 individuals. Chi-square test and T-test were used to examine differences between the two populations of migrants and non-migrants based on age, gender, marriage status, and highest level of education. Ordinal logistic regression was used to examine the association between migration and household economic status. Binary logistic regression was used to examine the associations between household economic status, migration and enrollment in the NCMS. Migration was positively associated with improved household economic status. In households with no migrants, only 11.3% of the population was in the richest quintile, whereas the percentage was more than doubled in households with family members who migrated in 2006. Among those using in-patient medical services, 54.3% of migrants in comparison with 17.5% of non-migrants used out-of-county hospitals, many of which were not designated hospitals (Designated hospitals refer to hospitals where, if people use in patient health care, could receive reimbursement from the NCMS.); and 55.2% of migrants in comparison with 24.6% of non-migrants, who had the NCMS in 2006, received no reimbursement from the NCMS. The three main reasons of not receiving reimbursement were: staying in a hospital not designated by the NCMS, lack of knowledge of NCMS policies, and encountering difficulties obtaining reimbursement. Migrants to urban centers improve the economic status of their rural household economic of origin. However, obtaining reimbursement under the current NCMS for the cost of hospital services provided by undesignated providers in urban centers is limited. Addressing this challenge is an emerging policy priority.

Rural-to-urban migration and its implication for new cooperative medical scheme coverage and utilization in China

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Background China has been experiencing the largest rural to urban migration in history. Rural-to-urban migrants are those who leave their hometown for another place in order to work or live without changing their hukou status, which is a household registration system in China, categorizing people as either rural residents or urban residents. Rural-to-urban migrants typically find better job opportunities in destination cities, and these pay higher salaries than available in their home regions. This has served to improve the enrollment rates in the New Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS) of rural families, protecting households from falling into poverty due to diseases. However, current regulations stipulate that people who are registered in China's rural hukou can only participate in their local NCMS, which in turn poses barriers when migrants seek medical services in the health facilities of their destination cities. To examine this issue in greater depth, this study examined the associations between migration, economic status of rural households, and NCMS enrollment rate, as well as NCMS utilization of rural-to-urban migrants. Methods A multistage cluster sampling procedure was adopted. Our sample included 9,097 households and 36,720 individuals. Chi-square test and T-test were used to examine differences between the two populations of migrants and non-migrants based on age, gender, marriage status, and highest level of education. Ordinal logistic regression was used to examine the association between migration and household economic status. Binary logistic regression was used to examine the associations between household economic status, migration and enrollment in the NCMS. Results Migration was positively associated with improved household economic status. In households with no migrants, only 11.3% of the population was in the richest quintile, whereas the percentage was more than doubled in households with family members who migrated in 2006. Among those using in-patient medical services, 54.3% of migrants in comparison with 17.5% of non-migrants used out-of-county hospitals, many of which were not designated hospitals (Designated hospitals refer to hospitals where, if people use in patient health care, could receive reimbursement from the NCMS.); and 55.2% of migrants in comparison with 24.6% of non-migrants, who had the NCMS in 2006, received no reimbursement from the NCMS. The three main reasons of not receiving reimbursement were: staying in a hospital not designated by the NCMS, lack of knowledge of NCMS policies, and encountering difficulties obtaining reimbursement. Conclusion Migrants to urban centers improve the economic status of their rural household economic of origin. However, obtaining reimbursement under the current NCMS for the cost of hospital services provided by undesignated providers in urban centers is limited. Addressing this challenge is an emerging policy priority. PMID:21718506

The spatial distribution of pet dogs and pet cats on the island of Ireland

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Background There is considerable international research regarding the link between human demographics and pet ownership. In several international studies, pet ownership was associated with household demographics including: the presence of children in the household, urban/rural location, level of education and age/family structure. What is lacking across all these studies, however, is an understanding of how these pets are spatially distributed throughout the regions under study. This paper describes the spatial distribution of pet dog and pet cat owning households on the island of Ireland. Results In 2006, there were an estimated 640,620 pet dog owning households and 215,542 pet cat owning households in Ireland. These estimates are derived from logistic regression modelling, based on household composition to determine pet dog ownership and the type of house to determine pet cat ownership. Results are presented using chloropleth maps. There is a higher density of pet dog owning households in the east of Ireland and in the cities than the west of Ireland and rural areas. However, in urban districts there are a lower proportion of households owning pet dogs than in rural districts. There are more households with cats in the urban areas, but the proportion of households with cats is greater in rural areas. Conclusions The difference in spatial distribution of dog ownership is a reflection of a generally higher density of households in the east of Ireland and in major cities. The higher proportion of ownership in the west is understandable given the higher proportion of farmers and rural dwellings in this area. Spatial representation allows us to visualise the impact of human household distribution on the density of both pet dogs and pet cats on the island of Ireland. This information can be used when analysing risk of disease spread, for market research and for instigating veterinary care. PMID:21663606

The spatial distribution of pet dogs and pet cats on the island of Ireland.

PubMed

Downes, Martin J; Clegg, Tracy A; Collins, Daniel M; McGrath, Guy; More, Simon J

2011-06-10

There is considerable international research regarding the link between human demographics and pet ownership. In several international studies, pet ownership was associated with household demographics including: the presence of children in the household, urban/rural location, level of education and age/family structure. What is lacking across all these studies, however, is an understanding of how these pets are spatially distributed throughout the regions under study. This paper describes the spatial distribution of pet dog and pet cat owning households on the island of Ireland. In 2006, there were an estimated 640,620 pet dog owning households and 215,542 pet cat owning households in Ireland. These estimates are derived from logistic regression modelling, based on household composition to determine pet dog ownership and the type of house to determine pet cat ownership. Results are presented using chloropleth maps. There is a higher density of pet dog owning households in the east of Ireland and in the cities than the west of Ireland and rural areas. However, in urban districts there are a lower proportion of households owning pet dogs than in rural districts. There are more households with cats in the urban areas, but the proportion of households with cats is greater in rural areas. The difference in spatial distribution of dog ownership is a reflection of a generally higher density of households in the east of Ireland and in major cities. The higher proportion of ownership in the west is understandable given the higher proportion of farmers and rural dwellings in this area. Spatial representation allows us to visualise the impact of human household distribution on the density of both pet dogs and pet cats on the island of Ireland. This information can be used when analysing risk of disease spread, for market research and for instigating veterinary care.

Predictors of maternal and child double burden of malnutrition in rural Indonesia and Bangladesh.

PubMed

Oddo, Vanessa M; Rah, Jee H; Semba, Richard D; Sun, Kai; Akhter, Nasima; Sari, Mayang; de Pee, Saskia; Moench-Pfanner, Regina; Bloem, Martin; Kraemer, Klaus

2012-04-01

Many developing countries now face the double burden of malnutrition, defined as the coexistence of a stunted child and overweight mother within the same household. This study sought to estimate the prevalence of the double burden of malnutrition and to identify associated maternal, child, and household characteristics in rural Indonesia and Bangladesh. A total of 247,126 rural households that participated in the Indonesia Nutrition Surveillance System (2000-2003) and 168,317 rural households in the Bangladesh Nutritional Surveillance Project (2003-2006) were included in the analysis. Maternal and child double burden (MCDB) and its association with individual and household characteristics were determined by using logistic regression models. MCDB was observed in 11% and 4% of the households in rural Indonesia and Bangladesh, respectively. Maternal short stature [Indonesia (OR: 2.32; 95% CI: 2.25, 2.40); Bangladesh (OR: 2.11; 95% CI: 1.96, 2.26)], and older age were strong predictors of MCDB. Child characteristics such as older age and being female were associated with an increased odds of MCDB, whereas currently being breastfed was protective against MCDB [Indonesia (OR: 0.84; 95% CI: 0.81, 0.84); Bangladesh (OR: 0.55; 95% CI: 0.52, 0.58)]. A large family size and higher weekly per capita household expenditure predicted MCDB [Indonesia (OR: 1.34; 95% CI: 1.28, 1.40); Bangladesh (OR: 1.94; 95% CI: 1.77, 2.12)]. Double burden is not exclusive to urban areas. Future policies and interventions should address under- and overweight simultaneously in both rural and urban developing country settings.

Social vulnerability of rural households to flood hazards in western mountainous regions of Henan province, China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Liu, D. L.; Li, Y.

2015-11-01

Evaluating social vulnerability is a crucial issue in risk and disaster management. In this study, a household social vulnerability index (HSVI) to flood hazards was developed and used to assess the social vulnerability of rural households in western mountainous regions of Henan province, China. Eight key indicators were indentified through interactive discussions with multidisciplinary specialists and local farmers, and their weights were determined using principle component analysis (PCA). The results showed that (1) the ratio of perennial working in other places, hazard-related training and illiteracy ratio (15+) were the most dominant factors to social vulnerability. (2) The numbers of high, moderate and low vulnerable households were 14, 64 and 16, respectively, which accounted for 14.9, 68.1, and 17.0 % of the total interviewed rural households, respectively. (3) The correlation coefficient between household social vulnerability scores and casualties in a storm flood in July 2010 was significant at 0.05 significance level (r = 0.248), which indicated that the selected indicators and their weights were valid. (4) Some mitigation strategies to reduce the household social vulnerability to flood hazards were proposed based on the assessment results. The results provide useful information for rural households and local governments to prepare, mitigate and response to flood hazards.

Husband and Wife Perspectives on Farm Household Decision-making Authority and Evidence on Intra-household Accord in Rural Tanzania.

PubMed

Anderson, C Leigh; Reynolds, Travis W; Gugerty, Mary Kay

2017-02-01

We use OLS and logistic regression to investigate variation in husband and wife perspectives on the division of authority over agriculture-related decisions within households in rural Tanzania. Using original data from husbands and wives (interviewed separately) in 1,851 Tanzanian households, the analysis examines differences in the wife's authority over 13 household and farming decisions. The study finds that the level of decision-making authority allocated to wives by their husbands, and the authority allocated by wives to themselves, both vary significantly across households. In addition to commonly considered assets such as women's age and education, in rural agricultural households women's health and labor activities also appear to matter for perceptions of authority. We also find husbands and wives interviewed separately frequently disagree with each other over who holds authority over key farming, family, and livelihood decisions. Further, the results of OLS and logistic regression suggest that even after controlling for various individual, household, and regional characteristics, husband and wife claims to decision-making authority continue to vary systematically by decision-suggesting that decision characteristics themselves also matter. The absence of spousal agreement over the allocation of authority (i.e., a lack of "intra-household accord") over different farm and household decisions is problematic for interventions seeking to use survey data to develop and inform strategies for reducing gender inequalities or empowering women in rural agricultural households. Findings provide policy and program insights into when studies interviewing only a single spouse or considering only a single decision may inaccurately characterize intra-household decision-making dynamics.

Rural-Urban Differences in Trends in the Wealth Index in Kenya: 1993–2009

PubMed Central

Egede, Leonard E.; Voronca, Delia; Walker, Rebekah J.; Thomas, Craig

2017-01-01

Background The aim of this study was to construct a wealth index that could be compared over time in order to understand the trends in wealth in Kenya, and determine predictors of change in wealth index. Methods Data was from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) program collected in Kenya between 1993 and 2009. Variable categories were collapsed to match and factor analysis was performed on the four year pooled data to generate a harmonized wealth index. Possible predictors of wealth were selected from household variables available for all four years. Household sampling weights and stratification by rural/urban was used. Results Overall, wealth increased in Kenya between 1993 and 2008; however, when stratified no significant increase existed in urban areas, and a significant increase in rural areas specifically between 2003 and 2008. The strongest predictor was education, with more than a standard deviation difference for secondary or higher levels of education over those with no education. The association of gender of the head of household, and whether the head of household had a partner differed between rural and urban areas, with household heads who were women and those that had a partner having more wealth in urban areas, but less wealth in rural areas. Conclusion Wealth in Kenya increased overtime, specifically in rural regions. Differences were seen in predictors of wealth by urban/rural residence, educational level, and gender of the head-of-household, and should be taken into account when planning interventions to target those in disproportionately low wealth brackets. PMID:28619399

The immediate economic impact of maternal deaths on rural Chinese households.

PubMed

Ye, Fang; Wang, Haijun; Huntington, Dale; Zhou, Hong; Li, Yan; You, Fengzhi; Li, Jinhua; Cui, Wenlong; Yao, Meiling; Wang, Yan

2012-01-01

To identify the immediate economic impact of maternal death on rural Chinese households. Results are reported from a study that matched 195 households who had suffered a maternal death to 384 households that experienced a childbirth without maternal death in rural areas of three provinces in China, using quantitative questionnaire to compare differences of direct and indirect costs between two groups. The direct costs of a maternal death were significantly higher than the costs of a childbirth without a maternal death (US$4,119 vs. $370, p<0.001). More than 40% of the direct costs were attributed to funeral expenses. Hospitalization and emergency care expenses were the largest proportion of non-funeral direct costs and were higher in households with maternal death than the comparison group (US$2,248 vs. $305, p<0.001). To cover most of the high direct costs, 44.1% of affected households utilized compensation from hospitals, and the rest affected households (55.9%) utilized borrowing money or taking loans as major source of money to offset direct costs. The median economic burden of the direct (and non-reimbursed) costs of a maternal death was quite high--37.0% of the household's annual income, which was approximately 4 times as high as the threshold for an expense being considered catastrophic. The immediate direct costs of maternal deaths are extremely catastrophic for the rural Chinese households in three provinces studied.

Rural-urban differences in cooking practices and exposures in Northern Ghana

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Wiedinmyer, Christine; Dickinson, Katherine; Piedrahita, Ricardo; Kanyomse, Ernest; Coffey, Evan; Hannigan, Michael; Alirigia, Rex; Oduro, Abraham

2017-07-01

Key differences between urban and rural populations can influence the adoption and impacts of new cooking technologies and fuels. We examine these differences among urban and rural households that are part of the REACCTING study in Northern Ghana. While urban and rural populations in the study area all use multiple stoves, the types of stoves and fuels differ, with urban participants more likely to use charcoal and LPG while rural households rely primarily on wood. Further, rural and urban households tend to use different stoves/fuels to cook the same dishes—for example, the staple porridge Tuo Zaafi (TZ) is primarily cooked over wood fires in rural areas and charcoal stoves in urban settings. This suggests that fuel availability and ability to purchase fuel may be a stronger predictor of fuel choice than cultural preferences alone. Ambient concentrations of air pollutants also differ in these two types of areas, with urban areas having pollutant hot spots to which residents can be exposed and rural areas having more homogeneous and lower pollutant concentrations. Further, exposures to carbon monoxide and particulate matter differ in magnitude and in timing between urban and rural study participants, suggesting different behaviors and sources of exposures. The results from this analysis highlight important disparities between urban and rural populations of a single region and imply that such a characterization is needed to successfully implement and assess the impacts of household energy interventions.

Gender differentiation in community responses to AIDS in rural Uganda.

PubMed

Kanyamurwa, J M; Ampek, G T

2007-01-01

AIDS has been reported in Africa to push households into poverty and chronic food insecurity. At the same time there are reports of significant household resilience to AIDS. This study explored how a mature epidemic in rural Uganda has affected rural farming households. It focused on gender differences in the experience of AIDS and, in particular, household capabilities to sustain livelihoods. The study compared the vulnerability of male- and female-headed households in relation to their ability to mitigate human resource losses, as well as their access to natural and physical resources, to social networks and to finance capital for production. The findings suggest that when rural households are affected by AIDS, depleting productive resources and directing resources towards immediate needs, there are gender differences in responses to, and in impacts of, the epidemic due to the different resources available to male- and female- headed households. Female-headed households were found to be more vulnerable to AIDS than male-headed counterparts. Women's remarriage opportunities were lower than men's, they faced greater risk of losing control over land and livestock and they accessed less state and private sector support. Women-headed households were more dependent on livelihood support from non-governmental organizations, which were found to provide both welfare and credit support to female-headed households affected by AIDS. Women were found to play an important role in social networks and resources at community level but themselves received little support from many formal community networks and services.

Adequacy of dietary intakes and poverty in India: trends in the 1990s.

PubMed

Mahal, Ajay; Karan, Anup K

2008-03-01

Linear programming methods, indicators of nutritional adequacy from the Indian Council of Medical Research and household expenditure survey data from the National Sample Survey Organization were used to construct poverty lines for India. Poverty ratios were calculated for 1993--1994 and 1999--2000 on the basis of nutritional adequacy poverty lines and compared to official estimates of poverty based on energy requirements. Nutritional adequacy poverty lines are higher than official poverty lines, particularly in rural areas. The application of nutritional adequacy poverty lines points to greater rural-urban poverty differences than in official estimates. Declines in rural poverty during the 1990s were also slower under the nutritional adequacy definition, especially in south India. There is a greater degree of rural-urban and regional bias in nutritional adequacy poverty reduction than suggested by official data. Inter-state variations in changes in nutritional poverty and official poverty in the 1990s are largely explained by differences in assumptions on overall price movements. However, relative price movements in food items also played a role, particularly the slow increase in prices of cereals and edible oils in comparison to the prices of pulses, and in some southern states, compared to milk and vegetable prices as well.

Factors associated with post-treatment E. coli contamination in households practising water treatment: a study of rural Cambodia.

PubMed

Benwic, Aaron; Kim, Erin; Khema, Cinn; Phanna, Chet; Sophary, Phan; Cantwell, Raymond E

2018-04-01

The purpose of this study was to assess factors associated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination in rural households in Cambodia that have adopted household water treatment. The following factors were significantly associated (α < 0.05) with apparent E. coli contamination: cleaning the drinking vessel with untreated water, not drying the cup (with a cloth), accessing treated water by the use of a scoop (ref: using a tap), having more than one untreated water storage container, having an untreated water storage container that appeared dirty on the outside, and cows living within 10 m of the household. This study provides further evidence confirming previous studies reporting an association between inadequate cleanliness of water storage containers and household drinking water contamination, and identifies practical recommendations statistically associated with reduced post-treatment E. coli contamination in the household setting in rural Cambodia.

Relationship of household food insecurity to health-related quality of life in a large sample of rural and urban women.

PubMed

Sharkey, Joseph R; Johnson, Cassandra M; Dean, Wesley R

2011-07-22

The authors examined the associations of household food insecurity and other characteristics with fair-to-poor general health, poor physical health, and frequent mental distress among 1,367 rural and urban women in Texas. The 2006 Brazos Valley Community Health Assessment provided data on demographic characteristics, economic risk factors, health-related quality of life, household food insecurity, and geographic residence. Multivariable logistic regression models were estimated for the three health-related quality of life measures: fair-to-poor health, poor physical health, and frequent mental distress, adjusting for confounding variables. Having less than 12 years of education, not being employed full-time, and being household food insecure were independently significantly associated with increased odds for all health-related quality of life outcomes. Rural residence and being nonwhite were associated with fair-to-poor general health, but not physical or mental health. Results from the separate urban and rural models indicated that household food insecurity was associated with fair-to-poor general health among rural women, not among urban women. Poverty and being nonwhite were also associated with increased odds of reporting fair-to-poor general health, but were significant only among urban women. These results emphasize the need for health promotion and policy efforts to consider household food access and availability as part of promoting healthful food choices and good physical and mental health among women, especially rural women.

Volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), bone structure, and structural geometry among rural South Indian, US Caucasian, and Afro-Caribbean older men.

PubMed

Jammy, Guru Rajesh; Boudreau, Robert M; Singh, Tushar; Sharma, Pawan Kumar; Ensrud, Kristine; Zmuda, Joseph M; Reddy, P S; Newman, Anne B; Cauley, Jane A

2018-05-22

Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) provides biomechanical estimates of bone strength. Rural South Indian men have reduced biomechanical indices of bone strength compared to US Caucasian and Afro-Caribbean men. This suggests an underlying higher risk of osteoporotic fractures and greater future fracture burden among the rural South Indian men. Geographical and racial comparisons of bone mineral density (BMD) have largely focused on DXA measures of areal BMD. In contrast, peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) measures volumetric BMD (vBMD), bone structural geometry and provides estimates of biomechanical strength. To further understand potential geographical and racial differences in skeletal health, we compared pQCT measures among US Caucasian, Afro-Caribbean, and rural South Indian men. We studied men aged ≥ 60 years enrolled in the Mobility and Independent Living among Elders Study (MILES) in rural south India (N = 245), Osteoporotic Fractures in Men Study (MrOS) in the US (N = 1148), and the Tobago Bone Health Study (N = 828). The BMI (kg/m 2 ) of rural South Indian men (21.6) was significantly lower compared to the US Caucasians (28) and Afro-Caribbean men (26.9). Adjusting for age, height, body weight, and grip strength; rural South Indian men compared to US Caucasians had significantly lower trabecular vBMD [- 1.3 to - 1.5 standard deviation (SD)], cortical thickness [- 0.8 to - 1.2 SD]; significantly higher endosteal circumference [0.5 to 0.8 SD]; but similar cortical vBMD. Afro-Caribbean men compared to US Caucasians had similar trabecular vBMD but significantly higher cortical vBMD [0.9 to 1.2 SD], SSIp [0.2 to 1.4 SD], and tibial endosteal circumference [1 SD], CONCLUSIONS: In comparison to US Caucasians, rural South Indian men have reduced bone strength (lower trabecular vBMD) and Afro-Caribbean men have greater bone strength (higher cortical vBMD). These results suggest an underlying higher risk of osteoporotic fractures and greater future fracture burden among rural South Indian men.

Assessing the impact of the Indian Ocean tsunami on households: a modified domestic assets index approach.

PubMed

Arlikatti, Sudha; Peacock, Walter Gillis; Prater, Carla S; Grover, Himanshu; Sekar, Arul S Gnana

2010-07-01

This paper offers a potential measurement solution for assessing disaster impacts and subsequent recovery at the household level by using a modified domestic assets index (MDAI) approach. Assessment of the utility of the domestic assets index first proposed by Bates, Killian and Peacock (1984) has been confined to earthquake areas in the Americas and southern Europe. This paper modifies and extends the approach to the Indian sub-continent and to coastal surge hazards utilizing data collected from 1,000 households impacted by the Indian Ocean tsunami (2004) in the Nagapattinam district of south-eastern India. The analyses suggest that the MDAI scale is a reliable and valid measure of household living conditions and is useful in assessing disaster impacts and tracking recovery efforts over time. It can facilitate longitudinal studies, encourage cross-cultural, cross-national comparisons of disaster impacts and inform national and international donors of the itemized monetary losses from disasters at the household level.

Ethnic differences in parents' coresidence with adult children in peninsular Malaysia.

PubMed

Chan, A; Davanzo, J

1996-03-01

This study examines how benefits, costs, opportunities, and preferences affect ethnic differences in parent-child coresidence in Malaysia. The conceptual model is described in greater detail in a companion paper. Data were obtained from the senior sample of the Second Malaysian Family Life Survey of 1988-89. The nationally representative sample includes 1229 persons aged over 50 years living in private households. Retirement age in Malaysia is 45 years for women and 55 years for men. Ethnicity includes Malay, Chinese, and Indians. Adult children are aged 20 years and older. The analysis pertains to 802 married and 427 unmarried seniors. Chinese tended to live in the most expensive areas and urban areas. Malays tended to live in the least expensive areas and rural areas. Health perception ranged from good to fair to poor. About 20% of married seniors had wives aged under 50 years. Income refers to average monthly unearned income, excluding transfers from other households or public sources. The relative roles of ethnic differences in each explanatory variable are estimated. Findings indicate that the higher incidence of remarriage and lower housing costs for married Malays explain their lower coresidence rates. The poorer health of Indians and better health of Malays also explain coresidence differences for the married. The higher incidence of daughter-only families among Malays explains coresidence differences. The explanatory variables of remarriage, housing costs, health, and daughter-only families explain little for the unmarried. Among the unmarried and the married, older age was associated with greater coresidence for the Chinese only. Chinese and Malay coresidence declined with increased educational levels. Coresidence rates were lower for Malays and higher for Indians.

DC grid for home applications

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Elangovan, D.; Archana, R.; Jayadeep, V. J.; Nithin, M.; Arunkumar, G.

2017-11-01

More than fifty percent Indian population do not have access to electricity in daily lives. The distance between the power generating stations and the distribution centers forms one of the main reasons for lack of electrification in rural and remote areas. Here lies the importance of decentralization of power generation through renewable energy resources. In the present world, electricity is predominantly powered by alternating current, but most day to day devices like LED lamps, computers and electrical vehicles, all run on DC power. By directly supplying DC to these loads, the number of power conversion stages was reduced, and overall system efficiency increases. Replacing existing AC network with DC is a humongous task, but with power electronic techniques, this project intends to implement DC grid at a household level in remote and rural areas. Proposed work was designed and simulated successfully for various loads amounting to 250 W through appropriate power electronic convertors. Maximum utilization of the renewable sources for domestic and commercial application was achieved with the proposed DC topology.

Healthcare benefits linked with Below Poverty Line registration in India: Observations from Maharashtra Anaemia Study (MAS).

PubMed

Ahankari, Anand; Fogarty, Andrew; Tata, Laila; Myles, Puja

2017-01-01

A 2015 Lancet paper by Patel et al. on healthcare access in India comprehensively discussed national health programmes where some benefits are linked with the country's Below Poverty Line (BPL) registration scheme. BPL registration aims to support poor families by providing free/subsidised healthcare. Technical issues in obtaining BPL registration by poor families have been previously reported in the Indian literature; however there are no data on family assets of BPL registrants. Here, we provide evidence of family-level assets among BPL registration holders (and non-BPL households) using original research data from the Maharashtra Anaemia Study (MAS). Social and health data from 287 pregnant women and 891 adolescent girls (representing 1178 family households) across 34 villages in Maharashtra state, India, were analysed. Several assets were shown to be similarly distributed between BPL and non-BPL households; a large proportion of families who would probably be eligible were not registered, whereas BPL-registered families often had significant assets that should not make them eligible. This is likely to be the first published evidence where asset distribution such as agricultural land, housing structures and livestock are compared between BPL and non-BPL households in a rural population. These findings may help planning BPL administration to allocate health benefits equitably, which is an integral part of national health programmes.

Proceedings of the 1981 Workshop on Rural Transportation on Indian Reservations, with Bibliography.

DOT National Transportation Integrated Search

1983-11-01

This is a final report on the proceedings of the Workshop on Rural Transportation on Indian Reservations. The workshop was held on August 17, 1981 as an adjunct to the Fifth National Conference on Rural Public Transportation. The purpose of the works...

Illness, death, and macronutrients: adequacy of rural Mozambican household production of macronutrients in the face of HIV/AIDS.

PubMed

Donovan, Cynthia; Massingue, Jaquelino

2007-06-01

As the public sector and civil society develop intervention programs to deal with the HIV/ AIDS epidemic, there has been an increasing emphasis on the relationship between nutrition and the disease. Drug interventions may be ineffective, and the progression from HIV infection to full-blown AIDS may be accelerated without adequate nutrition. Mozambique is still fighting an increasing prevalence rate of HIV including in rural areas. Rural households in Mozambique rely heavily on their own agricultural production for the basic macronutrients. To evaluate the extent to which household agricultural production of basic staples meets overall household needs for major macronutrients, comparing households affected and not directly affected by HIV/ AIDS and other major illnesses over two time periods. Methods. This research analyzes nationally representative panel data from rural household surveys conducted in 2002 and 2005 to evaluate whether households that have suffered the chronic illness or illness-related death of prime-age adult members (15 to 49 years of age) are more vulnerable to macronutrient gaps. Households in the South and in the North with a male illness or death in 2002 produced significantly less macronutrients from crops in 2005 than nonaffected households. These households also had significantly lower income per adult equivalent. Mortality or illness from HIV/AIDS affects the ability of agricultural households dependent on own-food production to produce macronutrients. Interventions to improve access to food may be needed for affected households, particularly in light of their inability to recover over time. More analysis is needed to understand income sources, crop diversification, and access to macronutrients through the market.

Rural-Urban Differences in Household Treatment-Seeking Behaviour for Suspected Malaria in Children at Bata District, Equatorial Guinea.

PubMed

Romay-Barja, Maria; Jarrin, Inma; Ncogo, Policarpo; Nseng, Gloria; Sagrado, Maria Jose; Santana-Morales, Maria A; Aparicio, Pilar; Aparcio, Pilar; Valladares, Basilio; Riloha, Matilde; Benito, Agustin

2015-01-01

Malaria remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children under five years old in Equatorial Guinea. However, little is known about the community management of malaria and treatment-seeking patterns. We aimed to assess symptoms of children with reported malaria and treatment-seeking behaviour of their caretakers in rural and urban areas in the Bata District. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the district of Bata and 440 houses were selected from 18 rural villages and 26 urban neighbourhoods. Differences between rural and urban caregivers and children with reported malaria were assessed through the chi-squared test for independence of categorical variables and the t-Student or the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test for normally or not-normally distributed continuous variables, respectively. Differences between rural and urban households were observed in caregiver treatment-seeking patterns. Fever was the main symptom associated with malaria in both areas. Malaria was treated first at home, particularly in rural areas. The second step was to seek treatment outside the home, mainly at hospital and Health Centre for rural households and at hospital and private clinic for urban ones. Artemether monotherapy was the antimalarial treatment prescribed most often. Households waited for more than 24 hours before seeking treatment outside and delays were longest in rural areas. The total cost of treatment was higher in urban than in rural areas in Bata. The delays in seeking treatment, the type of malaria therapy received and the cost of treatment are the principal problems found in Bata District. Important steps for reducing malaria morbidity and mortality in this area are to provide sufficient supplies of effective antimalarial drugs and to improve malaria treatment skills in households and in both public and private sectors.

Rural-Urban Differences in Trends in the Wealth Index in Kenya: 1993-2009.

PubMed

Egede, Leonard E; Voronca, Delia; Walker, Rebekah J; Thomas, Craig

The aim of this study was to construct a wealth index that could be compared over time in order to understand the trends in wealth in Kenya and determine predictors of change in wealth index. Data were from the Demographic and Health Survey program collected in Kenya between 1993 and 2009. Variable categories were collapsed to match and factor analysis was performed on the 4-year pooled data to generate a harmonized wealth index. Possible predictors of wealth were selected from household variables available for all 4 years. Household sampling weights and stratification by rural/urban was used. Overall, wealth increased in Kenya between 1993 and 2008; however, when stratified, no significant increase existed in urban areas and a significant increase was identified in rural areas specifically between 2003 and 2008. The strongest predictor was education, with more than a standard deviation difference for secondary or higher levels of education over those with no education. The association of gender of the head of household and whether the head of household had a partner differed between rural and urban areas, with household heads who were women and those who had a partner having more wealth in urban areas but less wealth in rural areas. Wealth in Kenya increased over time, specifically in rural regions. Differences were identified in predictors of wealth by urban/rural residence, educational level, and gender of the head of household and should be taken into account when planning interventions to target those in disproportionately low wealth brackets. Copyright © 2017 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Policy Implications for Using ICTs for Empowerment of Rural Women in Ghana

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Kwapong, Olivia Adwoa Tiwaah Frimpong

2008-01-01

Using rural household survey data collected from 1000 female household heads selected from all the ten administrative regions in Ghana, this paper explored the policy implications for using ICTs for empowerment of rural women. A contingent valuation (CV) method was used to quantitatively estimate the influence of selected socio-economic factors on…

Validation of drinking water disinfection by-product exposure assessment for rural areas in the National Children's Study.

PubMed

Binkley, Teresa L; Thiex, Natalie W; Specker, Bonny L

2015-05-01

The objective of this study was to provide evidence to evaluate the proposed National Children's Study (NCS) protocol for household water sampling in rural study areas. Day-to-day variability in total trihalomethane (TTHM) concentrations in community water supplies (CWS) in rural areas was determined, and the correlation between TTHM concentrations from household taps and CWS monitoring reports was evaluated. Daily water samples were collected from 7 households serviced by 7 different CWS for 15 days. Coefficients of variation for TTHM concentration over 15 days ranged from 8% to 20% depending on the household. Correlations were tested between TTHM household concentrations and the closest date- and location-matched CWS monitoring reports for the 15-day mean (R=0.85, P<0.01). To simulate the NCS-proposed protocol, correlations were tested for 30 additional NCS household samples (polynomial fit: R=0.74, P=0.04). CWS reported TTHM concentrations >50 μg/l corresponded to measured NCS household concentrations ranging from 2 to 60 μg/l. TTHM concentrations were higher in CWS than NCS samples (11.2±3.2 μg/l, mean difference±SE, P<0.01). These results show that in rural areas there is high variability within households and poor correlation at higher concentrations, suggesting that TTHM concentrations from CWS monitoring reports are not an accurate measure of exposure in the household.

The effect of major income sources on rural household food (in)security: Evidence from Swaziland and implications for policy.

PubMed

Mabuza, Majola L; Ortmann, Gerald F; Wale, Edilegnaw; Mutenje, Munyaradzi J

2016-01-01

The aim of this article was to investigate the food (in)security effect of household income generated from major economic activities in rural Swaziland. From a sample of 979 households, the results of a multinomial treatment regression model indicated that gender of household head, labor endowment, education, size of arable land, and location significantly influenced the households' choice of primary economic activity. Further results suggested that off-farm-income-dependent households were less likely to be food insecure when compared with on-farm-income-dependent households. However, on-farm-income-dependent households had a better food security status than their counterparts who depended on remittances and nonfarm economic activities.

The need for multisectoral food chain approaches to reduce trans fat consumption in India.

PubMed

Downs, Shauna M; Singh, Archna; Gupta, Vidhu; Lock, Karen; Ghosh-Jerath, Suparna

2015-07-22

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends virtually eliminating trans fat from the global food supply. Although several high-income countries have successfully reduced trans fat levels in foods, low- and middle-income countries such as India face additional challenges to its removal from the food supply. This study provides a systems analysis of the Indian food chain to assess intervention options for reducing trans fat intake in low-income consumers. Data were collected at the manufacturer, retailer and consumer levels. Qualitative interviews were conducted with vanaspati manufacturers (n = 13) and local food vendors (n = 44). Laboratory analyses (n = 39) of street foods/snacks sold by the vendors were also conducted. Trans fat and snack intakes were also examined in low-income consumers in two rural villages (n = 260) and an urban slum (n = 261). Manufacturers of vanaspati described reducing trans fat levels as feasible but identified challenges in using healthier oils. The fat content of sampled oils from street vendors contained high levels of saturated fat (24.7-69.3 % of total fat) and trans fat (0.1-29.9 % of total fat). Households were consuming snacks high in trans fat as part of daily diets (31 % village and 84.3 % of slum households) and 4 % of rural and 13 % of urban households exceeded WHO recommendations for trans fat intakes. A multisectoral food chain approach to reducing trans fat is needed in India and likely in other low- and middle-income countries worldwide. This will require investment in development of competitively priced bakery shortenings and economic incentives for manufacturing foods using healthier oils. Increased production of healthier oils will also be required alongside these investments, which will become increasingly important as more and more countries begin investing in palm oil production.

Value of arsenic-free drinking water to rural households in Bangladesh.

PubMed

Ahmad, Junaid; Goldar, Bishwanath; Misra, Smita

2005-01-01

Using contingent valuation survey data for about 2700 households in rural Bangladesh, and applying a multinomial logit model, the paper estimates the value of arsenic-free drinking water to the rural people. The estimates indicate that the rural people in arsenic-affected areas of Bangladesh place a low value on arsenic-free drinking water. It is about 10-14 percent of the amount they are willing to pay for piped water and only about 0.2-0.3 percent of the average household income. The implication of the result is that robust but costly arsenic reduction technologies such as activated alumina technology may find little social acceptance, unless heavily subsidized.

Validation of the Malaysian Coping Strategy Instrument to measure household food insecurity in Kelantan, Malaysia.

PubMed

Sulaiman, Norhasmah; Shariff, Zalilah Mohd; Jalil, Rohana Abdul; Taib, Mohd Nasir Mohd; Kandiah, Mirnalini; Samah, Asnarulkhadi Abu

2011-12-01

Food insecurity occurs whenever people are not able to access enough food at all times for an active and healthy life or when adequate and safe food acquired by socially acceptable ways is not available. To validate the Malaysian Coping Strategy Instrument (MCSI) to measure household food insecurity in Kelantan, Malaysia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 301 nonpregnant, nonlactating Malay women, aged between 19 and 49 years, living in rural and urban areas. The respondents were interviewed with the use of a structured questionnaire to obtain information on their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, household food security, and dietary intake. Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics (household size, number of children, number of children attending school, household income, and per capita income) were significantly associated with household food-security status in rural and urban areas. Energy intake, fat intake, percentage of energy from fat, and number of servings of meat,fish, or poultry and legumes were significantly associated with household food-security status in rural areas. The dietary diversity score was significantly associated with household food-security status in rural and urban areas. Validating the MCSI in other areas of Malaysia as well as in similar settings elsewhere in the world before it is used to measure household food insecurity in the population is strongly recommended. In this study, the MCSI was found to be a reliable and valid measure of household food insecurity based on criterion-related validity, particularly in terms of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and dietary diversity.

The influence of the rural health security schemes on health utilization and household impoverishment in rural China: data from a household survey of western and central China

PubMed Central

2010-01-01

Background The New Rural Cooperative Medical Scheme (NRCMS, voluntary health insurance) and the Medical Financial Assistance (MFA, financial relief program) were established in 2003 for rural China. The aim of this study was to document their coverage, assess their effectiveness on access to in-patient care and protection against financial catastrophe and household impoverishment due to health spending, and identify the factors predicting impoverishment with and without these schemes. Methods A cross-sectional household survey was conducted in 2008 in Hebei and Shaanxi provinces and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region using a multi-stage sampling technique. Information on personal demographic characteristics, chronic illness status, health care use, household expenditure, and household health spending were collected by interview. Results NRCMS covered 90.8% of the studied individuals and among the designated poor, 7.6% had their premiums paid by MFA. Of those referred for hospitalization in the year prior to the interview, 34.3% failed to comply, mostly (80.2%) owing to financial constraints. There was no significant difference in the unmet need for admission between the insured with NRCMS and the uninsured. Before reimbursement, the incidence of catastrophic health payment (household health spending more than 40% of household's capacity to pay) and medical impoverishment (household per capita income falling below the poverty line due to medical expense) was 14.3% and 8.2%, respectively. NRCMS prevented 9.9% of the households from financial catastrophe and 7.7% from impoverishment, whereas MFA kept just one household from impoverishment and had no effect on financial catastrophe. Household per capita expenditure and household chronic disease proportion (proportion of members of a household with chronic illness) were the most important determinants of the unmet need for admission, risk of being impoverished and the chance of not being saved from impoverishment. Conclusion The coverage of NRCMS among the rural population was high but not adequate to improve access to in-patient care and protect against financial catastrophe and household impoverishment due to health payment, especially for the poor and the chronically ill. Furthermore, MFA played almost no such role; therefore, the current schemes need to be improved. PMID:20178565

Prediction of Child Health by Household Density and Asset-Based Indices in Impoverished Indigenous Villages in Rural Panamá

PubMed Central

Halpenny, Carli M.; Koski, Kristine G.; Valdés, Victoria E.; Scott, Marilyn E.

2012-01-01

Chronic infection over a 16-month period and stunting of preschool children were compared between more spatially dense versus dispersed households in rural Panamá. Chronic protozoan infection was associated with higher household density, lower household wealth index, poor household water quality, yard defecation, and the practice of not washing hands with soap before eating. Models for chronic diarrhea confirmed the importance of household wealth, water quality, sanitation, and hygiene practices. Furthermore, chronic protozoan infection was an important predictor for low height-for-age, along with low household wealth index scores, but not household density. Thus, despite better access to health related infrastructure in the more densely populated households, chronic protozoan infection was more common, and was associated with higher rates of child stunting, compared with more dispersed households. PMID:22302864

Adverse selection in a voluntary Rural Mutual Health Care health insurance scheme in China.

PubMed

Wang, Hong; Zhang, Licheng; Yip, Winnie; Hsiao, William

2006-09-01

This study examines adverse selection in a subsidized voluntary health insurance scheme, the Rural Mutual Health Care (RMHC) scheme, in a poor rural area of China. The study was made possible by a unique longitudinal data set: the total sample includes 3492 rural residents from 1020 households. Logistic regression was employed for the data analysis. The results show that although this subsidized scheme achieved a considerable high enrollment rate of 71% of rural residents, adverse selection still exists. In general, individuals with worse health status are more likely to enroll in RMHC than individuals with better health status. Although the household is set as the enrollment unit for the RMHC for the purpose of reducing adverse selection, nearly 1/3 of enrolled households are actually only partially enrolled. Furthermore, we found that adverse selection mainly occurs in partially enrolled households. The non-enrolled individuals in partially enrolled households have the best health status, while the enrolled individuals in partially enrolled households have the worst health status. Pre-RMHC, medical expenditure for enrolled individuals in partially enrolled households was 206.6 yuan per capita per year, which is 1.7 times as much as the pre-RMHC medical expenditure for non-enrolled individuals in partially enrolled households. The study also reveals that the pre-enrolled medical expenditure per capita per year of enrolled individuals was 9.6% higher than the pre-enrolled medical expenditure of all residents, including both enrolled and non-enrolled individuals. In conclusion, although the subsidized RMHC scheme reached a very high enrollment rate and the household is set as the enrollment unit for the purpose of reducing adverse selection, adverse selection still exists, especially within partially enrolled households. Voluntary RMHC will not be financially sustainable if the adverse selection is not fully taken into account.

Prevalence of risk factors for residential fire and burn injuries in an American Indian community.

PubMed Central

Mobley, C; Sugarman, J R; Deam, C; Giles, L

1994-01-01

Fatality rates from residential fires are high among American Indians. Contact burns and scalds are also among the leading types of thermal injuries. Information about the prevalence of risk factors for burn injuries is required to design interventions aimed at reducing residential fire and burn injuries. The authors conducted a survey in July and August 1992 of 68 households located in a small American Indian community in Washington State to ascertain the prevalence of selected risk factors for residential fire and burn injuries. Nearly all households (96 percent) in the study had a smoke detector, and 95 percent of those tested were functioning. However, a high prevalence of other household characteristics associated with excess risk of residential fire and burn injuries was identified: 59 percent of households had at least one member who smoked, 25 percent had a member who smoked in bed, 38 percent had a member who drank alcohol and smoked at the same time, 46 percent used wood stoves as a heat source, and 15 percent of households were mobile homes. Thirteen percent of households had at least one fire during the previous 3 years, and the incidence of burns due to all causes and requiring medical treatment was 1.5 per 100 persons per year. Hot water temperature was measured to determine the potential risk for scald burns, and 48 percent of households had a maximum hot water temperature of 130 degrees or more Fahrenheit. Such surveys can guide intervention strategies to reduce residential fire and burn injuries in American Indian communities. PMID:7938394

Addressing Women's Non-Maternal Healthcare Financing in Developing Countries: What Can We Learn from the Experiences of Rural Indian Women?

PubMed Central

Gopalan, Saji S.; Durairaj, Varatharajan

2012-01-01

Background and Objectives This paper focuses on the inadequate attention on women's non-maternal healthcare in low- and middle-income countries. The study assessed the purchase of and financial access to non-maternal healthcare. It also scoped for mainstreaming household financial resources in this regard to suggest for alternatives. Methods A household survey through multi-stage stratified sampling in the state of Orissa interviewed rural women above 15 years who were neither pregnant nor had any pregnancy-related outcome six weeks preceding the survey. The questions explored on the processes, determinants and outcomes of health seeking for non-maternal ailments. The outcome measures were healthcare access, cost of care and financial access. The independent variables for bivariate and multivariate analyses were contextual factors, health seeking and financing pattern. Results The survey obtained a response rate of 98.64% and among 800 women, 43.8% had no schooling and 51% were above 60 years. Each woman reported at least one episode of non-maternal ailment; financial constraints prevented 68% from receiving timely and complete care. Distress coping measures (e.g. borrowings) dominated the financing source (67.9%) followed by community–based measures (32.1%). Only 6% had financial risk-protection; financial risk of not obtaining care doubled for women aged over 60 years (OR 2.00, 95% CI 0.84–4.80), seeking outpatient consultation (OR 2.01, 95% CI 0.89–4.81), facing unfavourable household response (OR 2.04, 95% CI 1.09–3.83), and lacking other financial alternatives (OR 2.13, 95% CI 1.11–4.07). When it comes to timely mobilization of funds and healthcare seeking, 90% (714) of the households preferred maternal care to non-maternal healthcare. Conclusion The existing financing options enable sub-optimal purchase of women's non-maternal healthcare. Though dominant, household economy extends inadequate attention in this regard owing to its unfavourable approach towards non-maternal healthcare and limited financial capacity and support from other financial resources. PMID:22272262

A woman's place: household labour allocation in rural Kenya.

PubMed

Neitzert, M

1994-01-01

This article synthesizes the literature on household labor allocation. The review reveals that development policies impacting on the labor market favor men over women. Male favoritism also occurs in household decision-making. Data from the 1988 Rural Labor Force Survey were used to examine rural household labor allocation in 1988 and the extent of female and male participation in home and market production and the degree of labor market discrimination against women. It is argued that the standard neoclassical model of economics does not recognize the unequal bargaining power of each member of the household in arriving at a solution to the joint welfare maximization problem. Women's position is expected to worsen during economic development. Women will have less than full participation in the labor market. Women's distinct role in household welfare provision is often disregarded. Development policy mainly focuses on market activities where women hold few positions. Labor allocation in the empirical analysis pertains to the mean hours per week in farm activities, household activities, schooling, and paid or unpaid non-farm work. Findings indicate that average earnings were lower for females than males and that returns to education and training were higher for males than females. Wage discrimination accounted for 30-66% of the earnings gap between rural men and women. Women faced discrimination on their returns to human capital and occupational choices. The concentration of women in low-paying jobs accounted for 21% of the wage gap. Women's lower education accounted for over 10%. Findings suggest that Kenyan households respond to market incentives. Women worked longer hours than men and contributed more to household welfare. Policy should focus on models of household provisioning and not on a joint utility function. Policy should encourage households to revise labor allocation strategies.

Hypertension in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, awareness, and control of hypertension

PubMed Central

Anchala, Raghupathy; Kannuri, Nanda K.; Pant, Hira; Khan, Hassan; Franco, Oscar H.; Di Angelantonio, Emanuele; Prabhakaran, Dorairaj

2014-01-01

Background: A region-specific (urban and rural parts of north, east, west, and south India) systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence, awareness, and control of hypertension among Indian patients have not been done before. Methods: Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from 1950 to 30 April 2013 were searched for ‘prevalence, burden, awareness, and control of blood pressure (BP) or hypertension (≥140 SBP and or ≥90 DBP) among Indian adults’ (≥18 years). Of the total 3047 articles, 142 were included. Results: Overall prevalence for hypertension in India was 29.8% (95% confidence interval: 26.7–33.0). Significant differences in hypertension prevalence were noted between rural and urban parts [27.6% (23.2–32.0) and 33.8% (29.7–37.8); P = 0.05]. Regional estimates for the prevalence of hypertension were as follows: 14.5% (13.3–15.7), 31.7% (30.2–33.3), 18.1% (16.9–19.2), and 21.1% (20.1–22.0) for rural north, east, west, and south India; and 28.8% (26.9–30.8), 34.5% (32.6–36.5), 35.8% (35.2–36.5), and 31.8% (30.4–33.1) for urban north, east, west, and south India, respectively. Overall estimates for the prevalence of awareness, treatment, and control of BP were 25.3% (21.4–29.3), 25.1% (17.0–33.1), and 10.7% (6.5–15.0) for rural Indians; and 42.0% (35.2–48.9), 37.6% (24.0–51.2), and 20.2% (11.6–28.7) for urban Indians. Conclusion: About 33% urban and 25% rural Indians are hypertensive. Of these, 25% rural and 42% urban Indians are aware of their hypertensive status. Only 25% rural and 38% of urban Indians are being treated for hypertension. One-tenth of rural and one-fifth of urban Indian hypertensive population have their BP under control. PMID:24621804

Household resources and seasonal patterns of child growth in rural Timor-Leste.

PubMed

Spencer, Phoebe R; Sanders, Katherine A; Canisio Amaral, Pedro; Judge, Debra S

2017-01-01

This study aimed to determine through detailed contextual investigation the effects of seasonal resource shortages, and household and individual level differences, on child growth in rural Timor-Leste. We compared trends in growth across two rural Timorese villages with different ecologies. Heads of 104 households in Natarbora, Timor-Leste, were interviewed and resource levels assessed during the food shortage season. In these households, 337 children were measured for height, weight, and mid-upper arm circumference. World Health Organization standardized measures were calculated and compared with dry season measurements. Using hierarchical linear models, child growth was related to household resource levels. Results were then compared to data from rural mountainous Ossu, Timor-Leste. z BMI declined over the wet season when food resources were scarce compared with the dry season (P < .001). Both age and sex were strong predictors of child growth, with older children having worse z height-for-age (P = .001) and z weight-for-age (P < .001) and boys shorter for age than girls (P = .049). Children were taller in households with modern flushable toilets (P = .005). Agricultural strategies such as crop diversity and land cultivation were linked to child growth. Results parallel findings from Ossu on the effects of season, child age and sex, but not household level socioeconomic differences. Results highlight the importance of subsistence-based resource stabilization and of early intervention to prevent growth faltering. Predicting growth using ecological models requires small-scale investigation, as variation exists among rural areas within an ecologically and culturally diverse country. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Will Employment Growth Benefit All Households? A Case Study in Nine Nonmetro Kentucky Counties. Rural Development Research Report Number 55.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Larson, Donald K.; White, Claudia K.

An estimated 44,340 longer term resident households in rural Kentucky were studied to identify the variables that explained changes in household income status between 1974-79. In a nine-county area of south-central Kentucky, rapid employment growth between 1974 and 1979 created new job opportunities, but employment growth did not benefit all…

Evaluation of the impact of the plastic BioSand filter on health and drinking water quality in rural Tamale, Ghana.

PubMed

Stauber, Christine E; Kominek, Byron; Liang, Kaida R; Osman, Mumuni K; Sobsey, Mark D

2012-10-24

A randomized controlled trial of the plastic BioSand filter (BSF) was performed in rural communities in Tamale (Ghana) to assess reductions in diarrheal disease and improvements in household drinking water quality. Few studies of household water filters have been performed in this region, where high drinking water turbidity can be a challenge for other household water treatment technologies. During the study, the longitudinal prevalence ratio for diarrhea comparing households that received the plastic BSF to households that did not receive it was 0.41 (95% confidence interval: 0.18, 0.92), suggesting an overall diarrheal disease reduction of 59% [corrected]. The plastic BSF achieved a geometric mean reduction of 97% and 67% for E. coli and turbidity, respectively. These results suggest the plastic BSF significantly improved drinking water quality and reduced diarrheal disease during the short trial in rural Tamale, Ghana. The results are similar to other trials of household drinking water treatment technologies.

Evaluation of the Impact of the Plastic BioSand Filter on Health and Drinking Water Quality in Rural Tamale, Ghana

PubMed Central

Stauber, Christine E.; Kominek, Byron; Liang, Kaida R.; Osman, Mumuni K.; Sobsey, Mark D.

2012-01-01

A randomized controlled trial of the plastic BioSand filter (BSF) was performed in rural communities in Tamale (Ghana) to assess reductions in diarrheal disease and improvements in household drinking water quality. Few studies of household water filters have been performed in this region, where high drinking water turbidity can be a challenge for other household water treatment technologies. During the study, the longitudinal prevalence ratio for diarrhea comparing households that received the plastic BSF to households that did not receive it was 0.40 (95% confidence interval: 0.05, 0.80), suggesting an overall diarrheal disease reduction of 60%. The plastic BSF achieved a geometric mean reduction of 97% and 67% for E. coli and turbidity, respectively. These results suggest the plastic BSF significantly improved drinking water quality and reduced diarrheal disease during the short trial in rural Tamale, Ghana. The results are similar to other trials of household drinking water treatment technologies. PMID:23202818

Size and demography pattern of the domestic dog population in Bhutan: Implications for dog population management and disease control.

PubMed

Rinzin, Karma; Tenzin, Tenzin; Robertson, Ian

2016-04-01

Understanding the demography of domestic dogs is essential to plan the dog population management and rabies control program. In this study, we estimated the owned and stray dog population and the proportion of owned dogs that are free-roaming in Bhutan. For this, a cross-sectional household surveys were conducted in six districts (both urban and rural areas) and two border towns in southern Bhutan. The population estimation was done by extrapolation of the mean number of dogs per household and dogs per person, whilst mark-resight survey was conducted to estimate the proportion of owned dogs that were free-roaming. A total of 1,301 (rural:585; urban:716) respondents (one per household) were interviewed of which 173 households (24.4%) in urban areas owned 237 dogs whilst 238 households (40.8%) in rural areas owned 353 dogs. The mean number of dogs per dog owning household was estimated to be 1.44 (urban:1.37 dogs; rural:1.48 dogs) and dogs per household was estimated to be 0.45 (urban:0.33; rural:0.60). The dog: human ratio was 1:16.30 (0.06 dogs per person) in urban areas and 1:8.43 (0.12 dogs per person) in rural areas. The total owned dog population based on the mean number of dogs per household and dogs per person were estimated to be 65,312 and 71,245 in the country, respectively. The male: female ratio of the owned dog was 1.31:1 in urban areas and 2.05:1 in rural areas. Majority of the dogs were local non-descript breeds in both urban (60.8%) and rural (78%) areas, and the most common source was acquisition from friends or family (44.7%). The stray dog population in Bhutan was estimated to be 48,379 (urban:22,772; rural:25,607). Of the total estimated owned dog population in the two border towns, the proportion that were found free-roaming was estimated to be 31%. The different dog population estimation methods were compared and discussed in this paper. This study generated baseline data on the demographic patterns of the owned and stray dogs in Bhutan which will be useful for planning and monitoring dog population management and rabies control program in the country. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Access to Specialty Health Care for Rural American Indians in Two States

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Baldwin, Laura-Mae; Hollow, Walter B.; Casey, Susan; Hart, L. Gary; Larson, Eric H.; Moore, Kelly; Lewis, Ervin; Andrilla, C. Holly A.; Grossman, David C.

2008-01-01

Context: The Indian Health Service (IHS), whose per capita expenditure for American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) health services is about half that of the US civilian population, is the only source of health care funding for many rural AI/ANs. Specialty services, largely funded through contracts with outside practitioners, may be limited by…

Association between maternal health literacy and child vaccination in India: a cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Johri, Mira; Subramanian, S V; Sylvestre, Marie-Pierre; Dudeja, Sakshi; Chandra, Dinesh; Koné, Georges K; Sharma, Jitendar K; Pahwa, Smriti

2015-09-01

Education of mothers may improve child health. We investigated whether maternal health literacy, a rapidly modifiable factor related to mother's education, was associated with children's receipt of vaccines in two underserved Indian communities. Cross-sectional surveys in an urban and a rural site. We assessed health literacy using Indian child health promotion materials. The outcome was receipt of three doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP3) vaccine. We used multivariate logistic regression to investigate the relationship between maternal health literacy and vaccination status independently in each site. For both sites, adjusted models considered maternal age, maternal and paternal education, child sex, birth order, household religion and wealth quintile. Rural analyses used multilevel models adjusted for service delivery characteristics. Urban analyses represented cluster characteristics through fixed effects. The rural analysis included 1170 women from 60 villages. The urban analysis included 670 women from nine slum clusters. In each site, crude and adjusted models revealed a positive association between maternal health literacy and DTP3. In the rural site, the adjusted OR was 1.57 (95% CI 1.11 to 2.21, p=0.010) for those with medium health literacy, and OR=1.30 (95% CI 0.89 to 1.91, p=0.172) for those with high health literacy. In the urban site, the adjusted OR was 1.10 (95% CI 0.65 to 1.88, p=0.705) for those with medium health literacy, and OR=2.06 (95% CI 1.06 to 3.99, p=0.032) for those with high health literacy. In these study settings, maternal health literacy is independently associated with child vaccination. Initiatives targeting health literacy could improve vaccination coverage. Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.

The Politics of the Indian Child Welfare Act.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Matheson, Lou

1996-01-01

Indian Child Welfare Act became federal law in order to prevent abuses of power by state agencies, courts, and church groups which disrupt Indian families by placing American Indian children in foster care in non-American Indian households. This article studies the impact of the law and discusses a case study of three American Indian children. (FC)

Indoor air quality scenario in India-An outline of household fuel combustion

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Rohra, Himanshi; Taneja, Ajay

2016-03-01

Most of the research around the world has been on outdoor air pollution, but in India we have a more severe problem of Indoor Air Pollution (IAP). The foremost factor cited for is burning of fossil fuels for cooking. Among the 70% of the country's rural population, about 80% households rely on biomass fuel making India to top the list of countries with largest population lacking access to cleaner fuel for cooking. 4 million deaths and 5% disability-adjusted life-years is an upshot of exposure to IAP from unhealthy cooking making it globally the most critical environmental risk factor. India alone bears the highest burden (28% needless deaths) among developing countries. Moreover, about ¼ of ambient PM2.5 in the country comes from household cookfuels. These considerations have prompted the discussion of the present knowledge on the disastrous health effects of pollutants emitted by biomass combustion in India. Additionally, Particulate Matter as an indoor air pollutant is highlighted with main focus on its spatial temporal variation and some recent Indian studies are further explored. As there are no specific norms for IAP in India, urgent need has arisen for implementing the strategies to create public awareness. Moreover improvement in ventilation and modification in the pattern of fuel will also contribute to eradicate this national health issue.

Financial protection effects of modification of China's New Cooperative Medical Scheme on rural households with chronic diseases.

PubMed

Wang, Jing; Chen, Lina; Ye, Ting; Zhang, Zhiguo; Ma, Jingdong

2014-07-15

Several years have passed since the rural New Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS) in China was established and policies kept continuous improvement. Its policies on chronic diseases vary by county but have certain shared characteristics. Following this modification of medical insurance policy, this study reassesses the provision of insurance against expenditure on chronic diseases in rural areas, and analyzes its effect on impoverishment. We conducted an empirical study using multi-stage stratified random sampling. We surveyed 1,661 rural households in three provinces and analyzed the responses from 1,525 households that participated in NCMS, using descriptive and logistic regression analysis. The NCMS has reduced the prevalence of poverty and catastrophic health expenditure (CHE), as measured by out-of-pocket (OOP) payments exceeding 40% of total household expenditure, by decreasing medical expenditure. It provides obvious protection to households which include someone with chronic diseases. However, these households continue to face a higher financial risk than those without anyone suffering from chronic diseases. Variables about health service utilization and OOP payment differed significantly between households with or without people suffering from chronic disease. And CHE risk is commonly associated with household income, the number of family members with chronic diseases, OOP payment of outpatient and inpatient service in all three provinces. To reduce CHE risk for these households, it is critical to decrease OOP payments for health services by enhancing the effective reimbursement level of NCMS and strictly regulating the providers' behaviors. We recommend that a combinatory changes should be made to the rural health insurance scheme in China to improve its effect. These include improving the NCMS benefit package by broadening the catalogue of drugs and treatments covered, decreasing or abolishing deductible and increasing the reimbursement ratio of outpatient services for people with chronic diseases, together with expansion of insurance fund, and modifying health providers' behaviors by payment reform.

Does Validity Fall from the Sky? Observant Farmers and the Endogeneity of Rainfall

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Miller, B. M.

2016-12-01

Weather, particularly rainfall, is a popular source of identifying variation in many areas of empirical economics. Deviations from mean rainfall are commonly used as a source of exogenous and unpredictable variation in household consumption, aggregate consumption, and income. Yet the prevalence of 10-day weather forecasts and longer-range seasonal forecasts enabled by earth observations suggest plenty of information about future weather events is available. This paper posits that farmers observe signals about future rainfall outcomes and respond appropriately. While the idea of short-run weather expectations influencing crop choices has been occasionally speculated, this paper's broad-based empirical evidence of such adaptation is new. Evidence of anticipatory adaptation is found in two data sets on Indian agriculture which are popular both in general and among papers using rainfall for identifying variation. The crop selections of Indian farmers are found to be strongly correlated with the season's upcoming rainfall in an agronomically efficient manner. In years where rainfall is one standard deviation below the mean, the district-wide acreage of sorghum (a relatively drought resistant crop) increases by almost 3%, while the district-wide acreage of rice (a relatively water-intensive crops) decreases by over 1%. The response of farming households from a popular survey of rural villages are larger than the average response of aggregate acreage, consistent with poorer, smaller-scale farmers being more risk averse. This paper also presents a methodology for estimating the impact of income shocks which accounts for the anticipatory adaptation enabled by this information.

Factors Associated with Contraceptive Use among Women of Reproductive Age in Rural Districts of Burkina Faso.

PubMed

Wulifan, Joseph K; Mazalale, Jacob; Jahn, Albrecht; Hien, Hervé; Ilboudo, Patrick Christian; Meda, Nicolas; Robyn, Paul Jacob; Hamadou, Saidou; Haidara, Ousmane; De Allegri, Manuela

2017-01-01

Given the current low contraceptive use and corresponding high levels of unwanted pregnancies leading to induced abortions and poor maternal health outcomes among rural populations, a detailed understanding of the factors that limit contraceptive use is essential. Our study investigated household and health facility factors that influence contraceptive use decisions among rural women in rural Burkina Faso. We collected data on fertile non-pregnant women in 24 rural districts in 2014. Of 8,657 women, 1,098 used a modern contraceptive. Women having a living son, a child younger than one year, and household wealth were more likely to use modern contraceptives. Women in polygamous marriages and women living at least 5 kilometers from a health facility were less likely to use contraception. We conclude that modern contraceptive use remains weak, hence, programs aiming to encourage contraceptive use must address barriers at both the health facility and the household level.

Rural Villagers and Urban Residents Exposure to Poultry in China

PubMed Central

Shi, Ying; Liao, Qiaohong; Zhou, Hang; Zhou, Lei; Li, Leilei; Wu, Jiabing; Zhang, Shunxiang; Yu, Zhangda; Wu, Xiaomin; Ma, Hanwu; Lu, Jianhua; Cowling, Benjamin J.; Yu, Hongjie

2014-01-01

Patterns of poultry exposure in rural and urban areas in China have not been systematically evaluated and compared. The objective of our study is to investigate patterns in human exposure to poultry in rural and urban China. We conducted a two-stage household-based clustered survey on population exposure to live/sick/dead poultry in Xiuning and Shenzhen. Half of the rural households (51%) in Xiuning raised poultry, mostly (78%) free-range. Around half of those households (40%) allowed poultry to stay in their living areas. One quarter of villagers reported having contact with sick or dead poultry. In Shenzhen, 37% urban residents visited live poultry markets. Among these, 40% purchased live poultry and 16% touched the poultry or cages during purchase. Our findings indicated that human exposure to poultry was different in rural and urban areas in China. This discrepancy could contribute to the observed differences in epidemiologic characteristics between urban and rural cases of influenza A(H7N9) and A(H5N1) virus infection. PMID:24769673

[Social impact of literacy in the household: analysis of the association with smoking in illiterate co-residents in Brazil].

PubMed

Ribeiro, Felipe Garcia; Carraro, André; Motta, Janaína Vieira Dos Santos; Gigante, Denise Petrucci

2016-06-01

Objective To investigate the social impact of literacy on the smoking behavior of illiterate individuals who share the household with literate individuals. Method This cross-sectional study employed data from the 2008 Brazilian National Household Survey (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios, PNAD). Smokers were defined as individuals reporting use of any tobacco product daily or less than daily. The literacy profiles of residents were identified. Poisson regressions adjusted for skin color, age, and maximum level of literacy in the household were performed. Four groups were analyzed: men living in rural areas, men living in urban areas, women living in rural areas, and women living in urban areas. Results For urban men, the presence of literate women only in the household was a protection factor against smoking (prevalence ratio, PR: 0.77; 95%CI: 0.71-0.82) vs. households in which all the males were illiterate. The same protective effect was found for rural men (PR: 0.79; 95%CI: 0.73-0.85). In turn, the presence of literate men only living in the same household with illiterate men did not provide protection against smoking in any case (PR: 0.93; 95%CI: 0.83-1.03 for the urban subsample; and PR: 0.99; 95%CI: 0.88-1.11 for the rural subsample). Illiterate women benefited from the presence of both literate men (PR: 0.77; 95%CI: 0.71-0.84 for the urban sample; and PR: 0.78; 95%CI: 0.69-0.89 for the rural subsample) and literate women (PR: 0.81; 95%CI: 0.72-0.92 for the urban subsample; and PR: 0.75; IC95%: 0.60-0.93 for the rural subsample). Conclusions Literate women seem to have positively affected illiterate co-residents of both sexes. This result is in agreement with reports showing broad advantages of female schooling.

Comparing willingness to pay for improved drinking-water quality using stated preference methods in rural and urban Kenya.

PubMed

Brouwer, Roy; Job, Fumbi Crescent; van der Kroon, Bianca; Johnston, Richard

2015-02-01

Access to safe drinking water has been on the global agenda for decades. The key to safe drinking water is found in household water treatment and safe storage systems. In this study, we assessed rural and urban household demand for a new gravity-driven membrane (GDM) drinking-water filter. A choice experiment (CE) was used to assess the value attached to the characteristics of a new GDM filter before marketing in urban and rural Kenya. The CE was followed by a contingent valuation (CV) question. Differences in willingness to pay (WTP) for the same filter design were tested between methods, as well as urban and rural samples. The CV follow-up approach produces more conservative and statistically more efficient WTP values than the CE, with only limited indications of anchoring. The effect of the new filter technology on children with diarrhea is among the most important drivers behind choice behavior and WTP in both areas. The urban sample is willing to pay more in absolute terms than the rural sample irrespective of the valuation method. Rural households are more price sensitive, and willing to pay more in relative terms compared with disposable household income. A differentiated marketing strategy across rural and urban areas is expected to increase uptake and diffusion of the new filter technology.

Factors Influencing Nutritional Adequacy among Rural Households in Nigeria: How Does Dietary Diversity Stand among Influencers?

PubMed

Akerele, D; Sanusi, R A; Fadare, O A; Ashaolu, O F

2017-01-01

This study examined the influence of food consumption diversity on adequate intakes of food calories, proteins and micronutrients among households in rural Nigeria within the framework of panel data econometrics using a nationally representative data. We found that substantial proportion of households suffered deficiency of calories, proteins and certain micronutrients; with higher percentage of sufferer households occurring in the post-planting season. The different measures of dietary diversity (constructed and used for analysis) consistently indicate significant and positive influence of dietary diversity on the likelihood of adequate consumption of food nutrients. While higher level of income, education and non-farm enterprise engagement may strongly stimulate adequate nutrient intakes, increases in the number of adolescents would substantially diminish it. Although our findings call for renewed attention on diet diverseness, we stress the complementary/synergistic roles of education and rural income improvement, especially through non-farm enterprise diversification in tackling multiple nutritional deficiencies in rural Nigeria.

The financial and economic feasibility of rural household biodigesters for poor communities in South Africa.

PubMed

Smith, Michael T; Goebel, Jessica Schroenn; Blignaut, James N

2014-02-01

Given the persistence of systemic poverty in, most notably, the rural parts of South Africa, the question is whether the use of biodigesters as a source of energy offers potential solutions to some of the difficulties and development needs faced by people in these areas. At the core, this translates into whether this technology would be financially and economically feasible for installation and use by rural households. Here we conduct both a financial and an economic cost-benefit analysis in one such community based on survey data from 120 households. Analysis of these data and supporting literature reveals that a biodigester is not a financially feasible investment for a rural household. Substantial economic benefits are, however, found to make a biodigester a worthwhile investment from a broader societal perspective. This is a compelling argument for further study and the consideration of government support in the light of broader economy-wide benefits. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Constructing indices of rural living standards in Northwestern Bangladesh.

PubMed

Gunnsteinsson, Snaebjorn; Labrique, Alain B; West, Keith P; Christian, Parul; Mehra, Sucheta; Shamim, Abu Ahmed; Rashid, Mahbubur; Katz, Joanne; Klemm, Rolf D W

2010-10-01

This study aimed to construct indices of living standards in rural Bangladesh that could be useful to study health outcomes or identify target populations for poverty-alleviation programmes. The indices were constructed using principal component analysis of data on household assets and house construction materials. Their robustness and use was tested and found to be internally consistent and correlated with maternal and infant health, nutritional and demographic indicators, and infant mortality. Indices derived from 9 or 10 household asset variables performed well; little was gained by adding more variables but problems emerged if fewer variables were used. A ranking of the most informative assets from this rural, South Asian context is provided. Living standards consistently and significantly improved over the six-year study period. It is concluded that simple household socioeconomic data, collected under field conditions, can be used for constructing reliable and useful indices of living standards in rural South Asian communities that can assist in the assessment of health, quality of life, and capabilities of households and their members.

Natural resource management in a protected area of the Indian Himalayas: a modeling approach for anthropogenic interactions on ecosystem.

PubMed

Nautiyal, Sunil; Kaechele, Harald

2009-06-01

The concept of ecosystem conservation as a broad theme came into existence during the 1970s under the Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Indian Government followed this approach and chose the method to segregate the landscape for conservation of the ecosystem as well as for the development of the local economy and its people. We have examined the effect of this policy and concurrently developed a theoretical modeling approach to understand how human behavior is changing under shifting political, socioeconomic and environmental conditions. A specific focus has been on how the landscape is changing in the mountains of the Indian Himalayan region where about 10% of the total geographical area is converted into protected landscape for conservation of biodiversity. For local people living in the Himalayan mountains in India, agriculture is the main land use activity and is strongly linked to the forests in providing sustainability. There are several branches in the rural ecosystems where the local people's economy was centered. These include agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal and aromatic plants cultivation, forest resource collection, tourism and other occupations. The greatest proportion of the population was engaged in the agriculture sector, whose contribution is high in the rural economy (61%); followed by animal husbandry (19%), forest resource collection for economic gain (18%), and medicinal and aromatic plants cultivation (1.5%). However, three decades ago the animal husbandry branch of the rural ecosystem was contributing the maximum share towards rural household income (40%) followed by tourism (35.2%), and lastly agriculture (14%). The desire of farmers to secure the optimum output from agricultural land use has resulted in an increase for resource collection from the forests. The people's perception (n = 1,648) regarding overall changes occurring in the region was varied and most showed that the current trend within rural ecosystems has emerged because of the implementation of conservation policies/creation of national park and biosphere reserve (80%), followed by limitation (22%), climate (20%), population growth (7%), national economy (10%) and least by socioeconomic change (5%). The theoretical agent model developed here draws attention to agent/farmer behavior and land resource use for his livelihood in the temporal dimension. The current study would be helpful to introduce new approaches for the development of the methodological and theoretical aspects associated with the complex human and ecosystem interactions in the Himalayan mountains for sustainable landscape development.

Tuberculosis contact screening and isoniazid preventive therapy in a South Indian district: operational issues for programmatic consideration.

PubMed

Pothukuchi, Madhavi; Nagaraja, Sharath Burugina; Kelamane, Santosha; Satyanarayana, Srinath; Shashidhar; Babu, Sai; Dewan, Puneet; Wares, Fraser

2011-01-01

Under India's Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP), all household contacts of sputum smear positive Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) patients are screened for TB. In the absence of active TB disease, household contacts aged <6 years are eligible for Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) (5 milligrams/kilogram body weight/day) for 6 months. To estimate the number of household contacts aged <6 years, of sputum smear positive PTB patients registered for treatment under RNTCP from April to June'2008 in Krishna District, to assess the extent to which they are screened for TB disease and in its absence initiated on IPT. A cross sectional study was conducted. Households of all smear positive PTB cases (n = 848) registered for treatment from April to June'2008 were included. Data on the number of household contacts aged <6 years, the extent to which they were screened for TB disease, and the status of initiation of IPT, was collected. Households of 825 (97%) patients were visited, and 172 household contacts aged <6 years were identified. Of them, 116 (67%) were evaluated for TB disease; none were found to be TB diseased and 97 (84%) contacts were initiated on IPT and 19 (16%) contacts were not initiated on IPT due to shortage of INH tablets in peripheral health centers. The reasons for non-evaluation of the remaining eligible children (n = 56, 33%) include no home visit by the health staff in 25 contacts, home visit done but not evaluated in 31 contacts. House-hold contacts in rural areas were less likely to be evaluated and initiated on IPT [risk ratio 6.65 (95% CI; 3.06-14.42)]. Contact screening and IPT implementation under routine programmatic conditions is sub-optimal. There is an urgent need to sensitize all concerned programme staff on its importance and establishment of mechanisms for rigorous monitoring.

Health and social impacts of biomass gasification for household energy in rural China: Assessment from three perspectives and emergent insights from their synthesis

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Fischer, Susan Lynn

Solid fuels such as coal, wood, and crop straw supply some fraction of household cooking and heating fuel for more than one billion people in China. As these fuels do not generally combust cleanly in household stoves, their use levies large health and environmental burdens, particularly in rural regions. Production of clean-burning fuels from agricultural residue offers one prospect for mitigating health and social burdens imposed by household use of solid fuels. This dissertation explores the question: how might production of clean-burning household fuels from agricultural residues affect human health and social conditions in rural China? I approach this question from three perspectives. First, a technically plausible but currently unproven village-scale energy technology is explored in a scenario bounded by natural resources and substantiated by engineering specifications, estimates of indoor exposures to air pollution, and epidemiological analyses. This analysis asks at the national (China) level: how might rural health burdens be mitigated and greenhouse gas emissions reduced by such a technology? Secondly, I perform wintertime indoor air quality monitoring in a Chinese village where coal and wood are used for heating and a variety of solid and "improved" fuels, including gas and electricity, are used for cooking. This fieldwork characterizes rural indoor air quality in terms of 24-hour and peak-period (1-hour) carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) concentrations and 24-hour airborne nicotine (a proxy for environmental tobacco smoke), as well as daily exposures of primary cooks to CO. I also explore relationships between observed measures of indoor air quality and investigate household structural and behavioral factors as determinants of air quality. The third perspective is an ethnographic case study of a demonstration project for production of household fuel from agricultural residue in Hechengli Village, Jilin Province, China. With an emphasis on rural residents' and local leaders' perspectives, this field research clarifies local social, economic, and environmental dimensions of the energy project. I consider broader implications for similar rural projects as well as institutional reception of these particular findings. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Characterization of particulate-bound PAHs in rural households using different types of domestic energy in Henan Province, China.

PubMed

Wu, Fuyong; Liu, Xueping; Wang, Wei; Man, Yu Bon; Chan, Chuen Yu; Liu, Wenxin; Tao, Shu; Wong, Ming Hung

2015-12-01

The concentrations and composition of sixteen PAHs adsorbed to respirable particulate matter (PM10≤10 μm) and inhalable particulate matter (PM2.5≤2.5 μm) were determined during autumn and winter in rural households of Henan Province, China, which used four types of domestic energy [crop residues, coal, liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity] for cooking and heating. The present results show that there were significantly (p<0.05) seasonal variations of particulate-bound PAHs in the rural households. The daily mean concentrations of particulate-bound PAHs in the kitchens, sitting rooms and outdoors were apparently higher in winter than those in autumn, except those in the kitchens using coal. The present study also shows that there were obvious variations of particulate-bound PAHs among the four types of domestic energy used in the rural households. The households using LPG for cooking can, at least in some circumstances, have higher concentrations of PAHs in the kitchens than using crop residues or electricity. In addition, using coal in the sitting rooms seemed to result in apparently higher concentrations of particulate-bound PAHs than using the other three types of domestic energy during winter. The most severe contamination occurred in the kitchens using LPG in winter, where the daily mean concentrations of PM2.5-bound PAHs were up to 762.5±931.2 ng m(-3), indicating that there was serious health risk of inhalation exposure to PAHs in the rural households of Henan Province. Rural residents' exposure to PM2.5-bound PAHs in kitchens would be roughly reduced by 69.8% and 85.5% via replacing coal or crop residues with electricity in autumn. The pilot research would provide important supplementary information to the indoor air pollution studies in rural area. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Kerosene-a toddler's sin: A five years study at tertiary care hospital in western India.

PubMed

Parekh, Utsav; Gupta, Sanjay

2017-04-01

Acute kerosene poisoning is a preventable health problem in children perceived mainly in developing countries. It influences socioeconomic and cultural status of country due to its contribution in morbidity and mortality. As kerosene is widely used as household energy source in India at rural areas as well as urban, it accounts for significant number of poisoning cases mainly accidental in manner. As there are only handful studies from India on kerosene poisoning in children, we planned this study to evaluate incidence of kerosene poisoning in Western Indian population and its clinico-epidemiotoxicological profile. In this retrospective cross-sectional study, we collected data of all the cases of kerosene poisoning diagnosed during five years from 2009 to 2013 at Shri Krishna hospital situated at Karamsad, Gujarat state of Western India. We observed among total 42 cases, all victims were under 3 years of age. Evening in summer months, rural areas, storage of kerosene in household containers, inadequate parental supervision and door-to-hospitalization period emerged as most serious associated factors. Fever, cough, vomiting, tachypnoea and leucocytosis were commonest manifestations while pneumonia was the most common complication. Signs of central nervous system involvement, leucocytosis and vomiting were significantly correlated with pneumonia. Deaths occurred due to pneumonia. Early diagnosis and treatment of pneumonia may reduce mortality and recommendations are made to reduce the incidence of kerosene poisoning. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.

Assessing the Consistency and Microbiological Effectiveness of Household Water Treatment Practices by Urban and Rural Populations Claiming to Treat Their Water at Home: A Case Study in Peru

PubMed Central

Rosa, Ghislaine; Huaylinos, Maria L.; Gil, Ana; Lanata, Claudio; Clasen, Thomas

2014-01-01

Background Household water treatment (HWT) can improve drinking water quality and prevent disease if used correctly and consistently by vulnerable populations. Over 1.1 billion people report treating their water prior to drinking it. These estimates, however, are based on responses to household surveys that may exaggerate the consistency and microbiological performance of the practice—key factors for reducing pathogen exposure and achieving health benefits. The objective of this study was to examine how HWT practices are actually performed by households identified as HWT users, according to international monitoring standards. Methods and Findings We conducted a 6-month case study in urban (n = 117 households) and rural (n = 115 households) Peru, a country in which 82.8% of households report treating their water at home. We used direct observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, spot-checks, and water sampling to assess water treatment practices among households that claimed to treat their drinking water at home. While consistency of reported practices was high in both urban (94.8%) and rural (85.3%) settings, availability of treated water (based on self-report) at time of collection was low, with 67.1% and 23.0% of urban and rural households having treated water at all three sampling visits. Self-reported consumption of untreated water in the home among adults and children <5 was common and this was corroborated during home observations. Drinking water of self-reported users was significantly better than source water in the urban setting and negligible but significantly better in the rural setting. However, only 46.3% and 31.6% of households had drinking water <1 CFU/100 mL at all follow-up visits. Conclusions Our results raise questions about the usefulness of current international monitoring of HWT practices and their usefulness as a proxy indicator for drinking water quality. The lack of consistency and sub-optimal microbiological effectiveness also raises questions about the potential of HWT to prevent waterborne diseases. PMID:25522371

Assessing the consistency and microbiological effectiveness of household water treatment practices by urban and rural populations claiming to treat their water at home: a case study in Peru.

PubMed

Rosa, Ghislaine; Huaylinos, Maria L; Gil, Ana; Lanata, Claudio; Clasen, Thomas

2014-01-01

Household water treatment (HWT) can improve drinking water quality and prevent disease if used correctly and consistently by vulnerable populations. Over 1.1 billion people report treating their water prior to drinking it. These estimates, however, are based on responses to household surveys that may exaggerate the consistency and microbiological performance of the practice-key factors for reducing pathogen exposure and achieving health benefits. The objective of this study was to examine how HWT practices are actually performed by households identified as HWT users, according to international monitoring standards. We conducted a 6-month case study in urban (n = 117 households) and rural (n = 115 households) Peru, a country in which 82.8% of households report treating their water at home. We used direct observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, spot-checks, and water sampling to assess water treatment practices among households that claimed to treat their drinking water at home. While consistency of reported practices was high in both urban (94.8%) and rural (85.3%) settings, availability of treated water (based on self-report) at time of collection was low, with 67.1% and 23.0% of urban and rural households having treated water at all three sampling visits. Self-reported consumption of untreated water in the home among adults and children <5 was common and this was corroborated during home observations. Drinking water of self-reported users was significantly better than source water in the urban setting and negligible but significantly better in the rural setting. However, only 46.3% and 31.6% of households had drinking water <1 CFU/100 mL at all follow-up visits. Our results raise questions about the usefulness of current international monitoring of HWT practices and their usefulness as a proxy indicator for drinking water quality. The lack of consistency and sub-optimal microbiological effectiveness also raises questions about the potential of HWT to prevent waterborne diseases.

Gifting and sharing cigarettes in a rural Chinese village: a cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Rich, Zachary C; Hu, Mi; Xiao, Shuiyuan

2014-11-01

Quantitative measurement of the prevalence of cigarette sharing and gifting in a town in rural China and evaluation of the impact of these practices on individual smoking habits and family expenditures. An interview-based cross-sectional study of 105 households in rural Hunan, China tabulated household cigarette gifting and expenditures. Individual smoking and cigarette sharing activities were also recorded among 198 household members aged >15 years who were resident for at least 6 months. With regard to sharing cigarettes, 92% of men and 19% of women reported being offered a cigarette within the past week. Among previous and current smokers who had attempted to quit smoking, 90% reported that their friends had tried to dissuade them from quitting by tempting them with cigarettes. Concerning gifting cigarettes, 74% of households reported sending packaged cigarettes as gifts during the Chinese New Year Festival at an average expense of 2.8% of household annual income. Although households received an average of 12.4% of their annual cigarette consumption in the form of gifts during the Chinese New Year Festival, no association was found between the amount of cigarettes received by a household and the annual cigarette consumption for that household. Both gifting and sharing cigarettes are common in rural China. Gifting of cigarettes during the New Year Festival is a significant expenditure affecting both smoking and non-smoking households and may be an opportunity for additional mass media marketing. Among current and former smokers, sharing cigarettes in China is a major impediment to smoking cessation. Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.

Social vulnerability of rural households to flood hazards in western mountainous regions of Henan province, China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Liu, Delin; Li, Yue

2016-05-01

Evaluating social vulnerability is a crucial issue in risk and disaster management. In this study, a household social vulnerability index (HSVI) to flood hazards was developed and used to assess the social vulnerability of rural households in western mountainous regions of Henan province, China. Eight key indicators were identified using existing literature and discussions with experts from multiple disciplines and local farmers, and their weights were determined using principle component analysis (PCA) and an expert scoring method. The results showed that (1) the ratio of perennial work in other places, hazard-related training and illiteracy ratio (15+) were the most dominant factors of social vulnerability. (2) The numbers of high, moderate and low vulnerability households were 14, 64 and 16, respectively, which accounted for 14.9, 68.1 and 17.0 % of the total interviewed rural households, respectively. (3) The correlation coefficient between household social vulnerability scores and casualties in a storm flood in July 2010 was significant at 0.05 significance level (r = 0.748), which indicated that the selected indicators and their weights were valid. (4) Some mitigation strategies to reduce household social vulnerability to flood hazards were proposed, which included (1) improving the local residents' income and their disaster-related knowledge and evacuation skills, (2) developing emergency plans and carrying out emergency drills and training, (3) enhancing the accuracy of disaster monitoring and warning systems and (4) establishing a specific emergency management department and comprehensive rescue systems. These results can provide useful information for rural households and local governments to prepare, mitigate and respond to flood hazards, and the corresponding strategies can help local households to reduce their social vulnerability and improve their ability to resist flood hazard.

Abundance and prevalence of Aedes aegypti immatures and relationships with household water storage in rural areas in southern Viet Nam.

PubMed

Nguyen, Le Anh P; Clements, Archie C A; Jeffery, Jason A L; Yen, Nguyen Thi; Nam, Vu Sinh; Vaughan, Gregory; Shinkfield, Ramon; Kutcher, Simon C; Gatton, Michelle L; Kay, Brian H; Ryan, Peter A

2011-06-01

Since 2000, the Government of Viet Nam has committed to provide rural communities with increased access to safe water through a variety of household water supply schemes (wells, ferrocement tanks and jars) and piped water schemes. One possible, unintended consequence of these schemes is the concomitant increase in water containers that may serve as habitats for dengue mosquito immatures, principally Aedes aegypti. To assess these possible impacts we undertook detailed household surveys of Ae. aegypti immatures, water storage containers and various socioeconomic factors in three rural communes in southern Viet Nam. Positive relationships between the numbers of household water storage containers and the prevalence and abundance of Ae. aegypti immatures were found. Overall, water storage containers accounted for 92-97% and 93-96% of the standing crops of III/IV instars and pupae, respectively. Interestingly, households with higher socioeconomic levels had significantly higher numbers of water storage containers and therefore greater risk of Ae. aegypti infestation. Even after provision of piped water to houses, householders continued to store water in containers and there was no observed decrease in water storage container abundance in these houses, compared to those that relied entirely on stored water. These findings highlight the householders' concerns about the limited availability of water and their strong behavoural patterns associated with storage of water. We conclude that household water storage container availability is a major risk factor for infestation with Ae. aegypti immatures, and that recent investment in rural water supply infrastructure are unlikely to mitigate this risk, at least in the short term.

Catastrophic Health Expenditure and Rural Household Impoverishment in China: What Role Does the New Cooperative Health Insurance Scheme Play?

PubMed Central

Wu, Qunhong; Liu, Chaojie; Jiao, Mingli; Liu, Guoxiang; Hao, Yanhua; Ning, Ning

2014-01-01

Objective To determine whether the New Cooperative Medical Insurance Scheme (NCMS) is associated with decreased levels of catastrophic health expenditure and reduced impoverishment due to medical expenses in rural households of China. Methods An analysis of a national representative sample of 38,945 rural households (129,635 people) from the 2008 National Health Service Survey was performed. Logistic regression models used binary indicator of catastrophic health expenditure as dependent variable, with household consumption, demographic characteristics, health insurance schemes, and chronic illness as independent variables. Results Higher percentage of households experiencing catastrophic health expenditure and medical impoverishment correlates to increased health care need. While the higher socio-economic status households had similar levels of catastrophic health expenditure as compared with the lowest. Households covered by the NCMS had similar levels of catastrophic health expenditure and medical impoverishment as those without health insurance. Conclusion Despite over 95% of coverage, the NCMS has failed to prevent catastrophic health expenditure and medical impoverishment. An upgrade of benefit packages is needed, and effective cost control mechanisms on the provider side needs to be considered. PMID:24714605

[Socio-demographic aspects of the rural household in Iran (author's transl)].

PubMed

Mohseni, M

1980-01-01

Explores the dynamics of sociodemographic aspects of rural Iranian households and the effects on economic, demographic and social structures of rural areas where there has been rapid development. The rural population is characterized by early and high fertility and rapid population growth. The patrilinear kinship system contributes to the high birth rate, while judicial, economic and social factors limit women's rights to birth control. Rights and duties towards children, and their rights and duties towards their parents, have a strong influence on decisions concerning fertility. (author's modified)

Food Insecurity and Its Association With School Absenteeism Among Rural School Adolescents in Jimma Zone, Ethiopia.

PubMed

Tamiru, Dessalegn; Melaku, Yabsira; Belachew, Tefera

2017-03-01

Studies showed that poor health and nutrition among school adolescents are major barriers to educational access and achievements in low-income countries. This school-based study was aimed to assess the association of school absenteeism and food insecurity among rural school adolescents from grades 5 to 8 in Jimma zone, Ethiopia. Regression analyses were used to see the strength of association between dependent and independent variables using odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify the predictor of school absenteeism. Validated tools are used to collect household food insecurity data. Results showed that school absenteeism is significantly high among adolescents from food insecure households when compared to adolescents from food secure households ( P <.001). School absenteeism was negatively associated with male sex (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = -0.91, 95% CI -1.85 to -0.03), household food security (adjusted odds ratio = -1.85, 95% CI -3.11 to -0.59), being an elder sibling (AOR = -0.37, 95% CI, -0.62 to -0.12), and mother involvement in decision making (AOR = -0.68, 95% CI, -1.33 to -0.03) while male-headed household was positively associated (AOR = 2.46, 95% CI, 1.37 to 4.56). Generally, this study showed that household food insecurity has significant contribution to school absenteeism among rural adolescents. Therefore, efforts should be made to improve household income earning capacity to reduce the prevalence of school absenteeism among rural school adolescents.

Direct Energy Consumption Associated Emissions by Rural-to-Urban Migrants in Beijing.

PubMed

Ru, Muye; Tao, Shu; Smith, Kirk; Shen, Guofeng; Shen, Huizhong; Huang, Ye; Chen, Han; Chen, Yilin; Chen, Xi; Liu, Junfeng; Li, Bengang; Wang, Xilong; He, Canfei

2015-11-17

Hundreds of millions of rural residents have migrated to cities in China in recent years. Different lifestyles and living conditions lead to substantial changes in their household energy. Here, we present the result of a survey on direct household energy use of low-skilled rural-to-urban migrants in Beijing. The migrants moved up the energy ladder immediately after arriving in the city by replacing biomass fuels with coal, electricity, and liquefied petroleum gas. After the original shift, pattern of household energy use by the migrants has not changed much over decades, likely due to the long-existing household registration system (Hukou). As a result, the mix of energy types used by the rural-to-urban migrants were different from those by long-term urban residents, although total quantities were similar. Shifting from biomass fuels to coal, the migrants emitted 2.4 times more non-neutral CO2 than rural residents and 14% more than urban residents. The migration also resulted in significant increase in emissions of SO2 and mercury but dramatic decreases in some incomplete combustion products including particulate matter. All these changes have significant implication on air quality, health, and climate considering the scale of urbanization in China.

7 CFR 250.65 - Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... 7 Agriculture 4 2011-01-01 2011-01-01 false Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations. 250... Household Programs § 250.65 Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations. (a) Distribution. Distributing agencies which operate a food distribution program on Indian reservations shall comply with the provisions...

7 CFR 250.65 - Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... 7 Agriculture 4 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations. 250... Household Programs § 250.65 Food Distribution Program on Indian reservations. (a) Distribution. Distributing agencies which operate a food distribution program on Indian reservations shall comply with the provisions...

Urban Clan Mothers: Key Households in Cities

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lobo, Susan

2003-01-01

Although each urban Indian community is distinctive, there are a number of common features or characteristics that are found in most urban Indian communities. The salient characteristics of the San Francisco Bay Area Indian community and many other urban Indian communities are that they are multitribal and therefore multicultural; dispersed…

Averting obesity and type 2 diabetes in India through sugar-sweetened beverage taxation: an economic-epidemiologic modeling study.

PubMed

Basu, Sanjay; Vellakkal, Sukumar; Agrawal, Sutapa; Stuckler, David; Popkin, Barry; Ebrahim, Shah

2014-01-01

Taxing sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) has been proposed in high-income countries to reduce obesity and type 2 diabetes. We sought to estimate the potential health effects of such a fiscal strategy in the middle-income country of India, where there is heterogeneity in SSB consumption, patterns of substitution between SSBs and other beverages after tax increases, and vast differences in chronic disease risk within the population. Using consumption and price variations data from a nationally representative survey of 100,855 Indian households, we first calculated how changes in SSB price alter per capita consumption of SSBs and substitution with other beverages. We then incorporated SSB sales trends, body mass index (BMI), and diabetes incidence data stratified by age, sex, income, and urban/rural residence into a validated microsimulation of caloric consumption, glycemic load, overweight/obesity prevalence, and type 2 diabetes incidence among Indian subpopulations facing a 20% SSB excise tax. The 20% SSB tax was anticipated to reduce overweight and obesity prevalence by 3.0% (95% CI 1.6%-5.9%) and type 2 diabetes incidence by 1.6% (95% CI 1.2%-1.9%) among various Indian subpopulations over the period 2014-2023, if SSB consumption continued to increase linearly in accordance with secular trends. However, acceleration in SSB consumption trends consistent with industry marketing models would be expected to increase the impact efficacy of taxation, averting 4.2% of prevalent overweight/obesity (95% CI 2.5-10.0%) and 2.5% (95% CI 1.0-2.8%) of incident type 2 diabetes from 2014-2023. Given current consumption and BMI distributions, our results suggest the largest relative effect would be expected among young rural men, refuting our a priori hypothesis that urban populations would be isolated beneficiaries of SSB taxation. Key limitations of this estimation approach include the assumption that consumer expenditure behavior from prior years, captured in price elasticities, will reflect future behavior among consumers, and potential underreporting of consumption in dietary recall data used to inform our calculations. Sustained SSB taxation at a high tax rate could mitigate rising obesity and type 2 diabetes in India among both urban and rural subpopulations.

Studies in Ambulatory Care Quality Assessment in the Indian Health Service. Volume III: Comparison of Rural Private Practice, Health Maintenance Organizations, and the Indian Health Service.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Nutting, Paul A.; And Others

Utilizing a quality assessment methodology for ambulatory patient care currently under development by the Indian Health Service's (IHS) Office of Research and Development, comparisons were made between results derived from a pilot test in IHS service units, 2 metropolitan Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO), and 3 rural private practices.…

Household food security status in the Northeast of Iran: a cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Gholami, Ali; Foroozanfar, Zohre

2015-01-01

An important issue the world faces today is ensuring that households living in different countries have access to enough food to maintain a healthy life. Food insecurity is prevalent in both developed and developing countries. The objective of this study was to assess the household food security status and related factors among different rural districts of Neyshabur (A city in northeast of Iran). Of 5000 selected rural households 4647 were studied in this cross-sectional study. A validated short questionnaire (with six questions) was used to measure food security. Chi-square test and logistic regression were used for data analysis through SPSS software. In total, 2747 households (59.1%) were identified as food secure. The highest prevalence of food security was observed in Central district (62.3%) and the lowest was in Miyanjolgeh district (52.9%). Backward multiple logistic regression revealed that car ownership, presence of chronic disease in household and household income (per month) were significantly associated with food security in all of surveyed districts (p< 0.05). According to results of this study, lower than 60% of Neyshabur rural households were food secure and economic variables were the most important factors. Therefore, a special attention should be paid to this health problem in these regions.

Exploring the association of urban or rural county status and environmental, nutrition- and lifestyle-related resources with the efficacy of SNAP-Ed (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-Education) to improve food security.

PubMed

Rivera, Rebecca L; Dunne, Jennifer; Maulding, Melissa K; Wang, Qi; Savaiano, Dennis A; Nickols-Richardson, Sharon M; Eicher-Miller, Heather A

2018-04-01

To investigate the association of policy, systems and environmental factors with improvement in household food security among low-income Indiana households with children after a Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-Education (SNAP-Ed) direct nutrition education intervention. Household food security scores measured by the eighteen-item US Household Food Security Survey Module in a longitudinal randomized and controlled SNAP-Ed intervention study conducted from August 2013 to April 2015 were the response variable. Metrics to quantify environmental factors including classification of urban or rural county status; the number of SNAP-authorized stores, food pantries and recreational facilities; average fair market housing rental price; and natural amenity rank were collected from government websites and data sets covering the years 2012-2016 and used as covariates in mixed multiple linear regression modelling. Thirty-seven Indiana counties, USA, 2012-2016. SNAP-Ed eligible adults from households with children (n 328). None of the environmental factors investigated were significantly associated with changes in household food security in this exploratory study. SNAP-Ed improves food security regardless of urban or rural location or the environmental factors investigated. Expansion of SNAP-Ed in rural areas may support food access among the low-income population and reduce the prevalence of food insecurity in rural compared with urban areas. Further investigation into policy, systems and environmental factors of the Social Ecological Model are warranted to better understand their relationship with direct SNAP-Ed and their impact on diet-related behaviours and food security.

Household Schooling Decisions in Rural Pakistan. Working Paper.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Sawada, Yasuyuki; Lokshin, Michael

A study of household schooling decisions in rural Pakistan found serious supply-side constraints on female primary education in the villages studied. Field surveys of 25 Pakistani villages were integrated with economic theory and econometric analysis to investigate the sequential nature of educational decisions. The full-information maximum…

75 FR 3642 - Special Evaluation Assistance for Rural Communities and Households Program

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-01-22

... the Special Evaluation Assistance for Rural Communities and Households (SEARCH) Program as authorized.... 1926 (a)(2)). The amendment added the new SEARCH grant program under which the Secretary is authorized... following methods: Federal eRulemaking Portal: Go to http://www.regulations.gov and in the ``Search...

Industrialization and Household Complexity in Rural Taiwan.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lavely, William

1990-01-01

In 274 Taiwanese townships, farm household complexity in 1960 and 1970 was positively related to the proportion of the labor force in nonagricultural occupations. The close proximity of industry to family farms in Taiwan has reduced rural to urban migration usually associated with industrialization. Contains 46 references. (Author/SV)

Household and area income levels are associated with smoking status in the Korean adult population.

PubMed

Yun, Woo-Jun; Rhee, Jung-Ae; Kim, Sun A; Kweon, Sun-Seog; Lee, Young-Hoon; Ryu, So-Yeon; Park, Soon-Woo; Kim, Dong Hyun; Shin, Min-Ho

2015-01-31

Some previous studies have suggested that area-level characteristics have effects on smoking. The aim of this study was to evaluate the associations between household income and area income on smoking in Korean adults. This study was based on the Korean Community Health Survey (KCHS) performed in South Korea, between September and November 2009. In total, 222,242 subjects (103,124 men and 119,118 women) were included in the analysis. Information on smoking status was collected using a standardized questionnaire. Income status was determined by monthly household income. Household income was categorized as: <1 million won; <2 million won; <3 million won; and ≥3 million won. Area-level income categorized as quartiles. Data were analyzed using multilevel regression models. The analysis was conducted separately urban and rural, by sex. The lowest household income group had a higher risk of smoking than the highest household income group in both urban and rural areas for both men and women after adjusting for individual characteristics (urban men: odds ration [OR], 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.36-1.53; rural men: OR, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.25-1.42; urban women: OR, 2.38; 95% CI, 2.06-2.76; rural women: OR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.25-1.83). In men, the lowest area-level income group had a higher risk for smoking than the highest area-level income group in urban areas after adjusting for individual characteristics and household income (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.02-1.33). In women, the lowest area-level income group had a lower risk for smoking than the highest area-level income group in rural areas after adjusting for individual characteristics and household income (OR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.39-0.70). However, no association was observed between area-level income and smoking in rural areas for men or in urban areas for women. The results showed that smoking is strongly associated with household income status in both men and women, and area-level income is partly associated with smoking. Effects of area-level income on smoking differed by sex and region. These findings suggest that area characteristics have contextual effects on health related behavior independent of individual characteristics.

Exploring unobserved household living conditions in multilevel choice modeling: An application to contraceptive adoption by Indian women.

PubMed

Dias, José G; de Oliveira, Isabel Tiago

2018-01-01

This research analyzes the effect of the poverty-wealth dimension on contraceptive adoption by Indian women when no direct measures of income/expenditures are available to use as covariates. The index-Household Living Conditions (HLC)-is based on household assets and dwelling characteristics and is computed by an item response model simultaneously with the choice model in a new single-step approach. That is, the HLC indicator is treated as a latent covariate measured by a set of items, it depends on a set of concomitant variables, and explains contraceptive choices in a probit regression. Additionally, the model accounts for complex survey design and sample weights in a multilevel framework. Regarding our case study on contraceptive adoption by Indian women, results show that women with better household living conditions tend to adopt contraception more often than their counterparts. This effect is significant after controlling other factors such as education, caste, and religion. The external validation of the indicator shows that it can also be used at aggregate levels of analysis (e.g., county or state) whenever no other indicators of household living conditions are available.

Exploring unobserved household living conditions in multilevel choice modeling: An application to contraceptive adoption by Indian women

PubMed Central

2018-01-01

This research analyzes the effect of the poverty-wealth dimension on contraceptive adoption by Indian women when no direct measures of income/expenditures are available to use as covariates. The index–Household Living Conditions (HLC)–is based on household assets and dwelling characteristics and is computed by an item response model simultaneously with the choice model in a new single-step approach. That is, the HLC indicator is treated as a latent covariate measured by a set of items, it depends on a set of concomitant variables, and explains contraceptive choices in a probit regression. Additionally, the model accounts for complex survey design and sample weights in a multilevel framework. Regarding our case study on contraceptive adoption by Indian women, results show that women with better household living conditions tend to adopt contraception more often than their counterparts. This effect is significant after controlling other factors such as education, caste, and religion. The external validation of the indicator shows that it can also be used at aggregate levels of analysis (e.g., county or state) whenever no other indicators of household living conditions are available. PMID:29385187

Comparative Analysis of Households Solid Waste Management in Rural and Urban Ghana

PubMed Central

Appiah, Divine Odame; Poku, Adjoa Afriyie; Garsonu, Emmanuel Kofi

2016-01-01

The comparative analysis of solid waste management between rural and urban Ghana is largely lacking. This study investigated the solid waste situation and the organisation of solid waste management in both urban and rural settings from the perspective of households. The study employed cross-sectional survey covering both rural and urban districts in the Ashanti and Greater Accra Regions of Ghana. The study systematically sampled houses from which 400 households and respondents were randomly selected. Pearson's Chi square test was used to compare demographic and socioeconomic variables in rural and urban areas. Multivariate Test, Tests of Between-Subjects Effects, and Pair-Wise Comparisons were performed through one-way MANOVA to determine whether or not solid waste situations in rural and urban areas are significantly different. The results revealed that location significantly affects solid waste management in Ghana. Urban communities had lower mean scores than rural communities for poor solid waste situation in homes. However, urban communities had higher mean scores than rural communities for poor solid waste situation in principal streets and dumping sites. The study recommends that the local government authorities implement very comprehensive policies (sanitary inspection, infrastructure development, and community participation) that will take into consideration the specific solid waste management needs of both urban and rural areas. PMID:27807453

Comparative Analysis of Households Solid Waste Management in Rural and Urban Ghana.

PubMed

Boateng, Simon; Amoako, Prince; Appiah, Divine Odame; Poku, Adjoa Afriyie; Garsonu, Emmanuel Kofi

2016-01-01

The comparative analysis of solid waste management between rural and urban Ghana is largely lacking. This study investigated the solid waste situation and the organisation of solid waste management in both urban and rural settings from the perspective of households. The study employed cross-sectional survey covering both rural and urban districts in the Ashanti and Greater Accra Regions of Ghana. The study systematically sampled houses from which 400 households and respondents were randomly selected. Pearson's Chi square test was used to compare demographic and socioeconomic variables in rural and urban areas. Multivariate Test, Tests of Between-Subjects Effects, and Pair-Wise Comparisons were performed through one-way MANOVA to determine whether or not solid waste situations in rural and urban areas are significantly different. The results revealed that location significantly affects solid waste management in Ghana. Urban communities had lower mean scores than rural communities for poor solid waste situation in homes. However, urban communities had higher mean scores than rural communities for poor solid waste situation in principal streets and dumping sites. The study recommends that the local government authorities implement very comprehensive policies (sanitary inspection, infrastructure development, and community participation) that will take into consideration the specific solid waste management needs of both urban and rural areas.

Household food insecurity and dietary diversity as correlates of maternal and child undernutrition in rural Cambodia.

PubMed

McDonald, C M; McLean, J; Kroeun, H; Talukder, A; Lynd, L D; Green, T J

2015-02-01

To assess household food insecurity and dietary diversity as correlates of maternal and child anthropometric status and anemia in rural Cambodia. Trained interviewers administered a survey to 900 households in four rural districts of Prey Veng, Cambodia. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) were used to assess household food insecurity and dietary diversity. The height, weight and hemoglobin concentration of the mother and youngest child under 5 years in each household were measured. Multivariate logistic regression models were constructed to assess the association between household food insecurity and dietary diversity, and child stunting and wasting, maternal thinness, maternal and child anemia. The mean (s.d.) HFIAS and HDDS scores were 5.3 (3.9) and 4.7 (1.6), respectively. The respective prevalences of mild, moderate and severe food insecurity were 33, 37 and 12%. Maternal thinness, child stunting and child wasting were present in 14.6, 25.4 and 8.1% of respondents, respectively. The risk of maternal thinness, but not child stunting or wasting, increased as the severity of household food insecurity increased. Household food insecurity was also positively associated with maternal, but not child, anemia. Household dietary diversity status was not significantly associated with any of the outcomes we assessed. Efforts to improve household food security are important as a means of promoting maternal nutritional status; however, additional research is needed to better understand the role of other factors that are driving the burden of child undernutrition in Cambodia.

Treatment-seeking behaviour, cost burdens and coping strategies among rural and urban households in Coastal Kenya: an equity analysis.

PubMed

Chuma, Jane; Gilson, Lucy; Molyneux, Catherine

2007-05-01

Ill-health can inflict costs on households directly through spending on treatment and indirectly through impacting on labour productivity. The financial burden can be high and, for poor households, contributes significantly to declining welfare. We investigated socio-economic inequities in self-reported illnesses, treatment-seeking behaviour, cost burdens and coping strategies in a rural and urban setting along the Kenyan coast. We conducted a survey of 294 rural and 576 urban households, 9 FGDs and 9 in-depth interviews in each setting. Key findings were significantly higher levels of reported chronic and acute conditions in the rural setting, differences in treatment-seeking patterns by socio-economic status (SES) and by setting, and regressive cost burdens in both areas. These data suggest the need for greater governmental and non-governmental efforts towards protecting the poor from catastrophic illness cost burdens. Promising health sector options are elimination of user fees, at least in targeted hardship areas, developing more flexible charging systems, and improving quality of care in all facilities. The data also strongly support the need for a multi-sectoral approach to protecting households. Potential interventions beyond the health sector include supporting the social networks that are key to household livelihood strategies and promoting micro-finance schemes that enable small amounts of credit to be accessed with minimal interest rates.

Rural livelihoods and household adaptation to extreme flooding in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Motsholapheko, M. R.; Kgathi, D. L.; Vanderpost, C.

Adaptation to flooding is now widely adopted as an appropriate policy option since flood mitigation measures largely exceed the capability of most developing countries. In wetlands, such as the Okavango Delta, adaptation is more appropriate as these systems serve as natural flood control mechanisms. The Okavango Delta system is subject to annual variability in flooding with extreme floods resulting in adverse impacts on rural livelihoods. This study therefore seeks to improve the general understanding of rural household livelihood adaptation to extreme flooding in the Okavango Delta. Specific objectives are: (1) to assess household access to forms of capital necessary for enhanced capacity to adapt, (2) to assess the impacts of extreme flooding on household livelihoods, and (3) to identify and assess household livelihood responses to extreme flooding. The study uses the sustainable livelihood and the socio-ecological frameworks to analyse the livelihood patterns and resilience to extreme flooding. Results from a survey of 623 households in five villages, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and review of literature, indicate that access to natural capital was generally high, but low for financial, physical, human and social capital. Households mainly relied on farm-based livelihood activities, some non-farm activities, limited rural trade and public transfers. In 2004 and 2009, extreme flooding resulted in livelihood disruptions in the study areas. The main impacts included crop damage, household displacement, destruction of household property, livestock drowning and mud-trapping, the destruction of public infrastructure and disruption of services. The main household coping strategies were labour switching to other livelihood activities, temporary relocation to less affected areas, use of canoes for early harvesting or evacuation and government assistance, particularly for the most vulnerable households. Household adaptive strategies included livelihood diversification, long-term mobility and training in non-agricultural skills. The study concludes that household capacity to adapt to extreme flooding in the study villages largely depends on access to natural capital. This is threatened by population growth, land use changes, policy shifts, upstream developments, global economic changes and flood variations due to climate variability and change.

Epidemiology of Hymenolepis nana infections in primary school children in urban and rural communities in Zimbabwe.

PubMed

Mason, P R; Patterson, B A

1994-04-01

Fecal specimens were obtained on 3 occasions at 10-12 wk intervals from 315 children in 3 rural villages in Zimbabwe and from 351 children in the high-density suburbs of an adjacent small town. Specimens were examined qualitatively and quantitatively for eggs of Hymenolepis nana, and these were found in 142 (21%) children. Infections occurred more frequently in younger children in the urban area but in older children in rural areas. The prevalence in urban areas (24%) was higher than in rural areas (18%), and in urban areas infection correlated with low "hygiene scores" (determined by observation) and with the presence in the household of an infected sibling. The prevalence of infection in the 3 rural communities did not correlate with availability of water, number of households per toilet, with low "hygiene scores," or with the presence of an infected sibling. Treatment with a single oral dose of 15 mg/kg praziquantel cured 84% of the infected children. New or reinfections occurred more frequently in households that had an infected sibling in an urban but not rural setting. The study demonstrates distinct differences in the transmission of H. nana infection in rural and urban communities. The data suggest intrafamily transmission in urban areas, particularly in households with poor hygiene behavior, leading to primary infection early in life. In rural areas, the prevalence of infection and the incidence of reinfection were highest in children of school age, and there was little evidence for intrafamily transmission of the parasite.

Association of Health and Food Expenditures Inequality With Health Outcomes: A Case Study on Iranian Rural Households

PubMed Central

Naghdi, Seyran; Ghiasvand, Hesam; Shaarbafchi Zadeh, Nasrin; Azami, Saeidreza; Moradi, Tayebeh

2014-01-01

Background: Inequality in households’ and individuals' consumption expenditures is one of the most important aspects of health status difference among households and individuals. Objectives: We investigated the impact of some macro-economic factors specially inequality factors on the Iranian rural health status since 1986 through 2012. Patients and Methods: We conducted a longitudinal ecological and analytical study. The average sample size was 14602 households whom Iranian Statistics Center selected by a multi-stages clustering sampling approach. All required data has been collected from Iranian Statistics Centre and Deputy for Curial Affaires of Iranian Ministry of Health. We calculated the Gini coefficients for the rural food and health expenditures, then conducted a transloge autoregressive order one (AR1) to investigate the association between the Iranian rural households' key mortality rates and the food and health expenditure Gini coefficients, time trend, GDP per capita (PPP), and GDP per capita Gini coefficients. Results: The mean of Gini coefficients were 0.137 and 0.21 for the rural food expenditures inequality based on current and constant price, respectively. In addition, the mean of Gini coefficients were 0.26 and 0.31 for the rural health expenditures inequality based on current and constant price, respectively. The time trend, transloged form of Gini coefficients for health expenditures and GDP per capita Gini coefficients presented a significant negative correlation with transloged form of neonatal mortality rate. With regard to the transloged form of under five mortality we observed a significant negative correlation with time trend and transloged form of Gini coefficients for health expenditure and GDP per capita. Finally, there was a significant negative correlation between transloged forms of maternal mortality rate. Conclusions: Iranian policy makers should consider the rural health and food expenditures inequality and try to adopt more effective policies and plans to decrease it. In addition, they should improve the macro-economic factors to improve the rural households' health status. PMID:24829771

Health care expenditure of households in magway, myanmar.

PubMed

Khaing, Inn Kynn; Malik, Amonov; Oo, Myo; Hamajima, Nobuyuki

2015-02-01

Myanmar has a high proportion of out-of-pocket (OOP) health care expenditures with limited cost-sharing mechanisms. In Myanmar, there were limited data on the frequency of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) due to OOP payments, as well as on the factors associated with CHE. This study aimed to investigate health care expenditure, the frequency of CHE, and the factors influencing CHE among households in Magway, Myanmar. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted in 2012 for 700 households (350 in urban areas and 350 in rural areas) in Magway. CHE was defined as a condition wherein the total amount of household health care expenditure was 40% or more of non-food expenditure in the past year. Multiple logistic regression analysis was applied to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confident intervals (CIs) of CHE. In the previous year, 28.3% of 350 urban households and 51.4% of 350 rural households utilized outpatient services. Households with at least one member admitted to a medical facility were 10.0% and 12.9%, respectively. Those with CHE were 25.2% in the urban areas and 22.7% in the rural areas. The adjusted OR of CHE was 7.79 (95% CI 3.73-16.26) for hospitalization and 1.08 (95% CI 0.36-3.23) for outpatient care, relative to no services used. These findings indicated that nearly one fourth of households in Magway faced CHE due to inpatient care. A safety-net mechanism to protect households from CHE in Myanmar seems essential.

Economic Impact of Maternal Death on Households in Rural China: A Prospective Cohort Study

PubMed Central

Wang, Yan; Huntington, Dale

2013-01-01

Objective To assess the economic impact of maternal death on rural Chinese households during the year after maternal death. Methods A prospective cohort study matched 183 households who had suffered a maternal death to 346 households that experienced childbirth without maternal death in rural areas of three provinces in China. Surveys were conducted at baseline (1–3 months after maternal death or childbirth) and one year after baseline using the quantitative questionnaire. We investigated household income, expenditure, accumulated debts, and self-reported household economic status. Difference-in-Difference (DID), linear regression, and logistic regression analyses were used to compare the economic status between households with and without maternal death. Findings The households with maternal death had a higher risk of self-reported “household economy became worse” during the follow-up period (adjusted OR = 6.04, p<0.001). During the follow-up period, at the household level, DID estimator of income and expenditure showed that households with maternal death had a significant relative reduction of US$ 869 and US$ 650, compared to those households that experienced childbirth with no adverse event (p<0.001). Converted to proportions of change, an average of 32.0% reduction of annual income and 24.9% reduction of annual expenditure were observed in households with a maternal death. The mean increase of accumulated debts in households with a maternal death was 3.2 times as high as that in households without maternal death (p = 0.024). Expenditure pattern of households with maternal death changed, with lower consumption on food (p = 0.037), clothes and commodity (p = 0.003), traffic and communication (p = 0.022) and higher consumption on cigarette or alcohol (p = 0.014). Conclusion Compared with childbirth, maternal death had adverse impact on household economy, including higher risk of self-reported “household economy became worse”, decreased income and expenditure, increased debts and changed expenditure pattern. PMID:24204648

Parent-adolescent communication about sex in rural India: U.S.-India collaboration to prevent adolescent HIV.

PubMed

Guilamo-Ramos, Vincent; Soletti, Asha Banu; Burnette, Denise; Sharma, Shilpi; Leavitt, Sarah; McCarthy, Katharine

2012-06-01

In this article, we examine parent-adolescent communication about sex among rural Indian youth and their parents. We conducted in-depth interviews (N = 40) with mothers, fathers, and adolescent boys and girls aged 14 to 18 years in a rural community in Maharashtra, India. In the context of key cultural factors, including gender-related norms, we explore issues of sexual health and critically assess widely held beliefs that Indian parents are unwilling or unable to discuss sex-related topics with their children. Our findings suggest that despite communication barriers, e.g., lack of knowledge and cultural proscriptions, Indian families are interested in and willing to communicate about sex-related topics. Future research should seek to determine the viability of family-based HIV prevention interventions for Indian adolescents.

Has the Financial Protection Been Materialized in Iranian Health System? Analyzing Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2003-2014.

PubMed

Ghiasvand, Hesam; Olyaeemanesh, Alireza; Majdzadeh, Reza; Abdi, Zhaleh; Mobinizadeh, Mohammadreza

2018-01-03

The financial protection against catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditures is one of the main aspects of the universal health coverage. This study aimed to present a clear picture of the financial protection situation in Iran from 2003-2014. This is an analytical study on secondary data of Statistical Center of Iran (SCI). The study has some policy implications for policy makers; therefore, it is an applied one. Data related to the Iranian rural and urban household payments on health expenditures was obtained from annual surveys of the SCI. WHO researchers' approach was used to calculate the Fairness of Financial Contribution Indicator (FFCI), the headcount and overshoot ratios of catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditures. A logistic regression was conducted to identify the determinants of probability of occurrence of catastrophic health expenditure among Iranian households in 2014. The mean of FFCI for rural and urban households was 0.854 (0.41) and 0.867 (0.32), respectively. The average headcount ratios of catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditures were 1.32% (0.24) and 0.33% (P=0.006) for rural households and 1.4% (0.6) and 0.28% (P=0.001) for urban households. Concerning rural households, the overshoot of catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditures was 14.94% (P=0.001) and 7.22% (0.53); it was 15.59% (1.54) and 7.76% (0.52) for urban households. No significant and considerable change was found in the headcount ratios of catastrophic and impoverishing health expenditure and in their overshoot or gap amounts. This suggested a lack of well-designed and effective schemes for materializing the financial protection in Iran.

Mother and Grandmother Parenting in Low-Income Three-Generation Rural Households

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Barnett, Melissa A.

2008-01-01

This study draws data from the Family Life Project to examine parenting behaviors observed for 105 mothers and grandmothers raising an infant in rural low-income multigenerational households. Multilevel models are used to examine the relationships between maternal age and psychological distress and parenting of the infant by both generations. The…

Economic burden of malaria in rural Tanzania: variations by socioeconomic status and season.

PubMed

Somi, Masha F; Butler, James R G; Vahid, Farshid; Njau, Joseph D; Kachur, S Patrick; Abdulla, Salim

2007-10-01

To determine the economic burden of malaria in a rural Tanzanian setting and identify any differences by socioeconomic status and season. Interviews of 557 households in south eastern Tanzania between May and December 2004, on consumption and malaria-related costs. Malaria-related expenses were significantly higher in the dry, non-malarious season than in the rainy season. Households sought treatment more frequently and from more expensive service providers in the dry season, when they have more money. Malaria expenses did not vary significantly across socioeconomic status quintiles, but poorer households spent a higher proportion of their consumption in both seasons. Poorer households bear a greater economic burden from malaria relative to their consumption than better-off households. Households are particularly vulnerable to malaria in the rainy season, when malaria prevalence is highest but liquidity is lower. Alternative strategies to assist households to cope with seasonal liquidity issues, including insurance, should be investigated.

Financial Management and Culture: The American Indian Case

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Danes, Sharon M.; Garbow, Jennifer; Jokela, Becky Hagen

2016-01-01

Study investigates distal and proximal contextual influences of the American Indian culture that affect financial decisions and behaviors. Primary household financial managers were interviewed. Study was grounded in Deacon and Firebaugh's "Family Resource Management" theory. Findings indicated that American Indians view many concepts…

Perceived risk of home fire and escape plans in rural households.

PubMed

Yang, Jingzhen; Peek-Asa, Corinne; Allareddy, Veerasathpurush; Zwerling, Craig; Lundell, John

2006-01-01

Homes in rural areas have a higher fire death rate. Although successful exit from a home fire could greatly reduce fire-related deaths and injuries, little is known about factors associated with behaviors of developing and practicing an escape plan. Between July 2003 and June 2004, a baseline survey was administered, in person, to 691 rural households. Information collected included a history of previous home fire, perceived risk of home fire, existing smoke alarms and their working status, and home fire safety practices, as well as home and occupant characteristics. The association of residents' perceived risk of home fire and fire escape plans was assessed. Forty-two percent of rural households reported having a fire escape plan. Of the households with a plan, less than two thirds (56.9%) discussed or practiced the plan. Households with children were more likely to develop and practice a fire escape plan. Households with an elderly or disabled person were less likely to develop or practice the plan. Compared to respondents who perceived low or very low risk of home fire, those who perceived a high or very high risk had 3.5 times greater odds of having a fire escape plan and 5.5 times greater odds of discussion or practicing their plan. Increasing awareness of the potential risk of home fires may help occupants develop and practice home fire escape plans. In order to reduce fire deaths and injuries, different strategies need to be developed for those households in which the occupants lack the ability to escape.

Assessing the effects of rural livelihood transition on non-point source pollution: a coupled ABM-IECM model.

PubMed

Yuan, Chengcheng; Liu, Liming; Ye, Jinwei; Ren, Guoping; Zhuo, Dong; Qi, Xiaoxing

2017-05-01

Water pollution caused by anthropogenic activities and driven by changes in rural livelihood strategies in an agricultural system has received increasing attention in recent decades. To simulate the effects of rural household livelihood transition on non-point source (NPS) pollution, a model combining an agent-based model (ABM) and an improved export coefficient model (IECM) was developed. The ABM was adopted to simulate the dynamic process of household livelihood transition, and the IECM was employed to estimate the effects of household livelihood transition on NPS pollution. The coupled model was tested in a small catchment in the Dongting Lake region, China. The simulated results reveal that the transition of household livelihood strategies occurred with the changes in the prices of rice, pig, and labor. Thus, the cropping system, land-use intensity, resident population, and number of pigs changed in the small catchment from 2000 to 2014. As a result of these changes, the total nitrogen load discharged into the river initially increased from 6841.0 kg in 2000 to 8446.3 kg in 2004 and then decreased to 6063.9 kg in 2014. Results also suggest that rural living, livestock, paddy field, and precipitation alternately became the main causes of NPS pollution in the small catchment, and the midstream region of the small catchment was the primary area for NPS pollution from 2000 to 2014. Despite some limitations, the coupled model provides an innovative way to simulate the effects of rural household livelihood transition on NPS pollution with the change of socioeconomic factors, and thereby identify the key factors influencing water pollution to provide valuable suggestions on how agricultural environmental risks can be reduced through the regulation of the behaviors of farming households in the future.

Rural income transfer programs and rural household food security in Ethiopia.

PubMed

Uraguchi, Zenebe B

2012-01-01

Based on household food security surveys conducted in Ethiopia, this study seeks to understand the roles and limitations of income transfer projects as determinants of households’ food security. By covering the Food-For-Work Programs (FFWPs) and the Productive Safety Net Programs (PSNPs), the study shows that these programs served as temporary safety nets for food availability, but they were limited in boosting the dietary diversity of households and their coping strategies. Households which participated in the programs increased their supply of food as a temporary buffer to seasonal asset depletion. However, participation in the programs was marred by inclusion error (food-secure households were included) and exclusion error (food-insecure households were excluded). Income transfer projects alone were not robust determinants of household food security. Rather, socio-demographic variables of education and family size as well as agricultural input of land size were found to be significant in accounting for changes in households’ food security. The programs in the research sites were funded through foreign aid, and the findings of the study imply the need to reexamine the approaches adopted by bilateral donors in allocating aid to Ethiopia. At the same time the study underscores the need to improve domestic policy framework in terms of engendering rural local institutional participation in project management.

The cost-effectiveness of health education in improving knowledge and awareness about intestinal parasites in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Mascie-Taylor, C G N; Karim, R; Karim, E; Akhtar, S; Ahmed, T; Montanari, R M

2003-12-01

The impact of regular health education in improving knowledge, attitude and practices in the control of intestinal parasites was examined in four rural areas of Bangladesh; two areas received health education and the other two areas were controls. By the end of the 18-month study households receiving health education showed highly significant improvements in knowledge, water and sanitation facilities and personal hygiene compared with households in the control areas. Improving knowledge by 1% cost between US dollars 0.75 and 0.82 per household, while a 1% improvement in personal hygiene cost between US dollars 1.10 and 1.32 per household and water and sanitation between US dollars 1.39 and 1.52 per household.

Nutritional assessment of rural villages and estates in Peninsular Malaysia: I Socio-economic profile of households.

PubMed

Chee, H; Khor, G; Tee, E S

1997-03-01

A nutritional study was carried out on six (five rural and one urban) low income groups in Peninsular Malaysia from 1992-1995. In this paper, the socio-economic data for the five rural groups - padi farmers, rubber smallholders, coconut smallholders, estate workers, and fishermen - are presented. With the exception of the estate workers, the sample was predominantly Malay, with an overall mean household size of 5.30. Household incomes were generally low, and 47% of all households had incomes that were below the poverty line income (PLI) of RM405. Based on this PLI, the prevalence of poverty was above 50% among the padi, rubber, coconut, and fishing households. Nevertheless, the study population appeared to be better off in terms of the other indicators examined. Poultry rearing, for example, was widespread in the padi, rubber, and coconut villages; 65% of all households owned at least one motorised vehicle, 53% owned a refrigerator, and 83% owned a television set. Furthermore, over 80% of all households had access to piped water, 96% had electricity supply, and over 90% had a flush or pour-flush latrine. In comparison to the 1979-1983 poverty villages study (Chong et al., 1984), the households in the current study enjoyed better living conditions. Strict comparisons between the two studies, however, is difficult owing to the different criteria adopted in the selection of the study villages.

Rural Households' Attitude and Economic Strategies Toward the Conversion of Cropland to Forest and Grassland Program (CCFG): A Case Study in Qira, China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Ma, Hua; Lu, Yonglong; Xing, Ying; He, Guizhen; Sun, Yamei

2009-06-01

The Conversion of Cropland to Forest and Grassland Program (CCFG), which was initiated by the Chinese government in 1999, is a cropland retirement program with integrated objectives for ecological preservation and local development. The purpose of this article was to study the influencing factors of attitude and economic strategies in rural households toward the CCFG. Rural households’ knowledge, attitude and economic strategies toward the CCFG were investigated through a questionnaire survey in Qira, China. Influencing factors of attitude and strategies of households were analyzed using a logit model technique. The analysis indicated that household’s income level, environmental knowledge of the program, and program implementation were significant influencing factors in a household’s attitude toward the CCFG, while major influencing factors of household strategies were their regional background and availability of income generation sources. Meaningful association was not found between attitude and strategy choices. Rich households had more strategy choices, while poor households were usually confined to low input strategies with uncertain income. To sustain their livelihood, the poor need extra assistances in marketing, loan granting, employment training, information, and technical services.

Microbiological Evaluation of Household Drinking Water Treatment in Rural China Shows Benefits of Electric Kettles: A Cross-Sectional Study

PubMed Central

Cohen, Alasdair; Tao, Yong; Luo, Qing; Zhong, Gemei; Romm, Jeff; Colford, John M.; Ray, Isha

2015-01-01

Background In rural China ~607 million people drink boiled water, yet little is known about prevailing household water treatment (HWT) methods or their effectiveness. Boiling, the most common HWT method globally, is microbiologically effective, but household air pollution (HAP) from burning solid fuels causes cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and black carbon emissions exacerbate climate change. Boiled water is also easily re-contaminated. Our study was designed to identify the HWT methods used in rural China and to evaluate their effectiveness. Methods We used a geographically stratified cross-sectional design in rural Guangxi Province to collect survey data from 450 households in the summer of 2013. Household drinking water samples were collected and assayed for Thermotolerant Coliforms (TTC), and physicochemical analyses were conducted for village drinking water sources. In the winter of 2013–2104, we surveyed 120 additional households and used remote sensors to corroborate self-reported boiling data. Findings Our HWT prevalence estimates were: 27.1% boiling with electric kettles, 20.3% boiling with pots, 34.4% purchasing bottled water, and 18.2% drinking untreated water (for these analyses we treated bottled water as a HWT method). Households using electric kettles had the lowest concentrations of TTC (73% lower than households drinking untreated water). Multilevel mixed-effects regression analyses showed that electric kettles were associated with the largest Log10TTC reduction (-0.60, p<0.001), followed by bottled water (-0.45, p<0.001) and pots (-0.44, p<0.01). Compared to households drinking untreated water, electric kettle users also had the lowest risk of having TTC detected in their drinking water (risk ratio, RR = 0.49, 0.34–0.70, p<0.001), followed by bottled water users (RR = 0.70, 0.53–0.93, p<0.05) and households boiling with pots (RR = 0.74, 0.54–1.02, p = 0.06). Conclusion As far as we are aware, this is the first HWT-focused study in China, and the first to quantify the comparative advantage of boiling with electric kettles over pots. Our results suggest that electric kettles could be used to rapidly expand safe drinking water access and reduce HAP exposure in rural China. PMID:26421716

Microbiological Evaluation of Household Drinking Water Treatment in Rural China Shows Benefits of Electric Kettles: A Cross-Sectional Study.

PubMed

Cohen, Alasdair; Tao, Yong; Luo, Qing; Zhong, Gemei; Romm, Jeff; Colford, John M; Ray, Isha

2015-01-01

In rural China ~607 million people drink boiled water, yet little is known about prevailing household water treatment (HWT) methods or their effectiveness. Boiling, the most common HWT method globally, is microbiologically effective, but household air pollution (HAP) from burning solid fuels causes cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and black carbon emissions exacerbate climate change. Boiled water is also easily re-contaminated. Our study was designed to identify the HWT methods used in rural China and to evaluate their effectiveness. We used a geographically stratified cross-sectional design in rural Guangxi Province to collect survey data from 450 households in the summer of 2013. Household drinking water samples were collected and assayed for Thermotolerant Coliforms (TTC), and physicochemical analyses were conducted for village drinking water sources. In the winter of 2013-2104, we surveyed 120 additional households and used remote sensors to corroborate self-reported boiling data. Our HWT prevalence estimates were: 27.1% boiling with electric kettles, 20.3% boiling with pots, 34.4% purchasing bottled water, and 18.2% drinking untreated water (for these analyses we treated bottled water as a HWT method). Households using electric kettles had the lowest concentrations of TTC (73% lower than households drinking untreated water). Multilevel mixed-effects regression analyses showed that electric kettles were associated with the largest Log10TTC reduction (-0.60, p<0.001), followed by bottled water (-0.45, p<0.001) and pots (-0.44, p<0.01). Compared to households drinking untreated water, electric kettle users also had the lowest risk of having TTC detected in their drinking water (risk ratio, RR = 0.49, 0.34-0.70, p<0.001), followed by bottled water users (RR = 0.70, 0.53-0.93, p<0.05) and households boiling with pots (RR = 0.74, 0.54-1.02, p = 0.06). As far as we are aware, this is the first HWT-focused study in China, and the first to quantify the comparative advantage of boiling with electric kettles over pots. Our results suggest that electric kettles could be used to rapidly expand safe drinking water access and reduce HAP exposure in rural China.

Breastfeeding practices in urban and rural Vietnam

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background The aim of this study was to describe and compare breastfeeding practices in rural and urban areas of Vietnam and to study associations with possibly influencing person and household factors. This type of study has not been conducted in Vietnam before. Methods Totally 2,690 children, born from 1st March 2008 to 30th June 2010 in one rural and one urban Health and Demographic Surveillance Site, were followed from birth to the age of 12 months. Information about demography, economy and education for persons and households was obtained from household surveys. Standard statistical methods including survival and regression analyses were used. Results Initiation of breastfeeding during the first hour of life was more frequent in the urban area compared to the rural (boys 40% vs. 35%, girls 49% vs. 40%). High birth weight and living in households with large number of assets significantly increased the probability for early initiation of breastfeeding. Exclusive breastfeeding at three months of age was more commonly reported in the rural than in the urban area (boys 58% vs. 46%, girls 65% vs. 53%). The duration of exclusive breastfeeding as well as of any breastfeeding was longer in the rural area than in the urban area (medians for boys 97 days vs. 81 days, for girls 102 days vs. 91 days). The percentages of children with exclusive breastfeeding lasting at least 6 months, as recommended by WHO, were low in both areas. The duration of exclusive breastfeeding was significantly shorter for mothers with three or more antenatal care visits or Caesarean section in both areas. High education level of mothers was associated with longer duration of exclusive breastfeeding in the rural area. No significant associations were found between duration of exclusive breastfeeding and mother’s age, household economy indicators or household size. Conclusion Intervention programs with the aim to promote breastfeeding are needed. Mothers should particularly be informed about the importance of starting breastfeeding early and to prolong exclusive breastfeeding. In order to reach the WHO recommendation of six months exclusive breastfeeding, we propose an extended maternity leave legislation to at least six months. PMID:23140543

Hepatozoon canis infecting dogs in the State of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil.

PubMed

Spolidorio, Mariana G; Labruna, Marcelo B; Zago, Augusto M; Donatele, Dirlei M; Caliari, Késia M; Yoshinari, Natalino H

2009-08-26

From May 2007 to March 2008, blood samples were collected from 92 healthy dogs living in 21 households (17 farms in rural area, and 4 homes in urban area) in 6 counties of the State of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil. In addition, ticks were collected from these dogs. A mean of 4.4+/-3.0 dogs (range: 1-12) were sampled per household; 78 and 14 dogs were from rural and urban areas, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) designed to amplify fragments of the 18S rDNA gene of Babesia spp or Hepatozoon spp revealed amplicons of the expected size in 20 (21.7%) dogs for Babesia, and 54 (58.7%) dogs for Hepatozoon. All Babesia-positive dogs were also Hepatozoon-positive. Among the 21 households, 15 (71.4%) from 3 counties had at least one PCR-positive dog, including 13 farms (rural area) and 2 homes (urban area). A total of 40 PCR products from the Hepatozoon-PCR, and 19 products from the Babesia-PCR were submitted to DNA sequencing. All generated sequences from Hepatozoon-PCR were identical to each other, and to corresponding 18S rDNA sequences of H. canis in GenBank. Surprisingly, all generated sequences from the Babesia PCR were also identical to corresponding 18S rDNA sequences of H. canis in GenBank. Dogs from 10 rural and 2 urban households were found infested by Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks. Immature of Amblyomma cajennense ticks were found in dogs from only 4 rural households (also infested by R. sanguineus). All but one household with R. sanguineus-infested dogs had at least one Hepatozoon-infected dog. Statistical analysis showed that the presence of ticks (i.e. R. sanguineus) infesting dogs in the households was significantly (P<0.05) associated with at least one PCR-positive dog. There was no significant association (P>0.05) between PCR-positive dogs and urban or rural households. Canine hepatozoonosis caused by H. canis is a high frequent infection in Espírito Santo, Brazil, where it is possibly vectored by R. sanguineus. Since all infected dogs were found apparently healthy, the pathogenicity of H. canis for dogs in Espírito Santo is yet to be elucidated.

Firearm ownership in households with children.

PubMed

Drongowski, R A; Smith, S J; Coran, A G; Cullen, M L

1998-04-01

Increased morbidity and mortality rates in children injured by firearms has been well documented during this past decade. The aim of this study was to determine the socioeconomic factors affecting firearm ownership in families with children living in suburban/rural versus inner-city environments, and to identify predictors of firearm ownership in these families. Parents of children less than 19 years old seen in a suburban (n = 751) or inner-city hospital (n = 406) anonymously completed a questionnaire regarding firearm ownership. Firearm ownership was 54% in rural locations, versus 18% among inner-city residents (P< .05). Firearm ownership in white households was 45% versus 20% in African-American households (P< .05). Mean number of all types of firearms in white households was 3.38 versus 1.78 in black households (P< .001). Firearm ownership was 19% in the less than $20,000 income bracket, significantly lower than households with greater incomes, and was significantly lower in households in which parents had the least education (19.7%) versus those with college degrees (38.5%; P< .05). Firearm owners of rifles and shotguns significantly more often cited hunting, collection, and target shooting as reasons for owning firearms, in contrast to revolver owners who cited protection and collection as reasons for firearm ownership (P < .05). Firearm ownership is higher in rural, caucasian versus inner-city African-American residents and is significantly less in households with lower income and educational levels. Significant predictors for firearm ownership were number of parents in households, educational level of parents, and population of residence.

Increasing expenditure on health care incurred by diabetic subjects in a developing country: a study from India.

PubMed

Ramachandran, Ambady; Ramachandran, Shobhana; Snehalatha, Chamukuttan; Augustine, Christina; Murugesan, Narayanasamy; Viswanathan, Vijay; Kapur, Anil; Williams, Rhys

2007-02-01

This study aimed to assess the direct cost incurred by diabetic subjects who were in different income groups in urban and rural India, as well as to examine the changing trends of costs in the urban setting from 1998 to 2005. A total of 556 diabetic subjects from various urban and rural regions of seven Indian states were enrolled. A brief uniform coded questionnaire (24 items) on direct cost was used. Annual family income was higher in urban subjects (rupees [Rs] 100,000 or $2,273) than in the rural subjects (Rs 36,000 or $818) (P < 0.001). Total median expenditure on health care was Rs 10,000 ($227) in urban and Rs 6,260 ($142) in rural (P < 0.001) subjects. Treatment costs increased with duration of diabetes, presence of complications, hospitalization, surgery, insulin therapy, and urban setting. Lower-income groups spent a higher proportion of their income on diabetes care (urban poor 34% and rural poor 27%). After accounting for inflation, a secular increase of 113% was observed in the total expenses between 1998 and 2005 in the urban population. The highest increase in percentage of household income devoted to diabetes care was in the lowest economic group (34% of income in 1998 vs. 24.5% in 2005) (P < 0.01). There was a significant improvement in urban subjects in medical reimbursement from 2% (1998) to 21.3% (2005). Urban and rural diabetic subjects spend a large percentage of income on diabetes management. The economic burden on urban families in developing countries is rising, and the total direct cost has doubled from 1998 to 2005.

Impact of water-vending kiosks and hygiene education on household drinking water quality in rural Ghana.

PubMed

Opryszko, Melissa C; Guo, Yayi; MacDonald, Luke; MacDonald, Laura; Kiihl, Samara; Schwab, Kellogg J

2013-04-01

Innovative solutions are essential to improving global access to potable water for nearly 1 billion people. This study presents an independent investigation of one alternative by examining for-profit water-vending kiosks, WaterHealth Centers (WHCs), in rural Ghana to determine their association with household drinking water quality. WHCs' design includes surface water treatment using filtration and ultraviolet light disinfection along with community-based hygiene education. Analyses of water samples for Escherichia coli and household surveys from 49 households across five villages collected one time per year for 3 years indicate that households using WHCs had improved water quality compared with households using untreated surface water (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.21). However, only 38% of households used WHCs by the third year, and 60% of those households had E. coli in their water. Recontamination during water transport and storage is an obstacle to maintaining WHC-vended water quality.

Impact of Water-Vending Kiosks and Hygiene Education on Household Drinking Water Quality in Rural Ghana

PubMed Central

Opryszko, Melissa C.; Guo, Yayi; MacDonald, Luke; MacDonald, Laura; Kiihl, Samara; Schwab, Kellogg J.

2013-01-01

Innovative solutions are essential to improving global access to potable water for nearly 1 billion people. This study presents an independent investigation of one alternative by examining for-profit water-vending kiosks, WaterHealth Centers (WHCs), in rural Ghana to determine their association with household drinking water quality. WHCs' design includes surface water treatment using filtration and ultraviolet light disinfection along with community-based hygiene education. Analyses of water samples for Escherichia coli and household surveys from 49 households across five villages collected one time per year for 3 years indicate that households using WHCs had improved water quality compared with households using untreated surface water (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.21). However, only 38% of households used WHCs by the third year, and 60% of those households had E. coli in their water. Recontamination during water transport and storage is an obstacle to maintaining WHC-vended water quality. PMID:23382168

Reducing diarrhea through the use of household-based ceramic water filters: a randomized, controlled trial in rural Bolivia.

PubMed

Clasen, Thomas F; Brown, Joseph; Collin, Simon; Suntura, Oscar; Cairncross, Sandy

2004-06-01

Ceramic water filters have been identified as one of the most promising and accessible technologies for treating water at the household level. In a six-month trial, water filters were distributed randomly to half of the 50 participating households in a rural community in Bolivia; the remaining households continued to use customary water handling practices and served as controls. In four rounds of sampling following distribution of the filters, 100% of the 96 water samples from the filter households were free of thermotolerant coliforms compared with 15.5% of the control household samples. Diarrheal disease risk for individuals in intervention households was 70% lower than for controls (95% confidence interval [CI] = 53-80%; P < 0.001). For children less than five years old, the reduction in risk was 83% (95% CI = 51-94%; P < 0.001). These results show that affordable ceramic water filters enable low-income households to treat and maintain the microbiologic quality of their drinking water.

Formative Research on Creating Smoke-free Homes in Rural Communities

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Escoffery, Cam; Kegler, Michelle Crozier; Butler, Susan

2009-01-01

The home is a significant place for exposure to secondhand smoke for children and non-smoking adults. This study explored factors that would convince families to adopt household smoking bans and actions to create and maintain smoke-free homes. Interviews were conducted with adults in 102 households in rural Georgia. Participating families had a…

Rural Electrification and Level of Living: Evaluation of Impact.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Davis, J. Michael; Saunders, John

Utilizing an ex-post-facto experimental design, all occupied households located within the rural area of Canton San Carlos in Costa Rica (La Fortuna) were studied in August of 1972 for purposes of testing the hypothesis that electricity use is positively associated with level of living. Interviews with 452 heads of households (when possible)…

Parental Influence, Youth Contra-Culture, and Rural Adolescent Attitudes Toward Minority Groups.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Summers, Gene F.; And Others

Parental heads of households and high school students in 2 rural Illinois counties were studied to determine their respective attitudes toward several minority groups using the Bogardus Social Distance Scale as the primary attitudinal measure. A parental sample of 1096 households and a sample of 738 students were independently drawn. The two…

Individual, household, programme and community effects on childhood malnutrition in rural India.

PubMed

Rajaram, S; Zottarelli, Lisa K; Sunil, T S

2007-04-01

The children living in rural areas of India disproportionately suffer from malnutrition compared with their urban counterparts. The present article analyses the individual, household, community and programme factors on nutritional status of children in rural India. Additionally, we consider the random variances at village and state levels after introducing various observed individual-, household- and programme-level characteristics in the model. A multilevel model is conducted using data from the National Family and Health Survey 2. The results show that maternal characteristics, such as socio-economic and behavioural factors, are more influential in determining childhood nutritional status than the prevalence of programme factors. Also, it was found that individual factors show evidence of state- and village-level clustering of malnutrition.

Empirical study on regional differentiation of rural household energy use in Northwest China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Wu, Wenheng; Zhang, Xin; Guo, Xiaodong

2018-02-01

To better understand regional differentiation of rural household energy use, data of energy use of 232 rural households in the Linwei District located in the lower reaches of the Weihe River of Northwest China were collected by questionnaires combined with face-to-face interview. Location quotient of energy use (LQEU) method is adopted in the paper. The results show that multiple energy sources are utilized due to market orientation in the plain area, and biogas is prominent as a result of policy orientation in the loess tableland, whereas firewood is dominant due to the influence of natural environment in the Qinling mountainous area. Regional differentiation of energy use is comprehensively affected by income level, air temperature, development conditions, energy policy, etc.

Parent–Adolescent Communication About Sex in Rural India: U.S.–India Collaboration to Prevent Adolescent HIV

PubMed Central

Guilamo-Ramos, Vincent; Soletti, Asha Banu; Burnette, Denise; Sharma, Shilpi; Leavitt, Sarah; McCarthy, Katharine

2012-01-01

In this article, we examine parent–adolescent communication about sex among rural Indian youth and their parents. We conducted in-depth interviews (N = 40) with mothers, fathers, and adolescent boys and girls aged 14 to 18 years in a rural community in Maharashtra, India. In the context of key cultural factors, including gender-related norms, we explore issues of sexual health and critically assess widely held beliefs that Indian parents are unwilling or unable to discuss sex-related topics with their children. Our findings suggest that despite communication barriers, e.g., lack of knowledge and cultural proscriptions, Indian families are interested in and willing to communicate about sex-related topics. Future research should seek to determine the viability of family-based HIV prevention interventions for Indian adolescents. PMID:22232297

HEALTH CARE EXPENDITURE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN MAGWAY, MYANMAR

PubMed Central

KHAING, INN KYNN; MALIK, AMONOV; OO, MYO; HAMAJIMA, NOBUYUKI

2015-01-01

ABSTRACT Myanmar has a high proportion of out-of-pocket (OOP) health care expenditures with limited cost-sharing mechanisms. In Myanmar, there were limited data on the frequency of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) due to OOP payments, as well as on the factors associated with CHE. This study aimed to investigate health care expenditure, the frequency of CHE, and the factors influencing CHE among households in Magway, Myanmar. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted in 2012 for 700 households (350 in urban areas and 350 in rural areas) in Magway. CHE was defined as a condition wherein the total amount of household health care expenditure was 40% or more of non-food expenditure in the past year. Multiple logistic regression analysis was applied to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confident intervals (CIs) of CHE. In the previous year, 28.3% of 350 urban households and 51.4% of 350 rural households utilized outpatient services. Households with at least one member admitted to a medical facility were 10.0% and 12.9%, respectively. Those with CHE were 25.2% in the urban areas and 22.7% in the rural areas. The adjusted OR of CHE was 7.79 (95% CI 3.73–16.26) for hospitalization and 1.08 (95% CI 0.36–3.23) for outpatient care, relative to no services used. These findings indicated that nearly one fourth of households in Magway faced CHE due to inpatient care. A safety-net mechanism to protect households from CHE in Myanmar seems essential. PMID:25797985

Household food insecurity and coping strategies in a poor rural community in Malaysia

PubMed Central

Khor, Geok Lin

2008-01-01

This cross-sectional study assessed household food insecurity among low-income rural communities and examined its association with demographic and socioeconomic factors as well as coping strategies to minimize food insecurity. Demographic, socioeconomic, expenditure and coping strategy data were collected from 200 women of poor households in a rural community in Malaysia. Households were categorized as either food secure (n=84) or food insecure (n=116) using the Radimer/Cornell Hunger and Food Insecurity instrument. T-test, Chi-square and logistic regression were utilized for comparison of factors between food secure and food insecure households and determination of factors associated with household food insecurity, respectively. More of the food insecure households were living below the poverty line, had a larger household size, more children and school-going children and mothers as housewives. As food insecure households had more school-going children, reducing expenditures on the children's education is an important strategy to reduce household expenditures. Borrowing money to buy foods, receiving foods from family members, relatives and neighbors and reducing the number of meals seemed to cushion the food insecure households from experiencing food insufficiency. Most of the food insecure households adopted the strategy on cooking whatever is available at home for their meals. The logistic regression model indicates that food insecure households were likely to have more children (OR=1.71; p<0.05) and non-working mothers (OR=6.15; p<0.05), did not own any land (OR=3.18; p<0.05) and adopted the strategy of food preparation based on whatever is available at their homes (OR=4.33; p<0.05). However, mothers who reported to borrow money to purchase food (OR=0.84; p<0.05) and households with higher incomes of fathers (OR=0.99; p<0.05) were more likely to be food secure. Understanding the factors that contribute to household food insecurity is imperative so that effective strategies could be developed and implemented. PMID:20126362

Comparison of two approaches for measuring household wealth via an asset-based index in rural and peri-urban settings of Hunan province, China

PubMed Central

2010-01-01

Background There are growing concerns regarding inequities in health, with poverty being an important determinant of health as well as a product of health status. Within the People's Republic of China (P.R. China), disparities in socio-economic position are apparent, with the rural-urban gap of particular concern. Our aim was to compare direct and proxy methods of estimating household wealth in a rural and a peri-urban setting of Hunan province, P.R. China. Methods We collected data on ownership of household durable assets, housing characteristics, and utility and sanitation variables in two village-wide surveys in Hunan province. We employed principal components analysis (PCA) and principal axis factoring (PAF) to generate household asset-based proxy wealth indices. Households were grouped into quartiles, from 'most wealthy' to 'most poor'. We compared the estimated household wealth for each approach. Asset-based proxy wealth indices were compared to those based on self-reported average annual income and savings at the household level. Results Spearman's rank correlation analysis revealed that PCA and PAF yielded similar results, indicating that either approach may be used for estimating household wealth. In both settings investigated, the two indices were significantly associated with self-reported average annual income and combined income and savings, but not with savings alone. However, low correlation coefficients between the proxy and direct measures of wealth indicated that they are not complementary. We found wide disparities in ownership of household durable assets, and utility and sanitation variables, within and between settings. Conclusion PCA and PAF yielded almost identical results and generated robust proxy wealth indices and categories. Pooled data from the rural and peri-urban settings highlighted structural differences in wealth, most likely a result of localized urbanization and modernization. Further research is needed to improve measurements of wealth in low-income and transitional country contexts. PMID:20813070

Transition overtime in household latrine use in rural Bangladesh: a longitudinal cohort study

PubMed Central

2014-01-01

Background In a low-income country like Bangladesh, where the poverty rate is higher in rural compared to urban areas, the consistent use of sanitary latrines over time is a challenge. To address this issue, the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) program of the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) was devised to improve health of the rural poor through enhanced sanitation services, such as by providing loans or education. Sanitary latrine use in households and changes over time were assessed in this study. Methods This was a longitudinal cohort study of the baseline, midline, and end line status of the WASH project. Households assessed in all three rounds of surveys (26,404 in each survey) were included in the analysis. Thirty thousand households from 50 upazilas (sub-districts) were selected in two stages: i) thirty villages were selected from each of the 50 upazilas by cluster sampling, and ii) twenty households were chosen systematically from each selected village. A female member capable of providing household-level information was interviewed from each house using the pre-tested questionnaire. Spot observations of some components were made to assess the quality of sanitary latrine use. The adjusted log-binomial regression was performed and risk ratios with 95% confidence intervals were estimated for sanitary latrine use. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Stata software. Results The use of sanitary latrines by households increased significantly from the baseline (31.7%) to midline (41.5%) and end line (57.4%) assessment points. The proportion of physically verified clean latrines increased significantly from 33.4% at baseline to 50.8% at the midline and 53.3% at the end line. Analysis of changes in latrine-use showed that 73.3% of the baseline latrine-using households continued to do so at the end line, while the rest switched to unsanitary practices. Households with better socioeconomic status were more likely to use sanitary latrines. Conclusion There are improvements in ownership and use of sanitary latrines by households over the years in WASH intervention areas. However, switching of some households from sanitary to unsanitary latrines remains a matter of concern regarding sustainability. PMID:25022231

Transition overtime in household latrine use in rural Bangladesh: a longitudinal cohort study.

PubMed

Akter, Tahera; Ali, Abu R M M; Dey, Nepal C

2014-07-15

In a low-income country like Bangladesh, where the poverty rate is higher in rural compared to urban areas, the consistent use of sanitary latrines over time is a challenge. To address this issue, the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) program of the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) was devised to improve health of the rural poor through enhanced sanitation services, such as by providing loans or education. Sanitary latrine use in households and changes over time were assessed in this study. This was a longitudinal cohort study of the baseline, midline, and end line status of the WASH project. Households assessed in all three rounds of surveys (26,404 in each survey) were included in the analysis. Thirty thousand households from 50 upazilas (sub-districts) were selected in two stages: i) thirty villages were selected from each of the 50 upazilas by cluster sampling, and ii) twenty households were chosen systematically from each selected village. A female member capable of providing household-level information was interviewed from each house using the pre-tested questionnaire. Spot observations of some components were made to assess the quality of sanitary latrine use. The adjusted log-binomial regression was performed and risk ratios with 95% confidence intervals were estimated for sanitary latrine use. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Stata software. The use of sanitary latrines by households increased significantly from the baseline (31.7%) to midline (41.5%) and end line (57.4%) assessment points. The proportion of physically verified clean latrines increased significantly from 33.4% at baseline to 50.8% at the midline and 53.3% at the end line. Analysis of changes in latrine-use showed that 73.3% of the baseline latrine-using households continued to do so at the end line, while the rest switched to unsanitary practices. Households with better socioeconomic status were more likely to use sanitary latrines. There are improvements in ownership and use of sanitary latrines by households over the years in WASH intervention areas. However, switching of some households from sanitary to unsanitary latrines remains a matter of concern regarding sustainability.

Household context and child mortality in rural South Africa: the effects of birth spacing, shared mortality, household composition and socio-economic status.

PubMed

Houle, Brian; Stein, Alan; Kahn, Kathleen; Madhavan, Sangeetha; Collinson, Mark; Tollman, Stephen M; Clark, Samuel J

2013-10-01

Household characteristics are important influences on the risk of child death. However, little is known about this influence in HIV-endemic areas. We describe the effects of household characteristics on children's risk of dying in rural South Africa. We use data describing the mortality of children younger than 5 years living in the Agincourt health and socio-demographic surveillance system study population in rural northeast South Africa during the period 1994-2008. Using discrete time event history analysis we estimate children's probability of dying by child characteristics and household composition (other children and adults other than parents) (N=924,818 child-months), and household socio-economic status (N=501,732 child-months). Children under 24 months of age whose subsequent sibling was born within 11 months experience increased odds of dying (OR 2.5; 95% CI 1.1-5.7). Children also experience increased odds of dying in the period 6 months (OR 2.1; 95% CI 1.2-3.6), 3-5 months (OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.5-5.9), and 2 months (OR 11.8; 95% CI 7.6-18.3) before another household child dies. The odds of dying remain high at the time of another child's death (OR 11.7; 95% CI 6.3-21.7) and for the 2 months following (OR 4.0; 95% CI 1.9-8.6). Having a related but non-parent adult aged 20-59 years in the household reduces the odds (OR 0.6; 95% CI 0.5-0.8). There is an inverse relationship between a child's odds of dying and household socio-economic status. This detailed household profile from a poor rural setting where HIV infection is endemic indicates that children are at high risk of dying when another child is very ill or has recently died. Short birth intervals and additional children in the household are further risk factors. Presence of a related adult is protective, as is higher socio-economic status. Such evidence can inform primary health care practice and facilitate targeting of community health worker efforts, especially when covering defined catchment areas.

Emission reduction potentials of improved cookstoves and their issues in adoption: An Indian outlook.

PubMed

Sharma, Monikankana; Dasappa, S

2017-12-15

Biomass as a fuel for cooking is a common practice in rural India, and about 700 million people use traditional stoves to meet their energy demand. However, the thermal and the combustion efficiencies of these stoves are very low, leading to an inefficient use of biomass, and also, resulting in significant indoor air pollution. Research development has however led to the development of some improved stoves viz., natural draft and forced draft for both domestic as well as large scale cooking applications and government is trying to promote them. Forced draft stoves using processed biomass fuels (pellets) have received more prominence due to their superior performance, however, higher initial cost and limited fuel distribution networks have remained the key challenges. Improved natural draft stoves too have gained attention for being relatively inexpensive, and they are more likely to hit the rural households. In this paper, we have examined the environmental benefits obtained by the use of improved stoves for two important scenarios: traditional stoves are replaced by (i)improved natural draft stoves and, (ii) by improved natural draft as well as forced draft stoves. In the best case scenario (case ii), i.e., by shifting 111 million households who currently use wood to the forced draft stoves, and another 45 million households who are dependent on dung cake and agro residues to the improved natural draft stoves, the emission reduction that can be achieved are as follows: particulate matter (PM) 875 kT, black carbon (BC) 229 kT, organic carbon (OC) 525 kT, methane (CH 4 )1178 kT and non methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) of 564 kT. With the promotion of only natural draft improved stoves, the total reductions would be ∼12% lower than the combinational promotion. The CO 2 equivalent reduction is estimated to be ∼70-80 MT per year. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Toys and toilets: cross-sectional study using children's toys to evaluate environmental faecal contamination in rural Bangladeshi households with different sanitation facilities and practices.

PubMed

Vujcic, Jelena; Ram, Pavani K; Hussain, Faruqe; Unicomb, Leanne; Gope, Partha Sarathi; Abedin, Jaynal; Mahmud, Zahid Hayat; Islam, M Sirajul; Luby, Stephen P

2014-05-01

To evaluate household faecal contamination using children's toys among 100 rural Bangladeshi households categorised as 'cleaner' (toilet that reliably separates faeces from the environment and no human faeces in/around living space) or 'less clean' (no toilet or toilet that does not reliably separate faeces from the environment and human faeces in/around living space). We distributed toy balls to each household and rinsed each study toy and a toy already owned by the household in 200 ml of Ringer's solution. We enumerated faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci from each rinse using membrane filtration methods. Study toys from 39 cleaner households had lower mean faecal coliform contamination than toys from 61 less clean households (2.4 log10 colony-forming units (CFU)/200 ml vs. 3.2 log10 CFU/200 ml, P = 0.03). However, wealth measures explained a portion of this relationship. Repeat measures were moderately variable [coefficient of variation (CV) = 6.5 between two toys in the household at the same time, CV = 37.6 between toys in the household at two different times 3-4 days apart]. Too few households owned a non-porous toy to compare groups without risk of bias. In rural Bangladesh, improved sanitation facilities and practices were associated with less environmental contamination. Whether this association is independent of household wealth and whether the difference in contamination improves child health merit further study. The variation found was typical for measures of environmental contamination, and requires large sample sizes to ascertain differences between groups with statistical significance. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Declines and Plateaux in Smoking Prevalence Over Three Decades in Fiji

PubMed Central

Linhart, Christine; Tukana, Isimeli; Lin, Sophia; Taylor, Richard; Morrell, Stephen; Vatucawaqa, Penina; Magliano, Dianna J; Zimmet, Paul

2017-01-01

Abstract Objectives To examine trends from 1980 to 2011 in daily tobacco smoking by sex, ethnicity, age, and urban/rural in Fiji Melanesian (i-Taukei) and Indian adults aged 25–64 years. Methods Unit record data from five population-based surveys (n = 14 528) allowed classification of participants as: (1) never-smoker, ex-smoker, or non-daily smoker; or (2) daily smoker, reporting smoking <20 or ≥20 tobacco products (cigarettes/cigars/pipes) a day. Trends were examined using spline analyses. Results Over 1980–2011 the prevalence of reported daily tobacco smoking decreased significantly in both sexes and ethnicities, with the greatest decline during 1980–2000. Declines were from 81.7% to 27.0% in i-Taukei men; 55.3% to 26.3% in Indian men; 48.1% to 9.5% in i-Taukei women; and 13.8% to 1.3% in Indian women (p < .0001). Declines were consistent across all age groups in men, while there were greater declines among older age groups in women; and greater declines from higher prevalences in rural compared to urban areas in both sexes and ethnicities. Smoking ≥20 tobacco products per day declined significantly in i-Taukei men from 8.0% to 1.9% (p < .0001); there were also declines in Indian men (4.6% to 2.0%) and i-Taukei women (2.6% to 0.6%), but these were not statistically significant; and Indian women remained <0.2% throughout the period. Conclusions Significant declines in daily tobacco smoking have occurred in Fiji in both sexes and ethnicities during the past 30 years, which is consistent with declines in tobacco apparent consumption and household expenditure. However, prevalence remains high in men at around 27% in 2011, with plateau at this level in i-Taukei. Implications This is the first study to show nationally representative population trends in tobacco smoking in a developing country over such a long period (>30 years) based on empirical unit record data (n = 14 528). Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of mortality throughout the Pacific Island region. This is the first study to show evidence of substantial declines over several decades in a cardiovascular disease risk factor in a Pacific Island country, and provides important evidence for further research into the interventions and events which may have facilitated this decline. PMID:27807124

Dynamism of household carbon emissions (HCEs) from rural and urban regions of northern and southern China.

PubMed

Maraseni, Tek Narayan; Qu, Jiansheng; Yue, Bian; Zeng, Jingjing; Maroulis, Jerry

2016-10-01

China contributes 23 % of global carbon emissions, of which 26 % originate from the household sector. Due to vast variations in both climatic conditions and the affordability and accessibility of fuels, household carbon emissions (HCEs) differ significantly across China. This study compares HCEs (per person) from urban and rural regions in northern China with their counterparts in southern China. Annual macroeconomic data for the study period 2005 to 2012 were obtained from Chinese government sources, whereas the direct HCEs for different types of fossil fuels were obtained using the IPCC reference approach, and indirect HCEs were calculated by input-output analysis. Results suggest that HCEs from urban areas are higher than those from rural areas. Regardless of the regions, there is a similarity in per person HCEs in urban areas, but the rural areas of northern China had significantly higher HCEs than those from southern China. The reasons for the similarity between urban areas and differences between rural areas and the percentage share of direct and indirect HCEs from different sources are discussed. Similarly, the reasons and solutions to why decarbonising policies are working in urban areas but not in rural areas are discussed.

Estimating Elasticity for Residential Electricity Demand in China

PubMed Central

Shi, G.; Zheng, X.; Song, F.

2012-01-01

Residential demand for electricity is estimated for China using a unique household level dataset. Household electricity demand is specified as a function of local electricity price, household income, and a number of social-economic variables at household level. We find that the residential demand for electricity responds rather sensitively to its own price in China, which implies that there is significant potential to use the price instrument to conserve electricity consumption. Electricity elasticities across different heterogeneous household groups (e.g., rich versus poor and rural versus urban) are also estimated. The results show that the high income group is more price elastic than the low income group, while rural families are more price elastic than urban families. These results have important policy implications for designing an increasing block tariff. PMID:22997492

Estimating elasticity for residential electricity demand in China.

PubMed

Shi, G; Zheng, X; Song, F

2012-01-01

Residential demand for electricity is estimated for China using a unique household level dataset. Household electricity demand is specified as a function of local electricity price, household income, and a number of social-economic variables at household level. We find that the residential demand for electricity responds rather sensitively to its own price in China, which implies that there is significant potential to use the price instrument to conserve electricity consumption. Electricity elasticities across different heterogeneous household groups (e.g., rich versus poor and rural versus urban) are also estimated. The results show that the high income group is more price elastic than the low income group, while rural families are more price elastic than urban families. These results have important policy implications for designing an increasing block tariff.

How well do antenatal clinic (ANC) attendees represent the general population? A comparison of HIV prevalence from ANC sentinel surveillance sites with a population-based survey of women aged 15-49 in Cambodia.

PubMed

Saphonn, Vonthanak; Hor, Leng Bun; Ly, Sun Penh; Chhuon, Samrith; Saidel, Tobi; Detels, Roger

2002-04-01

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether HIV-1 prevalence among antenatal clinic (ANC) attendees in Cambodia provided a reasonable estimate of HIV-1 prevalence among all women 15-49 years. METHODS Antenatal clinic attendees in five HIV sentinel surveillance sites (five provinces) were selected by consecutive sampling (n = 1695). The population survey of females by household was carried out in the same five areas. Household females aged 15-49 years were selected using a three-stage cluster sampling design (n = 3066). Serum-based HIV ELISA testing was done for both ANC attendees and household females. The HIV prevalence for ANC attendees and household females were compared by age group and urban versus rural location. The overall prevalence of HIV-1 infection among ANC attendees (1.62%, 95% CI : 1.26-1.98) was similar to the overall prevalence obtained from the general population of household females (1.24%, 95% CI : 0.92-1.55) in the same catchment areas in Cambodia. In the rural areas, the overall HIV prevalence among ANC attendees (2.18%, 95% CI : 1.59-2.77) was significantly higher than among the household females (0.86%, 95% CI : 0.49-1.23) after adjustment for age distribution and education level. In the 15-24 age group in rural areas, the HIV prevalence of ANC women was 2.71% (95% CI : 0.96-4.46) compared with 0.77% (95% CI : 0.02-1.53) in household females. Although ANC data can be used to estimate trends over time, it should be realized that ANC data may overestimate the actual prevalence in the younger age group in rural areas in Cambodia.

The socioeconomic determinants of HIV incidence: evidence from a longitudinal, population-based study in rural South Africa.

PubMed

Bärnighausen, Till; Hosegood, Victoria; Timaeus, Ian M; Newell, Marie-Louise

2007-11-01

Knowledge of the effect of socioeconomic status on HIV infection in Africa stems largely from cross-sectional studies. Cross-sectional studies suffer from two important limitations: two-way causality between socioeconomic status and HIV serostatus and simultaneous effects of socioeconomic status on HIV incidence and HIV-positive survival time. Both problems are avoided in longitudinal cohort studies. We used data from a longitudinal HIV surveillance and a linked demographic surveillance in a poor rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to investigate the effect of three measures of socioeconomic status on HIV incidence: educational attainment, household wealth categories (based on a ranking of households on an assets index scale) and per capita household expenditure. Our sample comprised of 3325 individuals who tested HIV-negative at baseline and either HIV-negative or -positive on a second test (on average 1.3 years later). In multivariable survival analysis, one additional year of education reduced the hazard of acquiring HIV by 7% (P = 0.017) net of sex, age, wealth, household expenditure, rural vs. urban/periurban residence, migration status and partnership status. Holding other factors equal, members of households that fell into the middle 40% of relative wealth had a 72% higher hazard of HIV acquisition than members of the 40% poorest households (P = 0.012). Per capita household expenditure did not significantly affect HIV incidence (P = 0.669). Although poverty reduction is important for obvious reasons, it may not be as effective as anticipated in reducing the spread of HIV in rural South Africa. In contrast, our results suggest that increasing educational attainment in the general population may lower HIV incidence.

Contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods in a district of southeastern Uganda endemic for bovine parasitic diseases: an economic evaluation.

PubMed

Okello, Walter O; Muhanguzi, Dennis; MacLeod, Ewan T; Welburn, Susan C; Waiswa, Charles; Shaw, Alexandra P

2015-11-05

A study was conducted in Tororo District in eastern Uganda to assess the socio-economic contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods. The aim of the study was to empirically quantify the economic value of draft cattle thus contributing to understanding the impact of endemic parasitic diseases of cattle on livestock productivity and subsequently household income, labor and food security. A total of 205 draft cattle keeping households (n = 205) were randomly selected and structured household questionnaires were administered, focusing on work oxen use, productivity, inputs and outputs. The data obtained was analyzed using standard statistical methods and used to calculate the gross margin from the draft cattle enterprise. Secondary data were obtained from focus group discussions and key informant interviews and these were analyzed using Bayesian methods. The study showed that, apart from being labor saving, the use of animal traction is highly profitable with the gross margin per year from the use of draft cattle amounting to 245 United States dollars per work oxen owning household. The cash obtained from hiring out draft animals was equivalent to nearly a quarter of the average local household's monetary receipts. It also revealed that endemic bovine parasitic diseases such as trypanosomiasis and tick-borne diseases reduced draft cattle output by 20.9 % and potential household income from the use of draft oxen by 32.2 %. The presence of endemic cattle diseases in rural Uganda is adversely affecting the productivity of draft cattle, which in turn affects household income, labor and ultimately food security. This study highlights the contribution of draft cattle to rural livelihoods, thus increasing the expected impact of cost-effective control strategies of endemic production limiting livestock diseases in Uganda.

A randomized controlled trial of household-based flocculant-disinfectant drinking water treatment for diarrhea prevention in rural Guatemala.

PubMed

Reller, Megan E; Mendoza, Carlos E; Lopez, M Beatriz; Alvarez, Maricruz; Hoekstra, Robert M; Olson, Christy A; Baier, Kathleen G; Keswick, Bruce H; Luby, Stephen P

2003-10-01

We conducted a study to determine if use of a new flocculant-disinfectant home water treatment reduced diarrhea. We randomly assigned 492 rural Guatemalan households to five different water treatment groups: flocculant-disinfectant, flocculant-disinfectant plus a customized vessel, bleach, bleach plus a vessel, and control. During one year of observation, residents of control households had 4.31 episodes of diarrhea per 100 person-weeks, whereas the incidence of diarrhea was 24% lower among residents of households receiving flocculant-disinfectant, 29% lower among those receiving flocculant-disinfectant plus vessel, 25% lower among those receiving bleach, and 12% lower among households receiving bleach plus vessel. In unannounced evaluations of home drinking water, free chlorine was detected in samples from 27% of flocculant-disinfectant households, 35% of flocculant-disinfectant plus vessel households, 35% of bleach households, and 43% of bleach plus vessel households. In a setting where diarrhea was a leading cause of death, intermittent use of home water treatment with flocculant-disinfectant decreased the incidence of diarrhea.

The household-level economic burden of heart disease in India.

PubMed

Karan, Anup; Engelgau, Michael; Mahal, Ajay

2014-05-01

To estimate healthcare use and financial burden associated with heart disease among Indian households. Data from the 2004 round household survey of the National Sample Survey in India were used to assess the implications of heart disease for out-of-pocket health spending, spending on items other than health care, employment and healthcare financing patterns, by matching households with a member self-reporting heart disease (cardiovascular disease (CVD)-affected households) to (control) households with similar socio-economic and demographic characteristics. Propensity score matching methods were used. Compared with control households, CVD-affected households had more outpatient visits and inpatient stays, spent an extra INT$ (International Dollars) 232 (P < 0.01) per member on inpatient care annually, had lower non-medical spending (by INT$5 (P < 0.01) per member for a 15-day reference period), had a share of out-of-pocket health spending in total household expenditure that was 16.5% higher (P < 0.01) and relied more on borrowing and asset sales to finance inpatient care (32.7% vs. 12.8%, P < 0.01). Members of CVD-affected households had lower employment rates than members of control households (43.6% vs. 46.4%, P < 0.01), and elderly members experienced larger declines in employment than younger adults. CVD-affected households with lower socio-economic status were at heightened financial risk. Non-communicable conditions such as CVD can impose a serious economic burden on Indian households. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Can the rural poor in India afford to treat non-communicable diseases.

PubMed

Binnendijk, Erika; Koren, Ruth; Dror, David M

2012-11-01

Non-communicable diseases (NCD) are on the increase in low-income countries, where healthcare costs are paid mostly out-of-pocket. We investigate the financial burden of NCD vs. communicable diseases (CD) among rural poor in India and assess whether they can afford to treat NCD. We used data from two household surveys undertaken in 2009-2010 among 7389 rural poor households (39 205 individuals) in Odisha and Bihar. All persons from the sampled households, irrespective of age and gender, were included in the analysis. We classify self-reported illnesses as NCD, CD or 'other morbidities' following the WHO classification. Non-communicable diseases accounted for around 20% of the diseases in the month preceding the survey in Odisha and 30% in Bihar. The most prevalent NCD, representing the highest share in outpatient costs, were musculoskeletal, digestive and cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovascular and digestive problems also generated the highest inpatient costs. Women, older persons and less-poor households reported higher prevalence of NCD. Outpatient costs (consultations, medicines, laboratory tests and imaging) represented a bigger share of income for NCD than for CD. Patients with NCD were more likely to report a hospitalisation. Patients with NCD in rural poor settings in India pay considerably more than patients with CD. For NCD cases that are chronic, with recurring costs, this would be aggravated. The cost of NCD care consumes a big part of the per person share of household income, obliging patients with NCD to rely on informal intra-family cross-subsidisation. An alternative solution to finance NCD care for rural poor patients is needed. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Household Solid Fuel Use and Cardiovascular Disease in Rural Areas in Shanxi, China

PubMed Central

QU, Weihua; YAN, Zhijun; QU, Guohua; IKRAM, Maria

2015-01-01

Background: More than 80 percent of the China’s population is located in the rural areas, 95 percent of which use coal, wood etc for cooking and heating. Limited by data availability, the association between household solid fuels and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in China’s rural areas is ignored in prior studies. Methods: This cross sectional study was conducted from 2010–2012 and carried out on rural population aging 20–80 yr, comprised of 13877 participants from eighteen villages. Self-report questionnaire data were collected. Each outcome represents whether the participant has a kind of CVDs or not and it is reported in participants’ questionnaire. Then the collected data is analyzed by logistic regression models with odds ratios (OR) and 95 percent confidence interval. Results: After adjusting for potential confounders, the use of household solid fuels was significantly associated with an increased risk for hypertension (OR 1.751), CHD (OR 2.251), stroke (OR 1.642), diabetes (OR 1.975) and dyslipidemia (OR 1.185). Residents with the highest tertile of the duration of household solid fuel exposure had an increased odd of hypertension (OR 1.651), stroke (OR 1.812), diabetes (OR 2.891) and dyslipidemia (OR 1.756) compared with those in the lowest tertile of the duration of solid fuel exposure. Conclusion: Indoor pollution exposure from household solid fuels combustion may be a positive risk factor for CVDs in the perspectives of China’s rural population. Our findings should be corroborated in longitudinal studies. PMID:26284203

Adapting agriculture to climate change in Kenya: household strategies and determinants.

PubMed

Bryan, Elizabeth; Ringler, Claudia; Okoba, Barrack; Roncoli, Carla; Silvestri, Silvia; Herrero, Mario

2013-01-15

Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to climate change, given dependence on agricultural production and limited adaptive capacity. Based on farm household and Participatory Rural Appraisal data collected from districts in various agroecological zones in Kenya, this paper examines farmers' perceptions of climate change, ongoing adaptation measures, and factors influencing farmers' decisions to adapt. The results show that households face considerable challenges in adapting to climate change. While many households have made small adjustments to their farming practices in response to climate change (in particular, changing planting decisions), few households are able to make more costly investments, for example in agroforestry or irrigation, although there is a desire to invest in such measures. This emphasizes the need for greater investments in rural and agricultural development to support the ability of households to make strategic, long-term decisions that affect their future well-being. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Rural Health Abstracts and Citations 1980-1987. Part II: Indian Health Care.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

North Dakota Univ., Grand Forks. Center for Rural Health.

Over 300 articles concerning rural health as it pertains to American Indians and Alaska Natives are cited in this bibliography. Most of the articles were published between 1980 and 1988. Abstracts are reprinted verbatim and the bibliography is organized into sections by subject matter. Within each section, annotated citations are listed…

Photovoice for Healthy Relationships: Community-Based Participatory HIV Prevention in a Rural American Indian Community

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Markus, Susan F.

2012-01-01

This article provides an example of a culturally responsive, community-based project for addressing social determinants of health in rural American Indian (AI) communities through: 1) empowering youth and community voices to set directions for HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and unintended pregnancy prevention and education efforts; 2) using…

Correlates of Social Participation and Mobility Potentials Among Rural Low Income Families.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Miller, David B.

Based on the completed interview schedules of 74 black and 34 white rural household heads (from an East Mississippi county) making less than $3,000 annually, the purpose of this study was to examine whether social participation of the impoverished may be correlated with the geographic mobility potential of household heads and their adult children.…

Household Rates of Return to Education in Rural Bangladesh: Accounting for Direct Costs, Child Labour, and Option Value

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Shafiq, M. Najeeb

2007-01-01

This study estimates the returns to boys' education for rural Bangladeshi households by accounting for some conventionally neglected items: direct costs of education, foregone child labour earnings, and option value. The estimated returns are 13.5% for primary education, 7.8% for junior-secondary education, 12.9% for higher-secondary education,…

Suicide prevention program for at-risk groups: pointers from an epidemiological study.

PubMed

Maniam, T; Chinna, Karuthan; Lim, C H; Kadir, A B; Nurashikin, I; Salina, A A; Mariapun, Jeevitha

2013-01-01

The aim of this paper is to identify at-risk groups for a focused suicide prevention program for Malaysia. Data from 20,552 persons aged 16 years and above (males 45.9%), was obtained using stratified, random sampling in a national survey of psychiatric morbidity using locally validated General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) which included questions on suicidal ideation. The overall prevalence of suicidal ideation (SI) was 6.3%, CI 6.1-6.8 (n=1288). Logistic regression analysis was performed with age, ethnicity, gender, urban/rural residence, age group, marital status, household income, type of household, presence of chronic pain, social dysfunction, somatic, anxiety or depressive symptoms, obesity, and chronic medical illnesses as independent variables. Only Insomnia, Religion, Marital Status, Depression, Social Dysfunction and Anxiety were seen to be significant predictors. Prevalence of SI was significantly higher among Indians (11.0%, CI 9.5-12.5), especially those of the Hindu faith (12.2%, CI 10.5-14.0), Chinese (9.7%, CI 8.8-10.7) and those having depressive symptoms. In a developing country with competing priorities, prudent allocation of resources requires focusing suicide prevention efforts on treating depression in vulnerable groups. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

"Helping my neighbour is like giving a loan…" -the role of social relations in chronic illness in rural Uganda.

PubMed

Amurwon, Jovita; Hajdu, Flora; Yiga, Dominic Bukenya; Seeley, Janet

2017-11-09

Understanding individuals' experience of accessing care and tending to various other needs during chronic illness in a rural context is important for health systems aiming to increase access to healthcare and protect poor populations from unreasonable financial hardship. This study explored the impact on households of access to free healthcare and how they managed to meet needs during chronic illness. Rich data from the life stories of individuals from 22 households in rural south-western Uganda collected in 2009 were analysed. The data revealed that individuals and households depend heavily on their social relations in order to meet their needs during illness, including accessing the free healthcare and maintaining vital livelihood activities. The life stories illustrated ways in which households draw upon social relations to achieve the broader social protection necessary to prevent expenses becoming catastrophic, but also demonstrated the uncertainty in relying solely on informal relations. Improving access to healthcare in a rural context greatly depends on broader social protection. Thus, the informal social protection that already exists in the form of strong reciprocal social relations must be acknowledged, supported and included in health policy planning.

Social capital and temporal migrant characteristic in rural Indonesia - A case of Malang Regency

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Prayitno, G.

2017-06-01

Public participation in the planning system is often implemented in order to encourage participatory planning. The result is the planning will be implemented softly and the society can managed and maintained continuity the project by themselves. Social capital as the concept of collective action, could increase the possibility the people solve their problem together. In this research we tried to implement the concept of social capital from the migration respondent in rural community activities. In rural area, migration is commonly used by rural inhabitants to ensure the survival of their families or to pursue economic mobility to supplement dwindling household resources. Households are generally selected and invest in a family member who is viewed to have the greatest potential for generating migrant earnings and sending remittances. The increase in the number of migrants has an impact on not only household members but also activities in communities. The labor movement might affect social capital in communities. In this paper, the relation between characteristics of migrants and the level of social capital is analyzed. Characteristics of migrants and households who send them are investigated thorough questioner survey data, which were conducted in Malang Regency, Indonesia.

20 CFR 632.171 - Allocation of funds.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-04-01

... households, whose income is at or below the poverty level, within the Native American grantee's geographic service area compared to the total number of members of Indians and Native American households in poverty...

20 CFR 632.171 - Allocation of funds.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-04-01

... households, whose income is at or below the poverty level, within the Native American grantee's geographic service area compared to the total number of members of Indians and Native American households in poverty...

20 CFR 632.171 - Allocation of funds.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-04-01

... households, whose income is at or below the poverty level, within the Native American grantee's geographic service area compared to the total number of members of Indians and Native American households in poverty...

Association between Farming and Chronic Energy Deficiency in Rural South India

PubMed Central

Subasinghe, Asvini K.; Walker, Karen Z.; Evans, Roger G.; Srikanth, Velandai; Arabshahi, Simin; Kartik, Kamakshi; Kalyanram, Kartik; Thrift, Amanda G.

2014-01-01

Objective To examine factors associated with chronic energy deficiency (CED) and anaemia in disadvantaged Indian adults who are mostly involved in subsistence farming. Design A cross-sectional study in which we collected information on socio-demographic factors, physical activity, anthropometry, blood haemoglobin concentration, and daily household food intake. These data were used to calculate body mass index (BMI), basal metabolic rate (BMR), daily energy expenditure, and energy and nutrient intake. Multivariable backward stepwise logistic regression was used to assess socioeconomic and lifestyle factors associated with CED (defined as BMI<18 kg/m2) and anaemia. Setting The study was conducted in 12 villages, in the Rishi Valley, Andhra Pradesh, India. Subjects Individuals aged 18 years and above, residing in the 12 villages, were eligible to participate. Results Data were available for 1178 individuals (45% male, median age 36 years (inter quartile range (IQR 27–50)). The prevalence of CED (38%) and anaemia (25%) was high. Farming was associated with CED in women (2.20, 95% CI: 1.39–3.49) and men (1.71, 95% CI: (1.06–2.74). Low income was also significantly associated with CED, while not completing high school was positively associated with anaemia. Median iron intake was high: 35.7 mg/day (IQR 26–46) in women and 43.4 mg/day (IQR 34–55) in men. Conclusions Farming is an important risk factor associated with CED in this rural Indian population and low dietary iron is not the main cause of anaemia. Better farming practice may help to reduce CED in this population. PMID:24475286

Child size and household characteristics in rural Timor-Leste.

PubMed

Reghupathy, Nadine; Judge, Debra S; Sanders, Katherine A; Amaral, Pedro Canisio; Schmitt, Lincoln H

2012-01-01

The main objective was to determine those characteristics of the family and household that affects child health (as measured by child size for age) in the rural Ossu area of Timor-Leste. Interviews of parents in 102 households assessed reproductive histories, the amount and type of resources available and family composition (number, sex, and age of members). Height, weight, and mid-upper arm circumference were measured for all children in the household. To standardize for age and sex, raw measures were transformed into WHO Z scores and compared across households. Children were low in both height and weight relative to international standards and older children compared with international standards more poorly than under-fives. There was no evidence of sex difference in relative growth. The number of children in a household was negatively associated with height but not weight and positively with BMI. Children living in the villages more distant from Ossu town center had significantly lower Z scores for height than children in town. No crop or livestock indices were related to growth. Fostered children did not show growth different from biological children, but biological children in households with fostered children were slightly larger for age. Short stature inflates BMI and harvest season measures may have captured short-term increases in children's energy balance. Social networks may increase child well-being by moving children toward resource richer households. Social and cultural factors influence resource allocations among children and their health in rural Timor-Leste. 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Household reporting of childhood respiratory health and air pollution in rural Alaska Native communities.

PubMed

Ware, Desirae N; Lewis, Johnnye; Hopkins, Scarlett; Boyer, Bert; Montrose, Luke; Noonan, Curtis W; Semmens, Erin O; Ward, Tony J

2014-01-01

Air pollution is an important contributor to respiratory disease in children. To examine associations between household reporting of childhood respiratory conditions and household characteristics related to air pollution in Alaska Native communities. In-home surveys were administered in 2 rural regions of Alaska. The 12-month prevalence of respiratory conditions was summarized by region and age. Odds ratios (ORs) were calculated to describe associations between respiratory health and household and air quality characteristics. Household-reported respiratory health data were collected for 561 children in 328 households. In 1 region, 33.6% of children aged <5 years had a recent history of pneumonia and/or bronchitis. Children with these conditions were 2 times more likely to live in a wood-heated home, but these findings were imprecise. Resident concern with mould was associated with elevated prevalence of respiratory infections in children (ORs 1.6-2.5), while reported wheezing was associated with 1 or more smokers living in the household. Reported asthma in 1 region (7.6%) was lower than national prevalence estimates. Findings suggest that there may be preventable exposures, including wood smoke and mould that affect childhood respiratory disease in these rural areas. Additional research is needed to quantify particulate matter 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter or less and mould exposures in these communities, and to objectively evaluate childhood respiratory health.

Factors Associated With American Indian and White Adolescent Drug Selling in Rural Communities

PubMed Central

Eitle, David; Eitle, Tamela McNulty

2014-01-01

Relatively few studies have examined the correlates of adolescent drug selling in America, with most of these studies focusing on urban settings. The present study examines the risk and protective factors associated with drug selling among American Indian and white adolescents residing in a rural Northwestern state in the United States. Using survey data collected in 2010-2012, we conduct logistic regression analyses exploring the correlates of drug selling (n=568). Generally, we found support for prior explanations of drug selling, but identified some important race-specific differences. Specifically, we found that stress exposure was a risk factor for American Indians, but not whites. Conversely, academic achievement served as a protective factor for white adolescents but not American Indians. Our findings suggest that the race gap in rural drug selling can be explained by considering differences in social bonds, stress exposure, and exposure to substance using family and friends. PMID:26120365

Assessment of Universal Healthcare Coverage in a District of North India: A Rapid Cross-Sectional Survey Using Tablet Computers

PubMed Central

Singh, Tarundeep; Roy, Pritam; Jamir, Limalemla; Gupta, Saurav; Kaur, Navpreet; Jain, D. K.; Kumar, Rajesh

2016-01-01

Objective A rapid survey was carried out in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar District of Punjab state in India to ascertain health seeking behavior and out-of-pocket health expenditures. Methods Using multistage cluster sampling design, 1,008 households (28 clusters x 36 households in each cluster) were selected proportionately from urban and rural areas. Households were selected through a house-to-house survey during April and May 2014 whose members had (a) experienced illness in the past 30 days, (b) had illness lasting longer than 30 days, (c) were hospitalized in the past 365 days, or (d) had women who were currently pregnant or experienced childbirth in the past two years. In these selected households, trained investigators, using a tablet computer-based structured questionnaire, enquired about the socio-demographics, nature of illness, source of healthcare, and healthcare and household expenditure. The data was transmitted daily to a central server using wireless communication network. Mean healthcare expenditures were computed for various health conditions. Catastrophic healthcare expenditure was defined as more than 10% of the total annual household expenditure on healthcare. Chi square test for trend was used to compare catastrophic expenditures on hospitalization between households classified into expenditure quartiles. Results The mean monthly household expenditure was 15,029 Indian Rupees (USD 188.2). Nearly 14.2% of the household expenditure was on healthcare. Fever, respiratory tract diseases, gastrointestinal diseases were the common acute illnesses, while heart disease, diabetes mellitus, and respiratory diseases were the more common chronic diseases. Hospitalizations were mainly due to cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal problems, and accidents. Only 17%, 18%, 20% and 31% of the healthcare for acute illnesses, chronic illnesses, hospitalizations and childbirth was sought in the government health facilities. Average expenditure in government health facilities was 16.6% less for acute care, 15% less for hospitalization and 50% less for childbirth than in the private healthcare facilities. Out-of-pocket expenditure was mostly on medicines followed by diagnostic and laboratory tests. Among households experiencing hospitalization, 56.5% had incurred catastrophic expenditures, which was significantly higher in the poorest compared to richest household expenditure quartile (p <0.002). Conclusions Expenditure on healthcare remains high in Punjab state of India. Efforts to increase utilization of the public sector could decrease out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure. PMID:27351743

Assessment of Universal Healthcare Coverage in a District of North India: A Rapid Cross-Sectional Survey Using Tablet Computers.

PubMed

Singh, Tarundeep; Roy, Pritam; Jamir, Limalemla; Gupta, Saurav; Kaur, Navpreet; Jain, D K; Kumar, Rajesh

2016-01-01

A rapid survey was carried out in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar District of Punjab state in India to ascertain health seeking behavior and out-of-pocket health expenditures. Using multistage cluster sampling design, 1,008 households (28 clusters x 36 households in each cluster) were selected proportionately from urban and rural areas. Households were selected through a house-to-house survey during April and May 2014 whose members had (a) experienced illness in the past 30 days, (b) had illness lasting longer than 30 days, (c) were hospitalized in the past 365 days, or (d) had women who were currently pregnant or experienced childbirth in the past two years. In these selected households, trained investigators, using a tablet computer-based structured questionnaire, enquired about the socio-demographics, nature of illness, source of healthcare, and healthcare and household expenditure. The data was transmitted daily to a central server using wireless communication network. Mean healthcare expenditures were computed for various health conditions. Catastrophic healthcare expenditure was defined as more than 10% of the total annual household expenditure on healthcare. Chi square test for trend was used to compare catastrophic expenditures on hospitalization between households classified into expenditure quartiles. The mean monthly household expenditure was 15,029 Indian Rupees (USD 188.2). Nearly 14.2% of the household expenditure was on healthcare. Fever, respiratory tract diseases, gastrointestinal diseases were the common acute illnesses, while heart disease, diabetes mellitus, and respiratory diseases were the more common chronic diseases. Hospitalizations were mainly due to cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal problems, and accidents. Only 17%, 18%, 20% and 31% of the healthcare for acute illnesses, chronic illnesses, hospitalizations and childbirth was sought in the government health facilities. Average expenditure in government health facilities was 16.6% less for acute care, 15% less for hospitalization and 50% less for childbirth than in the private healthcare facilities. Out-of-pocket expenditure was mostly on medicines followed by diagnostic and laboratory tests. Among households experiencing hospitalization, 56.5% had incurred catastrophic expenditures, which was significantly higher in the poorest compared to richest household expenditure quartile (p <0.002). Expenditure on healthcare remains high in Punjab state of India. Efforts to increase utilization of the public sector could decrease out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure.

Differences in the social patterning of active travel between urban and rural populations: findings from a large UK household survey.

PubMed

Hutchinson, Jayne; White, Piran C L; Graham, Hilary

2014-12-01

To determine the social patterning of active travel of short journeys for urban and rural residents in a large UK representative sample. Associations between frequently walking or cycling short journeys and socio-demographic factors in the UK Household Longitudinal Study were determined using logistic regression. Urban residents were 64 % more likely to frequently engage in active travel than rural residents (95 % CI 1.52, 1.77). Being younger, male, without full-time employment and having a lower income independently predicted greater active travel for both urban and rural residents. Degree level education and not having children were independent predictors for urban, but not rural residents. Actively travelling short journeys is less common and independently associated with fewer socio-demographic factors in rural than in urban populations.

Village energy survey reveals missing rural raw coal in northern China: Significance in science and policy.

PubMed

Zhi, Guorui; Zhang, Yayun; Sun, Jianzhong; Cheng, Miaomiao; Dang, Hongyan; Liu, Shijie; Yang, Junchao; Zhang, Yuzhe; Xue, Zhigang; Li, Shuyuan; Meng, Fan

2017-04-01

Burning coal for winter heating has been considered a major contributor to northern China's winter haze, with the district heating boilers holding the balance. However a decade of intensive efforts on district heating boilers brought few improvements to northern China's winter air quality, arousing a speculation that the household heating stoves mainly in rural area rather than the district heating boilers mainly in urban area dominate coal emissions in winter. This implies an extreme underestimation of rural household coal consumption by the China Energy Statistical Yearbooks (CESYs), although direct evidence supporting this speculation is lacking. A village energy survey campaign was launched to gather the firsthand information on household coal consumption in the rural areas of two cities, Baoding (in Hebei province) and Beijing (the capital of China). The survey data show that the rural raw coal consumption in Baoding (5.04 × 10 3  kt) was approximately 6.5 times the value listed in the official CESY 2013 and exceeded the rural total of whole Hebei Province (4668 kt), revealing a huge amount of raw coal missing from the current statistical system. More importantly, rural emissions of particulate matter (PM) and SO 2 from raw coal, which had never been included in widely distributing environmental statistical reports, were found higher than those from industrial and urban household sectors in the two cities in 2013, which highlights the importance of rural coal burning in creating northern China's heavy haze and helps to explain why a number of modeling predictions on ambient pollutant concentrations based on normal emission inventories were more bias-prone in winter season than in other seasons. We therefore recommend placing greater emphasis on the "missing" rural raw coal to help China in its long-term ambition to achieve clean air in the context of rapid economic development. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Measurement of inequality using household energy consumption data in rural China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Wu, Shimei; Zheng, Xinye; Wei, Chu

2017-10-01

Measuring inequality can be challenging due to the limitations of using household income or expenditure data. Because actual energy consumption can be measured more easily and accurately and is relatively more stable, it may be a better measure of inequality. Here we use data on energy consumption for specific devices from a large nation-wide household survey (n = 3,404 rural households from 12 provinces) to assess inequality in rural China. We find that the overall inequality of energy consumption and expenditure varies greatly in terms of energy type, end-use demand, regions and climatic zones. Biomass, space heating and cooking, intraregional differences, and climatic zones characterized as cold or hot summer/cold winter contribute the most to total inequality for each indicator, respectively. The results suggest that the expansion of infrastructure does not accompany alleviation of energy inequality, and that energy affordability should be improved through income growth and targeted safety-net programmes instead of energy subsidies.

Traditional medicine for the rich and knowledgeable: challenging assumptions about treatment-seeking behaviour in rural and peri-urban Nepal

PubMed Central

Thorsen, Rikke Stamp; Pouliot, Mariève

2016-01-01

Traditional medicine is commonly assumed to be a crucial health care option for poor households in developing countries. However, little research has been done in Asia to quantify the reliance on traditional medicine and its determinants. This research contributes to filling in this knowledge gap using household survey data collected from 571 households in three rural and peri-urban sites in Nepal in 2012. Questions encompassed household socioeconomic characteristics, illness characteristics, and treatment-seeking behaviour. Treatment choice was investigated through bivariate analyses. Results show that traditional medicine, and especially self-treatment with medicinal plants, prevail as treatment options in both rural and peri-urban populations. Contrarily to what is commonly assumed, high income is an important determinant of use of traditional medicine. Likewise, knowledge of medicinal plants, age, education, gender and illness chronicity were also significant determinants. The importance of self-treatment with medicinal plants should inform the development of health policy tailored to people’s treatment-seeking behaviour. PMID:26130610

Women's role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India.

PubMed

Routray, Parimita; Torondel, Belen; Clasen, Thomas; Schmidt, Wolf-Peter

2017-01-01

While women and girls face special risks from lack of access to sanitation facilities, their ability to participate and influence household-level sanitation is not well understood. This paper examines the association between women's decision-making autonomy and latrine construction in rural areas of Odisha, India. We conducted a mixed-method study among rural households in Puri district. This included a cross sectional survey among 475 randomly selected households. These were classified as either having a functional latrine, a non-functional latrine or no latrine at all. We also conducted 17 in-depth interviews and 9 focus group discussions among household members of these three categories of households. Decisions on the construction of household level sanitation facilities were made exclusively by the male head in 80% of households; in 11% the decision was made by men who consulted or otherwise involved women. In only 9% of households the decision was made by women. Households where women were more involved in general decision making processes were no more likely to build a latrine, compared to households where they were excluded from decisions. Qualitative research revealed that women's non-involvement in sanitation decision making is attributed to their low socio-economic status and inability to influence the household's financial decisions. Female heads lacked confidence to take decisions independently, and were dependent on their spouse or other male family members for most decisions. The study revealed the existence of power hierarchies and dynamics within households, which constrained female's participation in decision-making processes regarding sanitation. Though governments and implementers emphasize women's involvement in sanitation programmes, socio-cultural factors and community and household level dynamics often prevent women from participating in sanitation-related decisions. Measures are needed for strengthening sanitation policies and effective implementation of programmes to address gender power relations and familial relationships that influence latrine adoption and use.

A Household-Based Study of Contact Networks Relevant for the Spread of Infectious Diseases in the Highlands of Peru

PubMed Central

Grijalva, Carlos G.; Goeyvaerts, Nele; Verastegui, Hector; Edwards, Kathryn M.; Gil, Ana I.; Lanata, Claudio F.; Hens, Niel

2015-01-01

Background Few studies have quantified social mixing in remote rural areas of developing countries, where the burden of infectious diseases is usually the highest. Understanding social mixing patterns in those settings is crucial to inform the implementation of strategies for disease prevention and control. We characterized contact and social mixing patterns in rural communities of the Peruvian highlands. Methods and Findings This cross-sectional study was nested in a large prospective household-based study of respiratory infections conducted in the province of San Marcos, Cajamarca-Peru. Members of study households were interviewed using a structured questionnaire of social contacts (conversation or physical interaction) experienced during the last 24 hours. We identified 9015 reported contacts from 588 study household members. The median age of respondents was 17 years (interquartile range [IQR] 4–34 years). The median number of reported contacts was 12 (IQR 8–20) whereas the median number of physical (i.e. skin-to-skin) contacts was 8.5 (IQR 5–14). Study participants had contacts mostly with people of similar age, and with their offspring or parents. The number of reported contacts was mainly determined by the participants’ age, household size and occupation. School-aged children had more contacts than other age groups. Within-household reciprocity of contacts reporting declined with household size (range 70%-100%). Ninety percent of household contact networks were complete, and furthermore, household members' contacts with non-household members showed significant overlap (range 33%-86%), indicating a high degree of contact clustering. A two-level mixing epidemic model was simulated to compare within-household mixing based on observed contact networks and within-household random mixing. No differences in the size or duration of the simulated epidemics were revealed. Conclusion This study of rural low-density communities in the highlands of Peru suggests contact patterns are highly assortative. Study findings support the use of within-household homogenous mixing assumptions for epidemic modeling in this setting. PMID:25734772

A strategy to increase adoption of locally-produced, ceramic cookstoves in rural Kenyan households.

PubMed

Silk, Benjamin J; Sadumah, Ibrahim; Patel, Minal K; Were, Vincent; Person, Bobbie; Harris, Julie; Otieno, Ronald; Nygren, Benjamin; Loo, Jennifer; Eleveld, Alie; Quick, Robert E; Cohen, Adam L

2012-05-16

Exposure to household air pollutants released during cooking has been linked to numerous adverse health outcomes among residents of rural areas in low-income countries. Improved cookstoves are one of few available interventions, but achieving equity in cookstove access has been challenging. Therefore, innovative approaches are needed. To evaluate a project designed to motivate adoption of locally-produced, ceramic cookstoves (upesi jiko) in an impoverished, rural African population, we assessed the perceived benefits of the cookstoves (in monetary and time-savings terms), the rate of cookstove adoption, and the equity of adoption. The project was conducted in 60 rural Kenyan villages in 2008 and 2009. Baseline (n = 1250) and follow-up (n = 293) surveys and a stove-tracking database were analyzed. At baseline, nearly all respondents used wood (95%) and firepits (99%) for cooking; 98% desired smoke reductions. Households with upesi jiko subsequently spent <100 Kenyan Shillings/week on firewood more often (40%) than households without upesi jiko (20%) (p = 0.0002). There were no significant differences in the presence of children <2 years of age in households using upesi jiko (48%) or three-stone stoves (49%) (p = 0.88); children 2-5 years of age were less common in households using upesi jiko versus three-stone stoves (46% and 69%, respectively) (p = 0.0001). Vendors installed 1,124 upesi jiko in 757 multi-family households in 18 months; 68% of these transactions involved incentives for vendors and purchasers. Relatively few (<10%) upesi jiko were installed in households of women in the youngest age quartile (<22 years) or among households in the poorest quintile. Our strategy of training of local vendors, appropriate incentives, and product integration effectively accelerated cookstove adoption into a large number of households. The strategy also created opportunities to reinforce health messages and promote cookstoves sales and installation. However, the project's overall success was diminished by inequitable and incomplete adoption by households with the lowest socioeconomic status and young children present. Additional evaluations of similar strategies will be needed to determine whether our strategy can be applied equitably elsewhere, and whether reductions in fuel use, household air pollution, and the incidence of respiratory diseases will follow adoption of improved cookstoves.

A strategy to increase adoption of locally-produced, ceramic cookstoves in rural Kenyan households

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background Exposure to household air pollutants released during cooking has been linked to numerous adverse health outcomes among residents of rural areas in low-income countries. Improved cookstoves are one of few available interventions, but achieving equity in cookstove access has been challenging. Therefore, innovative approaches are needed. To evaluate a project designed to motivate adoption of locally-produced, ceramic cookstoves (upesi jiko) in an impoverished, rural African population, we assessed the perceived benefits of the cookstoves (in monetary and time-savings terms), the rate of cookstove adoption, and the equity of adoption. Methods The project was conducted in 60 rural Kenyan villages in 2008 and 2009. Baseline (n = 1250) and follow-up (n = 293) surveys and a stove-tracking database were analyzed. Results At baseline, nearly all respondents used wood (95%) and firepits (99%) for cooking; 98% desired smoke reductions. Households with upesi jiko subsequently spent <100 Kenyan Shillings/week on firewood more often (40%) than households without upesi jiko (20%) (p = 0.0002). There were no significant differences in the presence of children <2 years of age in households using upesi jiko (48%) or three-stone stoves (49%) (p = 0.88); children 2–5 years of age were less common in households using upesi jiko versus three-stone stoves (46% and 69%, respectively) (p = 0.0001). Vendors installed 1,124 upesi jiko in 757 multi-family households in 18 months; 68% of these transactions involved incentives for vendors and purchasers. Relatively few (<10%) upesi jiko were installed in households of women in the youngest age quartile (<22 years) or among households in the poorest quintile. Conclusions Our strategy of training of local vendors, appropriate incentives, and product integration effectively accelerated cookstove adoption into a large number of households. The strategy also created opportunities to reinforce health messages and promote cookstoves sales and installation. However, the project’s overall success was diminished by inequitable and incomplete adoption by households with the lowest socioeconomic status and young children present. Additional evaluations of similar strategies will be needed to determine whether our strategy can be applied equitably elsewhere, and whether reductions in fuel use, household air pollution, and the incidence of respiratory diseases will follow adoption of improved cookstoves. PMID:22591643

Reconsidering non-traditional export agriculture and household food security: A case study in rural Guatemala

PubMed Central

Bennett, Elena M.

2018-01-01

As the production of non-traditional export (NTX) crops by smallholder households in developing countries expands, there is a compelling need to understand the potential effects of this type of agricultural production on household food security and nutrition. We use two household surveys with a sample of 52 households, interviews, and focus groups to examine whether smallholder farmers who produce broccoli for export in a rural Guatemalan community have different household food security than farmers in the same community who are still growing traditional maize and bean crops. We explore and compare the food security status of broccoli farmers (adopters) and traditional farmers (non-adopters) across four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Adopters earned significantly more income (40%) than non-adopters, but higher incomes did not coincide with improvements in food availability, food access, or food utilization. Results indicate that adopters and non-adopters alike struggle with access to food, while the intensity of broccoli production may be undermining the ability of local agricultural systems to naturally control pests and regulate nutrients. More systematic approaches to food security assessment, especially those that consider all four dimensions of food security, are needed to better target interventions designed to alleviate food insecurity among rural smallholders. PMID:29795691

Reconsidering non-traditional export agriculture and household food security: A case study in rural Guatemala.

PubMed

Méthot, Josée; Bennett, Elena M

2018-01-01

As the production of non-traditional export (NTX) crops by smallholder households in developing countries expands, there is a compelling need to understand the potential effects of this type of agricultural production on household food security and nutrition. We use two household surveys with a sample of 52 households, interviews, and focus groups to examine whether smallholder farmers who produce broccoli for export in a rural Guatemalan community have different household food security than farmers in the same community who are still growing traditional maize and bean crops. We explore and compare the food security status of broccoli farmers (adopters) and traditional farmers (non-adopters) across four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Adopters earned significantly more income (40%) than non-adopters, but higher incomes did not coincide with improvements in food availability, food access, or food utilization. Results indicate that adopters and non-adopters alike struggle with access to food, while the intensity of broccoli production may be undermining the ability of local agricultural systems to naturally control pests and regulate nutrients. More systematic approaches to food security assessment, especially those that consider all four dimensions of food security, are needed to better target interventions designed to alleviate food insecurity among rural smallholders.

Selecting a Targeting Method to Identify BPL Households in India

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Alkire, Sabina; Seth, Suman

2013-01-01

This paper proposes how to select a methodology to target multidimensionally poor households, and how to update that targeting exercise periodically. We present this methodology in the context of discussions regarding the selection of a targeting methodology in India. In 1992, 1997, and 2002 the Indian government identified households that are…

Out-of-pocket expenditure on chronic non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of rural Malawi.

PubMed

Wang, Qun; Fu, Alex Z; Brenner, Stephan; Kalmus, Olivier; Banda, Hastings Thomas; De Allegri, Manuela

2015-01-01

In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the disease burden of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) is rising considerably. Given weaknesses in existing financial arrangements across SSA, expenditure on CNCDs is often borne directly by patients through out-of-pocket (OOP) payments. This study explored patterns and determinants of OOP expenditure on CNCDs in Malawi. We used data from the first round of a longitudinal household health survey conducted in 2012 on a sample of 1199 households in three rural districts in Malawi. We used a two-part model to analyze determinants of OOP expenditure on CNCDs. 475 respondents reported at least one CNCD. More than 60% of the 298 individuals who reported seeking care incurred OOP expenditure. The amount of OOP expenditure on CNCDs comprised 22% of their monthly per capita household expenditure. The poorer the household, the higher proportion of their monthly per capita household expenditure was spent on CNCDs. Higher severity of disease was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of incurring OOP expenditure. Use of formal care was negatively associated with the possibility of incurring OOP expenditure. The following factors were positively associated with the amount of OOP expenditure: being female, Alomwe and household head, longer duration of disease, CNCDs targeted through active screening programs, higher socio-economic status, household head being literate, using formal care, and fewer household members living with a CNCD within a household. Our study showed that, in spite of a context where care for CNCDs should in principle be available free of charge at point of use, OOP payments impose a considerable financial burden on rural households, especially among the poorest. This suggests the existence of important gaps in financial protection in the current coverage policy.

Out-of-Pocket Expenditure on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Rural Malawi

PubMed Central

Wang, Qun; Fu, Alex Z.; Brenner, Stephan; Kalmus, Olivier; Banda, Hastings Thomas; De Allegri, Manuela

2015-01-01

In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the disease burden of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) is rising considerably. Given weaknesses in existing financial arrangements across SSA, expenditure on CNCDs is often borne directly by patients through out-of-pocket (OOP) payments. This study explored patterns and determinants of OOP expenditure on CNCDs in Malawi. We used data from the first round of a longitudinal household health survey conducted in 2012 on a sample of 1199 households in three rural districts in Malawi. We used a two-part model to analyze determinants of OOP expenditure on CNCDs. 475 respondents reported at least one CNCD. More than 60% of the 298 individuals who reported seeking care incurred OOP expenditure. The amount of OOP expenditure on CNCDs comprised 22% of their monthly per capita household expenditure. The poorer the household, the higher proportion of their monthly per capita household expenditure was spent on CNCDs. Higher severity of disease was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of incurring OOP expenditure. Use of formal care was negatively associated with the possibility of incurring OOP expenditure. The following factors were positively associated with the amount of OOP expenditure: being female, Alomwe and household head, longer duration of disease, CNCDs targeted through active screening programs, higher socio-economic status, household head being literate, using formal care, and fewer household members living with a CNCD within a household. Our study showed that, in spite of a context where care for CNCDs should in principle be available free of charge at point of use, OOP payments impose a considerable financial burden on rural households, especially among the poorest. This suggests the existence of important gaps in financial protection in the current coverage policy. PMID:25584960

Financing incidence analysis of household out-of-pocket spending for healthcare: getting more health for money in Nigeria?

PubMed

Onwujekwe, Obinna; Hanson, Kara; Ichoku, Hyacinth; Uzochukwu, Benjamin

2014-01-01

The study examined the burden of out-of-pocket spending (OOPS) to households, because available data showed that OOPS dominates household expenditure on health in Nigeria. The study took place in rural and urban districts in Nigeria. A household questionnaire was used to collect data from 4873 households on their healthcare expenditures and payment mechanisms by using a 1-month expenditure recall period. Financing incidence analysis was assessed at the household level on the basis of socio-economic status (SES) groups and rural-urban location of the households. Concentration curves of OOPS were plotted with the Lorenz curve of total household expenditures to show the distribution of the burden of OOPS by SES compared with total household expenditure. The Kakwani index was computed to examine the overall progressivity or regressivity of OOPS. There was lack of financial risk protection for healthcare in the study area. The results showed that 3150 (98.8%) of payments were made using OOPS, nine (0.3%) using reimbursement by employers, one (0.03%) through private voluntary health insurance (PVHI), nine (0.3%) using instalment and 14 (0.44%) through 'others'. The average monthly household OOPS was 2219.1 Naira. The Kakwani index for financing incidence of OOPS was -0.18, showing that OOPS was regressive. The most-poor SES groups and rural dwellers experienced the highest burden of health expenditure. Urgent steps should be taken by the government to increase or enhance universal coverage in the country with financial protection mechanisms such as the National Health Insurance Scheme in addition to possibly abolishing some of the user fees that cause high incidence and burden of OOPS. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The social context of severe child malnutrition: a qualitative household case study from a rural area of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

PubMed

Kismul, Hallgeir; Hatløy, Anne; Andersen, Peter; Mapatano, Mala; Van den Broeck, Jan; Moland, Karen Marie

2015-05-19

The magnitude of child malnutrition including severe child malnutrition is especially high in the rural areas of the Democratic Republic of Congo (the DRC). The aim of this qualitative study is to describe the social context of malnutrition in a rural part of the DRC and explore how some households succeed in ensuring that their children are well-nourished while others do not. This study is based on participant observation, key informant interviews, group discussions and in-depth interviews with four households with malnourished children and four with well-nourished children. We apply social field theory to link individual child nutritional outcomes to processes at local level and to the wider socio-economic environment. We identified four social fields that have implications for food security and child nutritional outcomes: 1) household size and composition which determined vulnerability to child malnutrition, 2) inter-household cooperation in the form of 'gbisa work party' which buffered scarcity of labour in peak seasons and facilitated capital accumulation, 3) the village associated with usufruct rights to land, and 4) the local NGO providing access to agricultural support, clean drinking water and health care. Households that participated in inter-household cooperation were able to improve food and nutrition security. Children living in households with high pressure on productive members were at danger of food insecurity and malnutrition. Nutrition interventions need to involve local institutions for inter-household cooperation and address the problem of social inequalities in service provision. They should have special focus on households with few resources in the form of land, labour and capital.

Farmland Tenure Security in China: Influencing Factors of Actual and Perceived Farmland Tenure Security

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Ren, Guangcheng; Zhu, Xueqin; Heerink, Nico; van Ierland, Ekko; Feng, Shuyi

2017-04-01

Tenure security plays an important role in farm households' investment, land renting and other decisions. Recent literature distinguishes between actual farmland tenure security (i.e. farm households' actual control of farmland) and perceived farmland tenure security (i.e. farm households' subjective understanding of their farmland tenure situation and expectation regarding government enforcement and equality of the law). However little is known on what factors influence the actual and perceived farmland tenure security in rural China. Theoretically, actual farmland tenure security is related to village self-governance as a major informal governance rule in rural China. Both economic efficiency and equity considerations are likely to play a role in the distribution of land and its tenure security. Household perceptions of farmland tenure security depend not only on the actual farmland tenure security in a village, but may also be affected by households' investment in and ability of changing social rules. Our study examines what factors contribute to differences in actual and perceived farmland tenure security between different villages and farm households in different regions of China. Applying probit models to the data collected from 1,485 households in 124 villages in Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning and Chongqing, we find that development of farmland rental market and degree of self-governance of a village have positive impacts, and development of labour market has a negative effect on actual farmland tenure security. Household perceptions of tenure security depend not only on actual farmland tenure security and on households' investment in and ability of changing social rules, but also on risk preferences of households. This finding has interesting policy implications for future land reforms in rural China.

Large urban-rural disparity in the severity of two-week illness: updated results based on the first health service survey of Hunan Province, China.

PubMed

Tian, Danping; Sun, Li; Zhang, Lingling; Zhang, Lin; Zhang, Wei; Li, Li; Deng, Xin; Ning, Peishan; Cheng, Xunjie; Deng, Jing; Hu, Guoqing

2016-02-29

To examine urban-rural differences in the severity of non-fatal disease and injury using the latest household interview survey data of Hunan Province, China. Two-week illness data were from the first provincial health household interview survey of Hunan in 2013. The proportion of patients being bedridden, the average days of being bedridden and the average off-work days were calculated to measure the severity of two-week illness. Rao-Scott-adjusted chi-square test was performed to examine the significance of two-week illness severity differences from demographic variables. Multiple logistic regression and linear regression were used to control for sex, age and household income. The two-week illness prevalence was 22.8 % in Hunan province. Despite similar two-week ill prevalence rates between urban areas and rural areas (23.0 % vs. 22.8 %), rural residents had higher proportions of being bedridden and of being off work than urban residents after controlling for sex, age and household income, with adjusted odds ratios of 3.4 and 6.9, respectively. Similarly, the average days of being bedridden and of being off work in rural residents were 0.45 days and 1.61 days longer than in urban residents after controlling for demographic variables, respectively. The recent data shows that two-week illness in rural residents is more serious than urban residents in Hunan Province, China in spite of very similar two-week prevalence rates. The neglected urban-rural disparities in the severity of two-week illness deserve the attention of health policy-makers and researchers.

The relationship between poverty and fertility in Peninsular Malaysia: a district analysis.

PubMed

Teo Cheok Chin, P

1989-01-01

An analysis of the poverty-fertility association in Peninsular Malaysia indicates that the decision to replace the 1970 New Economic Policy, aimed at redistributing income, with a policy based on economic growth through foreign investment may create serious demographic problems for the country. Although the country's crude birth rate fell from 40/1000 in 1950 to 30.3/1000 in 1975, the Malays (55%) of the population experienced only a 3% decline in this period and rural-urban differentials in fertility remained. Data from the 1980 Malaysian census on variables related to absolute and relative poverty confirm the serious nature of Malay rural poverty. Stepwise regression models for the urban-rural and Malay-Chinese factors used the following variables: % Malay, household possession dissimilarity index, ratio of Malay to non-Malay workers who are self-employed and unpaid family workers, ratio of Malay to non-Malay who own their housing, education dissimilarity index, employment rate dissimilarity, households with sanitation, households with electricity, households with piped water, per capita expenditures for basic needs, per capita expenditure for redistributing wealth, average education, median age at marriage, female labor force participation, % of child workers, % married, % rural, and % in agriculture. The partial correlation of the Malay-Chinese component with fertility was 0.42 while the urban-rural correlation was 0.33, suggesting that the ethnic factor is operable even in conditions of rural poverty. Urban poverty can be ameliorated by the provision of infrastructural facilities and Chinese poverty is reduced by the level of modernization, while Malay poverty is responsive to income redistribution. Unless the government reconsiders its policy, the high fertility rates in the impoverished, largely Malay, rural northwest, northeast, central, and east parts will persist.

The influence of deprivation on suicide mortality in urban and rural Queensland: an ecological analysis.

PubMed

Law, Chi-kin; Snider, Anne-Marie; De Leo, Diego

2014-12-01

A trend of higher suicide rates in rural and remote areas as well as areas with low socioeconomic status has been shown in previous research. Little is known whether the influence of social deprivation on suicide differs between urban and rural areas. This investigation aims to examine how social deprivation influences suicide mortality and to identify which related factors of deprivation have a higher potential to reduce suicide risk in urban and rural Queensland, Australia. Suicide data from 2004 to 2008 were obtained from the Queensland Suicide Register. Age-standardized suicide rates (15+ years) and rate ratios, with a 95% confidence interval, for 38 Statistical Subdivisions (SSDs) in Queensland were calculated. The influence of deprivation-related variables on suicide and their rural-urban difference were modelled by log-linear regression analyses through backward elimination. Among the 38 SSDs in Queensland, eight had a higher suicide risk while eleven had a lower rate. Working-age males (15-59 years) had the most pronounced geographic variation in suicide rate. In urban areas, suicide rates were positively associated with tenant households in public housing, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the unemployment rate and median individual income, but inversely correlated with younger age and households with no internet access. In rural areas, only tenant households in public housing and households with no internet access heightened the risk of suicide, while a negative association was found for younger and older persons, low-skilled workers or labourers, and families with low income and no cars. The extent to which social deprivation contributes to suicide mortality varies considerably between rural and urban areas.

Outmigration patterns in development transition of rural areas.

PubMed

Kaistha, K C

1987-01-01

Using a broadened concept of migration, which includes circulatory migration and commuting, this paper maintains that the patterns of outmigration vary a great deal when the level of development of a rural area is treated as an independent variable. This study uses a stratified conditional sample of 192 households selected from 3 areas: 53 households from a low developed (LDL) area, 56 from a medium (MDL), and 83 from a high (HDL). Data were collected by personal observation, interview, and genealogical methods at both the household and individual level. The households are divided into 3 main categories: 1) non-migrating, 2) commuting only, and 3) migrating (which is further divided into migrating within and migrating outside the boundaries of the district). Results show that 1) 37.51% of household members neither commute nor have migrated outside the village; 2) using the narrow definition of migration, only 10% of males over age 15 migrate, while including commuting in the definition increases the percentage to 40; 3) proportions of non-migrating households decrease from 58.4% for the LDL, to 35.7% for the MDL, to 25.3% for the HDL area; 4) the proportion of commuting only households increases from 26.4% for the LDL, to 35.7% to the MDL, and 55.4% for the HDL area; 5) 15.2% of households in the LDL, 28.6% in the MDL, and 19.3% in the HDL area experience a permanent change in residence; 6) as development accelerates, the overall volume of outmigration increases; 7) the flow of migration from rural to rural areas is mostly limited to the MDL area, while cityward migration increasingly occurs on both LDL and HDL areas; 8) the median age of commuters increases with rising levels of development; and 9) almost all migrants from the LDL area are employed in low prestige occupations, most from the HDL area have higher prestige jobs, and those from the MDL area have both high and low prestige jobs.

School attributes, household characteristics, and demand for schooling: A case study of rural Peru

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Ilon, Lynn; Moock, Peter

1991-12-01

Educational expansion, long a goal of many LDCs, has become a difficult policy to pursue. Growing populations, shrinking national incomes and higher marginal costs of schooling as schooling reaches more rural dwellers have caused policy makers to take a hard look at factors which influence educational demand and expansion. This paper examines the case of Peru where rural areas have yet to attain the nearly universal enrollment of urban areas. The study examines 2500 rural households to explore reasons why children do not attend school, drop out of school, and begin school at later ages. The study finds that the monetary costs of schools (fees and other costs) have a substantial influence on parental decisions regarding school attendance and continuation. Sensitivity analysis reveals that mother's education has a bearing on their children's educational participation, particularly in low-income households. Sensitivity analysis also reveals that school attendance of low income and female children are most strongly affected by simulated changes in school fees.

Prevalence trends of wood use as the main cooking fuel in Mexico, 1990-2013.

PubMed

Hernández-Garduño, Eduardo; Gómez-García, Eva; Campos-Gómez, Saúl

2017-01-01

To determine prevalence trends of using Wood as the Main Cooking Fuel (WMCF) in Mexico and household characteristics that predict its use. Estimates were obtained from the 1990, 2000 and 2010 censuses and from a national survey performed in 2012 and 2013. In 2012-2013, 9.5% of the 66 321 surveyed households and 10.9% of their 252 011 residents used WMCF. Prevalence was higher in rural (40.5%) than urban areas (1.5%), p<0.0001. From 1990 to 2013 wood use decreased by 53% overall and by 28.6% in rural areas, gas use increased respectively by 17.5 and 52.7%. Predictors of using WMCF were living in rural or suburban areas and those associated with low socioeconomic status. Use of WMCF has decreased substantially in Mexico but at a slower pace in rural areas. Improving household characteristics and socioeconomic status may decrease use of WMCF at a higher rate.

One Size Fits All? The Validity of a Composite Poverty Index Across Urban and Rural Households in South Africa.

PubMed

Steinert, Janina Isabel; Cluver, Lucie Dale; Melendez-Torres, G J; Vollmer, Sebastian

2018-01-01

Composite indices have been prominently used in poverty research. However, validity of these indices remains subject to debate. This paper examines the validity of a common type of composite poverty indices using data from a cross-sectional survey of 2477 households in urban and rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Multiple-group comparisons in structural equation modelling were employed for testing differences in the measurement model across urban and rural groups. The analysis revealed substantial variations between urban and rural respondents both in the conceptualisation of poverty as well as in the weights and importance assigned to individual poverty indicators. The validity of a 'one size fits all' measurement model can therefore not be confirmed. In consequence, it becomes virtually impossible to determine a household's poverty level relative to the full sample. Findings from our analysis have important practical implications in nuancing how we can sensitively use composite poverty indices to identify poor people.

Predictors of maternal health services utilization by poor, rural women: a comparative study in Indian States of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

PubMed

Vora, Kranti Suresh; Koblinsky, Sally A; Koblinsky, Marge A

2015-07-31

India leads all nations in numbers of maternal deaths, with poor, rural women contributing disproportionately to the high maternal mortality ratio. In 2005, India launched the world's largest conditional cash transfer scheme, Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), to increase poor women's access to institutional delivery, anticipating that facility-based birthing would decrease deaths. Indian states have taken different approaches to implementing JSY. Tamil Nadu adopted JSY with a reorganization of its public health system, and Gujarat augmented JSY with the state-funded Chiranjeevi Yojana (CY) scheme, contracting with private physicians for delivery services. Given scarce evidence of the outcomes of these approaches, especially in states with more optimal health indicators, this cross-sectional study examined the role of JSY/CY and other healthcare system and social factors in predicting poor, rural women's use of maternal health services in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Using the District Level Household Survey (DLHS)-3, the sample included 1584 Gujarati and 601 Tamil rural women in the lowest two wealth quintiles. Multivariate logistic regression analyses examined associations between JSY/CY and other salient health system, socio-demographic, and obstetric factors with three outcomes: adequate antenatal care, institutional delivery, and Cesarean-section. Tamil women reported greater use of maternal healthcare services than Gujarati women. JSY/CY participation predicted institutional delivery in Gujarat (AOR = 3.9), but JSY assistance failed to predict institutional delivery in Tamil Nadu, where mothers received some cash for home births under another scheme. JSY/CY assistance failed to predict adequate antenatal care, which was not incentivized. All-weather road access predicted institutional delivery in both Tamil Nadu (AOR = 3.4) and Gujarat (AOR = 1.4). Women's education predicted institutional delivery and Cesarean-section in Tamil Nadu, while husbands' education predicted institutional delivery in Gujarat. Overall, assistance from health financing schemes, good road access to health facilities, and socio-demographic and obstetric factors were associated with differential use of maternity health services by poor, rural women in the two states. Policymakers and practitioners should promote financing schemes to increase access, including consideration of incentives for antenatal care, and address health system and social factors in designing state-level interventions to promote safe motherhood.

A Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment for Depression in Rural American Indian Middle School Students

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Listug-Lunde, Lori; Vogeltanz-Holm, Nancy; Collins, John

2013-01-01

Rural American Indian (AI) middle school students with depressive symptoms who participated in a culturally modified version of the Adolescent Coping with Depression (CWD-A) course (n = 8) reported significant improvement in depressive symptoms at post-intervention and at 3-month follow-up. There was also a nonsignificant but clinically relevant…

Labour migration and rural development in Egypt. A study of return migration in six villages.

PubMed

Reichert, C

1993-01-01

An analysis of the impact of labor migration on social change in 6 rural villages (Shanawan and Kafr Shanawan north of Cairo, Kafr Yusuf and Tambul el Kubra near Simbalaween, and Abu Girg and Bani Walims in Minya governate) in Egypt was conducted in 1987-88. Since the 1991 Gulf war, the political environment, the labor markets, and the structure of migration opportunities have changed. An estimated 5% of rural households might have been directly affected by migrants' departure from Kuwait and Iraq. Data collection involved a household census survey of 8620 households, of which 2483 were migrants, including 1765 return migrants. A sample of return migrant (639) was interviewed about their migration experiences. Participant observation was also conducted among migrants and nonmigrants, and case studies were developed. Villages were demographically and socioeconomically very different; migration ranged from 18.5-434.2%. Structural change was measured on a scale of 1 to 6 in terms of population size, literacy of household heads, share of agricultural occupations, share of new red brick houses, and availability of infrastructural or institutional facilities. The probability of having a household with a migrant member increased with the rural character of the village. Landholdings or other major household variables were unrelated to migration. Rural outmigration was almost exclusively male, the average age was 29.6 years, and the average stay was 2.6 years. Migration destination was specific to individuals but affected by occupation and family or village resources. Professionals were overrepresented in Saudi Arabia, and farm and unskilled laborers or the unemployed were overrepresented in Iraq. Remittances from international migration have contributed along with the economic reforms of Sadat to new, private initiatives from all strata in rural society. 74.3% of returnees stated that improvement in income and living standards was the motivation for migration; many motives were directed to satisfying basic needs (73.5% for purchase of consumer durables, around 66% for building or rebuilding a house, and 61.3% for repaying a travel debt). 5.7% of returnees invested in income generating projects, 19.8% in agriculture, and 7.6% in manufacturing, transportation, or services.

Catastrophic health expenditure in households with chronic disease patients: A pre-post comparison of the New Health Care Reform in Shaanxi Province, China

PubMed Central

Xu, Yongjian; Ma, Jie; Wu, Na; Fan, Xiaojing; Zhang, Tao; Zhou, Zhongliang; Ren, Jianping; Chen, Gang

2018-01-01

Introduction In 2009, China officially launched the New Health Care Reform (NHCR). One important purpose of the reform was to reduce financial burden of health care through health insurance expansion and health care provider regulations. This study aimed to provide evidence on the effect of the NHCR reform on catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) by comparing the occurrence and inequality of CHE among households with chronic diseases patients before and after the reform. Methods This study used the subset of data from the 2008 and 2013 National Health Services Survey conducted in Shaanxi Province. Our sample included households with chronic diseases patients and excluded observations with key variables missing. The final sample size was 1942 households in 2008 and 7704 households in 2013. We defined CHE occurrence following the definition of the World Health Organization (WHO). The income-related inequality in CHE was measured by the concentration index. A multi-level logistic regression model was used in the study to explore the influence of the NHCR on CHE occurrence, controlling for important covariates. Results From 2008 to 2013, the occurrence rate of CHE in rural areas declined from 29.15% to 23.62%. However, the CHE rate in urban areas increased from 19.18% to 24.95%. The interaction term between year and rural/urban location was statistically significant, confirming that the influence of the NHCR on the CHE occurrence rates were heterogeneous between rural and urban areas. As for the CHE inequality, the concentration index in rural areas decreased from -0.4572 to -0.5499 with a p-value less than 0.05. This implied that the CHE occurrence inequality was increased after the implementation of the NHCR. Conclusion Our study suggested that the implementation of the NHCR might not have been effective in reducing the CHE occurrence for households with chronic disease patients. Although the occurrence of CHE of rural households had decreased, the occurrence of CHE in urban areas was higher than before. In addition, the income inequality of CHE occurrence was greater in 2013 compared to that in 2008 in rural areas. Although the reform resulted in higher insurance coverage and higher government expenditure in health care, the financial burden of health care on households did not necessarily improve. Further efforts on developing the current health insurance system and optimizing the hierarchical health care system are required to improve the protection against CHE. PMID:29547654

7 CFR 1940.565 - Section 502 subsidized Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population, (3) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (4) State's percentage of the National number of rural households between 50 and 80 percent of...

7 CFR 1940.565 - Section 502 subsidized Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population, (3) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (4) State's percentage of the National number of rural households between 50 and 80 percent of...

Assessment of the Acceptability and Feasibility of Child Potties for Safe Child Feces Disposal in Rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Hussain, Faruqe; Luby, Stephen P; Unicomb, Leanne; Leontsini, Elli; Naushin, Tania; Buckland, Audrey J; Winch, Peter J

2017-08-01

Indiscriminate defecation among young children and the unsafe disposal of their feces increases fecal contamination in the household environment and the risk of diarrheal disease transmission. Improved sanitary technology for children too young to use a latrine may facilitate safe feces disposal and reduce fecal contamination in the household environment. We assessed the acceptability and feasibility of child potties in rural Bangladesh in 2010. Our team introduced child potties into 26 households for 30 days, and conducted semistructured interviews, group discussions, and observations to assess the acceptability and feasibility of their use for parents and children. Residents of this rural Bangladeshi community accepted the child potties and caregivers found them to be a feasible means of managing child feces. The color, shape, design, and size of the potty influenced its acceptability and use. These residents reported that regular use of the potty improved the household's physical environment and caregiver and child personal hygiene. Regular potty use also reduced caregivers' work load by making feces collection and disposal easier. Primary caregivers viewed 4-6 months as the appropriate age to initiate potty training. Sanitation interventions should integrate and emphasize potties for children's feces management to reduce household environmental contamination.

Women's dietary diversity scores and childhood anthropometric measurements as indices of nutrition insecurity along the urban-rural continuum in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

PubMed

Chagomoka, Takemore; Drescher, Axel; Glaser, Rüdiger; Marschner, Bernd; Schlesinger, Johannes; Nyandoro, George

2016-01-01

Malnutrition is still prevalent worldwide, and its severity, which differs between regions and countries, has led to international organisations proposing its inclusion in the global development framework that will succeed the Millennium Development Goals (post-2015 framework). In Sub-Saharan Africa, malnutrition is particularly severe, among women and children under 5 years. The prevalence of malnutrition has been reported worldwide, differing from region to region and country to country. Nevertheless, little is known about how malnutrition differs between multiple locations along an urban-rural continuum. A survey was carried out in and around Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, between August and September 2014 to map household nutrition insecurity along the urban-rural continuum, using a transect approach to guide the data collection. Transects of 70 km long and 2 km wide directed radially from the city centre outwards were laid, and data were collected from randomly selected households along these transects. Women's dietary diversity scores (WDDSs) were calculated from a sample of 179 women of reproductive age (15-49 years) from randomly selected households. Additionally, anthropometric data (height/length and weight) of 133 children under 5 years of age were collected along the same transects for the computation of anthropometric indices. We found that relative proportions of the nutrition indices such as stunting, wasting and underweight varied across the urban-rural continuum. Rural households (15%) had the highest relative proportion of WDDS compared with urban households (11%) and periurban households (8%). There was a significant association between children under 5 years' nutritional status (wasting, stunting and underweight) and spatial location (p=0.023). The level of agricultural activities is a possible indicator of wasting in children aged 6-59 months (p=0.032). Childhood undernutrition certainly has a spatial dimension that is highly influenced by the degree of urbanity, which should be taken into consideration in policy formulation and implementation.

Measurement and explanation of socioeconomic inequality in catastrophic health care expenditure: evidence from the rural areas of Shaanxi Province.

PubMed

Xu, Yongjian; Gao, Jianmin; Zhou, Zhongliang; Xue, Qinxiang; Yang, Jinjuan; Luo, Hao; Li, Yanli; Lai, Sha; Chen, Gang

2015-07-03

Policy interventions have been taken to protect households from facing unpredictable economic changes that may cause catastrophe in China. This study aims to estimate the change of overall proportion of households incurring catastrophic health care expenditure (CHE) and its income-related inequality in the rural areas of Shaanxi Province from 2008 to 2013. The data were drawn from the National Household Health Service Surveys of Shaanxi Province conducted in the years 2008 and 2013. In total, 3,217 households in 2008 and 13,085 households in 2013 were selected for analysis. A "Capacity to pay" approach was used to measure the incidence of CHE. The concentration index was employed to measure the extent of income-related inequality in CHE. A decomposition method, based on a logit model, was used to decompose the concentration index into its determining components. From 2008 to 2013, the overall proportion of households incurring CHE dropped from 17.19 % to 15.83 %, while conversely, the inequality in facing CHE strongly increased. The majority of observed inequalities in CHE were explained by household economic status and household size in 2013. In addition, the absence of commercial health insurance and having elderly members were also important contributors to inequality in CHE. Even though we used a conservative method to measure CHE, the overall proportion of households incurring CHE in Shaanxi Province is still considerably high in both years. Furthermore, there exists a strong pro-rich inequality of CHE in rural areas of Shaanxi Province. Our study suggests that narrowing the gap of household economic status, improving the anti-risk capability of small scale households, establishing prepayment mechanisms in health insurance, strengthening the depth of reimbursement and subsidising vulnerable households in Shaanxi Province are helpful for both reducing the probability of incurring CHE and the pro-rich inequality in CHE.

Women's role in sanitation decision making in rural coastal Odisha, India

PubMed Central

Torondel, Belen; Clasen, Thomas; Schmidt, Wolf-Peter

2017-01-01

Background While women and girls face special risks from lack of access to sanitation facilities, their ability to participate and influence household-level sanitation is not well understood. This paper examines the association between women's decision-making autonomy and latrine construction in rural areas of Odisha, India. Methods We conducted a mixed-method study among rural households in Puri district. This included a cross sectional survey among 475 randomly selected households. These were classified as either having a functional latrine, a non-functional latrine or no latrine at all. We also conducted 17 in-depth interviews and 9 focus group discussions among household members of these three categories of households. Results Decisions on the construction of household level sanitation facilities were made exclusively by the male head in 80% of households; in 11% the decision was made by men who consulted or otherwise involved women. In only 9% of households the decision was made by women. Households where women were more involved in general decision making processes were no more likely to build a latrine, compared to households where they were excluded from decisions. Qualitative research revealed that women’s non-involvement in sanitation decision making is attributed to their low socio-economic status and inability to influence the household’s financial decisions. Female heads lacked confidence to take decisions independently, and were dependent on their spouse or other male family members for most decisions. The study revealed the existence of power hierarchies and dynamics within households, which constrained female’s participation in decision-making processes regarding sanitation. Conclusions Though governments and implementers emphasize women’s involvement in sanitation programmes, socio-cultural factors and community and household level dynamics often prevent women from participating in sanitation-related decisions. Measures are needed for strengthening sanitation policies and effective implementation of programmes to address gender power relations and familial relationships that influence latrine adoption and use. PMID:28542525

Rural-urban differences in objective and subjective measures of physical activity: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006.

PubMed

Fan, Jessie X; Wen, Ming; Kowaleski-Jones, Lori

2014-08-21

Lower levels of physical activity among rural relative to urban residents have been suggested as an important contributor to rural-urban health disparity; however, empirical evidence is sparse. We examined rural-urban differences in 4 objective physical activity measures (2 intensity thresholds by 2 bout lengths) and 4 subjective measures (total, leisure, household, and transportation) in a nationally representative sample of participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006. The sample comprised 5,056 adults aged 20 to 75 years. Rural-Urban Commuting Area (RUCA) codes were matched with NHANES subjects to identify urban status and 2 types of rural status. Rural-urban and within-rural differences in physical activity were estimated without and with controls for demographic and socioeconomic variables. Rural residents were less active than urban residents in high-intensity long bout (2,020 counts per minute threshold and 10 miniutes or longer bout length) accelerometer-measured physical activity (42.5 ± 6.2 min/wk vs 55.9 ± 2.8 min/wk) but the difference disappeared with a lower-intensity threshold (760 counts per minute). Rural residents reported more total physical activity than urban residents (438.3 ± 35.3min/wk vs 371.2 ± 12.5 min/wk), with differences primarily attributable to household physical activity. Within rural areas, micropolitan residents were less active than residents in smaller rural areas. Controlling for other variables reduced the size of the differences. The direction and significance of rural-urban difference in physical activity varied by the method of physical activity measurement, likely related to rural residents spending more time in low-intensity household physical activity but less time in high-intensity physical activity. Micropolitan residents were substantially less active than residents in smaller rural areas, indicating that physical activity did not vary unidirectionally with degree of urbanization.

Analysis of situation of rural women in the Lublin Region from the aspect of loading with work.

PubMed

Pawlak, Halina; Maniak, Barbara; Petkowicz, Beata; Kuna-Broniowska, Izabela; Petkowicz, Jacek; Buczaj, Agnieszka

2013-01-01

The objective of the study was recognition of rural women's opinions concerning the degree of heaviness of work activities performed and obtaining the answer to the question: What is the actual level of loading rural women with work? The basic research instrument was a questionnaire form. A representative group of women aged 40-50 were selected for the study because this group had the most complete family structure. The study was conducted among rural women living in the commune of Zwierzyniec. Family size and multi-generationality were analyzed, as well as family members' assistance in household and field activities. The type of work performed was analyzed with consideration of the duration of work and body position while performing this work. Self-reported degree of loading with work on a farm was analyzed, and effective energy expenditure calculated for individual work activities performed by women, based on which the actual degree of loading with work was determined. The respondents generally perceived their loading with work as low. They considered household jobs as not loading with or not exerting any effect on their fatigue and state of health. A very weak statistical relationship was observed between the duration of loading with household jobs and the perceived degree of loading with this work. The Kołmogorov-Smirnov test showed that the evaluations expressed by women concerning the degree of loading with household chores did not depend on time devoted to these work activities. The majority of women similarly evaluated work load, irrespective of the actual degree of loading. Work activities performed in a household were classified according to work load as heavy, medium-heavy and mediocre. Subjective evaluations of work load by rural women considerably differed from the assessment performed using the work time schedule method.

Household income and preschool attendance in china.

PubMed

Gong, Xin; Xu, Di; Han, Wen-Jui

2015-01-01

This article draws upon the literature showing the benefits of high-quality preschools on child well-being to explore the role of household income on preschool attendance for a cohort of 3- to 6-year-olds in China using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, 1991-2006. Analyses are conducted separately for rural (N = 1,791) and urban (N = 633) settings. Estimates from a probit model with rich controls suggest a positive association between household income per capita and preschool attendance in both settings. A household fixed-effects model, conducted only on the rural sample, finds results similar to, although smaller than, those from the probit estimates. Policy recommendations are discussed. © 2014 The Authors. Child Development © 2014 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.

Exposure risk to carcinogenic PAHs in indoor-air during biomass combustion whilst cooking in rural India

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Bhargava, Anuj; Khanna, R. N.; Bhargava, S. K.; Kumar, Sushil

In India, a vast majority of rural household burns unprocessed biomass, as an energy source, to cook food. The biomass is burnt indoors in conventionally homemade clay-stoves, called 'Chulha', which results in the generation of a variety of airborne products along with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an uncontrolled manner. We report here the concentrations and profile of carcinogenic PAHs, co-sampled with respirable suspended particulate matter, in rural indoors during burning of biomass vis-à-vis liquified petroleum gas as the energy source. There is a limited data on the subject in the literature. The seasonal variation has also been studied. Sampling was done in breathing zone and in surrounding areas concurrent with cooking on chulha. PAHs were extracted in methylene chloride and analyzed over HPLC after column clean up on silica gel. Our study revealed that the concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs were fairly high in breathing zone and in surrounding areas while cooking over chulha in rural India. PAHs concentrations increased substantially during biomass combustion. Concentrations were high during CDC combustion and low during LPG combustion or the non-cooking period. This trend was conserved in both the seasons. Concentrations of total PAHs were greater in winter as compared to summer and greatest in the breathing zone. Di-benz( a,h)anthracene, benzo( k)-fluoranthene and chrysene contributed maximum. Benzo( a)pyrene contributed moderately. Maximum concentrations of indoor air benzo( a)pyrene (>1.5 μg/m 3) were found in breathing zone in winter. The daily exposure to high concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs in indoor air environment while cooking food could be impacting for chronic pulmonary illnesses in rural Indian women.

Advantages and limitations for users of double pit pour-flush latrines: a qualitative study in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Hussain, Faruqe; Clasen, Thomas; Akter, Shahinoor; Bawel, Victoria; Luby, Stephen P; Leontsini, Elli; Unicomb, Leanne; Barua, Milan Kanti; Thomas, Brittany; Winch, Peter J

2017-05-25

In rural Bangladesh, India and elsewhere, pour-flush pit latrines are the most common sanitation system. When a single pit latrine becomes full, users must empty it themselves and risk exposure to fresh feces, pay an emptying service to remove pit contents or build a new latrine. Double pit pour-flush latrines may serve as a long-term sanitation option including high water table areas because the pits do not need to be emptied immediately and the excreta decomposes into reusable soil. Double pit pour-flush latrines were implemented in rural Bangladesh for 'hardcore poor' households by a national NGO, BRAC. We conducted interviews, focus groups, and spot checks in two low-income, rural areas of Bangladesh to explore the advantages and limitations of using double pit latrines compared to single pit latrines. The rural households accepted the double pit pour-flush latrine model and considered it feasible to use and maintain. This latrine design increased accessibility of a sanitation facility for these low-income residents and provided privacy, convenience and comfort, compared to open defecation. Although a double pit latrine is more costly and requires more space than a single pit latrine the households perceived this sanitation system to save resources, because households did not need to hire service workers to empty pits or remove decomposed contents themselves. In addition, the excreta decomposition process produced a reusable soil product that some households used in homestead gardening. The durability of the latrine superstructures was a problem, as most of the bamboo-pole superstructure broke after 6-18 months of use. Double pit pour-flush latrines are a long-term improved sanitation option that offers users several important advantages over single pit pour-flush latrines like in rural Bangladesh which can also be used in areas with high water table. Further research can provide an understanding of the comparative health impacts and effectiveness of the model in preventing human excreta from entering the environment.

Household context and child mortality in rural South Africa: the effects of birth spacing, shared mortality, household composition and socio-economic status

PubMed Central

Houle, Brian; Stein, Alan; Kahn, Kathleen; Madhavan, Sangeetha; Collinson, Mark; Tollman, Stephen M; Clark, Samuel J

2013-01-01

Background Household characteristics are important influences on the risk of child death. However, little is known about this influence in HIV-endemic areas. We describe the effects of household characteristics on children’s risk of dying in rural South Africa. Methods We use data describing the mortality of children younger than 5 years living in the Agincourt health and socio-demographic surveillance system study population in rural northeast South Africa during the period 1994–2008. Using discrete time event history analysis we estimate children’s probability of dying by child characteristics and household composition (other children and adults other than parents) (N = 924 818 child-months), and household socio-economic status (N = 501 732 child-months). Results Children under 24 months of age whose subsequent sibling was born within 11 months experience increased odds of dying (OR 2.5; 95% CI 1.1–5.7). Children also experience increased odds of dying in the period 6 months (OR 2.1; 95% CI 1.2–3.6), 3–5 months (OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.5–5.9), and 2 months (OR 11.8; 95% CI 7.6–18.3) before another household child dies. The odds of dying remain high at the time of another child’s death (OR 11.7; 95% CI 6.3–21.7) and for the 2 months following (OR 4.0; 95% CI 1.9–8.6). Having a related but non-parent adult aged 20–59 years in the household reduces the odds (OR 0.6; 95% CI 0.5–0.8). There is an inverse relationship between a child’s odds of dying and household socio-economic status. Conclusions This detailed household profile from a poor rural setting where HIV infection is endemic indicates that children are at high risk of dying when another child is very ill or has recently died. Short birth intervals and additional children in the household are further risk factors. Presence of a related adult is protective, as is higher socio-economic status. Such evidence can inform primary health care practice and facilitate targeting of community health worker efforts, especially when covering defined catchment areas. PMID:23912808

Black carbon emissions from biomass and coal in rural China

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Zhang, Weishi; Lu, Zifeng; Xu, Yuan

Residential solid fuel combustion makes a major contribution to black carbon (BC) emissions in China. A new estimation of BC emissions from rural solid biomass and coal consumption has been derived from field survey data. The following new contributions are made: (1) emission factors are collected and reviewed; (2) household energy data are collected from field survey data and from the literature; (3) a new extrapolation method is developed to extend the field survey data to other locations; (4) the ownership and usage of two stove types are estimated and considered in the emission calculations; and (5) uncertainties associated withmore » the estimation results are quantified. It is shown that rural households with higher income will consume less biomass but more coal. Agricultural acreage and temperature also significantly influence the amount of solid fuel consumed in rural areas. It is estimated that 640±245 Gg BC/y were emitted to the atmosphere due to residential solid fuel consumption in rural China in 2014. Emissions of BC from straw, wood, and coal contributed 42±13%, 36±15%, and 22±10% of the total, respectively. We show that effective BC mitigation (a reduction of 47%) could be obtained through widespread introduction of improved stoves in rural households« less

Black carbon emissions from biomass and coal in rural China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Zhang, Weishi; Lu, Zifeng; Xu, Yuan; Wang, Can; Gu, Yefu; Xu, Hui; Streets, David G.

2018-03-01

Residential solid fuel combustion makes a major contribution to black carbon (BC) emissions in China. A new estimation of BC emissions from rural solid biomass and coal consumption has been derived from field survey data. The following new contributions are made: (1) emission factors are collected and reviewed; (2) household energy data are collected from field survey data and from the literature; (3) a new extrapolation method is developed to extend the field survey data to other locations; (4) the ownership and usage of two stove types are estimated and considered in the emission calculations; and (5) uncertainties associated with the estimation results are quantified. It is shown that rural households with higher income will consume less biomass but more coal. Agricultural acreage and temperature also significantly influence the amount of solid fuel consumed in rural areas. It is estimated that 640 ± 245 Gg BC/y were emitted to the atmosphere due to residential solid fuel consumption in rural China in 2014. Emissions of BC from straw, wood, and coal contributed 42 ± 13%, 36 ± 15%, and 22 ± 10% of the total, respectively. We show that effective BC mitigation (a reduction of 47%) could be obtained through widespread introduction of improved stoves in rural households.

Averting Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in India through Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Taxation: An Economic-Epidemiologic Modeling Study

PubMed Central

Basu, Sanjay; Vellakkal, Sukumar; Agrawal, Sutapa; Stuckler, David; Popkin, Barry; Ebrahim, Shah

2014-01-01

Background Taxing sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) has been proposed in high-income countries to reduce obesity and type 2 diabetes. We sought to estimate the potential health effects of such a fiscal strategy in the middle-income country of India, where there is heterogeneity in SSB consumption, patterns of substitution between SSBs and other beverages after tax increases, and vast differences in chronic disease risk within the population. Methods and Findings Using consumption and price variations data from a nationally representative survey of 100,855 Indian households, we first calculated how changes in SSB price alter per capita consumption of SSBs and substitution with other beverages. We then incorporated SSB sales trends, body mass index (BMI), and diabetes incidence data stratified by age, sex, income, and urban/rural residence into a validated microsimulation of caloric consumption, glycemic load, overweight/obesity prevalence, and type 2 diabetes incidence among Indian subpopulations facing a 20% SSB excise tax. The 20% SSB tax was anticipated to reduce overweight and obesity prevalence by 3.0% (95% CI 1.6%–5.9%) and type 2 diabetes incidence by 1.6% (95% CI 1.2%–1.9%) among various Indian subpopulations over the period 2014–2023, if SSB consumption continued to increase linearly in accordance with secular trends. However, acceleration in SSB consumption trends consistent with industry marketing models would be expected to increase the impact efficacy of taxation, averting 4.2% of prevalent overweight/obesity (95% CI 2.5–10.0%) and 2.5% (95% CI 1.0–2.8%) of incident type 2 diabetes from 2014–2023. Given current consumption and BMI distributions, our results suggest the largest relative effect would be expected among young rural men, refuting our a priori hypothesis that urban populations would be isolated beneficiaries of SSB taxation. Key limitations of this estimation approach include the assumption that consumer expenditure behavior from prior years, captured in price elasticities, will reflect future behavior among consumers, and potential underreporting of consumption in dietary recall data used to inform our calculations. Conclusion Sustained SSB taxation at a high tax rate could mitigate rising obesity and type 2 diabetes in India among both urban and rural subpopulations. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary PMID:24409102

Household dietary diversity, vitamin A consumption and food security in rural Tigray, Ethiopia.

PubMed

Schwei, Rebecca J; Tesfay, Haile; Asfaw, Frezer; Jogo, Wellington; Busse, Heidi

2017-06-01

To describe: household dietary diversity across four zones in Ethiopia; the relationship between household dietary diversity and consumption of vitamin A-rich foods; and the relationship between household dietary diversity and food security status. This was a cross-sectional survey. Data were collected using structured questionnaires in the local language. Household dietary diversity scores measured types of foods households consumed, and households were classified by food security status using a modified version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale. An ordinal logistics regression model was created to assess the relationship between three tiers of dietary diversity (low, medium and high) and food security while controlling for agricultural zone, educational variables and household characteristics. Rural households in Tigray, Ethiopia. Three hundred households in Tigray, Ethiopia, were interviewed. Of the households, 23, 47 and 30 % had low, medium and high dietary diversity, respectively. Among households with high dietary diversity, eggs and fruit were the most common foods added to the diet. In the fully adjusted model, participants who reported being food secure had 1·8 increased odds of greater dietary diversity (95 % CI 1·0, 3·2) compared with participants who were food insecure. Food security was positively associated with dietary diversity. In order to enhance health, interventions that improve dietary diversity and vitamin A consumption should remain important areas of focus for health leaders in the region.

Household cereal crop harvest and children's nutritional status in rural Burkina Faso.

PubMed

Belesova, Kristine; Gasparrini, Antonio; Sié, Ali; Sauerborn, Rainer; Wilkinson, Paul

2017-06-20

Reduction of child undernutrition is one of the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030. Achievement of this goal may be made more difficult in some settings by climate change through adverse impact on agricultural productivity. However, there is only limited quantitative evidence on the link between household crop harvests and child nutrition. We examined this link in a largely subsistence farming population in rural Burkina Faso. Data on the middle-upper arm circumference (MUAC) of 975 children ≤5 years of age, household crop yields, and other parameters were obtained from the Nouna Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Multilevel modelling was used to assess the relationship between MUAC and the household crop harvest in the year 2009 estimated in terms of kilocalories per adult equivalent per day (kcal/ae/d). Fourteen percent of children had a MUAC <125 mm (a value indicative of acute undernutrition). The relationship between MUAC and annual household food energy production adjusted for age, sex, month of MUAC measurement, household wealth, whether a household member had a non-agricultural occupation, garden produce, village infrastructure and market presence, suggested a decline in MUAC below around 3000 kcal/ae/d. The mean MUAC was 2.49 (95% CI 0.45, 4.52) mm less at 1000 than at 3000 kcal/ae/d. Low per capita household crop production is associated with poorer nutritional status of children in a rural farming population in Burkina Faso. This and similar populations may thus be vulnerable to the adverse effects of weather on agricultural harvest, especially in the context of climate change.

Impact of gender participation in non-farming activities on household income and poverty levels in Pakistan.

PubMed

Ali, Akhter; Erenstein, Olaf; Rahut, Dil Bahadur

2015-01-01

In the rural areas of Pakistan, the majority of farm households have small landholdings of less than 2 hectares. Both male and females are engaged in farming and non-farming activities. However, in Pakistan the gender-wise participation in farming activities is not much documented. The main objective of the current study is to estimate the impact of male and female participation in non-farming activities on a household's income level and poverty status in Pakistan. The current study is based on a cross-sectional data set collected from 325 households through a purposive random sampling technique. A detailed comprehensive questionnaire was prepared for data collection. The data were analyzed by employing the propensity score matching approach. The empirical results indicate that both male and female participation in non-farming activities has a positive impact on household welfare in Pakistan by raising income levels and thus contributing to poverty reduction. However, the impact is greater when the males of a household take part in these activities rather than the females. In the past only a few studies have focused on gender-based participation in non-farming activities. The non-farming sector is an important one in rural areas, especially in developing countries like Pakistan. More opportunities need to be created for both men and women in rural areas of Pakistan to find off-farm work, in order to increase household income and reduce poverty levels.

Associations between presence of handwashing stations and soap in the home and diarrhoea and respiratory illness, in children less than five years old in rural western Kenya

PubMed Central

Kamm, K. B.; Feikin, D. R.; Bigogo, G. M.; Aol, G.; Audi, A.; Cohen, A. L.; Shah, M. M.; Yu, J.; Breiman, R. F.; Ram, P. K.

2015-01-01

OBJECTIVE We tested whether soap presence in the home or a designated handwashing station was associated with diarrhoea and respiratory illness in Kenya. METHODS In April 2009, we observed presence of a handwashing station and soap in households participating in a longitudinal health surveillance system in rural Kenya. Diarrhoea and acute respiratory illness (ARI) in children < 5 years old were identified using parent-reported syndromic surveillance collected January–April 2009. We used multivariate generalised linear regression to estimate differences in prevalence of illness between households with and without the presence of soap in the home and a handwashing station. RESULTS Among 2547 children, prevalence of diarrhoea and ARI was 2.3 and 11.4 days per 100 child-days, respectively. Soap was observed in 97% of households. Children in households with soap had 1.3 fewer days of diarrhoea/100 child-days (95% CI −2.6, −0.1) than children in households without soap. ARI prevalence was not associated with presence of soap. A handwashing station was identified in 1.4% of households and was not associated with a difference in diarrhoea or ARI prevalence. CONCLUSIONS Soap presence in the home was significantly associated with reduced diarrhoea, but not ARI, in children in rural western Kenya. Whereas most households had soap in the home, almost none had a designated handwashing station, which may prevent handwashing at key times of hand contamination. PMID:24405627

Exploring the impact of the 2008 global food crisis on food security among vulnerable households in rural South Africa

PubMed Central

Nawrotzki, Raphael J.; Robson, Kristin; Gutilla, Margaret J.; Hunter, Lori M.; Twine, Wayne; Norlund, Petra

2015-01-01

Recurring food crises endanger the livelihoods of millions of households in developing countries around the globe. Owing to the importance of this issue, we explore recent changes in food security between the years 2004 and 2010 in a rural district in Northeastern South Africa. Our study window spans the time of the 2008 global food crises and allows the investigation of its impacts on rural South African populations. Grounded in the sustainable livelihood framework, we examine differences in food security trajectories among vulnerable sub populations. A unique panel data set of 8,147 households, provided by the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System (Agincourt HDSS), allows us to employ a longitudinal multilevel modeling approach to estimate adjusted growth curves for the differential change in food security across time. We observe an overall improvement in food security that leveled off after 2008, most likely resulting from the global food crisis. In addition, we discover significant differences in food security trajectories for various sub populations. For example, female-headed households and those living in areas with better access to natural resources differentially improved their food security situation, compared to male-headed households and those households with lower levels of natural resource access. However, former Mozambican refugees witnessed a decline in food security. Therefore, poverty alleviation programs for the Agincourt region should work to improve the food security of vulnerable households, such as former Mozambican refugees. PMID:26594259

Associations between presence of handwashing stations and soap in the home and diarrhoea and respiratory illness, in children less than five years old in rural western Kenya.

PubMed

Kamm, K B; Feikin, D R; Bigogo, G M; Aol, G; Audi, A; Cohen, A L; Shah, M M; Yu, J; Breiman, R F; Ram, P K

2014-04-01

We tested whether soap presence in the home or a designated handwashing station was associated with diarrhoea and respiratory illness in Kenya. In April 2009, we observed presence of a handwashing station and soap in households participating in a longitudinal health surveillance system in rural Kenya. Diarrhoea and acute respiratory illness (ARI) in children < 5 years old were identified using parent-reported syndromic surveillance collected January-April 2009. We used multivariate generalised linear regression to estimate differences in prevalence of illness between households with and without the presence of soap in the home and a handwashing station. Among 2547 children, prevalence of diarrhoea and ARI was 2.3 and 11.4 days per 100 child-days, respectively. Soap was observed in 97% of households. Children in households with soap had 1.3 fewer days of diarrhoea/100 child-days (95% CI -2.6, -0.1) than children in households without soap. ARI prevalence was not associated with presence of soap. A handwashing station was identified in 1.4% of households and was not associated with a difference in diarrhoea or ARI prevalence. Soap presence in the home was significantly associated with reduced diarrhoea, but not ARI, in children in rural western Kenya. Whereas most households had soap in the home, almost none had a designated handwashing station, which may prevent handwashing at key times of hand contamination. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Relationship between Household Literacy and Educational Engagement: Analysis of Data from Rajkot District, India

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Chudgar, Amita; Miller, Karyn; Kothari, Brij

2012-01-01

Household engagement in a child's education is a complex process; depending on the culture and the context, it may be revealed through a variety of behaviours. Using data from one district in rural Gujarat, India, four indicators of a household's educational engagement were employed to investigate the relationship between household literacy levels…

Fee-Free Public or Low-Fee Private Basic Education in Rural Ghana: How Does the Cost Influence the Choice of the Poor?

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Akaguri, Luke

2014-01-01

The paper uses data from a household survey of three rural communities and interviews in the Mfantseman Municipality in the Central Region of Ghana to investigate the costs incurred by households that choose either fee-free public schools or low-fee private schools. The paper shows that both provisions impose costs that place those with lower…

Demographic factors, childhood maltreatment and psychological functioning among university students' in Ghana: A retrospective study.

PubMed

Adjorlolo, Samuel; Adu-Poku, Sarah; Andoh-Arthur, Johnny; Botchway, Irene; Mlyakado, Budeba Petro

2017-12-01

This study retrospectively investigates the influence of child (i.e., gender), care-giver (e.g., who grew up with), household size (i.e., number of siblings grew up with) and community (i.e., rural versus urban) factors on childhood maltreatment, as well as the impacts of maltreatment on psychological functioning. A cross-sectional survey and self-report methodology is used to gather data from 300 students of the University of Ghana. The results show that being a male, growing up in rural areas, living with more than 3 siblings in the same household and being raised by both biological parents have significant main effects on childhood maltreatment. Analyses of the interaction effects show that living with more than 5 siblings in a rural household with "other" parents (i.e., non-biological parents) has a significant effect on physical abuse. Furthermore, males from rural households consisting of more than 3 siblings and who did not grow up with both biological parents endorsed significantly more physical abuse and physical neglect, compared with the females. With respect to the psychological outcome, childhood maltreatment significantly predicts and account for significant variance in depression (34%), self-efficacy (18%) and life satisfaction (22%). The findings and the implications of the study are briefly discussed. © 2015 International Union of Psychological Science.

The tradeoff between centralized and decentralized health services: evidence from rural areas in Mexico.

PubMed

Vargas Bustamante, Arturo

2010-09-01

This study investigates the effectiveness of centralized and decentralized health care providers in rural Mexico. It compares provider performance since both centralized and decentralized providers co-exist in rural areas of the country. The data are drawn from the 2003 household survey of Oportunidades, a comprehensive study of rural families from seven states in Mexico. The analyses compare out-of-pocket health care expenditures and utilization of preventive care among rural households with access to either centralized or decentralized health care providers. This study benefits from differences in timing of health care decentralization and from a quasi-random distribution of providers. Results show that overall centralized providers perform better. Households served by this organization report less regressive out-of-pocket health care expenditures (32% lower), and observe higher utilization of preventive services (3.6% more). Decentralized providers that were devolved to state governments in the early 1980s observe a slightly better performance than providers that were decentralized in the mid-1990s. These findings are robust to decentralization timing, heterogeneity in per capita government health expenditures, state and health infrastructure effects, and other confounders. Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Why do households invest in sanitation in rural Benin: Health, wealth, or prestige?

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Gross, Elena; Günther, Isabel

2014-10-01

Seventy percent of the rural population in sub-Saharan Africa does not use adequate sanitation facilities. In rural Benin, as much as 95% of the population does not use improved sanitation. By analyzing a representative sample of 2000 rural households, this paper explores why households remain without latrines. Our results show that wealth and latrine prices play the most decisive role for sanitation demand and ownership. At current income levels, sanitation coverage will only increase to 50% if costs for construction are reduced from currently 190 USD to 50 USD per latrine. Our analysis also suggests that previous sanitation campaigns, which were based on prestige and the allure of a modern lifestyle as motives for latrine construction, have had no success in increasing sanitation coverage. Moreover, improved public health, which is the objective of public policies promoting sanitation, will not be effective at low sanitation coverage rates. Fear at night, especially of animals, and personal harassment, are stated as the most important motivational factors for latrine ownership and the intention to build one. We therefore suggest changing the message of sanitation projects and introduce new low-cost technologies into rural markets; otherwise, marketing strategies will continue to fail in increasing sanitation demand.

Child malnutrition in Vietnam and its transition in an era of economic growth.

PubMed

Thang, N M; Popkin, B

2003-08-01

In the past decade, Vietnam has achieved an impressive rate of socioeconomic development paralleled by broad improvements in the health sector--but child malnutrition still lags far behind that of most other health indicators. The purpose of this study is to discover inequality in the near-present situation (1997-98; hereafter referred to as the present situation), changes of child malnutrition over the period from 1992-93 to 1997-98, and factors that might affect the inability to rapidly reduce child malnutrition among the poor, rural, and minority populations. Data from two nationally representative surveys--the 1992-93 and 1997-98 Vietnam Living Standards Measurement Surveys (LSMS)--of Vietnamese households were utilized in this study. Descriptive and logistic procedures were used for the analyses. The focus was on the variables related to household poverty status, total expenditure levels, rural residence, and minority status with controls for other key economic and demographic measures. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on data using 4305 households and 4367 children (2-11 years of age in 1992-93) that were included in both surveys of the Vietnam Living Standard Survey (VLSS) in 1992-93 and 1997-98, conducted under the framework of the LSMS. Children of rural households, poor households, and ethnic minority backgrounds are significantly more likely to be malnourished than urban residents, children of nonpoor households, and the majority Kinh population. Additionally, avenues to escape malnourishment are limited in the former categories. These results suggest that economic improvements in Vietnam have, for the most part, bypassed the rural poor and minorities, and targeting economic resources towards these groups will be most critical to reduce malnutrition in Vietnam.

Facts about American Indian Education

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

American Indian College Fund, 2010

2010-01-01

As a result of living in remote rural areas, American Indians living on reservations have limited access to higher education. One-third of American Indians live on reservations, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. According to the most recent U.S. government statistics, the overall poverty rate for American Indians/Alaska Natives, including…

7 CFR 25.500 - Indian reservations.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... 7 Agriculture 1 2010-01-01 2010-01-01 false Indian reservations. 25.500 Section 25.500 Agriculture Office of the Secretary of Agriculture RURAL EMPOWERMENT ZONES AND ENTERPRISE COMMUNITIES Special Rules § 25.500 Indian reservations. (a) An area in an Indian reservation shall be treated as nominated by a...

Determination of Appropriate Service Delivery Level for Quantitative Attributes of Household Toilets in Rural Settlements of India from Users' Perspective

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Rashid, Mohammad; Pandit, Debapratim

2018-04-01

Improvement of quality of sanitation services in rural settlements is an important development goal in developing countries including India and accordingly several strategies are adopted which promote the demand and use of household toilets through creating awareness and providing subsidies to poor people for construction of household toilets with service-level standards specified from experts' perspective. In many cases, users are unsatisfied with the quality of toilets constructed using subsidies and the same remain unused. Users' satisfaction depends on their perceptions of service quality of individual attributes and overall service quality of the household toilets, which is an important determinant of sustainability and sustained use of toilets. This study aims to assess and benchmark the appropriate service delivery level for quantitative attributes of rural household toilets based on user perception. The service quality is determined with the help of level of service (LOS) scales developed using successive interval scaling technique, the zone of tolerance (ZOT), and users satisfaction level (USL) which relates service delivery levels with user satisfaction directly. The study finds that the service quality of most of the attributes of household toilets constructed using subsidies is perceived as poor. The results also suggest that most of the users expect to have a toilet with the service level of attributes ranging between LOS A and LOS B.

Determination of Appropriate Service Delivery Level for Quantitative Attributes of Household Toilets in Rural Settlements of India from Users' Perspective.

PubMed

Rashid, Mohammad; Pandit, Debapratim

2018-04-01

Improvement of quality of sanitation services in rural settlements is an important development goal in developing countries including India and accordingly several strategies are adopted which promote the demand and use of household toilets through creating awareness and providing subsidies to poor people for construction of household toilets with service-level standards specified from experts' perspective. In many cases, users are unsatisfied with the quality of toilets constructed using subsidies and the same remain unused. Users' satisfaction depends on their perceptions of service quality of individual attributes and overall service quality of the household toilets, which is an important determinant of sustainability and sustained use of toilets. This study aims to assess and benchmark the appropriate service delivery level for quantitative attributes of rural household toilets based on user perception. The service quality is determined with the help of level of service (LOS) scales developed using successive interval scaling technique, the zone of tolerance (ZOT), and users satisfaction level (USL) which relates service delivery levels with user satisfaction directly. The study finds that the service quality of most of the attributes of household toilets constructed using subsidies is perceived as poor. The results also suggest that most of the users expect to have a toilet with the service level of attributes ranging between LOS A and LOS B.

Relationships between poverty and AIDS Illness in South Africa: an investigation of urban and rural households in KwaZulu-Natal.

PubMed

Steinert, Janina Isabel; Cluver, Lucie; Melendez-Torres, G J; Herrero Romero, Rocio

2017-09-01

The association between poverty and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa remains contested. A better understanding of the relationship between the prevalence of poverty and the disease is essential for addressing prevention, treatment, and care. The present study interrogates this relationship, using a cross-sectional survey of 2477 households in urban and rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Structural equation modelling was employed to estimate the correlations between poverty and AIDS illness. The analysis revealed a correlation of r pb  = 0.23, denoting that a higher level of household poverty was associated with a higher likelihood of being AIDS-unwell. Post hoc t-test showed that receipt of a disability grant by AIDS-affected households was associated with significantly lower poverty, compared to AIDS-affected households not receiving the grant, t(654) = 3.67, p < .01. Geographic location was found to confound the correlation: the strength of the relationship between poverty and AIDS was decreased to r pb  = 0.15 (p < .001) for the urban and r pb  = 0.16 (p < .001) for the rural sub-population. Findings suggest the importance of two sets of policies: those that address the potential upstream risk of poverty through economic interventions, and those that alleviate the impoverishing effects of AIDS illness for affected households.

Community-Level Sanitation Coverage More Strongly Associated with Child Growth and Household Drinking Water Quality than Access to a Private Toilet in Rural Mali.

PubMed

Harris, Michael; Alzua, Maria Laura; Osbert, Nicolas; Pickering, Amy

2017-06-20

Sanitation access can provide positive externalities; for example, safe disposal of feces by one household prevents disease transmission to households nearby. However, little empirical evidence exists to characterize the potential health benefits from sanitation externalities. This study investigated the effect of community sanitation coverage versus individual household sanitation access on child health and drinking water quality. Using a census of 121 villages in rural Mali, we analyzed the association of community latrine coverage (defined by a 200 m radius surrounding a household) and individual household latrine ownership with child growth and household stored water quality. Child height-for-age had a significant and positive linear relationship with community latrine coverage, while child weight-for-age and household water quality had nonlinear relationships that leveled off above 60% coverage (p < 0.01; generalized additive models). Child growth and water quality were not associated with individual household latrine ownership. The relationship between community latrine coverage and child height was strongest among households without a latrine; for these households, each 10% increase in latrine coverage was associated with a 0.031 (p-value = 0.040) increase in height-for-age z-score. In this study, the level of sanitation access of surrounding households was more important than private latrine access for protecting water quality and child health.

Community-Level Sanitation Coverage More Strongly Associated with Child Growth and Household Drinking Water Quality than Access to a Private Toilet in Rural Mali

PubMed Central

2017-01-01

Sanitation access can provide positive externalities; for example, safe disposal of feces by one household prevents disease transmission to households nearby. However, little empirical evidence exists to characterize the potential health benefits from sanitation externalities. This study investigated the effect of community sanitation coverage versus individual household sanitation access on child health and drinking water quality. Using a census of 121 villages in rural Mali, we analyzed the association of community latrine coverage (defined by a 200 m radius surrounding a household) and individual household latrine ownership with child growth and household stored water quality. Child height-for-age had a significant and positive linear relationship with community latrine coverage, while child weight-for-age and household water quality had nonlinear relationships that leveled off above 60% coverage (p < 0.01; generalized additive models). Child growth and water quality were not associated with individual household latrine ownership. The relationship between community latrine coverage and child height was strongest among households without a latrine; for these households, each 10% increase in latrine coverage was associated with a 0.031 (p-value = 0.040) increase in height-for-age z-score. In this study, the level of sanitation access of surrounding households was more important than private latrine access for protecting water quality and child health. PMID:28514143

A stepped wedge, cluster-randomized trial of a household UV-disinfection and safe storage drinking water intervention in rural Baja California Sur, Mexico.

PubMed

Gruber, Joshua S; Reygadas, Fermin; Arnold, Benjamin F; Ray, Isha; Nelson, Kara; Colford, John M

2013-08-01

In collaboration with a local non-profit organization, this study evaluated the expansion of a program that promoted and installed Mesita Azul, an ultraviolet-disinfection system designed to treat household drinking water in rural Mexico. We conducted a 15-month, cluster-randomized stepped wedge trial by randomizing the order in which 24 communities (444 households) received the intervention. We measured primary outcomes (water contamination and diarrhea) during seven household visits. The intervention increased the percentage of households with access to treated and safely stored drinking water (23-62%), and reduced the percentage of households with Escherichia coli contaminated drinking water (risk difference (RD): -19% [95% CI: -27%, -14%]). No significant reduction in diarrhea was observed (RD: -0.1% [95% CI: -1.1%, 0.9%]). We conclude that household water quality improvements measured in this study justify future promotion of the Mesita Azul, and that future studies to measure its health impact would be valuable if conducted in populations with higher diarrhea prevalence.

A Stepped Wedge, Cluster-Randomized Trial of a Household UV-Disinfection and Safe Storage Drinking Water Intervention in Rural Baja California Sur, Mexico

PubMed Central

Gruber, Joshua S.; Reygadas, Fermin; Arnold, Benjamin F.; Ray, Isha; Nelson, Kara; Colford, John M.

2013-01-01

In collaboration with a local non-profit organization, this study evaluated the expansion of a program that promoted and installed Mesita Azul, an ultraviolet-disinfection system designed to treat household drinking water in rural Mexico. We conducted a 15-month, cluster-randomized stepped wedge trial by randomizing the order in which 24 communities (444 households) received the intervention. We measured primary outcomes (water contamination and diarrhea) during seven household visits. The intervention increased the percentage of households with access to treated and safely stored drinking water (23–62%), and reduced the percentage of households with Escherichia coli contaminated drinking water (risk difference (RD): −19% [95% CI: −27%, −14%]). No significant reduction in diarrhea was observed (RD: −0.1% [95% CI: −1.1%, 0.9%]). We conclude that household water quality improvements measured in this study justify future promotion of the Mesita Azul, and that future studies to measure its health impact would be valuable if conducted in populations with higher diarrhea prevalence. PMID:23732255

Household Expenditure on Tobacco Consumption in a Poverty-Stricken Rural District in Sri Lanka.

PubMed

Perera, K Manuja N; Guruge, G N Duminda; Jayawardana, Pushpa L

2017-03-01

Tobacco is a determinant of poverty and a barrier for development. Monaragala, a rural, agricultural district, reports the highest poverty-related indicators in southern Sri Lanka. A cross-sectional study was used to describe the household expenditure on tobacco and its association with food- and education-related expenditures at household level. This study used a 4-stage cluster sampling method to recruit a representative sample of 1160 households. Response rate was 98.6%. Median monthly household income was LKR 20 000 (interquartile range [IQR] = LKR 12 000-30 000). The median monthly expenditure on tobacco was LKR 1000 (IQR = LKR 400-2000) with the highest spending tertile reporting a median of LKR 2700 (IQR = LKR 2000-3600).The proportionate expenditure from the monthly income ranged from 0.0% to 50% with a median of 5.0% (IQR = 2.0-10.0) and a mean of 7.4% (7.6). The poorest reported the highest mean proportionate expenditure (9.8%, SD = 10) from the household income. Household expenditure on tobacco negatively associated with expenditure on education.

Source of biomass cooking fuel determines pulmonary response to household air pollution.

PubMed

Sussan, Thomas E; Ingole, Vijendra; Kim, Jung-Hyun; McCormick, Sarah; Negherbon, Jesse; Fallica, Jonathan; Akulian, Jason; Yarmus, Lonny; Feller-Kopman, David; Wills-Karp, Marsha; Horton, Maureen R; Breysse, Patrick N; Agrawal, Anurag; Juvekar, Sanjay; Salvi, Sundeep; Biswal, Shyam

2014-03-01

Approximately 3 billion people-half the worldwide population-are exposed to extremely high concentrations of household air pollution due to the burning of biomass fuels on inefficient cookstoves, accounting for 4 million annual deaths globally. Yet, our understanding of the pulmonary responses to household air pollution exposure and the underlying molecular and cellular events is limited. The two most prevalent biomass fuels in India are wood and cow dung, and typical 24-hour mean particulate matter (PM) concentrations in homes that use these fuels are 300 to 5,000 μg/m(3). We dissected the mechanisms of pulmonary responses in mice after acute or subchronic exposure to wood or cow dung PM collected from rural Indian homes during biomass cooking. Acute exposures resulted in robust proinflammatory cytokine production, neutrophilic inflammation, airway resistance, and hyperresponsiveness, all of which were significantly higher in mice exposed to PM from cow dung. On the contrary, subchronic exposures induced eosinophilic inflammation, PM-specific antibody responses, and alveolar destruction that was highest in wood PM-exposed mice. To understand the molecular pathways that trigger biomass PM-induced inflammation, we exposed Toll-like receptor (TLR)2-, TLR3-, TLR4-, TLR5-, and IL-1R-deficient mice to PM and found that IL-1R, TLR4, and TLR2 are the predominant receptors that elicit inflammatory responses via MyD88 in mice exposed to wood or cow dung PM. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that subchronic exposure to PM collected from households burning biomass fuel elicits a persistent pulmonary inflammation largely through activation of TLR and IL-1R pathways, which could increase the risk for chronic respiratory diseases.

Gender based within-household inequality in childhood immunization in India: changes over time and across regions.

PubMed

Singh, Ashish

2012-01-01

Despite India's substantial economic growth in the past two decades, girls in India are discriminated against in access to preventive healthcare including immunizations. Surprisingly, no study has assessed the contribution of gender based within-household discrimination to the overall inequality in immunization status of Indian children. This study therefore has two objectives: to estimate the gender based within-household inequality (GWHI) in immunization status of Indian children and to examine the inter-regional and inter-temporal variations in the GWHI. The present study used households with a pair of male-female siblings (aged 1-5 years) from two rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS, 1992-93 and 2005-06). The overall inequality in the immunization status (after controlling for age and birth order) of children was decomposed into within-households and between-households components using Mean log deviation to obtain the GWHI component. The analysis was conducted at the all-India level as well as for six specified geographical regions and at two time points (1992-93 and 2005-06). Household fixed-effects models for immunization status of children were also estimated. Findings from household fixed effects analysis indicated that the immunization scores of girls were significantly lower than that of boys. The inequality decompositions revealed that, at the all-India level, the absolute level of GWHI in immunization status decreased from 0.035 in 1992-93 to 0.023 in 2005-06. However, as a percentage of total inequality, it increased marginally (15.5% to 16.5%). In absolute terms, GWHI decreased in all the regions except in the North-East. But, as a percentage of total inequality it increased in the North-Eastern, Western and Southern regions. The main conclusions are the following: GWHI contributes substantially to the overall inequality in immunization status of Indian children; and though the overall inequality in immunization status declined in all the regions, the changes in GWHI were mixed.

The economic status of older people's households in urban and rural settings in Peru, Mexico and China: a 10/66 INDEP study cross-sectional survey.

PubMed

Prince, Martin J; Lloyd-Sherlock, Peter; Guerra, Mariella; Huang, Yueqin; Sosa, Ana Luisa; Uwakwe, Richard; Acosta, Isaac; Liu, Zhaorui; Gallardo, Sara; Guerchet, Maelenn; Mayston, Rosie; de Oca, Veronica Montes; Wang, Hong; Ezeah, Peter

2016-01-01

Few data are available from middle income countries regarding economic circumstances of households in which older people live. Many such settings have experienced rapid demographic, social and economic change, alongside increasing pension coverage. Population-based household surveys in rural and urban catchment areas in Peru, Mexico and China. Participating households were selected from all households with older residents. Descriptive analyses were weighted back for sampling fractions and non-response. Household income and consumption were estimated from a household key informant interview. 877 Household interviews (3177 residents). Response rate 68 %. Household income and consumption correlated plausibly with other economic wellbeing indicators. Household Incomes varied considerably within and between sites. While multigenerational households were the norm, older resident's incomes accounted for a high proportion of household income, and older people were particularly likely to pool income. Differences in the coverage and value of pensions were a major source of variation in household income among sites. There was a small, consistent inverse association between household pension income and labour force participation of younger adult co-residents. The effect of pension income on older adults' labour force participation was less clear-cut. Historical linkage of social protection to formal employment may have contributed to profound late-life socioeconomic inequalities. Strategies to formalise the informal economy, alongside increases in the coverage and value of non-contributory pensions and transfers would help to address this problem.

Global Warming and Food Insecurity in Rural Latin America

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Byrne, T. R.; Byrne, J. M.; McDaniel, S.

2012-12-01

Food insecurity is one of the most important challenges facing humanity in the 21st century - a challenge that will be further exacerbated by the changing climate. The effects of human induced climate change will be most disproportionate and severe in the developing world, where a stable food supply, decreased purchasing power, and adequate nutrition are often already a daily struggle. This study will build on work done by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), and will assess how vulnerability to household food insecurity will be affected by global warming in various rural parts of Latin America. Temperature data from downscaled Global Circulation Models (GCM) will be used in conjunction with the results of national household surveys to generate information on each rural farming household's probability of falling below a food poverty threshold in the near future. The results of the study will allow us to distinguish between households that are likely to experience chronic food insecurity and those that are likely to experience transitory food insecurity, permitting for improved targeting of policy responses.

Needs assessment for home-based care and the strengthening of social support networks: the role of community care workers in rural South Africa

PubMed Central

Moshabela, Mosa; Sips, Ilona; Barten, Francoise

2015-01-01

Background Community care workers (CCWs) in rural South Africa provide medical, personal, household, educational, and social care services to their clients. However, little understanding exists on how provision of services is approached within a household, taking into account available social support networks. Objective The aim of this study was to generate an understanding of the processes that underpin the provision of care by CCWs in rural households and their engagement with clients, primary caregivers (PCGs), and other members of the social support network. Design We analysed in-depth interviews conducted in a triad of participants involved in a home-based care (HBC) encounter – 32 clients, 32 PCGs, and 17 CCWs. For each triad, a purposefully selected CCW was linked with a purposefully selected client and the corresponding PCG using maximum variation sampling. Three coders used an inductive content analysis method to describe participants’ references to the nuances of processes followed by CCWs in servicing HBC clients. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Findings The results suggest that, by intuition and prior knowledge, CCWs treated each household uniquely, depending on the clients’ care needs, cooperation, availability of a social network, and the reliability and resilience of the social support system for the client. Four distinct processes took place in rural households: needs assessment for care, rationing of care, appraisal of care, and reinforcement of a social support system. However, there was no particular order or sequence established for these processes, and caregivers followed no prescribed or shared standards. Conclusions CCWs bring a basket of services to a household, but engage in a constant, dynamic, and cyclical process of weighing needs against services provided. The service package is uniquely crafted and tailored for each household, depending on the absorptive capacity of the social support network available to the client, and preferences of the clients remain central to the process of negotiating care. PMID:26689459

Needs assessment for home-based care and the strengthening of social support networks: the role of community care workers in rural South Africa.

PubMed

Moshabela, Mosa; Sips, Ilona; Barten, Francoise

2015-01-01

Community care workers (CCWs) in rural South Africa provide medical, personal, household, educational, and social care services to their clients. However, little understanding exists on how provision of services is approached within a household, taking into account available social support networks. The aim of this study was to generate an understanding of the processes that underpin the provision of care by CCWs in rural households and their engagement with clients, primary caregivers (PCGs), and other members of the social support network. We analysed in-depth interviews conducted in a triad of participants involved in a home-based care (HBC) encounter - 32 clients, 32 PCGs, and 17 CCWs. For each triad, a purposefully selected CCW was linked with a purposefully selected client and the corresponding PCG using maximum variation sampling. Three coders used an inductive content analysis method to describe participants' references to the nuances of processes followed by CCWs in servicing HBC clients. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The results suggest that, by intuition and prior knowledge, CCWs treated each household uniquely, depending on the clients' care needs, cooperation, availability of a social network, and the reliability and resilience of the social support system for the client. Four distinct processes took place in rural households: needs assessment for care, rationing of care, appraisal of care, and reinforcement of a social support system. However, there was no particular order or sequence established for these processes, and caregivers followed no prescribed or shared standards. CCWs bring a basket of services to a household, but engage in a constant, dynamic, and cyclical process of weighing needs against services provided. The service package is uniquely crafted and tailored for each household, depending on the absorptive capacity of the social support network available to the client, and preferences of the clients remain central to the process of negotiating care.

State and national household concentrations of PM2.5 from solid cookfuel use: Results from measurements and modeling in India for estimation of the global burden of disease

PubMed Central

2013-01-01

Background Previous global burden of disease (GBD) estimates for household air pollution (HAP) from solid cookfuel use were based on categorical indicators of exposure. Recent progress in GBD methodologies that use integrated–exposure–response (IER) curves for combustion particles required the development of models to quantitatively estimate average HAP levels experienced by large populations. Such models can also serve to inform public health intervention efforts. Thus, we developed a model to estimate national household concentrations of PM2.5 from solid cookfuel use in India, together with estimates for 29 states. Methods We monitored 24-hr household concentrations of PM2.5, in 617 rural households from 4 states in India on a cross-sectional basis between November 2004 and March 2005. We then, developed log-linear regression models that predict household concentrations as a function of multiple, independent household level variables available in national household surveys and generated national / state estimates using The Indian National Family and Health Survey (NFHS 2005). Results The measured mean 24-hr concentration of PM2.5 in solid cookfuel using households ranged from 163 μg/m3 (95% CI: 143,183; median 106; IQR: 191) in the living area to 609 μg/m3 (95% CI: 547,671; median: 472; IQR: 734) in the kitchen area. Fuel type, kitchen type, ventilation, geographical location and cooking duration were found to be significant predictors of PM2.5 concentrations in the household model. k-fold cross validation showed a fair degree of correlation (r = 0.56) between modeled and measured values. Extrapolation of the household results by state to all solid cookfuel-using households in India, covered by NFHS 2005, resulted in a modeled estimate of 450 μg/m3 (95% CI: 318,640) and 113 μg/m3 (95% CI: 102,127) , for national average 24-hr PM2.5 concentrations in the kitchen and living areas respectively. Conclusions The model affords substantial improvement over commonly used exposure indicators such as “percent solid cookfuel use” in HAP disease burden assessments, by providing some of the first estimates of national average HAP levels experienced in India. Model estimates also add considerable strength of evidence for framing and implementation of intervention efforts at the state and national levels. PMID:24020494

Using ArcMap, Google Earth, and Global Positioning Systems to select and locate random households in rural Haiti.

PubMed

Wampler, Peter J; Rediske, Richard R; Molla, Azizur R

2013-01-18

A remote sensing technique was developed which combines a Geographic Information System (GIS); Google Earth, and Microsoft Excel to identify home locations for a random sample of households in rural Haiti. The method was used to select homes for ethnographic and water quality research in a region of rural Haiti located within 9 km of a local hospital and source of health education in Deschapelles, Haiti. The technique does not require access to governmental records or ground based surveys to collect household location data and can be performed in a rapid, cost-effective manner. The random selection of households and the location of these households during field surveys were accomplished using GIS, Google Earth, Microsoft Excel, and handheld Garmin GPSmap 76CSx GPS units. Homes were identified and mapped in Google Earth, exported to ArcMap 10.0, and a random list of homes was generated using Microsoft Excel which was then loaded onto handheld GPS units for field location. The development and use of a remote sensing method was essential to the selection and location of random households. A total of 537 homes initially were mapped and a randomized subset of 96 was identified as potential survey locations. Over 96% of the homes mapped using Google Earth imagery were correctly identified as occupied dwellings. Only 3.6% of the occupants of mapped homes visited declined to be interviewed. 16.4% of the homes visited were not occupied at the time of the visit due to work away from the home or market days. A total of 55 households were located using this method during the 10 days of fieldwork in May and June of 2012. The method used to generate and field locate random homes for surveys and water sampling was an effective means of selecting random households in a rural environment lacking geolocation infrastructure. The success rate for locating households using a handheld GPS was excellent and only rarely was local knowledge required to identify and locate households. This method provides an important technique that can be applied to other developing countries where a randomized study design is needed but infrastructure is lacking to implement more traditional participant selection methods.

Rural households at risk of malaria did not own sufficient insecticide treated nets at Dabat HDSS site: evidence from a cross sectional re-census.

PubMed

Muchie, Kindie Fentahun; Alemu, Kassahun; Tariku, Amare; Tsegaye, Adino Tesfahun; Abebe, Solomon Mekonnen; Yitayal, Mezgebu; Awoke, Tadesse; Biks, Gashaw Andargie

2017-11-21

Malaria is the leading cause of disease burden across the world, especially in African countries. Ethiopia has designed a five year (2011-2015) plan to cover 100% of the households in malarious areas with one insecticide treated net (ITN) for every two persons, and to raise consistent ITN utilization to at least 80%. However, evidence on ownership of ITN among malarious rural households in northwest Ethiopia is quite limited. Hence, the present study aimed at assessing ownership of ITN and associated factors among rural households at risk of malaria at Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System site, northwest Ethiopia. A cross sectional re-census was carried out in Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System site during peak malaria seasons from October to December, 2014. Data for 15,088 households at Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System site were used for the analysis. Descriptive measures and binary logistic regression were carried out. Among those who owned at least one ITN, 53.4% were living at an altitude >2500 m above sea level. However, out of households living at an altitude <2000 m above sea level, 15.8% (95% CI 14.4%, 17.3%) owned ITN at an average of 4.3 ± 2.1 persons per ITN. Of these, 69.5% (95% CI 64.7%, 74.1%) used the ITN. Among utilizing households at malarious areas, 23.7% prioritized pregnant women and 31.4% children to use ITN. The availability of radio receiver/mobile (AOR 1.60, 95%CI 1.08, 2.35) and secondary/above educational status of household member (AOR 1.54, 95%CI 1.19, 2.04) were predictors of ownership of ITN. Rural households at risk of malaria did not own a sufficient number of ITN though the utilization is promising. Moreover, prioritizing children and pregnant women to sleep under ITN remains public health problems. Programmers, partners and implementers should consider tailored intervention strategy stratified by altitude in distributing ITN. ITN distribution should also be accompanied by using exhaustive promotion strategies that consider people without access to any source of information, and educating households to prioritize pregnant and under five children to sleep under ITN.

Factors affecting wood energy consumption by U.S. households

Treesearch

Nianfu Song; Francisco X. Aguilar; Stephen R. Shifley; Michael E. Goerndt

2012-01-01

About 23% of energy derived from woody sources in the U.S. was consumed by households, of which 70% was used by households in rural areas in 2005. We investigated factors affecting household-level wood energy consumption in the four continental U.S. regions using data from the U.S. Residential Energy Consumption Survey. To account for a large number of zero...

The impact of seasonal rice price changes on rice self-consumption in farm household of rural Java

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Ani, S. W.; Antriyandarti, E.

2018-03-01

Seasonal rice price changes are very volatile and not predictable. This price changes have a heterogeneous impact on public consumption. The problem of seasonal rice price changes is not only experienced by consumers, but also in the farmers side as producers. The objective of this study is to provide a detail overview and description of the changing seasonal rice self-consumption of farm households in rural Java in response to seasonal rice price changes and income shocks to anticipate seasonal scarcity. This paper constructs a theoretical model to address such seasonality of food deprivation by using one year of seasonally farm household panel data, empirically tests the extent to which farmers in rural Java can smooth their rice self-consumption from season to season in response to income shocks. The result shows that rice farmers increase their rice self-consumption when prices are high.

Psychosocial Aspects of Body Mass and Body Image among Rural American Indian Adolescents

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Newman, Denise L.; Sontag, Lisa M.; Salvato, Rebecca

2006-01-01

This study examines the psychosocial risks associated with body weight (BMI) and body image in a southeastern, rural Lumbee American Indian community. A total of 134 adolescents (57% female) were surveyed over 2 years at ages of 13 and 15 years. On average, boys (55%) were more likely to be overweight or obese than were girls (31%). BMI was…

Inequities in access to and use of drinking water services in Latin America and the Caribbean.

PubMed

Soares, Luiz Carlos Rangel; Griesinger, Marilena O; Dachs, J Norberto W; Bittner, Marta A; Tavares, Sonia

2002-01-01

To identify and evaluate inequities in access to drinking water services as reflected in household per capita expenditure on water, and to determine what proportion of household expenditures is spent on water in 11 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Using data from multi-purpose household surveys (such as the Living Standards Measurement Survey Study) conducted in 11 countries from 1995 to 1999, the availability of drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water were analyzed in light of socioeconomic parameters, such as urban vs. rural setting, household income, type and regularity of water supply service, time spent obtaining water in homes not served by running water, and type of water-purifying treatment, if any. Access to drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water show an association with household income, economic conditions of the household, and location. The access of the rural population to drinking water services is much more restricted than that of the urban population for groups having similar income. The proportion of families having a household water supply system is comparable in the higher-income rural population and the lower-income urban population. Families without a household water supply system spend a considerable amount of time getting water. For poorer families, this implies additional costs. Low-income families that lack a household water supply spend as much money on water as do families with better income. Access to household water disinfection methods is very limited among poor families due to its relatively high cost, which results in poorer drinking water quality in the lower-income population. Multi-purpose household surveys conducted from the consumer's point of view are important tools for research on equity and health, especially when studying unequal access to, use of, and expenditures on drinking water. It is recommended that countries improve their portion of the surveys that deals with water and sanitation in order to facilitate national health assessments and the establishment of more equitable subsidy programs.

The changing character of household waste in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2009 as a function of home heating methods.

PubMed

Doležalová, Markéta; Benešová, Libuše; Závodská, Anita

2013-09-01

The authors of this paper report on the changing character of household waste, in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2009 in households differentiated by their heating methods. The data presented are the result of two projects, financed by the Czech Ministry of Environment, which were undertaken during this time period with the aim of focusing on the waste characterisation and complete analysis of the physicochemical properties of the household waste. In the Czech Republic, the composition of household waste varies significantly between different types of households based on the methods of home heating employed. For the purposes of these studies, the types of homes were divided into three categories - urban, mixed and rural. Some of the biggest differences were found in the quantities of certain subsample categories, especially fine residue (matter smaller than 20 mm), between urban households with central heating and rural households that primarily employ solid fuel such coal or wood. The use of these solid fuels increases the fraction of the finer categories because of the higher presence of ash. Heating values of the residual household waste from the three categories varied very significantly, ranging from 6.8 MJ/kg to 14.2 MJ/kg in 1999 and from 6.8 MJ/kg to 10.5 MJ/kg in 2009 depending on the type of household and season. The same factors affect moisture of residual household waste which varied from 23.2% to 33.3%. The chemical parameters also varied significantly, especially in the quantities of Tl, As, Cr, Zn, Fe and Mn, which were higher in rural households. Because knowledge about the properties of household waste, as well as its physicochemical characteristics, is very important not only for future waste management, but also for the prediction of the behaviour and influence of the waste on the environment as the country continues to streamline its legislation to the European Union's solid waste mandates, the results of these studies were employed by the Czech Ministry of Environment to optimise the national waste management strategy. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

7 CFR 1940.564 - Section 502 subsidized guaranteed Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

...: (1) State's percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (3) State's percentage of the national number of rural households below 80 percent of the area median income, and (4) State...

7 CFR 1940.564 - Section 502 subsidized guaranteed Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

...: (1) State's percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (3) State's percentage of the national number of rural households below 80 percent of the area median income, and (4) State...

7 CFR 1940.564 - Section 502 subsidized guaranteed Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

...: (1) State's percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (3) State's percentage of the national number of rural households below 80 percent of the area median income, and (4) State...

7 CFR 1940.564 - Section 502 subsidized guaranteed Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

...: (1) State's percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (3) State's percentage of the national number of rural households below 80 percent of the area median income, and (4) State...

7 CFR 1940.564 - Section 502 subsidized guaranteed Rural Housing loans.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

...: (1) State's percentage of the National number of rural occupied substandard units, (2) State's percentage of the National rural population in places of less than 2,500 population, (3) State's percentage of the national number of rural households below 80 percent of the area median income, and (4) State...

The 2005 Minnesota Internet Study: An Examination of Metro/Rural Differences in Digital Technology Adoption

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Center for Rural Policy and Development, 2006

2006-01-01

Since 2001 the Center for Rural Policy & Development (CRPD) has annually conducted surveys of rural Minnesota households to discern the level of computer ownership, Internet connectivity and broadband adoption throughout rural Minnesota. Since the beginning of this longitudinal effort, significant increases in technology adoption have been…

Intra-Household Allocation of Nutrients in an Opening China.

PubMed

Zhou, Li; Chen, Xiaohong; Lei, Lei

2018-04-09

This paper uses China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data to analyze the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on nutrient intakes across various family roles to identify the different family roles' heterogeneous nutrition intake responses to economic openness. The empirical evidence shows that FDI enhances labor forces' calorie intake significantly, especially for rural households. The government should continue facilitating more FDI inflows, especially FDI in secondary industries for rural populations. However, the larger the family, the smaller the effect of FDI on nutrient intake for some family roles. The elderly and children may be weaker responders on nutrient intake than other family members in an open economy. This implies the existence of intra-household redistribution and that the level of effectiveness will decrease with family size. The results suggest that family members in rural areas can benefit more in terms of nutrient intake. Our empirical evidence also indicates that female family members' calorie intake from the FDI effect is higher than that of male family members (except for the granddaughter/grandson). Preferential policies should be provided for the FDI, flowing to rural areas and female dominant industries.

Vulnerability to Climate Change in Rural Nicaragua

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Byrne, T. R.; Townshend, I.; Byrne, J. M.; McDaniel, S. A.

2013-12-01

While there is a growing recognition of the impact that climate change may have on human development, there has been a shift in focus from an impacts-led assessment approach towards a vulnerability-led assessment approach. This research operationalizes the IPCC's definition of vulnerability in a sub-national assessment to understand how different factors that shape vulnerability to climate change vary spatially across rural Nicaragua. The research utilizes the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations' (FAO UN) CropWat model to evaluate how the annual yield of two of Nicaragua's staple crops may change under projected changes in temperature and precipitation. This analysis of agricultural sensitivity under exposure to climate change is then overlain with an indicator-based assessment of adaptive capacity in rural Nicaraguan farming households. Adaptive capacity was evaluated using household survey data from the 2001 National Household Survey on Living Standards Measurement, which was provided to us by the FAO UN. The result is a map representing current vulnerability to future climate change, and can serve as a basis for targeting policy interventions in rural Nicaragua.

Intra-Household Allocation of Nutrients in an Opening China

PubMed Central

Zhou, Li; Chen, Xiaohong; Lei, Lei

2018-01-01

This paper uses China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data to analyze the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on nutrient intakes across various family roles to identify the different family roles’ heterogeneous nutrition intake responses to economic openness. The empirical evidence shows that FDI enhances labor forces’ calorie intake significantly, especially for rural households. The government should continue facilitating more FDI inflows, especially FDI in secondary industries for rural populations. However, the larger the family, the smaller the effect of FDI on nutrient intake for some family roles. The elderly and children may be weaker responders on nutrient intake than other family members in an open economy. This implies the existence of intra-household redistribution and that the level of effectiveness will decrease with family size. The results suggest that family members in rural areas can benefit more in terms of nutrient intake. Our empirical evidence also indicates that female family members’ calorie intake from the FDI effect is higher than that of male family members (except for the granddaughter/grandson). Preferential policies should be provided for the FDI, flowing to rural areas and female dominant industries. PMID:29642513

Status and determinants of small farming households' food security and role of market access in enhancing food security in rural Pakistan.

PubMed

Ahmed, Umar Ijaz; Ying, Liu; Bashir, Muhammad Khalid; Abid, Muhammad; Zulfiqar, Farhad

2017-01-01

In most of the developing countries, lack of resources and little market accessibility are among the major factors that affect small farming household food security. This study aims to investigate the status of small farming households' food security, and its determinants including the role of market accessibility factors in enhancing food security at household level. In addition, this study also determines the households' perception about different kinds of livelihoods risks. This study is based on a household survey of 576 households conducted through face-to-face interviews using structured interviews in Punjab, Pakistan. Food security status is calculated using dietary intake method. The study findings show that one-fourth of the households are food insecure. The study findings reveal that farm households perceive increase in food prices, crop diseases, lack of irrigation water and increase in health expenses as major livelihood risks. Further, the results of logistic regression show that family size, monthly income, food prices, health expenses and debt are main factors influencing the food security status of rural households. Furthermore, the market accessibility factors (road distance and transportation cost) do significantly affect the small farming household food security. The results suggest that local food security can be enhanced by creating off-farm employment opportunities, improved transportation facilities and road infrastructure.

"Remnants of feudalism"? Women's health and their utilization of health services in rural China.

PubMed

Anson, O; Haanappel, F W

1999-01-01

Almost five decades ago, the Chinese Communist Party wished to abolish all "remnants of feudalism," including the patriarchal social order. Just one year after the revolution, the Marriage Law endorsed women's rights within the family, but no operative measures were taken to enforce it. Some of the economic reforms since independence even strengthened patrilocality and, possibly, patriarchal values. The purpose of this study was to explore the degree to which patrilocality served to maintain the traditional patriarchal stratification among women in the household by exploring women's health patterns and utilization of health services. Data were collected from 3859 women residing in rural Hebei, and variation in health and help seeking of six categories of relation to household head--mothers, wives, daughters, daughters-in-law, family heads, and other relatives--were explored. Utilization of health services is not dependent on women's position in the household, but primarily on per-capita income. Health patterns seem to indicate that mothers of the head of the household still have a considerable power to define their roles and share of household work. Women head of family, most of whom are married, appear to be under strain, which could be a result of their culturally "deviant" position. We conclude that old patriarchal values are intertwined with values of equality in current rural China.

Changing food patterns across the seasons in rural Pakistan: analysis of food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake.

PubMed

Hussain, Abid; Zulfiqar, Farhad; Saboor, Abdul

2014-01-01

This comparative study investigated variations in food patterns across the seasons in rural Pakistan through assessing the changes in food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake. It analyzed the situation using the primary information of 97 and 114 households surveyed in summer and winter respectively. Findings revealed a significant difference of households' food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake across the seasons. In the winter, households' food basket was more diverse, showing 30%, 13%, and 8% rise in food variety, dietary diversity, and caloric intake, respectively, due mainly to the changes in food choices in winter. Rural households preferred to consume items from nutritious food groups (i.e., dried fruits and nuts, oilseeds, and locally preserved foods) during the severe cold weather. However, they did not substitute significantly the items from basic food groups (i.e., cereals, vegetables and legumes, tubers, and dairy products), with those belonging to nutritious groups. Based on findings, it is concluded that food variety, dietary diversity and calorie intake fluctuate across the seasons, therefore surveys of dietary patterns and calorie intake in one particular season may not be reliable, and food security status of households may not be generalized on the basis of one season survey.

Gaming No Panacea for Meeting Tribes' Needs.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Selden, Ron

2003-01-01

Details the reasons why Indian casinos are not benefiting large numbers of Native Americans. Explains that most casinos are located in populated areas, while most American Indians live in rural areas. Adds that 75% of jobs generated by Indian gaming have gone to non-Indians. Reports on efforts to build a Native American scholarship fund from…

Multigenerational Households in a Contemporary Perspective.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Beland, Francois; And Others

1987-01-01

Used Canadian Census data on the elderly in Quebec to show that the frequency of multigenerational households did not vary with rural or urban location of the elderly. Age and sex of elderly and homeownership by their children were factors in explaining family living arrangements. Concludes that multigenerational households can be resource…

Make them equal partners in development.

PubMed

Mishra, T K

The general status of women in India and the world, their potential as entrepreneurs in India, and the Indian government's initiatives for women are described. Women are actually good household managers and essential for success of the family and the nation, but economic development alone will not benefit women by a "trickle down" effect because male superiority is a vested interest. Women around the world perform 2/3 of the work, but receive 1/10 of the income and own less than 1/100 of the property. Although female literacy in India has grown from 18.7% in 1971 to 24.8% in 1981, the absolute number of illiterate women has grown from 215 to 241 million, and the ratio of illiterate women to men has risen. Higher education for women is largely limited to home economics, art, literature and dressmaking. Women are taking up spinning, weaving, crafts, matchmaking, cereal processing and other cottage industries. Elite urban women are also starting businesses doing marketing, advertising, electronics, designing, textiles and beauty clinics. Entrepreneurial women face problems with credit, bureaucratic hurdles, harassment by inspectors, huge consultancy and legal fees. Women's welfare organizations should foster their economic development. The Indian government has proposed anti-poverty programs, job programs, legal safeguards, and promotion of women in the media. It has suggested that a Ministry of Women and Child Development be created to enforce the law for women. A Ministry of Rural Development has initiated a Scheme for the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA). There is a National Committee on Women, headed by the Prime Minister, to advise the Central and State Governments on policy, legislative and administrative measures needed to remove economic and social inequalities for women.

Patterns of rural household energy use: a study in the White Nile province - the Sudan

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Abdu, A.S.E.

1985-01-01

The study investigates rural household domestic energy consumption patterns in a semiarid area of the Sudan. It describes the socioeconomic and evironmental context of energy use, provides an estimation of local woody biomass production and evaluates ecological impacts of increased energy demand on the local resource base. It is based on findings derived from field surveys, a systematic questionnaire and participant observations. Findings indicate that households procure traditional fuels by self-collection and purchases. Household members spent on average 20% of their working time gathering fuels. Generally per caput and total annual expenditure and consumption of domestic fuels are determined bymore » household size, physical availability, storage, prices, income, conservation, substitution and competition among fuel resource uses. Households spend on average 16% of their annual income on traditional fuels. Aggregation of fuels on heat equivalent basis and calculation of their contribution shows that on average firewood provides 63%, charcoal 20.7%, dung 10.4%, crop residues 3.4% and kerosene/diesel 2.5% of the total demand for domestic purposes. Estimated total household woodfuel demand exceeds woody biomass available from the local forests. This demand is presently satisfied by a net depletion of the local forests and purchases from other areas. Degradation of the resource base is further exacerbated by development of irrigation along the White Nile River, increasing livestock numbers (overgrazing) and forest clearance for rainfed cultivation. The most promising relevant and appropriate strategies to alleviate rural household domestic energy problems include: conservation of the existing forest, augmentation through village woodlots and community forestry programmes and improvements in end-use (stoves) and conversion (wood to charcoal) technologies.« less

Rural income and forest reliance in highland Guatemala.

PubMed

Prado Córdova, José Pablo; Wunder, Sven; Smith-Hall, Carsten; Börner, Jan

2013-05-01

This paper estimates rural household-level forest reliance in the western highlands of Guatemala using quantitative methods. Data were generated by the way of an in-depth household income survey, repeated quarterly between November 2005 and November 2006, in 11 villages (n = 149 randomly selected households). The main sources of income proved to be small-scale agriculture (53 % of total household income), wages (19 %) and environmental resources (14 %). The latter came primarily from forests (11 % on average). In the poorest quintile the forest income share was as high as 28 %. All households harvest and consume environmental products. In absolute terms, environmental income in the top quintile was 24 times higher than in the lowest. Timber and poles, seeds, firewood and leaf litter were the most important forest products. Households can be described as 'regular subsistence users': the share of subsistence income is high, with correspondingly weak integration into regional markets. Agricultural systems furthermore use important inputs from surrounding forests, although forests and agricultural uses compete in household specialization strategies. We find the main household determinants of forest income to be household size, education and asset values, as well as closeness to markets and agricultural productivity. Understanding these common but spatially differentiated patterns of environmental reliance may inform policies aimed at improving livelihoods and conserving forests.

Coping with change: Household structure and composition in rural South Africa, 1992 – 20031

PubMed Central

MADHAVAN, SANGEETHA; SCHATZ, ENID J.

2010-01-01

Aim To describe household change over a 10-year period of tremendous social, political, economic and health transformation in South Africa using data from the Agincourt health and demographic surveillance system in the rural northeast of South Africa. Methods Examination of household structure and composition at three points: 1992, 1997, and 2003. These three years loosely represent conditions immediately before the elections (1992), short term post-elections (1997), and longer term (2003), and span a period of notable increase in HIV prevalence. Results Average household size decreased and the proportion headed by females increased. The within-household dependency ratios for children and elders both decreased, as did the proportion of households containing foster children. The proportion with at least one maternal orphan doubled, but was still relatively small at 5.5%. Conclusions This analysis is a starting point for future investigations aimed at explaining how HIV/AIDS and other sociocultural changes post-apartheid have impacted on household organization. The analysis shows both consistency and change in measures of household structure and composition between 1992 and 2003. The changes do not include an increase in various types of “fragile families”, such as child-headed or skipped-generation households that might be expected due to HIV/AIDS. PMID:17676508

Rural Income and Forest Reliance in Highland Guatemala

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Prado Córdova, José Pablo; Wunder, Sven; Smith-Hall, Carsten; Börner, Jan

2013-05-01

This paper estimates rural household-level forest reliance in the western highlands of Guatemala using quantitative methods. Data were generated by the way of an in-depth household income survey, repeated quarterly between November 2005 and November 2006, in 11 villages ( n = 149 randomly selected households). The main sources of income proved to be small-scale agriculture (53 % of total household income), wages (19 %) and environmental resources (14 %). The latter came primarily from forests (11 % on average). In the poorest quintile the forest income share was as high as 28 %. All households harvest and consume environmental products. In absolute terms, environmental income in the top quintile was 24 times higher than in the lowest. Timber and poles, seeds, firewood and leaf litter were the most important forest products. Households can be described as `regular subsistence users': the share of subsistence income is high, with correspondingly weak integration into regional markets. Agricultural systems furthermore use important inputs from surrounding forests, although forests and agricultural uses compete in household specialization strategies. We find the main household determinants of forest income to be household size, education and asset values, as well as closeness to markets and agricultural productivity. Understanding these common but spatially differentiated patterns of environmental reliance may inform policies aimed at improving livelihoods and conserving forests.

Household Food Insecurity is Associated with Health-Related Quality of Life in Rural Type 2 Diabetic Patients.

PubMed

Gholami, Ali; Khazaee-Pool, Maryam; Rezaee, Negar; Amirkalali, Bahareh; A Bbasi Ghahremanlo, Abbas; Moradpour, Farhad; Rajabi, Abdolalhalim; Sohrabi, Masoud Reza; Yarmohammadi, Reyhaneh; Mousavi Jahromi, Zahra

2017-06-01

Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) is associated with household food insecurity (HFI). However, the studies examining the relationship between HFI and HRQOL in patients with type 2 diabetes are scarce. Thus, this study was designed to examine the relationship between HFI and HRQOL in rural type 2 diabetic patients. In this cross-sectional study, we included 1847 rural patients with type 2 diabetes in Neyshabur from April to July 2012. HRQOL and HFI were measured with 36-item HRQOL (SF-36) and 6-item version of Household Food Security questionnaires, respectively. HRQOL was divided into eight dimensions and two summary components. We categorized households as high food secure (HFS), low food secure (LFS), and very low food secure (VLFS). Multiple linear regression model was applied to assess the independent effect of food insecurity on HRQOL. The mean age of participants was 59.65 ± 12.3 years (range: 30-97) with 69.8% women. The overall prevalence of HFI was 46.1%, and the total mean score of HRQOL was 51.11. Multiple linear regression model showed that HFI was significantly associated with the total mean score of HRQOL and its eight dimensions. One-way ANOVA test also showed that HRQOL (in all dimensions) was significantly different between 3 groups of household food security status (HFS, LFS, and VLFS) (P < 0.05). The results of this study showed that HFI was associated with all dimensions of HRQOL and it is one of the strongest variables, in association with HRQOL among rural patients with type 2 diabetes.

How infrastructure and financial institutions affect rural income and poverty: evidence from Bangladesh.

PubMed

Khandker, Shahidur R; Koolwal, Gayatri B

2010-01-01

The mechanisms by which the poor benefit from economic growth remain a topic of debate in development literature. We address this issue in the context of rural Bangladesh, using a pooled dataset of three household panels between 1991-2001. Expansion of irrigation, paved roads, electricity, and access to formal and informal credit have (through different veins) led to higher rural farm and non-farm incomes, accounting for exogenous local agroclimatic endowments that explain a large part of the variation in the growth of infrastructure and credit programmes. However, this has not translated into substantial reductions in poverty for the poorest households.

Ethnicity and infant mortality in Malaysia.

PubMed

Dixon, G

1993-06-01

Malaysian infant mortality differentials are a worthwhile subject for study, because socioeconomic development has very clearly had a differential impact by ethnic group. The Chinese rates of infant mortality are significantly lower than the Malay or Indian rates. Instead of examining the obvious access to care issues, this study considered factors related to the culture of infant care. Practices include the Chinese confinement of the mother in the first month after childbirth ("pe'i yue") and Pillsbury's 12 normative rules for Malaysian Chinese care. Malay practices vary widely by region and history. Indian mothers are restricted by diet. Data-recording flaws do not permit analysis of Sarawak or Sabah. The general assumption that Western medicine favors better health for mothers and infants is substantiated among peninsular communities, however, there are also negative impacts which affect infant mortality. The complex interaction of factors impacting on infant mortality reported in seven previous studies is discussed. A review of these studies reveals that immediate causes are infections, injuries, and dehydration. Indirect causes are birth weight or social and behavioral factors such as household income or maternal education. Indirect factors, which are amenable to planned change and influence the biological proximate determinants of infant mortality, are identified as birth weight, maternal age at birth, short pregnancy intervals or prior reproductive loss, sex of the child, birth order, duration of breast feeding and conditions of supplementation, types of household water and sanitation, year of child's birth, maternal education, household income and composition, institution of birth, ethnicity, and rural residence. Nine factors are identified empirically as not significant: maternal hours of work in the child's first year, maternal occupation, distance from home to workplace, presence of other children or servants, incidence of epidemics in the child's first year of life, community types of sanitation, prices and availability of infant foods, and access to various types of medical care. Future empirical study should consider factors such as class differences, place of residence, or extent of illiteracy as underlying or related to ethnicity. Policy-makers should be aware that future decline in infant mortality rates may depend on the blending of traditional with modern practices.

7 CFR 254.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE... INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS IN OKLAHOMA § 254.2 Definitions. (a) Exercises governmental jurisdiction means the exercise of authorities granted to ITOs under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 or by BIA regulations...

7 CFR 254.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-01-01

... Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE... INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS IN OKLAHOMA § 254.2 Definitions. (a) Exercises governmental jurisdiction means the exercise of authorities granted to ITOs under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 or by BIA regulations...

7 CFR 254.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-01-01

... Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE... INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS IN OKLAHOMA § 254.2 Definitions. (a) Exercises governmental jurisdiction means the exercise of authorities granted to ITOs under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 or by BIA regulations...

7 CFR 254.2 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-01-01

... Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE... INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS IN OKLAHOMA § 254.2 Definitions. (a) Exercises governmental jurisdiction means the exercise of authorities granted to ITOs under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 or by BIA regulations...

7 CFR 4284.602 - Policy.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... Regulations of the Department of Agriculture (Continued) RURAL BUSINESS-COOPERATIVE SERVICE AND RURAL UTILITIES SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE GRANTS Rural Business Opportunity Grants § 4284.602 Policy. (a... the State regardless of whether State development strategies include Indian reservations within the...

Heterogeneity in the effect of public health insurance on catastrophic out-of-pocket health expenditures: the case of Mexico.

PubMed

Grogger, Jeffrey; Arnold, Tamara; León, Ana Sofía; Ome, Alejandro

2015-06-01

Low- and middle-income countries increasingly provide broad-based public health coverage to their residents. One of the goals of such programmes is to reduce the extent to which beneficiaries incur catastrophic out-of-pocket expenditures on health care. A recent field experiment showed that on average Mexico's new public insurance programme reduced such expenditures in rural areas. Our reanalysis of that data, augmented with administrative data on health infrastructure, shows that this effect depends strongly on the type of health facility to which the beneficiary has access. A second analysis, based on data from Mexico's National Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (abbreviated ENIGH for its name in Spanish), substantiates those findings. It shows that catastrophic expenditures have fallen sharply for rural households with access to well-staffed facilities, but that they have fallen little if at all for rural households with access to poorly staffed facilities. Our analysis of the ENIGH also shows that Mexico's public health insurance programme has sharply reduced catastrophic spending among urban households. Considering that most Mexicans live either in urban areas or in rural areas with access to well-staffed facilities, our results show that the public health insurance programme has been largely successful in achieving one of its key goals. At the same time, our results show how difficult it can be to provide effective protection against catastrophic health expenditures for residents of remote rural areas. Published by Oxford University Press in association with The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine © The Author 2014; all rights reserved.

Distribution of Economic Benefits from Ecotourism: A Case Study of Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas in China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

He, Guangming; Chen, Xiaodong; Liu, Wei; Bearer, Scott; Zhou, Shiqiang; Cheng, Lily Yeqing; Zhang, Hemin; Ouyang, Zhiyun; Liu, Jianguo

2008-12-01

Ecotourism is widely promoted as a conservation tool and actively practiced in protected areas worldwide. Theoretically, support for conservation from the various types of stakeholder inside and outside protected areas is maximized if stakeholders benefit proportionally to the opportunity costs they bear. The disproportional benefit distribution among stakeholders can erode their support for or lead to the failure of ecotourism and conservation. Using Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas (China) as an example, we demonstrate two types of uneven distribution of economic benefits among four major groups of stakeholders. First, a significant inequality exists between the local rural residents and the other types of stakeholder. The rural residents are the primary bearers of the cost of conservation, but the majority of economic benefits (investment, employment, and goods) in three key ecotourism sectors (infrastructural construction, hotels/restaurants, and souvenir sales) go to other stakeholders. Second, results show that the distribution of economic benefits is unequal among the rural residents inside the reserve. Most rural households that benefit from ecotourism are located near the main road and potentially have less impact on panda habitat than households far from the road and closer to panda habitats. This distribution gap is likely to discourage conservation support from the latter households, whose activities are the main forces degrading panda habitats. We suggest that the unequal distribution of the benefits from ecotourism can be lessened by enhancing local participation, increasing the use of local goods, and encouraging relocation of rural households closer to ecotourism facilities.

Distribution of economic benefits from ecotourism: a case study of Wolong Nature Reserve For Giant Pandas in China.

PubMed

He, Guangming; Chen, Xiaodong; Liu, Wei; Bearer, Scott; Zhou, Shiqiang; Cheng, Lily Yeqing; Zhang, Hemin; Ouyang, Zhiyun; Liu, Jianguo

2008-12-01

Ecotourism is widely promoted as a conservation tool and actively practiced in protected areas worldwide. Theoretically, support for conservation from the various types of stakeholder inside and outside protected areas is maximized if stakeholders benefit proportionally to the opportunity costs they bear. The disproportional benefit distribution among stakeholders can erode their support for or lead to the failure of ecotourism and conservation. Using Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas (China) as an example, we demonstrate two types of uneven distribution of economic benefits among four major groups of stakeholders. First, a significant inequality exists between the local rural residents and the other types of stakeholder. The rural residents are the primary bearers of the cost of conservation, but the majority of economic benefits (investment, employment, and goods) in three key ecotourism sectors (infrastructural construction, hotels/restaurants, and souvenir sales) go to other stakeholders. Second, results show that the distribution of economic benefits is unequal among the rural residents inside the reserve. Most rural households that benefit from ecotourism are located near the main road and potentially have less impact on panda habitat than households far from the road and closer to panda habitats. This distribution gap is likely to discourage conservation support from the latter households, whose activities are the main forces degrading panda habitats. We suggest that the unequal distribution of the benefits from ecotourism can be lessened by enhancing local participation, increasing the use of local goods, and encouraging relocation of rural households closer to ecotourism facilities.

Household and familial resemblance in risk factors for type 2 diabetes and related cardiometabolic diseases in rural Uganda: a cross-sectional community sample.

PubMed

Nielsen, Jannie; Bahendeka, Silver K; Whyte, Susan R; Meyrowitsch, Dan W; Bygbjerg, Ib C; Witte, Daniel R

2017-09-21

Prevention of type 2 diabetes (T2D) has been successfully established in randomised clinical trials. However, the best methods for the translation of this evidence into effective population-wide interventions remain unclear. To assess whether households could be a target for T2D prevention and screening, we investigated the resemblance of T2D risk factors at household level and by type of familial dyadic relationship in a rural Ugandan community. This cross-sectional household-based study included 437 individuals ≥13 years of age from 90 rural households in south-western Uganda. Resemblance in glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c), anthropometry, blood pressure, fitness status and sitting time were analysed using a general mixed model with random effects (by household or dyad) to calculate household intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and dyadic regression coefficients. Logistic regression with household as a random effect was used to calculate the ORs for individuals having a condition or risk factor if another household member had the same condition. The strongest degree of household member resemblances in T2D risk factors was seen in relation to fitness status (ICC=0.24), HbA1c (ICC=0.18) and systolic blood pressure (ICC=0.11). Regarding dyadic resemblance, the highest standardised regression coefficient was seen in fitness status for spouses (0.54, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.76), parent-offspring (0.41, 95% CI 0.28 0.54) and siblings (0.41, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.57). Overall, parent-offspring and sibling pairs were the dyads with strongest resemblance, followed by spouses. The marked degree of resemblance in T2D risk factors at household level and between spouses, parent-offspring and sibling dyads suggest that shared behavioural and environmental factors may influence risk factor levels among cohabiting individuals, which point to the potential of the household setting for screening and prevention of T2D. © Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.

Rainfall Patterns and U.S. Migration from Rural Mexico

PubMed Central

Hunter, Lori M.; Murray, Sheena; Riosmena, Fernando

2014-01-01

In many rural regions of developing countries, natural resource dependency means changes in climate patterns hold tremendous potential to impact livelihoods. When environmentally-based livelihood options are constrained, migration can become an important adaptive strategy. Using data from the Mexican Migration Project, we model U.S. emigration from rural communities as related to community, household and climate factors. The results suggest that households subjected to recent drought conditions are far more likely to send a U.S. migrant, but only in communities with strong migration histories. In regions lacking such social networks, rainfall deficits actually reduce migration propensities, perhaps reflecting constraints in the ability to engage in migration as a coping strategy. Policy implications emphasize diversification of rural Mexican livelihoods in the face of contemporary climate change. PMID:25473143

Schooling and Factors Affecting Decisions on Schooling by Household Members in the Rural Areas of Turkey

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Olgun, Akin; Gumus, Sevtap Guler; Adanacioglu, Hakan

2010-01-01

Despite the fact that rural education has always been one of the most important means of rural development, it has been ignored in many developing countries, with the result that rural development has not achieved great success. The problems of education in rural areas are not only related to the amount the country spends on education or to the…

43 CFR 404.56 - If a financial assistance agreement is entered into for a rural water supply project that...

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-10-01

... 43 Public Lands: Interior 1 2012-10-01 2011-10-01 true If a financial assistance agreement is entered into for a rural water supply project that benefits more than one Indian tribe, is the approval of each Indian tribe required? 404.56 Section 404.56 Public Lands: Interior Regulations Relating to Public Lands BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, DEPARTMENT OF...

Declines and Plateaux in Smoking Prevalence Over Three Decades in Fiji.

PubMed

Linhart, Christine; Tukana, Isimeli; Lin, Sophia; Taylor, Richard; Morrell, Stephen; Vatucawaqa, Penina; Magliano, Dianna J; Zimmet, Paul

2017-11-01

To examine trends from 1980 to 2011 in daily tobacco smoking by sex, ethnicity, age, and urban/rural in Fiji Melanesian (i-Taukei) and Indian adults aged 25-64 years. Unit record data from five population-based surveys (n = 14 528) allowed classification of participants as: (1) never-smoker, ex-smoker, or non-daily smoker; or (2) daily smoker, reporting smoking <20 or ≥20 tobacco products (cigarettes/cigars/pipes) a day. Trends were examined using spline analyses. Over 1980-2011 the prevalence of reported daily tobacco smoking decreased significantly in both sexes and ethnicities, with the greatest decline during 1980-2000. Declines were from 81.7% to 27.0% in i-Taukei men; 55.3% to 26.3% in Indian men; 48.1% to 9.5% in i-Taukei women; and 13.8% to 1.3% in Indian women (p < .0001). Declines were consistent across all age groups in men, while there were greater declines among older age groups in women; and greater declines from higher prevalences in rural compared to urban areas in both sexes and ethnicities. Smoking ≥20 tobacco products per day declined significantly in i-Taukei men from 8.0% to 1.9% (p < .0001); there were also declines in Indian men (4.6% to 2.0%) and i-Taukei women (2.6% to 0.6%), but these were not statistically significant; and Indian women remained <0.2% throughout the period. Significant declines in daily tobacco smoking have occurred in Fiji in both sexes and ethnicities during the past 30 years, which is consistent with declines in tobacco apparent consumption and household expenditure. However, prevalence remains high in men at around 27% in 2011, with plateau at this level in i-Taukei. This is the first study to show nationally representative population trends in tobacco smoking in a developing country over such a long period (>30 years) based on empirical unit record data (n = 14 528). Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of mortality throughout the Pacific Island region. This is the first study to show evidence of substantial declines over several decades in a cardiovascular disease risk factor in a Pacific Island country, and provides important evidence for further research into the interventions and events which may have facilitated this decline. © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

Effects of socio-demographic characteristics and household water management on Aedes aegypti production in suburban and rural villages in Laos and Thailand.

PubMed

Vannavong, Nanthasane; Seidu, Razak; Stenström, Thor-Axel; Dada, Nsa; Overgaard, Hans J

2017-04-04

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease accounting for 50-100 million annual cases globally. Laos and Thailand are countries in south-east Asia where the disease is endemic in both urban and rural areas. Household water storage containers, which are favourable breeding sites for dengue mosquitoes, are common in these areas, due to intermittent or limited access to water supply. This study assessed the effect of household water management and socio-demographic risk factors on Aedes aegypti infestation of water storage containers. A cross-sectional survey of 239 households in Laos (124 suburban and 115 rural), and 248 households in Thailand (127 suburban and 121 rural) was conducted. Entomological surveys alongside semi-structured interviews and observations were conducted to obtain information on Ae. aegypti infestation, socio-demographic factors and water management. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression models were used to assess risk factors associated with Ae. aegypti pupal infestation. Household water management rather than socio-demographic factors were more likely to be associated with the infestation of water containers with Ae. aegypti pupae. Factors that was significantly associated with Ae. aegypti infestation were tanks, less frequent cleaning of containers, containers without lids, and containers located outdoors or in toilets/bathrooms. Associations between Ae. aegypti pupae infestation, household water management, and socio-demographic factors were found, with risk factors for Ae. aegypti infestation being specific to each study setting. Most of the containers did not have lids, larvicides, such as temephos was seldom used, and containers were not cleaned regularly; factors are facilitating dengue vector proliferation. It is recommended that, in Lao villages, health messages should promote proper use and maintenance of tightly fitted lids, and temephos in tanks, which were the most infested containers. Recommendations for Thailand are that small water containers should be cleaned weekly. Furthermore, in addition to health messages on dengue control provided to communities, attention should be paid to larval control for indoor containers in rural villages. Temephos or other immature control measures such as the use of pyriproxyfen, antilarval bacteria, or larvivorous fish should be used where temephos resistance is prevalent. Dengue control is not possible without additional adult mosquito control and community participation.

Preventive Health Education Needs Among Rural Farm and Rural Nonfarm Adults.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Leadley, Samuel M.; And Others

Focusing on heart disease and cancer, the study compared the preventive health education needs of farm and nonfarm rural adults. During July and August 1975, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 57 men and 161 women living in Armstrong and Butler Counties, Pennsylvania. The sample included 119 commercial farm households and 99 rural nonfarm…

Do Rainfall Deficits Predict U.S.-bound Migration from Rural Mexico? Evidence from the Mexican Census

PubMed Central

Nawrotzki, Raphael J.; Riosmena, Fernando; Hunter, Lori M.

2013-01-01

Environmental and climatic changes have shaped human mobility for thousands of years and research on the migration-environment connection has proliferated in the past several years. Even so, little work has focused on Latin America or on international movement. Given rural Mexico’s dependency on primary sector activities involving various natural resources, and the existence of well-established transnational migrant networks, we investigate the association between rainfall patterns and U.S.-bound migration from rural locales, a topic of increasing policy relevance. The New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM) theory provides background, positing that migration represents a household-level risk management strategy. We use data from the year 2000 Mexican census for rural localities and socioeconomic and state-level precipitation data provided by the Mexican National Institute for Statistics and Geography. Multilevel models assess the impact of rainfall change on household-level international out-migration while controlling for relevant sociodemographic and economic factors. A decrease in precipitation is significantly associated with U.S.-bound migration, but only for dry Mexican states. This finding suggests that programs and policies aimed at reducing Mexico-U.S. migration should seek to diminish the climate/weather vulnerability of rural Mexican households, for example by supporting sustainable irrigation systems and subsidizing drought-resistant crops. PMID:23913999

Do Rainfall Deficits Predict U.S.-bound Migration from Rural Mexico? Evidence from the Mexican Census.

PubMed

Nawrotzki, Raphael J; Riosmena, Fernando; Hunter, Lori M

2013-02-01

Environmental and climatic changes have shaped human mobility for thousands of years and research on the migration-environment connection has proliferated in the past several years. Even so, little work has focused on Latin America or on international movement. Given rural Mexico's dependency on primary sector activities involving various natural resources, and the existence of well-established transnational migrant networks, we investigate the association between rainfall patterns and U.S.-bound migration from rural locales, a topic of increasing policy relevance. The New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM) theory provides background, positing that migration represents a household-level risk management strategy. We use data from the year 2000 Mexican census for rural localities and socioeconomic and state-level precipitation data provided by the Mexican National Institute for Statistics and Geography. Multilevel models assess the impact of rainfall change on household-level international out-migration while controlling for relevant sociodemographic and economic factors. A decrease in precipitation is significantly associated with U.S.-bound migration, but only for dry Mexican states. This finding suggests that programs and policies aimed at reducing Mexico-U.S. migration should seek to diminish the climate/weather vulnerability of rural Mexican households, for example by supporting sustainable irrigation systems and subsidizing drought-resistant crops.

Willingness to pay and determinants of choice for improved malaria treatment in rural Nepal.

PubMed

Morey, Edward R; Sharma, Vijaya R; Mills, Anne

2003-07-01

A logit model is used to estimate provider choice from six types by malaria patients in rural Nepal. Patient characteristics that influence choice include travel costs, income category, household size, gender, and severity of malaria. Income effects are introduced by assuming the marginal utility of money is a step function of expenditures on the numeraire. This method of incorporating income effects is ideally suited for situations when exact income data is not available. Significant provider characteristics include wait time for treatment and wait time for laboratory results. Household willingness to pay (wtp) is estimated for increasing the number of providers and for providing more sites with blood testing capabilities. Wtp estimates vary significantly across households and allow one to assess how much different households would benefit or lose under different government proposals.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice about malaria: Socio-demographic implications for malaria control in rural Ghana.

PubMed

Assan, Abraham; Takian, Amirhossein; Hanafi-Bojd, Ahmad Ali; Rahimiforoushani, Abbas; Nematolahi, Shahrzad

2017-11-01

Despite continuing international attention to malaria prevention, the disease remains a global public health problem. We investigated socio-demographic factors influencing knowledge, attitudes, and practices about malaria in rural Ghana. Our survey looked at 354 households. Mean knowledge score was higher among individuals with a history of volunteers having visited their households to educate them about malaria; families with 4-6 members; and males. Households with at least one under-five-aged child also had significantly higher knowledge scores. Households with at least one pregnant woman evinced a positive attitude towards malaria prevention. National malaria control strategies have achieved positive results in the fight against malaria. Nonetheless, multipronged community-based health strategies that integrate malaria programs and population growth control initiatives may be able to reach by 2030 the sustainable development goal of eliminating malaria.

Household water chlorination reduces incidence of diarrhea among under-five children in rural Ethiopia: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

PubMed

Mengistie, Bezatu; Berhane, Yemane; Worku, Alemayehu

2013-01-01

Household water treatment has been advocated as a means of decreasing the burden of diarrheal diseases among young children in areas where piped and treated water is not available. However, its effect size, the target population that benefit from the intervention, and its acceptability especially in rural population is yet to be determined. The objective of the study was to assess the effectiveness of household water chlorination in reducing incidence of diarrhea among children under-five years of age. A cluster randomized community trial was conducted in 36 rural neighborhoods of Eastern Ethiopia. Households with at least one child under-five years of age were included in the study. The study compared diarrhea incidence among children who received sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach) for household water treatment and children who did not receive the water treatment. Generalized Estimation Equation model was used to compute adjusted incidence rate ratio and the corresponding 95% confidence interval. In this study, the incidence of diarrhea was 4.5 episodes/100 person week observations in the intervention arm compared to 10.4 episodes/100 person week observations in the control arm. A statistically significant reduction in incidence of diarrhea was observed in the intervention group compared to the control (Adjusted IRR = 0.42, 95% CI 0.36-0.48). Expanding access to household water chlorination can help to substantially reduce child morbidity and achieve millennium development goal until reliable access to safe water is achieved. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01376440.

Income-carbon footprint relationships for urban and rural households of Iskandar Malaysia

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Majid, M. R.; Moeinzadeh, S. N.; Tifwa, H. Y.

2014-02-01

Iskandar Malaysia has a vision to achieve sustainable development and a low carbon society status by decreasing the amount of CO2 emission as much as 60% by 2025. As the case is in other parts of the world, households are suspected to be a major source of carbon emission in Iskandar Malaysia. At the global level, 72% of greenhouse gas emission is a consequence of household activities, which is influenced by lifestyle. Income is the most important indicator of lifestyle and consequently may influence the amount of households' carbon footprint. The main objective of this paper is to illustrate the carbon-income relationships in Iskandar Malaysia's urban and rural areas. Data were gathered through a questionnaire survey of 420 households. The households were classified into six categories based on their residential area status. Both direct and indirect carbon footprints of respondents were calculated using a carbon footprint model. Direct carbon footprint includes domestic energy use, personal travel, flight and public transportation while indirect carbon footprint is the total secondary carbon emission measurement such as housing operations, transportation operations, food, clothes, education, cultural and recreational services. Analysis of the results shows a wide range of carbon footprint values and a significance correlation between income and carbon footprint. The carbon footprints vary in urban and rural areas, and also across different urban areas. These identified carbon footprint values can help the authority target its carbon reduction programs.

Does improved access to water supply by rural households enhance the concept of safe water at the point of use? A case study from deep rural South Africa.

PubMed

Jagals, P

2006-01-01

The concept of safe water is defined by three principles: the health-related quality must be suitable, the supply/source must be accessible and the water must constantly be available in quantities sufficient for the intended use. If any one (or more) of these three elements is missing from a water services improvement programme, providing safe water is not successfully achieved. A study in a deep rural area in South Africa showed that providing small communities, using untreated river water as their only water source, with good quality water through a piped distribution system and accessible at communal taps did not fall within our parameters of safe water. The parameters for measuring the three principles were: absence of Escherichia coli in drinking water samples; accessibility by improving tap distances to within 200 m from each household; availability by assessing whether households have at least 25 L per person per day. Results show that although E. coli levels were reduced significantly, households were still consuming water with E. coli numbers at non-compliant levels. Access (distance) was improved from an average of 750 m from households to river source to an average of 120 m to new on-tap source points. This did not result in significant increases in household quantities, which on average remained around 18 L per person per day.

A Cross Sectional Study of the Association between Sanitation Type and Fecal Contamination of the Household Environment in Rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Huda, Tarique Md Nurul; Schmidt, Wolf-Peter; Pickering, Amy J; Mahmud, Zahid Hayat; Islam, Mohammad Sirajul; Rahman, Md Sajjadur; Luby, Stephen P; Biran, Adam

2018-04-01

We conducted a cross sectional study to assess 1) the association between access to basic sanitation and fecal contamination of sentinel toy balls and 2) if other sanitation factors such as shared use and cleanliness are associated with fecal contamination of sentinel toy balls. We assessed sanitation facilities in 454 households with a child aged 6-24 months in rural Bangladesh. We defined "basic" sanitation as access to improved sanitation facilities (pit latrine with a slab or better) not shared with other households. In each household, an identical toy ball was given to the target child. After 24 hours, the balls were rinsed to enumerate fecal coliforms as an indicator of household fecal contamination. Households with basic sanitation had lower fecal coliform contamination than households with no access to basic sanitation (adjusted difference in means: -0.31 log 10 colony forming units [CFU]/toy ball; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.61, -0.01). Shared sanitation facilities of otherwise improved type were more likely to have visible feces on the latrine slab compared with private facilities. Among households with access to improved sanitation, households with no visible feces on the latrine slab had less toy ball contamination than households with visible feces on the latrine slab (adjusted difference in means: -0.38 log 10 CFU/toy ball; 95% CI: -0.77, 0.02). Access to basic sanitation may prevent fecal contamination of the household environment. An Improved sanitation facility used by an individual household may be better in preventing household fecal contamination compared with improved facilities shared with other households.

Hantavirus in Indian Country: The First Decade in Review

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Pottinger, Richard

2005-01-01

Hantavirus, caused due to close contact with mice in a dwelling, first emerged in the spring of 1993 on the Navajo Reservation and although it is by no means an Indian disease, there are four times as many cases of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) among non-Indians. Inadequate rural housing, especially common in western Indian Country,…

The changing character of household waste in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2009 as a function of home heating methods

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Doležalová, Markéta, E-mail: mdolezalova@email.cz; Benešová, Libuše; Závodská, Anita

2013-09-15

Highlights: • The character of household waste in the three different types of households were assesed. • The quantity, density and composition of household waste were determined. • The physicochemical characteristics were determined. • The changing character of household waste during past 10 years was described. • The potential of energy recovery of household waste in Czech republic was assesed. - Abstract: The authors of this paper report on the changing character of household waste, in the Czech Republic between 1999 and 2009 in households differentiated by their heating methods. The data presented are the result of two projects, financedmore » by the Czech Ministry of Environment, which were undertaken during this time period with the aim of focusing on the waste characterisation and complete analysis of the physicochemical properties of the household waste. In the Czech Republic, the composition of household waste varies significantly between different types of households based on the methods of home heating employed. For the purposes of these studies, the types of homes were divided into three categories – urban, mixed and rural. Some of the biggest differences were found in the quantities of certain subsample categories, especially fine residue (matter smaller than 20 mm), between urban households with central heating and rural households that primarily employ solid fuel such coal or wood. The use of these solid fuels increases the fraction of the finer categories because of the higher presence of ash. Heating values of the residual household waste from the three categories varied very significantly, ranging from 6.8 MJ/kg to 14.2 MJ/kg in 1999 and from 6.8 MJ/kg to 10.5 MJ/kg in 2009 depending on the type of household and season. The same factors affect moisture of residual household waste which varied from 23.2% to 33.3%. The chemical parameters also varied significantly, especially in the quantities of Tl, As, Cr, Zn, Fe and Mn, which were higher in rural households. Because knowledge about the properties of household waste, as well as its physicochemical characteristics, is very important not only for future waste management, but also for the prediction of the behaviour and influence of the waste on the environment as the country continues to streamline its legislation to the European Union’s solid waste mandates, the results of these studies were employed by the Czech Ministry of Environment to optimise the national waste management strategy.« less

Horse-Related Injuries among Agricultural Household Members: Regional Rural Injury Study II (RRIS-II)

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Erkal, Sibel; Gerberich, Susan G.; Ryan, Andrew D.; Alexander, Bruce H.; Renier, Colleen M.

2009-01-01

Purpose: To determine the incidence, associated consequences, and potential risk factors for horse-related injuries among youth and adults residing in Midwestern agricultural households. Methods: Demographic, injury, and exposure data were collected for 1999 and 2001 among randomly selected agricultural households within a 5-state region. A causal…

Uncontrolled burning of solid waste by households in Mexico is a significant contributor to climate change in the country.

PubMed

Reyna-Bensusan, Natalia; Wilson, David C; Smith, Stephen R

2018-05-01

Uncontrolled burning of municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important source of air pollution and is wide spread in many developing countries, but only limited data quantify the extent of domestic open burning of household waste. Here, we present some of the first field data to be reported on the uncontrolled domestic burning of waste. A representative community of Mexico (Huejutla de Reyes Municipality) was investigated and household surveys, interviews with waste operators and a waste characterisation analysis were completed to assess the extent of, and factors controlling, the open burning of waste. Waste collection provision to rural communities was very limited and, consequently 92% of households in rural areas reported that they disposed of waste by uncontrolled burning in backyards or unofficial dumps. Overall, 24% of the total MSW generated in the Municipality was disposed by uncontrolled burning. Urban and periurban areas received twice-weekly collections and the rate of uncontrolled burning was considerably smaller compared to rural households, corresponding to approximately 2% of total waste generation. Carbon equivalency calculations showed that burning waste in backyards represented approximately 6% of the total and 8.5% of fuel related CO 2 Eq emissions by the municipality. Moreover, the equivalent carbon dioxide (CO 2 Eq) from black carbon (BC) emitted by uncontrolled burning in backyards was over fifteen times larger compared to methane (CH 4 ) potentially released from equivalent amounts of combustible biodegradable waste disposal at the official dumpsite. An assessment of local respiratory health data showed the incidence of disease was higher in rural than in urban areas, when the opposite trend is typically observed in the international literature; given the high rate of burning activity found in rural areas we suggest that open burning of waste could be a major reason for the apparent poorer respiratory health status of the rural population and requires further investigation. The results emphasise the importance of including BC from uncontrolled burning of waste in international emission inventories of greenhouse gases and in the assessment of the health status of local communities in developing countries where this practice is prevalent. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Heterogeneities in the Ecoepidemiology of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection in Rural Communities of the Argentinean Chaco

PubMed Central

Cardinal, M. Victoria; Orozco, M. Marcela; Enriquez, Gustavo F.; Ceballos, Leonardo A.; Gaspe, María Sol; Alvarado-Otegui, Julián A.; Gurevitz, Juan M.; Kitron, Uriel; Gürtler, Ricardo E.

2014-01-01

We conducted a cross-sectional survey of Trypanosoma cruzi infection of Triatoma infestans as well as dogs and cats in 327 households from a well-defined rural area in northeastern Argentina to test whether the household distribution of infection differed between local ethnic groups (Tobas and Creoles) and identify risk factors for host infection. Overall prevalence of infection of bugs (27.2%; 95% confidence interval = 25.3–29.3%), dogs (26.0%; 95% confidence interval = 23.3–30.1%), and cats examined (28.7%; 95% confidence interval = 20.2–39.0%) was similar. A multimodel inference approach showed that infection in dogs was associated strongly with the intensity and duration of local exposure to infected bugs and moderately with household ethnic background. Overall, Toba households were at a substantially greater risk of infection than Creole households. The strong heterogeneities in the distribution of bug, dog, and cat infections at household, village, and ethnic group levels may be used for targeted vector and disease control. PMID:24732461

Out-of-pocket expenditures on traditional and Western medicine in Taiwan.

PubMed

Yen, Steven T; Chang, Hung-Hao; Lin, Tsui-Fang

2013-08-01

Coexistence of traditional and modern medicine is common in Asian countries. This paper investigates out-of-pocket expenditures on traditional medicine, traditional medical service, and Western medicine by households in Taiwan. Using a national sample of 13,765 households, the three expenditure equations are estimated with a censored system procedure. Effects of socio-demographic variables are explored by calculating marginal effects on probabilities and levels of medical expenses. Different types of medical expenditures are correlated. Households with higher income and more aging members use more traditional medicine than others, as do households in agricultural sector and in urban areas. In addition, households living in rural areas relative to those in the cities are more likely to use and also spend more on traditional service. Regional disparity of health care utilization is found. Higher income households spend more on traditional medicine, likely due to the fact that patients usually pay out-of-pocket for herbal materials needed in preparation of traditional medicine. To ensure equity in health care utilization, establishment of hospitals and clinics in rural areas should be considered.

The environmental impact of poverty: evidence from firewood collection in rural Nepal.

PubMed

Baland, Jean-Marie; Bardhan, Pranab; Das, Sanghamitra; Mookherjee, Dilip; Sarkar, Rinki

2010-01-01

We investigate determinants of household firewood collection in rural Nepal, using 1995-96 and 2002-3 World Bank Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) data. We incorporate village fixed effects, endogenous censoring, measurement error in living standards and heterogeneous effects of different household assets. We find no evidence in favor of the poverty-environment hypothesis. The evidence for the environmental Kuznets curve depends on the precise measure of living standards and time period studied. Firewood collections fall with a transition to modern occupations and rise with increasing population and household division. The local interhousehold collection externality is negligible, indicating that policy interventions are justified only by ecological considerations or nonlocal spillovers.

Social and Cultural Factors Affecting Maternal Health in Rural Gambia: An Exploratory Qualitative Study.

PubMed

Lowe, Mat; Chen, Duan-Rung; Huang, Song-Lih

The high rate of maternal mortality reported in The Gambia is influenced by many factors, such as difficulties in accessing quality healthcare and facilities. In addition, socio-cultural practices in rural areas may limit the resources available to pregnant women, resulting in adverse health consequences. The aim of this study is to depict the gender dynamics in a rural Gambian context by exploring the social and cultural factors affecting maternal health. Five focus group discussions that included 50 participants (aged 15-30 years, with at least one child) and six in-depth interviews with traditional birth attendants were conducted to explore perceptions of maternal health issues among rural women. The discussion was facilitated by guides focusing on issues such as how the women perceived their own physical health during pregnancy, difficulties in keeping themselves healthy, and health-related problems during pregnancy and delivery. The data resulting from the discussion was transcribed verbatim and investigated using a qualitative thematic analysis. In general, rural Gambian women did not enjoy privileges in their households when they were pregnant. The duties expected of them required pregnant women to endure heavy workloads, with limited opportunities for sick leave and almost nonexistent resources to access prenatal care. The division of labor between men and women in the household was such that women often engaged in non-remunerable field work with few economic resources, and their household duties during pregnancy were not alleviated by either their husbands or the other members of polygamous households. At the time of delivery, the decision to receive care by trained personnel was often beyond the women's control, resulting in birth-related complications. Our findings suggest that despite women's multiple roles in the household, their positions are quite unfavorable. The high maternal morbidity and mortality rate in The Gambia is related to practices associated with gender inequality.

Livelihood Cycle and Vulnerability of Rural Households to Climate Change and Hazards in Bangladesh.

PubMed

Alam, G M Monirul

2017-05-01

Rural riverine households in Bangladesh are confronted with many climate-driven hazards, including riverbank erosion, which results in loss of productive land and other natural resources of the riverine households, and thus threatens their livelihoods and food security. This study assesses the main drivers of vulnerability and livelihood cycle of vulnerable riparian households in Bangladesh. The study utilises the IPCC framework of vulnerability and develops a weighted approach by employing the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index. The results reveal that the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index differ across locations, however, a high index value for both measures indicates the households' high livelihood vulnerability to climate change and hazards. The main drivers that influence the vulnerability dimensions are livelihood strategies and access to food, water and health facilities. These hazard-prone households are also vulnerable due to their existing low livelihood status that leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. The findings of this study are crucial for policymakers to formulate and implement effective strategies and programs to minimise vulnerability and to enhance the local adaptation processes in order to improve such households' livelihood across Bangladesh.

Livelihood Cycle and Vulnerability of Rural Households to Climate Change and Hazards in Bangladesh

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Alam, G. M. Monirul

2017-05-01

Rural riverine households in Bangladesh are confronted with many climate-driven hazards, including riverbank erosion, which results in loss of productive land and other natural resources of the riverine households, and thus threatens their livelihoods and food security. This study assesses the main drivers of vulnerability and livelihood cycle of vulnerable riparian households in Bangladesh. The study utilises the IPCC framework of vulnerability and develops a weighted approach by employing the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index. The results reveal that the livelihood vulnerability index and the climate vulnerability index differ across locations, however, a high index value for both measures indicates the households' high livelihood vulnerability to climate change and hazards. The main drivers that influence the vulnerability dimensions are livelihood strategies and access to food, water and health facilities. These hazard-prone households are also vulnerable due to their existing low livelihood status that leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. The findings of this study are crucial for policymakers to formulate and implement effective strategies and programs to minimise vulnerability and to enhance the local adaptation processes in order to improve such households' livelihood across Bangladesh.

Demography of domestic dogs in rural and urban areas of the Coquimbo region of Chile and implications for disease transmission.

PubMed

Acosta-Jamett, G; Cleaveland, S; Cunningham, A A; Bronsvoort, B M Dec

2010-05-01

A cross-sectional household questionnaire survey was conducted along two transects (80 and 45km long) from Coquimbo and Ovalle cities to the Fray Jorge National Park (FJNP) in the Coquimbo region of Chile in 2005-2007 to investigate the demography of dogs in the context of a study of canine infectious diseases. Data were collected on the number of dogs per household, fecundity, mortality, and sex and age distribution. The results from 1021 households indicated that dog ownership was common, with a higher proportion of households owning dogs in rural areas (89%), than in towns (63%) or cities (49%). Dog density ranged from 1380+/-183 to 1509+/-972 dogs km(-2) in cities, from 119+/-18 to 1544+/-172 dogs km(-2) in towns, and from 1.0+/-0.4 to 15.9+/-0.4 dogs km(-2) in rural sites. The dog population was estimated to be growing at 20% in cities, 19% in towns and 9% in rural areas. The human:dog ratio ranged from 5.2 to 6.2 in cities, from 2.3 to 5.3 in towns, and from 1.1 to 2.1 in rural areas. A high percentage of owned dogs was always allowed to roam freely in the different areas (27%, 50% and 67% in cities, towns and rural areas, respectively). Observations of free-roaming dogs of unknown owner were reported from a greater proportion of respondents in cities (74%), followed by towns (51%) and finally by rural areas (21%). Overall only 3% of dogs had been castrated. In addition, only 29% of dogs were reported to have been vaccinated against canine distemper virus (CDV) and 30% against canine parvovirus (CPV). The higher population size and density, higher growth rate and a higher turnover of domestic dogs in urban than in rural areas and the poorly supervised and inadequately vaccinated dog populations in urban areas suggest that urban areas are more likely to provide suitable conditions for dogs to acts as reservoirs of pathogenic infections. Copyright 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Access to safe water in rural Artibonite, Haiti 16 months after the onset of the cholera epidemic.

PubMed

Patrick, Molly; Berendes, David; Murphy, Jennifer; Bertrand, Fabienne; Husain, Farah; Handzel, Thomas

2013-10-01

Haiti has the lowest improved water and sanitation coverage in the Western Hemisphere and is suffering from the largest cholera epidemic on record. In May of 2012, an assessment was conducted in rural areas of the Artibonite Department to describe the type and quality of water sources and determine knowledge, access, and use of household water treatment products to inform future programs. It was conducted after emergency response was scaled back but before longer-term water, sanitation, and hygiene activities were initiated. The household survey and source water quality analysis documented low access to safe water, with only 42.3% of households using an improved drinking water source. One-half (50.9%) of the improved water sources tested positive for Escherichia coli. Of households with water to test, 12.7% had positive chlorine residual. The assessment reinforces the identified need for major investments in safe water and sanitation infrastructure and the importance of household water treatment to improve access to safe water in the near term.

The development of insecticide-treated durable wall lining for malaria control: insights from rural and urban populations in Angola and Nigeria

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background Durable lining (DL) is a deltamethrin-impregnated polyethylene material, which is designed to cover domestic walls that would normally be sprayed with residual insecticide. The operational success of DL as a long-lasting insecticidal substrate will be dependent on a high level of user acceptability as households must maintain correctly installed linings on their walls for several years. Preliminary trials were undertaken to identify a material to develop into a marketable wall lining and to assess its level of acceptability among rural and urban populations. Methods In Angola (n=60), prototype DL and insecticide-treated plastic sheeting (ITPS) were installed on urban house walls and ceilings, respectively, and acceptability was compared to indoor residual spraying (IRS) (n=20) using a knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) questionnaire. In Nigeria (n=178), three materials (prototype DL, ITPS and insecticide-treated wall netting) were distributed among rural and urban households. User opinions were gathered from focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and KAP questionnaires. Results In Angola, after two weeks, the majority of participants (98%) expressed satisfaction with the products and identified the killing of insects as the materials’ principal benefits (73%). After one year, despite a loss of almost 50% of households to refugee repatriation, all 32 remaining households still asserted that they had liked the DL/ITPS in their homes and given the choice of intervention preferred DL/ITPS to IRS (94%) or insecticide-treated nets (78%). In Nigeria, a dichotomy between rural and urban respondents emerged. Rural participants favoured wall adornments and accepted wall linings because of their perceived decorative value and entomological efficacy. By contrast, urban households preferred minimal wall decoration and rejected the materials based upon objections to their aesthetics and installation feasibility. Conclusions The high level of acceptability among rural inhabitants in Nigeria identifies these communities as the ideal target consumer group for durable wall linings. The poorer compliance among urban participants suggests that wall linings would not be readily adopted or sustained in these regions. If DL is as well received by other rural populations it could overcome some of the logistical constraints associated with spray campaigns and has the potential to become a long-lasting alternative to IRS in malaria endemic areas. PMID:22989007

7 CFR 253.8 - Administrative disqualification procedures for intentional program violation.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-01-01

... (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE GENERAL REGULATIONS AND POLICIES-FOOD DISTRIBUTION ADMINISTRATION OF THE FOOD DISTRIBUTION PROGRAM FOR HOUSEHOLDS ON INDIAN RESERVATIONS § 253.8..., or withholds facts in order to obtain Food Distribution Program benefits which the household is not...

7 CFR 253.8 - Administrative disqualification procedures for intentional program violation.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-01-01

... (Continued) FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE GENERAL REGULATIONS AND POLICIES-FOOD DISTRIBUTION ADMINISTRATION OF THE FOOD DISTRIBUTION PROGRAM FOR HOUSEHOLDS ON INDIAN RESERVATIONS § 253.8..., or withholds facts in order to obtain Food Distribution Program benefits which the household is not...

Impact of Illness and Medical Expenditure on Household Consumptions: A Survey in Western China

PubMed Central

Fang, Kuangnan; Jiang, Yefei; Shia, BenChang; Ma, Shuangge

2012-01-01

Background The main goal of this study is to examine the associations between illness conditions and out-of-pocket medical expenditure with other types of household consumptions. In November and December of 2011, a survey was conducted in three cities in western China, namely Lan Zhou, Gui Lin and Xi An, and their surrounding rural areas. Results Information on demographics, income and consumption was collected on 2,899 households. Data analysis suggested that the presence of household members with chronic diseases was not associated with characteristics of households or household heads. The presence of inpatient treatments was significantly associated with the age of household head (p-value 0.03). The level of per capita medical expense was significantly associated with household size, presence of members younger than 18, older than 65, basic health insurance coverage, per capita income, and household head occupation. Adjusting for confounding effects, the presence of chronic diseases was negatively associated with the amount of basic consumption (p-value 0.02) and the percentage of basic consumption (p-value 0.01), but positively associated with the percentage of insurance expense (p-value 0.02). Medical expenditure was positively associated with all other types of consumptions, including basic, education, saving and investment, entertainment, insurance, durable goods, and alcohol/tobacco. It was negatively associated with the percentage of basic consumption, saving and investment, and insurance. Conclusions Early studies conducted in other Asian countries and rural China found negative associations between illness conditions and medical expenditure with other types of consumptions. This study was conducted in three major cities and surrounding areas in western China, which had not been well investigated in published literature. The observed consumption patterns were different from those in early studies, and the negative associations were not observed. This study may complement the existing rural studies and provide useful information on western Chinese cities. PMID:23285229

Factors associated with maternal healthcare services utilization in nine high focus states in India: a multilevel analysis based on 14 385 communities in 292 districts.

PubMed

Singh, Prashant Kumar; Kumar, Chandan; Rai, Rajesh Kumar; Singh, Lucky

2014-08-01

Studies have often ignored examining the role of community- and district-level factors in the utilization of maternity healthcare services, particularly in Indian contexts. The Social Determinants of Health framework emphasizes the role of governance and government policies, the measures for which are rarely incorporated in single-level individual analysis. This study examines factors associated with maternal healthcare utilization in nine high focus states in India, which shares more than half of the total maternal deaths in the country; accounting for individual-, household-, community- and district-level characteristics. The required data are extracted from the third round of the nationally representative District Level Household and Facility Survey conducted during 2007-08. Multilevel analyses were applied to three maternity outcomes, namely, four or more antenatal care visits, skilled birth attendance and post-natal care after birth. Results show that along with individual-/household-level factors, community and district-level factors influence the pattern of utilization of maternal healthcare services significantly. At the community level, the odds of maternal healthcare utilization were lower in rural areas and in communities with a high concentration of poor and illiterate women. Moreover, the average population coverage of primary health centres (PHCs), availability of labour room in PHC and percentage of registered pregnancies were significant factors at the district level that influenced the use of maternity care services. The study also found a strong association between the extent of previous use of maternal healthcare and its effect on subsequent usage patterns. This study highlights the role of strengthening public health infrastructure at district level in the study area, and promoting awareness about available healthcare services and subsidized schemes in the community. To reach out to rural and underprivileged communities and to apply a participatory approach from the programme officials are issues to delve into. Published by Oxford University Press in association with The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine © The Author 2013; all rights reserved.

Decomposing inequality in financial protection situation in Iran after implementing the health reform plan: What does the evidence show based on national survey of households' budget?

PubMed

Moradi, Tayebeh; Naghdi, Seyran; Brown, Heather; Ghiasvand, Hesam; Mobinizadeh, Mohammadreza

2018-03-24

Lack of well-designed healthcare financing mechanisms and high level of out-of-pocket payments in Iran over the last decades led to implementing Health Transformation Plan, in 2014. This study aims to decompose inequality in financial protection of Iranian households after the implementation of the Health Transformation Plan. The data of Statistical Center of Iran (SCI) Survey on Rural and Urban Households Income-Expenditure in 2015 to 2016 were used. The headcount ratio of catastrophic health expenditures was calculated. The corrected concentration index was estimated. The role of contributors on inequality in the exposure to catastrophic health expenditures among poor and nonpoor households was calculated using Farelie's model. The headcount ratio of the exposure to catastrophic health expenditures in urban and rural households was 4.58% and 5.65%, respectively. The difference in households' income levels was the main contributor in explaining the inequality in facing catastrophic health expenditures between poor and nonpoor households. Even after implementing the HTP, the headcount ratios of catastrophic health expenditure are still considerable. The results show that income is the greatest determinant of inequality in facing catastrophic health expenditure and in urban households. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Understanding enrolment in community health insurance in sub-Saharan Africa: a population-based case-control study in rural Burkina Faso.

PubMed Central

De Allegri, Manuela; Kouyaté, Bocar; Becher, Heiko; Gbangou, Adjima; Pokhrel, Subhash; Sanon, Mamadou; Sauerborn, Rainer

2006-01-01

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with decision to enrol in a community health insurance (CHI) scheme. METHODS: We conducted a population-based case-control study among 15 communities offered insurance in 2004 in rural Burkina Faso. For inclusion in the study, we selected all 154 enrolled (cases) and a random sample of 393 non-enrolled (controls) households. We used unconditional logistic regression (applying Huber-White correction to account for clustering at the community level) to explore the association between enrolment status and a set of household head, household and community characteristics. FINDINGS: Multivariate analysis revealed that enrolment in CHI was associated with Bwaba ethnicity, higher education, higher socioeconomic status, a negative perception of the adequacy of traditional care, a higher proportion of children living within the household, greater distance from the health facility, and a lower level of socioeconomic inequality within the community, but not with household health status or previous household health service utilization. CONCLUSION: Our study provides evidence that the decision to enrol in CHI is shaped by a combination of household head, household, and community factors. Policies aimed at enhancing enrolment ought to act at all three levels. On the basis of our findings, we discuss specific policy recommendations and highlight areas for further research. PMID:17143458

A quantitative analysis of household energy consumption in rural west Java: with particular emphasis on socio-economic influences

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Hadi, S.S.

1982-01-01

A survey was conducted to estimate per capita, per household, and total energy consumption by region, by level of development, and by fuel source in rural West Java. Socio-economic conditions were also measured by using parameters that included income, family size, husband education, wife education, biomass fuelstock, level of village development, and land size. These data are tabulated and used to develop a model that can predict probabilities of fuel use, consumption, and variety.

Household Food Security in the Rural South: Assuring Access to Enough Food for Healthy Lives.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Nord, Mark

2001-01-01

Food insecurity is more prevalent in the rural South than in metropolitan areas of the South and rural areas in other regions. This reflects the lower incomes and higher poverty rates in the rural South. On the other hand, the prevalence of poverty-linked hunger--the most severe range of food insecurity--is about the same in the rural South as in…

Household financial contribution to the health System in Shiraz, Iran in 2012.

PubMed

Kavosi, Zahra; Keshtkaran, Ali; Hayati, Ramin; Ravangard, Ramin; Khammarnia, Mohammad

2014-10-01

One common challenge to social systems is achieving equity in financial contributions and preventing financial loss. Because of the large and unpredictable nature of some costs, achieving this goal in the health system presents important and unique problems. The present study investigated the Household Financial Contributions (HFCs) to the health system. The study investigated 800 households in Shiraz. The study sample size was selected using stratified sampling and cluster sampling in the urban and rural regions, respectively. The data was collected using the household section of the World Health Survey (WHS) questionnaire. Catastrophic health expenditures were calculated based on the ability of the household to pay and the reasons for the catastrophic health expenditures by a household were specified using logistic regression. The results showed that the fairness financial contribution index was 0.6 and that 14.2% of households were faced with catastrophic health expenditures. Logistic regression analysis revealed that household economic status, the basic and supplementary insurance status of the head of the household, existence of individuals in the household who require chronic medical care, use of dental and hospital care, rural location of residences, frequency of use of outpatient services, and Out-of-Pocket (OOP) payment for physician visits were effective factors for determining the likelihood of experiencing catastrophic health expenditure. It appears that the current method of health financing in Iran does not adequately protect households against catastrophic health expenditure. Consequently, it is essential to reform healthcare financing.

Soil-Transmitted Helminth Eggs Are Present in Soil at Multiple Locations within Households in Rural Kenya.

PubMed

Steinbaum, Lauren; Njenga, Sammy M; Kihara, Jimmy; Boehm, Alexandria B; Davis, Jennifer; Null, Clair; Pickering, Amy J

2016-01-01

Almost one-quarter of the world's population is infected with soil-transmitted helminths (STH). We conducted a study to determine the prevalence and location of STH-Ascaris, Trichuris, and hookworm spp.-egg contamination in soil within rural household plots in Kenya. Field staff collected soil samples from July to September 2014 from the house entrance and the latrine entrance of households in Kakamega County; additional spatial sampling was conducted at a subset of households (N = 22 samples from 3 households). We analyzed soil samples using a modified version of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method for enumerating Ascaris in biosolids. We found 26.8% of households had one or more species of STH eggs present in the soil in at least one household location (n = 18 out of 67 households), and Ascaris was the most commonly detected STH (19.4%, n = 13 out of 67 households). Prevalence of STH eggs in soil was equally likely at the house entrance (19.4%, N = 67) as at the latrine entrance (11.3%, N = 62) (p = 0.41). We also detected STH eggs at bathing and food preparation areas in the three houses revisited for additional spatial sampling, indicating STH exposure can occur at multiple sites within a household plot, not just near the latrine. The highest concentration of eggs in one house occurred in the child's play area. Our findings suggest interventions to limit child exposure to household soil could complement other STH control strategies.

Migration and rural women in China: a look at the gendered impact of large-scale migration.

PubMed

Davin, D

1996-01-01

This preliminary study explored the impact on women of economic migration from rural to urban areas in China. Data were obtained from the 1990 census. The study focused on economic migration, which accounted for 29% of the reasons for moving. In some provinces such as Guangdong, economic reasons account for almost 60% of in-migrants. Interprovincial migration is primarily economic, followed by marriage, which varies widely by province. Migrants tend to assume occupations that are assigned by gender. Male migrants tend to outnumber female migrants, and women are left to farm. Where migration is gender balanced, the sex ratio in the sending area may be stable, but gender division within individual households is upset. Children may be tended by grandparents in rural areas, when their parents find work in cities. Migrants in urban areas do not have the same rights as permanent urban household registrants and cannot send their children to school or use free or low cost health care. Migrants keep in close contact with home villages. Urban migrants without permanent household registration status face the loss of welfare benefits in urban areas as well as the high cost of purchase of a permanent residence permit, social discrimination, stigma from mass media portrayals, and poor housing. Most rural-urban migration is circular. Female return migrants bring back cash remittances and new family roles and status. Rural migrants are exposed to new urban experiences that are retold in rural areas and that may pose difficulties in readjustment to the hardships of rural life. Urban fertility is delayed and lower than that of rural fertility.

Mexico: The Crisis of Identity.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ewen, Alexander

1994-01-01

Examines the place of Indian people in Mexican society and politics, from the conquest to the 1994 Zapatista uprising in Chiapas (fueled by the threat to rural indigenous communal lands posed by economic reforms). Although Indianness is celebrated as contributing to the idealized mestizo "race," self-identification as Indian threatens…

One Family, Two Households: Rural-Urban Kin Networks in Nairobi.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Weisner, Thomas S.

The document examines appropriate units for studying changes in familial relations and rural-urban ties, including the importance of the increasing interdependence of rural and urban contexts in family interaction. There have been two broadly contrasting approaches to the problems of urbanization and family change in Africa: (1)…

Satisfaction with Rural Services: The Policy Preferences of Leaders and Community Residents.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Molnar, Joseph J.; Smith, John P.

To examine ratings of satisfaction with selected community services in relation to spending preferences and to ascertain policy-relevant implications of citizen evaluations in planning and delivering rural services), a study focused on perceptions of community leaders and household respondents in eight rural Alabama counties. Research literature…

"Lesbian Migrants in the Gentrified Valley" and "Other" Geographies of Rural Gentrification

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Smith, Darren P.; Holt, Louise

2005-01-01

This paper explores the migration and cultural consumption practices of lesbian households within processes of rural change. Taking forward Phillips' (2004. Progress in Human Geography 28, 5-30) discussion of neglected geographies of rural gentrification, and building upon Halfacree's (2001. International Journal of Population Geography 7,…

Federal Child Nutrition Programs Are Important to Rural Households. Issue Brief No. 11

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wauchope, Barbara; Shattuck, Anne

2010-01-01

This brief, based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau, examines how rural families use four of the major federal child nutrition programs. It finds that 29 percent of rural families with children participate but that there are barriers to these nutrition programs, such as the lack of public transportation and high operating costs for rural schools…

Educational Outcomes across the Generational and Gender Divide: The Rural Family Habitus of Pakistani Families Living in Poverty

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Arnot, Madeleine; Naveed, Arif

2014-01-01

Education for all as a global agenda has particular repercussions for those living in rural poverty. By adopting a Bourdieusian framework to analyse interview data collected from fathers, mothers, sons and daughters in 10 rural Punjabi households, we expose the intersections of education, gender, poverty and rurality. The concept of a "rural…

A school-based supplementary food programme in rural Kenya did not reduce children's intake at home.

PubMed

Gewa, Constance A; Murphy, Suzanne P; Weiss, Robert E; Neumann, Charlotte G

2013-04-01

To examine changes in energy intake along with markers of dietary quality (animal-source energy and protein intakes) among household members in the presence of supplementary school feeding in rural Kenya. A 2-year, longitudinal, randomized controlled feeding intervention study. Kyeni South Division, Embu District, Kenya. A total of 182 schoolchildren and selected household members. There was no evidence that schoolchildren who received supplementary snacks at school experienced reduced intakes at home or that intakes by other family members were increased at the expense of the schoolchild's intake. This analysis highlights a number of factors useful in planning for supplementary feeding interventions in rural Kenya and similar communities.

Diffusion on social networks: Survey data from rural villages in central China.

PubMed

Xiong, Hang; Wang, Puqing; Zhu, Yueji

2016-06-01

Empirical studies on social diffusions are often restricted by the access to data of diffusion and social relations on the same objects. We present a set of first-hand data that we collected in ten rural villages in central China through household surveys. The dataset contains detailed and comprehensive data of the diffusion of an innovation, the major social relationships and the household level demographic characteristics in these villages. The data have been used to study peer effects in social diffusion using simulation models, "Peer Effects and Social Network: The Case of Rural Diffusion in Central China" [1]. They can also be used to estimate spatial econometric models. Data are supplied with this article.

Booming markets for Moroccan argan oil appear to benefit some rural households while threatening the endemic argan forest.

PubMed

Lybbert, Travis J; Aboudrare, Abdellah; Chaloud, Deborah; Magnan, Nicholas; Nash, Maliha

2011-08-23

Morocco's argan oil is now the most expensive edible oil in the world. High-value argan markets have sparked a bonanza of argan activity. Nongovernmental organizations, international and domestic development agencies, and argan oil cooperatives aggressively promote the win-win aim of simultaneously benefiting local people and the health of the argan forest. This paper tests some of these win-win claims. Analysis of a panel of detailed household data suggests that the boom has enabled some rural households to increase consumption, increase their goat herds (which bodes poorly for the argan forest), and send their girls to secondary school. The boom has predictably made households vigilant guardians of fruit on the tree, but it has not incited investments in longer term tree and forest health. We evaluate landscape-level impacts of these changes using commune-level data on educational enrollment and normalized difference vegetation index data over the period from 1981 to 2009. The results of the mesoanalysis of enrollment are consistent with the microanalysis: the argan boom seems to have improved educational outcomes, especially for girls. Our normalized difference vegetation index analysis, however, suggests that booming argan prices have not improved the forest and may have even induced degradation. We conclude by exploring the dynamic interactions between argan markets, local institutions, rural household welfare, and forest conservation and sustainability.

Cheaper fuel and higher health costs among the poor in rural Nepal.

PubMed

Pant, Krishna Prasad

2012-05-01

Biomass fuels are used by the majority of resource poor households in low-income countries. Though biomass fuels, such as dung-briquette and firewood are apparently cheaper than the modern fuels indoor pollution from burning biomass fuels incurs high health costs. But, the health costs of these conventional fuels, mostly being indirect, are poorly understood. To address this gap, this study develops probit regression models using survey data generated through interviews from households using either dung-briquette or biogas as the primary source of fuel for cooking. The study investigates factors affecting the use of dung-briquette, assesses its impact on human health, and estimates the associated household health costs. Analysis suggests significant effects of dung-briquette on asthma and eye diseases. Despite of the perception of it being a cheap fuel, the annual health cost per household due to burning dung-briquette (US$ 16.94) is 61.3% higher than the annual cost of biogas (US$ 10.38), an alternative cleaner fuel for rural households. For reducing the use of dung-briquette and its indirect health costs, the study recommends three interventions: (1) educate women and aboriginal people, in particular, and make them aware of the benefits of switching to biogas; (2) facilitate tree planting in communal as well as private lands; and (3) create rural employment and income generation opportunities.

Booming markets for Moroccan argan oil appear to benefit some rural households while threatening the endemic argan forest

PubMed Central

Lybbert, Travis J.; Aboudrare, Abdellah; Chaloud, Deborah; Magnan, Nicholas; Nash, Maliha

2011-01-01

Morocco's argan oil is now the most expensive edible oil in the world. High-value argan markets have sparked a bonanza of argan activity. Nongovernmental organizations, international and domestic development agencies, and argan oil cooperatives aggressively promote the win–win aim of simultaneously benefiting local people and the health of the argan forest. This paper tests some of these win–win claims. Analysis of a panel of detailed household data suggests that the boom has enabled some rural households to increase consumption, increase their goat herds (which bodes poorly for the argan forest), and send their girls to secondary school. The boom has predictably made households vigilant guardians of fruit on the tree, but it has not incited investments in longer term tree and forest health. We evaluate landscape-level impacts of these changes using commune-level data on educational enrollment and normalized difference vegetation index data over the period from 1981 to 2009. The results of the mesoanalysis of enrollment are consistent with the microanalysis: the argan boom seems to have improved educational outcomes, especially for girls. Our normalized difference vegetation index analysis, however, suggests that booming argan prices have not improved the forest and may have even induced degradation. We conclude by exploring the dynamic interactions between argan markets, local institutions, rural household welfare, and forest conservation and sustainability. PMID:21873185

Dying in their prime: determinants and space-time risk of adult mortality in rural South Africa

PubMed Central

Sartorius, Benn; Kahn, Kathleen; Collinson, Mark A.; Sartorius, Kurt; Tollman, Stephen M.

2013-01-01

A longitudinal dataset was used to investigate adult mortality in rural South Africa in order to determine location, trends, high impact determinants and policy implications. Adult (15-59 years) mortality data for the period 1993-2010 were extracted from the health and socio-demographic surveillance system (HDSS) in the rural sub-district of Agincourt. A Bayesian geostatistical frailty survival model was used to quantify significant associations between adult mortality and various multilevel (individual, household and community) variables. It was found that adult mortality significantly increased over time with a reduction observed late in the study period. Non-communicable disease mortality appeared to increase and decrease in parallel with communicable mortality, whilst deaths due to external causes remained constant. Male gender, unemployment, circular (labour) migrant status, age and gender of household heads, partner and/or other household death, low education and low household socioeconomic status (SES) were identified as significant and highly attributable determinants of adult mortality. Health facility remoteness was also a risk for adult mortality and households falling outside a critical buffering zone were identified. Spatial foci of higher adult mortality risk were observed indicating a strong non-random pattern. Communicable diseases differed from non-communicable diseases with respect to spatial distribution of mortality. Areas with significant excess mortality risk (hotspots) were found to be part of a complex interaction of highly attributable factors that continues to drive differential space-time risk patterns of communicable (HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis) mortality in Agincourt. The impact of HIV mortality and its subsequent lowering due to the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART) was found to be clearly evident in this rural population. PMID:23733287

The Disconnection of Physical Reconstruction and Living Mode Restoration amongst Resettled Rural Households: A Case Study on The 2008 Sichuan Earthquake Recovery Program, China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

He, L.; Aitchison, J. C.; Hussey, K.

2017-12-01

Population resettlement has been a customary strategy to protect people's lives following natural disasters. While there is plenty research evaluating the consequences of population resettlement programs, evidence of its long-term effects on post-disaster recovery is lacking. Using data from 60 in-depth household interviews, two focus group discussions and field observations, this research examines the recovery among resettled rural households in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake-impacted areas. Results suggest that most households considered themselves worse-off after being resettled, and a large proportion of the resettled population is struggling to meet their basic needs as their living expenses are barely covered by income. This research highlights two original findings: First, the resettled rural households have not recovered from impacts of the earthquake in spite of living in a secure place. Second, the unachieved restoration of familiar living mode amongst the resettled largely contributes to this perception, which is further attributed to the lagging restitution of agricultural assets and the absence of off-job opportunities at the resettled communities. Completing mature recovery is subject to the availability of these resources. Resettlement and reconstruction practice should not be isolated from the consideration of restoring previous livelihood assets and replenishing new income-generating activities. This enables restoration of a familiar living mode for the relocated population in which they are able to recover and develop with their own ability in post-disaster life. Findings in this research can be translated to recovery practice involving rural circumstances in disaster-prone areas. Future work will include the post-earthquake population resettlement programs in Nepal and New Zealand for a comparative study on the effects of these practices in different countries.

Dying in their prime: determinants and space-time risk of adult mortality in rural South Africa.

PubMed

Sartorius, Benn; Kahn, Kathleen; Collinson, Mark A; Sartorius, Kurt; Tollman, Stephen M

2013-05-01

A longitudinal dataset was used to investigate adult mortality in rural South Africa in order to determine location, trends, high impact determinants and policy implications. Adult (15-59 years) mortality data for the period 1993-2010 were extracted from the health and demographic surveillance system in the rural sub-district of Agincourt. A Bayesian geostatistical frailty survival model was used to quantify significant associations between adult mortality and various multilevel (individual, household and community) variables. It was found that adult mortality significantly increased over time with a reduction observed late in the study period. Non-communicable disease mortality appeared to increase and decrease in parallel with communicable mortality, whilst deaths due to external causes remained constant. Male gender, unemployment, circular (labour) migrant status, age and gender of household heads, partner and/or other household death, low education and low household socio-economic status were identified as significant and highly attributable determinants of adult mortality. Health facility remoteness was a risk for adult mortality and households falling outside a critical buffering zone were identified. Spatial foci of higher adult mortality risk were observed, indicating a strong non-random pattern. Communicable diseases differed from non-communicable diseases with respect to spatial distribution of mortality. Areas with significant excess mortality risk (hot spots) were found to be part of a complex interaction of highly attributable factors that continues to drive differential space-time risk patterns of communicable (HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis) mortality in Agincourt. The impact of HIV mortality and its subsequent lowering due to the introduction of antiretroviral therapy was found to be clearly evident in this rural population.

Iodine status in pregnancy and household salt iodine content in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Shamim, Abu Ahmed; Christian, Parul; Schulze, Kerry J; Ali, Hasmot; Kabir, Alamgir; Rashid, Mahbubur; Labrique, Alain; Salamatullah, Qauzi; West, Keith P

2012-04-01

Adequate maternal iodine intake is essential during pregnancy for the development of the foetus. To assess the extent of iodine insufficiency and its association with household iodized salt in rural Bangladesh, we measured urinary iodine and household salt iodine content among pregnant women in early (≤16 weeks, n = 1376) and late (≥32 weeks, n = 1114) pregnancy. Salt (∼20 g) and a spot urine sample (∼10 mL) were collected from women participating in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation in rural northwestern Bangladesh during home visits in early and late pregnancy. Salt iodine was analyzed by iodometric titration, and urinary iodine by the Ohashi method. Almost all salt samples had some detectable iodine, but over 75% contained <15 ppm. Median (interquartile range) urinary iodine concentrations were 66 (34-133) and 55 (28-110) µg L⁻¹ in early and late pregnancy, respectively; urinary iodine <150 µg L⁻¹ was found in ∼80% of women at both times in pregnancy. Although the risk of iodine insufficiency declined with increasing iodine content of household salt (P for trend <0.05), median urinary iodine did not reach 150 µg L⁻¹ until iodine in household salt was at least 32 ppm and 51 ppm during early and late pregnancy, respectively. Despite a national policy on universal salt iodization, salt iodine content remains insufficient to maintain adequate maternal iodine status throughout pregnancy in rural northern Bangladesh. Alternative measures like direct iodine supplementation during pregnancy could be considered to assure adequate iodine status during this high-risk period of life. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Distance from household to clinic and its association with the uptake of prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission regimens in rural Zambia

PubMed Central

Escamilla, Veronica; Chibwesha, Carla J.; Gartland, Matthew; Chintu, Namwinga; Mubiana-Mbewe, Mwangelwa; Musokotwane, Kebby; Musonda, Patrick; Miller, William C.; Stringer, Jeffrey S. A.; Chi, Benjamin H.

2016-01-01

Background In rural settings, HIV-infected pregnant women often live significant distances from facilities that provide prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services. Methods We implemented a pilot project to offer universal maternal combination antiretroviral regimens in 4 clinics in rural Zambia. To evaluate the impact of services, we conducted a household survey in communities surrounding each facility. We collected information about HIV status and antenatal service utilization from women who delivered in the past two years. Using household global positing systems coordinates collected in the survey, we measured Euclidean (i.e., straight line) distance between individual households and clinics. Multivariable logistic regression and predicted probabilities were used to determine associations between distance and uptake of any PMTCT regimen and combination antiretroviral regimens specifically. Results From March to December 2011, 390 HIV-infected mothers were surveyed across four communities. Of these, 254 (65%) had household geographical coordinates documented. 168 women reported use of a PMTCT regimen during pregnancy, including 102 who initiated a combination antiretroviral regimen. The probability of PMTCT regimen initiation was highest within 1.9 km of the facility and gradually declined. Overall, 103 of 145 (71%) who lived within 1.9 km of the facility initiated PMTCT, versus 65 of 109 (60%) who lived farther away. For every kilometer increase, the association with PMTCT regimen uptake (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 0.90, 95%CI: 0.82—0.99) and combination antiretroviral regimen uptake (AOR: 0.88, 95%CI: 0.80—0.97) decreased. Conclusions In this rural African setting, uptake of PMTCT regimens was influenced by distance to health facility. Program models that further decentralize care into remote communities are urgently needed. PMID:26470035

Childhood mortality among former Mozambican refugees and their hosts in rural South Africa.

PubMed

Hargreaves, James R; Collinson, Mark A; Kahn, Kathleen; Clark, Samuel J; Tollman, Stephen M

2004-12-01

It is important to monitor health differentials between population groups to understand how they are generated. Internationally displaced people represent one potentially disadvantaged group. We investigated differentials in mortality between children from former Mozambican refugee and host South African households in a rural sub-district in the north-east of South Africa. Open prospective cohort of 30 276 children (80 462 person years of follow-up) followed from 1 January 1992 to 31 October 2000 in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Exposure and outcomes data came from the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System (DSS). There was no difference in infant mortality between children from former Mozambican refugee households and those from South African homes (adjusted rate ratio [RR] = 1.02, 95% CI: 0.79, 1.32), but mortality levels were higher among former Mozambican refugee children during the next 4 years (adjusted RR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.50, 2.42). Increased mortality levels were also seen among children from larger households and whose mother died, while children born to mothers aged >40 years or with higher education were at lower risk. Measured maternal, household, and health service utilization characteristics could not explain the difference in mortality between children from former Mozambican refugee and South African households. Former Mozambican refugee children residing in refugee settlements had higher mortality rates than those residing in more established villages. This study demonstrates higher childhood, but not infant, mortality rates among children from former Mozambican refugee households compared with those from host South African households in rural South Africa. The lack of legal status and lower wealth of many former Mozambican refugees may partly explain this disparity.

Health Insurance Benefit Design and Healthcare Utilization in Northern Rural China

PubMed Central

Wang, Hong; Liu, Yu; Zhu, Yan; Xue, Lei; Dale, Martha; Sipsma, Heather; Bradley, Elizabeth

2012-01-01

Background Poverty due to illness has become a substantial social problem in rural China since the collapse of the rural Cooperative Medical System in the early 1980s. Although the Chinese government introduced the New Rural Cooperative Medical Schemes (NRCMS) in 2003, the associations between different health insurance benefit package designs and healthcare utilization remain largely unknown. Accordingly, we sought to examine the impact of health insurance benefit design on health care utilization. Methods and Findings We conducted a cross-sectional study using data from a household survey of 15,698 members of 4,209 randomly-selected households in 7 provinces, which were representative of the provinces along the north side of the Yellow River. Interviews were conducted face-to-face and in Mandarin. Our analytic sample included 9,762 respondents from 2,642 households. In each household, respondents indicated the type of health insurance benefit that the household had (coverage for inpatient care only or coverage for both inpatient and outpatient care) and the number of outpatient visits in the 30 days preceding the interview and the number of hospitalizations in the 365 days preceding the household interview. People who had both outpatient and inpatient coverage compared with inpatient coverage only had significantly more village-level outpatient visits, township-level outpatient visits, and total outpatient visits. Furthermore, the increased utilization of township and village-level outpatient care was experienced disproportionately by people who were poorer, whereas the increased inpatient utilization overall and at the county level was experienced disproportionately by people who were richer. Conclusion The evidence from this study indicates that the design of health insurance benefits is an important policy tool that can affect the health services utilization and socioeconomic equity in service use at different levels. Without careful design, health insurance may not benefit those who are most in need of financial protection from health services expenses. PMID:23185616

Health insurance benefit design and healthcare utilization in northern rural China.

PubMed

Wang, Hong; Liu, Yu; Zhu, Yan; Xue, Lei; Dale, Martha; Sipsma, Heather; Bradley, Elizabeth

2012-01-01

Poverty due to illness has become a substantial social problem in rural China since the collapse of the rural Cooperative Medical System in the early 1980s. Although the Chinese government introduced the New Rural Cooperative Medical Schemes (NRCMS) in 2003, the associations between different health insurance benefit package designs and healthcare utilization remain largely unknown. Accordingly, we sought to examine the impact of health insurance benefit design on health care utilization. We conducted a cross-sectional study using data from a household survey of 15,698 members of 4,209 randomly-selected households in 7 provinces, which were representative of the provinces along the north side of the Yellow River. Interviews were conducted face-to-face and in Mandarin. Our analytic sample included 9,762 respondents from 2,642 households. In each household, respondents indicated the type of health insurance benefit that the household had (coverage for inpatient care only or coverage for both inpatient and outpatient care) and the number of outpatient visits in the 30 days preceding the interview and the number of hospitalizations in the 365 days preceding the household interview. People who had both outpatient and inpatient coverage compared with inpatient coverage only had significantly more village-level outpatient visits, township-level outpatient visits, and total outpatient visits. Furthermore, the increased utilization of township and village-level outpatient care was experienced disproportionately by people who were poorer, whereas the increased inpatient utilization overall and at the county level was experienced disproportionately by people who were richer. The evidence from this study indicates that the design of health insurance benefits is an important policy tool that can affect the health services utilization and socioeconomic equity in service use at different levels. Without careful design, health insurance may not benefit those who are most in need of financial protection from health services expenses.

Empowerment, intimate partner violence and skilled birth attendance among women in rural Uganda.

PubMed

Kwagala, Betty; Nankinga, Olivia; Wandera, Stephen Ojiambo; Ndugga, Patricia; Kabagenyi, Allen

2016-05-04

There is limited research on how the empowerment of women and intimate partner violence (IPV) are associated with skilled birth attendance (SBA) among rural women in Uganda. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to investigate the association between women's empowerment, their experience of IPV and SBA in rural Uganda. Using data from the Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (UDHS), we selected 857 rural women who were in union, had given birth in the last 5 years preceding the survey and were selected for the domestic violence (DV) module. Frequency distributions were used to describe the background characteristics of the women and their partners. Pearson's chi-squared (χ (2)) tests were used to investigate the associations between SBA and women's empowerment; and partners' and women's socio-demographic factors including sexual violence. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to examine the association between SBA and explanatory variables. More than half (55 %) of the women delivered under the supervision of skilled birth attendant. Women's empowerment with respect to participation in household decision-making, property (land and house) (co)ownership, IPV, and sexual empowerment did not positively predict SBA among rural women in Uganda. Key predictors of SBA were household wealth status, partners' education, ANC attendance and parity. For enhancement of SBA in rural areas, there is a need to encourage a more comprehensive ANC attendance irrespective of number of children a woman has; and design interventions to enhance household wealth and promote men's education.

Household wealth, residential status and the incidence of diarrhoea among children under-five years in Ghana.

PubMed

Kumi-Kyereme, Akwasi; Amo-Adjei, Joshua

2016-09-01

This study examines the impact that the joint effect of household wealth quintile and urban-rural residence has on the incidence of diarrhoea among Ghanaian children. Data for this paper were drawn from the Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) of 2006. Descriptive and logistic regression was applied to analyse data on 3466 children. Rural residents are less likely, albeit insignificant, to report diarrhoea compared with those in urban areas. Significant wealth gradients are manifested in childhood experiences of diarrhoea. However, an interaction of wealth with residence does not show significant disparities. Controlling for other important covariates of childhood, the odds of diarrhoea incidence were significantly higher among: the rural poorer (OR=4.869; 95% CI=0.792, 29.94), the rural middle (OR=7.477; 95% CI=1.300, 42.99), the rural richer (OR=6.162; 95% CI=0.932, 40.74) and the rural richest (OR=6.152; 95% CI=0.458, 82.54). Apart from residential status and wealth quintile, female children (OR=0.441; 95% CI=0.304, 0.640), older children (OR=0.968; 95% CI=0.943, 0.993), having a mother with secondary and higher education (OR=0.313; 95% CI) had lesser odds of experiencing diarrhoea. The findings show that there is a need to apportion interventions intended to improve child health outcomes even beyond residential status and household wealth position. Copyright © 2015 Ministry of Health, Saudi Arabia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Status and determinants of small farming households' food security and role of market access in enhancing food security in rural Pakistan

PubMed Central

Ying, Liu; Bashir, Muhammad Khalid; Abid, Muhammad; Zulfiqar, Farhad

2017-01-01

In most of the developing countries, lack of resources and little market accessibility are among the major factors that affect small farming household food security. This study aims to investigate the status of small farming households’ food security, and its determinants including the role of market accessibility factors in enhancing food security at household level. In addition, this study also determines the households’ perception about different kinds of livelihoods risks. This study is based on a household survey of 576 households conducted through face-to-face interviews using structured interviews in Punjab, Pakistan. Food security status is calculated using dietary intake method. The study findings show that one-fourth of the households are food insecure. The study findings reveal that farm households perceive increase in food prices, crop diseases, lack of irrigation water and increase in health expenses as major livelihood risks. Further, the results of logistic regression show that family size, monthly income, food prices, health expenses and debt are main factors influencing the food security status of rural households. Furthermore, the market accessibility factors (road distance and transportation cost) do significantly affect the small farming household food security. The results suggest that local food security can be enhanced by creating off-farm employment opportunities, improved transportation facilities and road infrastructure. PMID:29077719

Rural and Urban Residence During Early Life is Associated with Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Population-Based Inception and Birth Cohort Study

PubMed Central

Benchimol, Eric I; Kaplan, Gilaad G; Otley, Anthony R; Nguyen, Geoffrey C; Underwood, Fox E; Guttmann, Astrid; Jones, Jennifer L; Potter, Beth K; Catley, Christina A; Nugent, Zoann J; Cui, Yunsong; Tanyingoh, Divine; Mojaverian, Nassim; Bitton, Alain; Carroll, Matthew W; deBruyn, Jennifer; Dummer, Trevor J B; El-Matary, Wael; Griffiths, Anne M; Jacobson, Kevan; Kuenzig, M Ellen; Leddin, Desmond; Lix, Lisa M; Mack, David R; Murthy, Sanjay K; Sánchez, Juan Nicolás Peña; Singh, Harminder; Targownik, Laura E; Vutcovici, Maria; Bernstein, Charles N

2017-01-01

Objectives: To determine the association between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and rural/urban household at the time of diagnosis, or within the first 5 years (y) of life. Methods: Population-based cohorts of residents of four Canadian provinces were created using health administrative data. Rural/urban status was derived from postal codes based on population density and distance to metropolitan areas. Validated algorithms identified all incident IBD cases from administrative data (Alberta: 1999–2008, Manitoba and Ontario: 1999–2010, and Nova Scotia: 2000–2008). We determined sex-standardized incidence (per 100,000 patient-years) and incident rate ratios (IRR) using Poisson regression. A birth cohort was created of children in whom full administrative data were available from birth (Alberta 1996–2010, Manitoba 1988–2010, and Ontario 1991–2010). IRR was calculated for residents who lived continuously in rural/urban households during each of the first 5 years of life. Results: There were 6,662 rural residents and 38,905 urban residents with IBD. Incidence of IBD per 100,000 was 33.16 (95% CI 27.24–39.08) in urban residents, and 30.72 (95% CI 23.81–37.64) in rural residents (IRR 0.90, 95% CI 0.81–0.99). The protective association was strongest in children <10 years (IRR 0.58, 95% CI 0.43–0.73) and 10–17.9 years (IRR 0.72, 95% CI 0.64–0.81). In the birth cohort, comprising 331 rural and 2,302 urban residents, rurality in the first 1–5 years of life was associated with lower risk of IBD (IRR 0.75–0.78). Conclusions: People living in rural households had lower risk of developing IBD. This association is strongest in young children and adolescents, and in children exposed to the rural environment early in life. PMID:28741616

Rural–Urban Differences in Objective and Subjective Measures of Physical Activity: Findings From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006

PubMed Central

Wen, Ming; Kowaleski-Jones, Lori

2014-01-01

Introduction Lower levels of physical activity among rural relative to urban residents have been suggested as an important contributor to rural–urban health disparity; however, empirical evidence is sparse. Methods We examined rural–urban differences in 4 objective physical activity measures (2 intensity thresholds by 2 bout lengths) and 4 subjective measures (total, leisure, household, and transportation) in a nationally representative sample of participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006. The sample comprised 5,056 adults aged 20 to 75 years. Rural-Urban Commuting Area (RUCA) codes were matched with NHANES subjects to identify urban status and 2 types of rural status. Rural–urban and within–rural differences in physical activity were estimated without and with controls for demographic and socioeconomic variables. Results Rural residents were less active than urban residents in high-intensity long bout (2,020 counts per minute threshold and 10 miniutes or longer bout length) accelerometer-measured physical activity (42.5 ± 6.2 min/wk vs 55.9 ± 2.8 min/wk) but the difference disappeared with a lower-intensity threshold (760 counts per minute). Rural residents reported more total physical activity than urban residents (438.3 ± 35.3min/wk vs 371.2 ± 12.5 min/wk), with differences primarily attributable to household physical activity. Within rural areas, micropolitan residents were less active than residents in smaller rural areas. Controlling for other variables reduced the size of the differences. Conclusion The direction and significance of rural–urban difference in physical activity varied by the method of physical activity measurement, likely related to rural residents spending more time in low-intensity household physical activity but less time in high-intensity physical activity. Micropolitan residents were substantially less active than residents in smaller rural areas, indicating that physical activity did not vary unidirectionally with degree of urbanization. PMID:25144676

Use of traditional eye medicine and self-medication in rural India: A population-based study.

PubMed

Gupta, Noopur; Vashist, Praveen; Tandon, Radhika; Gupta, Sanjeev K; Kalaivani, Mani; Dwivedi, S N

2017-01-01

To determine the type and nature of traditional eye medicine (TEM), their sources and use and practices related to self-medication for ophthalmic diseases in a rural Indian population. A population-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in 25 randomly selected clusters of Rural Gurgaon, Haryana, India as part of CORE (Cornea Opacity Rural Epidemiological) study. In addition to comprehensive ophthalmic examination, health-seeking behavior and use of self-medication and TEM was assessed in the adult population using a semi-structured questionnaire. Physical verification of available ophthalmic medications in the enumerated households was conducted by the study team. Descriptive statistics were computed along with multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine associated factors for use of self-medication and TEM. Of the 2160 participants interviewed, 396 (18.2%) reported using ophthalmic medications without consulting an ophthalmologist, mainly for symptoms like watering (37.1%), redness (27.7%), itching (19.2%) and infection (13.6%). On physical verification of available eye drops that were being used without prescription, 26.4% participants were practicing self-medication. Steroid, expired/unlabeled and indigenous eye drops were being used by 151(26.5%), 120(21.1%) and 75 (13.2%) participants respectively. Additionally, 25.7% (529) participants resorted to home remedies like 'kajal'(61.4%), honey (31.4%), ghee (11.7%) and rose water (9.1%). Use of TEM is prevalent in this population. The rampant use of steroid eye drops without prescription along with use of expired or unlabelled eye drops warrants greater emphasis on safe eye care practices in this population. Public awareness and regulatory legislations must be implemented to decrease harmful effects arising due to such practices.

Use of traditional eye medicine and self-medication in rural India: A population-based study

PubMed Central

Gupta, Noopur; Tandon, Radhika; Gupta, Sanjeev K.; Kalaivani, Mani; Dwivedi, S. N.

2017-01-01

Objective To determine the type and nature of traditional eye medicine (TEM), their sources and use and practices related to self-medication for ophthalmic diseases in a rural Indian population. Methods A population-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in 25 randomly selected clusters of Rural Gurgaon, Haryana, India as part of CORE (Cornea Opacity Rural Epidemiological) study. In addition to comprehensive ophthalmic examination, health-seeking behavior and use of self-medication and TEM was assessed in the adult population using a semi-structured questionnaire. Physical verification of available ophthalmic medications in the enumerated households was conducted by the study team. Descriptive statistics were computed along with multivariable logistic regression analysis to determine associated factors for use of self-medication and TEM. Results Of the 2160 participants interviewed, 396 (18.2%) reported using ophthalmic medications without consulting an ophthalmologist, mainly for symptoms like watering (37.1%), redness (27.7%), itching (19.2%) and infection (13.6%). On physical verification of available eye drops that were being used without prescription, 26.4% participants were practicing self-medication. Steroid, expired/unlabeled and indigenous eye drops were being used by 151(26.5%), 120(21.1%) and 75 (13.2%) participants respectively. Additionally, 25.7% (529) participants resorted to home remedies like ‘kajal’(61.4%), honey (31.4%), ghee (11.7%) and rose water (9.1%). Conclusion Use of TEM is prevalent in this population. The rampant use of steroid eye drops without prescription along with use of expired or unlabelled eye drops warrants greater emphasis on safe eye care practices in this population. Public awareness and regulatory legislations must be implemented to decrease harmful effects arising due to such practices. PMID:28829812

Real-Time Social Data Collection in Rural Bangladesh via a ‘Microtasks for Micropayments’ Platform on Android Smartphones

PubMed Central

Ward, Patrick S.; Killilea, Mary E.; Tamal, Md. Ehsanul Haque

2016-01-01

The advent of cheap smartphones in rural areas across the globe presents an opportunity to change the mode with which researchers engage hard-to-reach populations. In particular, smartphones allow researchers to connect with respondents more frequently than standard household surveys, opening a new window into important short-term variability in key measures of household and community wellbeing. In this paper, we present early results from a pilot study in rural Bangladesh using a ‘microtasks for micropayments’ model to collect a range of community and household living standards data using Android smartphones. We find that more frequent task repetition with shorter recall periods leads to more inclusive reporting, improved capture of intra-seasonal variability, and earlier signals of events such as illness. Payments in the form of mobile talk time and data provide a positive development externality in the form of expanded access to mobile internet and social networks. Taken to scale, programs such as this have potential to transform data collection in rural areas, providing near-real-time windows into the development of markets, the spread of illnesses, or the diffusion of ideas and innovations. PMID:27832116

Economic and social impact of out-of-pocket expenditure on households of patients attending public hospitals.

PubMed

Bajpai, Vikas; Singh, Namrata; Sardana, Hardik; Kumari, Sanjana; Vettiyil, Beth; Saraya, Anoop

2017-01-01

We aimed to generate evidence on the social and economic impact of out-of-pocket expenses incurred by households on illness. We did a hospital-based cross-sectional study including a convenience sample of 374 inpatients and outpatients. The median illness expenditure was the same (₹62 500) for inpatients and outpatients. Of all respondents, 51.3% among the rural and 65.5% among the urban patients were employed before illness, but after illness only 24.4% among the rural and 23.4% among the urban patients remained in employment. The proportion of rural households of different socioeconomic categories that experienced decrease in expenditure on food, education and health, and those who had to sell land or cattle, and the education of whose children suffered was statistically significant. The proportion of indebted families in different socioeconomic classes was also statistically significant among both rural and urban patients. The lowest socioeconomic strata depended mostly upon the financial support of their friends to tide over the financial crisis of an illness. Our study shows that out-of-pocket expenses on healthcare are a burden not only for the poor but also the middle classes.

Real-Time Social Data Collection in Rural Bangladesh via a 'Microtasks for Micropayments' Platform on Android Smartphones.

PubMed

Bell, Andrew Reid; Ward, Patrick S; Killilea, Mary E; Tamal, Md Ehsanul Haque

2016-01-01

The advent of cheap smartphones in rural areas across the globe presents an opportunity to change the mode with which researchers engage hard-to-reach populations. In particular, smartphones allow researchers to connect with respondents more frequently than standard household surveys, opening a new window into important short-term variability in key measures of household and community wellbeing. In this paper, we present early results from a pilot study in rural Bangladesh using a 'microtasks for micropayments' model to collect a range of community and household living standards data using Android smartphones. We find that more frequent task repetition with shorter recall periods leads to more inclusive reporting, improved capture of intra-seasonal variability, and earlier signals of events such as illness. Payments in the form of mobile talk time and data provide a positive development externality in the form of expanded access to mobile internet and social networks. Taken to scale, programs such as this have potential to transform data collection in rural areas, providing near-real-time windows into the development of markets, the spread of illnesses, or the diffusion of ideas and innovations.

Rural food security, subsistence agriculture, and seasonality.

PubMed

Sibhatu, Kibrom T; Qaim, Matin

2017-01-01

Many of the world's food-insecure and undernourished people are smallholder farmers in developing countries. This is especially true in Africa. There is an urgent need to make smallholder agriculture and food systems more nutrition-sensitive. African farm households are known to consume a sizeable part of what they produce at home. Less is known about how much subsistence agriculture actually contributes to household diets, and how this contribution changes seasonally. We use representative data from rural Ethiopia covering every month of one full year to address this knowledge gap. On average, subsistence production accounts for 58% of rural households' calorie consumption, that is, 42% of the calories consumed are from purchased foods. Some seasonal variation occurs. During the lean season, purchased foods account for more than half of all calories consumed. But even during the main harvest and post-harvest season, purchased foods contribute more than one-third to total calorie consumption. Markets are even more important for dietary quality. During all seasons, purchased foods play a much larger role for dietary diversity than subsistence production. These findings suggest that strengthening rural markets needs to be a key element in strategies to improve food security and dietary quality in the African small-farm sector.

How can a computer be useful to you? A feasibility study to elicit perceptions of computers in rural India.

PubMed

Bhavnani, Suresh K; Chavan, Apala L; Jain, Isha; Maroo, Sudhanshoo

2011-01-01

The growing influx of information and communication technologies (ICTs) into rural India provides new opportunities for the prevention and treatment of diseases across millions of residents. However, little is known about how rural Indians with little or no exposure to computers perceive computers and their uses, and how best to elicit those perceptions. Such perceptions could lead to new insights for using ICTs to affect health behavior change in developing countries. We therefore developed a semi-structured interview approach to probe how residents of a north Indian village perceived computers and their uses. The results suggest that besides helping to overturn several assumptions of the researchers through unexpected insights, the approach could be easily implemented in rural settings, which could lead to deeper insights for developing future culturally and medically-relevant ICTs for rural residents.

How Can a Computer be Useful to You? A Feasibility Study to Elicit Perceptions of Computers in Rural India

PubMed Central

Bhavnani, Suresh K.; Chavan, Apala L.; Jain, Isha; Maroo, Sudhanshoo

2011-01-01

The growing influx of information and communication technologies (ICTs) into rural India provides new opportunities for the prevention and treatment of diseases across millions of residents. However, little is known about how rural Indians with little or no exposure to computers perceive computers and their uses, and how best to elicit those perceptions. Such perceptions could lead to new insights for using ICTs to affect health behavior change in developing countries. We therefore developed a semi-structured interview approach to probe how residents of a north Indian village perceived computers and their uses. The results suggest that besides helping to overturn several assumptions of the researchers through unexpected insights, the approach could be easily implemented in rural settings, which could lead to deeper insights for developing future culturally and medically-relevant ICTs for rural residents. PMID:22195062

Does Household Income Matter for Children's Schooling? Evidence for Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Grimm, Michael

2011-01-01

Household income has been shown to matter for children's school enrolment, in particular in settings where households face tight liquidity constraints caused by the lack of insurance and limited possibilities to smooth consumption through credit and savings. However, so far only few studies have made an effort to quantify the income elasticity of…

Air pollution from household solid fuel combustion in India: an overview of exposure and health related information to inform health research priorities.

PubMed

Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Ramaswamy, Padmavathi; Sambandam, Sankar; Thangavel, Gurusamy; Ghosh, Santu; Johnson, Priscilla; Mukhopadhyay, Krishnendu; Venugopal, Vidhya; Thanasekaraan, Vijayalakshmi

2011-01-01

Environmental and occupational risk factors contribute to nearly 40% of the national burden of disease in India, with air pollution in the indoor and outdoor environment ranking amongst leading risk factors. It is now recognized that the health burden from air pollution exposures that primarily occur in the rural indoors, from pollutants released during the incomplete combustion of solid fuels in households, may rival or even exceed the burden attributable to urban outdoor exposures. Few environmental epidemiological efforts have been devoted to this setting, however. We provide an overview of important available information on exposures and health effects related to household solid fuel use in India, with a view to inform health research priorities for household air pollution and facilitate being able to address air pollution within an integrated rural-urban framework in the future.

Economic consequences of maternal illness in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Powell-Jackson, Timothy; Hoque, Mohammad Enamul

2012-07-01

We use panel data on household consumption combined with information taken from the medical records of women who gave birth in health facilities to explore the economic consequences of maternal ill health, in the context of a rural population in Bangladesh. The findings suggest that there is a large reduction in household resources associated with maternal illness, driven almost entirely by spending on health care. In spite of this loss of resources, we find that households are able to fully insure consumption against maternal ill health, although confidence intervals are unable to rule out a small effect. Households in our study area are shown to have good access to informal credit (whether it be from local money lenders or family relatives), and this appears critical in helping to smooth consumption in response to these health shocks, at least in the short term. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Barriers to timely diagnosis and treatment for children with hearing impairment in a southern Indian city: a qualitative study of parents and clinic staff.

PubMed

Merugumala, Sri Vamshi; Pothula, Vijay; Cooper, Max

2017-10-01

In low income countries, deaf children are identified late due to the absence of a universal screening. Hearing impairment is a common yet neglected disability in India that leads to loss of speech and language. This qualitative study explored barriers to accessing appropriate hearing services in one city in southern India. To identify the barriers in timely management of deafness, 25 semi-structured interviews were conducted. Data were examined using Applied Thematic Analysis. Seventeen mothers of deaf children, primarily from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and eight staff members at a charitable hearing centre in Hyderabad. Barriers to accessing hearing services included failure to recognise deafness, the dominant role of elders in household decisions, belief that deafness would resolve, reassurance from a child's overall good health, lack of funds and transportation barriers to reach the centre particularly from rural areas. Parents frequently learned about services through word of mouth. The challenges to accessing appropriate services for deafness operate prior to presentation and include educational, cultural, navigational and financial barriers especially for those of lower socioeconomic status and residents of rural areas. The findings highlighted the need to raise awareness and implement wider screening programmes for early interventions.

HIV/AIDS and time allocation in rural Malawi

PubMed Central

Bignami-Van Assche, Simona; Van Assche, Ari; Anglewicz, Philip; Fleming, Peter; van de Ruit, Catherine

2012-01-01

AIDS-related morbidity and mortality are expected to have a large economic impact in rural Malawi, because they reduce the time that adults can spend on production for subsistence and on income-generating activities. However, households may compensate for production losses by reallocating tasks among household members. The data demands for measuring these effects are high, limiting the amount of empirical evidence. In this paper, we utilize a unique combination of qualitative and quantitative data, including biomarkers for HIV, collected by the 2004 Malawi Diffusion and Ideational Change Project, to analyze the association between AIDS-related morbidity and mortality, and time allocation decisions in rural Malawian households. We find that AIDS-related morbidity and mortality have important economic effects on women’s time, whereas men’s time is unresponsive to the same shocks. Most notably, AIDS is shown to induce diversification of income sources, with women (but not men) reallocating their time, generally from work-intensive (typically farming and heavy chores) to cash-generating tasks (such as casual labor). PMID:22639544

Gender Based Within-Household Inequality in Childhood Immunization in India: Changes over Time and across Regions

PubMed Central

Singh, Ashish

2012-01-01

Background and Objectives Despite India's substantial economic growth in the past two decades, girls in India are discriminated against in access to preventive healthcare including immunizations. Surprisingly, no study has assessed the contribution of gender based within-household discrimination to the overall inequality in immunization status of Indian children. This study therefore has two objectives: to estimate the gender based within-household inequality (GWHI) in immunization status of Indian children and to examine the inter-regional and inter-temporal variations in the GWHI. Data and Methods The present study used households with a pair of male-female siblings (aged 1–5 years) from two rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS, 1992–93 and 2005–06). The overall inequality in the immunization status (after controlling for age and birth order) of children was decomposed into within-households and between-households components using Mean log deviation to obtain the GWHI component. The analysis was conducted at the all-India level as well as for six specified geographical regions and at two time points (1992–93 and 2005–06). Household fixed-effects models for immunization status of children were also estimated. Results and Conclusions Findings from household fixed effects analysis indicated that the immunization scores of girls were significantly lower than that of boys. The inequality decompositions revealed that, at the all-India level, the absolute level of GWHI in immunization status decreased from 0.035 in 1992–93 to 0.023 in 2005–06. However, as a percentage of total inequality, it increased marginally (15.5% to 16.5%). In absolute terms, GWHI decreased in all the regions except in the North-East. But, as a percentage of total inequality it increased in the North-Eastern, Western and Southern regions. The main conclusions are the following: GWHI contributes substantially to the overall inequality in immunization status of Indian children; and though the overall inequality in immunization status declined in all the regions, the changes in GWHI were mixed. PMID:22509379

More Money for Telecommunications, Other Programs.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Brown, Dennis

2000-01-01

Describes increases in federal aid that affect: (1) the rural telecommunications infrastructure, access to the Internet for rural schools and libraries, and distance learning and telemedicine programs; (2) nonmetropolitan airports and other transportation; and (3) water treatment and wastewater facilities in rural, American Indian, and Alaska…

The Household Health Spending and Impoverishment: Findings from the Households Survey in Shiraz, Iran.

PubMed

Khammarnia, M; Keshtkaran, A; Kavosi, Z; Hayati, R

2014-08-01

The present study aimed to investigate the households' impoverishment due to the healthcare costs in Shiraz in 2012. In this household's survey, 800 households were studied in Shiraz. The study sample was selected using stratified and cluster sampling in the urban and rural areas, respectively. The information was collected using the household section of the World Health Survey questionnaire. In order to determine impoverishment due to health spending, at first, the households' food-based poverty line (subsistence expenditure) was measured. Then, households' health expenditure was subtracted from their total expenditure and if the obtained value was lower than the households' food-based poverty line, the households was considered to be impoverished due to health expenditures. The collected data were entered into the SPSS (version 16) statistical software and analyzed using descriptive statistic, Chi-square test, and logistic regression in backward method. The study results showed that 7.1% of the households (CI: 0.071 ± 0.018) were impoverished because of healthcare expenditures. Besides, the households in the first quintile were more likely to be faced with poverty compared to those in the other quintiles (p < 0.05). Being covered by health insurance did not affect the protection from poverty due to health costs. Moreover, the participants living in rural areas were faced with poverty more than those living in urban areas (p < 0.05). It seems that health expenditure can be an economic shock for household in Shiraz and through spending on health a household may fall into poverty. As insurance had no effect on impoverishment, it implies that change in health insurance plans and ways of health financing is necessary.

Gender-Based Violence in India: Long-Term Trends

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Simister, John; Mehta, Parnika S.

2010-01-01

This article examines long-term trends in Indian society regarding domestic violence between husband and wife, and attitudes to such violence. This article analyzes crime data and uses data from several Indian household surveys: "Work Attitudes and Spending" surveys (1992 to 2007); "World Values Survey" (1990, 1995, 2001, and…

25 CFR 26.18 - What kinds of supportive services are available?

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-04-01

... Section 26.18 Indians BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HUMAN SERVICES JOB PLACEMENT... description of the Job Placement and Training Program and related services; (c) An assessment of eligibility... union dues; (k) Transportation of household effects; (l) Security and safety deposits; (m) Items to...

Urban and rural differences in risk of admission to a care home: a census-based follow-up study.

PubMed

McCann, Mark; Grundy, Emily; O'Reilly, Dermot

2014-11-01

Research on admissions to care homes for older people has paid more attention to individual and social characteristics than to geographical factors. This paper considers rural-urban differences in household composition and admission rates. 51,619 people aged 65 years or older at the time of the 2001 Census and not living in a care home, drawn from a data linkage study based on c.28% of the Northern Ireland population. Living alone was less common in rural areas; 25% of older people in rural areas lived with children compared to 18% in urban areas. Care home admission was more common in urban (4.7%) and intermediate (4.3%) areas than in rural areas (3.2%). Even after adjusting for age, sex, health and living arrangements, the rate of care home admission in rural areas was still only 75% of that in urban areas. People in rural areas experience better family support by living as part of two or three generation households. Even after accounting for this difference, older rural dwellers are less likely to enter care homes; suggesting that neighbours and relatives in rural areas provide more informal care; or that there may be differential deployment of formal home care services. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Household food security and infant feeding practices in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Owais, Aatekah; Kleinbaum, David G; Suchdev, Parminder S; Faruque, Asg; Das, Sumon K; Schwartz, Benjamin; Stein, Aryeh D

2016-07-01

To determine the association between household food security and infant complementary feeding practices in rural Bangladesh. Prospective, cohort study using structured home interviews during pregnancy and 3 and 9 months after delivery. We used two indicators of household food security at 3-months' follow-up: maternal Food Composition Score (FCS), calculated via the World Food Programme method, and an HHFS index created from an eleven-item food security questionnaire. Infant feeding practices were characterized using WHO definitions. Two rural sub-districts of Kishoreganj, Bangladesh. Mother-child dyads (n 2073) who completed the 9-months' follow-up. Complementary feeding was initiated at age ≤4 months for 7 %, at 5-6 months for 49 % and at ≥7 months for 44 % of infants. Based on 24 h dietary recall, 98 % of infants were still breast-feeding at age 9 months, and 16 % received ≥4 food groups and ≥4 meals (minimally acceptable diet) in addition to breast milk. Mothers' diet was more diverse than infants'. The odds of receiving a minimally acceptable diet for infants living in most food-secure households were three times those for infants living in least food-secure households (adjusted OR=3·0; 95 % CI 2·1, 4·3). Socio-economic status, maternal age, literacy, parity and infant sex were not associated with infant diet. HHFS and maternal FCS were significant predictors of subsequent infant feeding practices. Nevertheless, even the more food-secure households had poor infant diet. Interventions aimed at improving infant nutritional status need to focus on both complementary food provision and education.

Cash and in-kind transfers in poor rural communities in Mexico increase household fruit, vegetable, and micronutrient consumption but also lead to excess energy consumption.

PubMed

Leroy, Jef L; Gadsden, Paola; Rodríguez-Ramírez, Sonia; de Cossío, Teresa González

2010-03-01

Conditional transfer programs are increasingly popular, but the impact on household nutrient consumption has not been studied. We evaluated the impact of the Programa de Apoyo Alimentario (PAL), a cash and in-kind transfer program, on the energy and nutrient consumption of poor rural households in Mexico. The program has been shown to reduce poverty. Beneficiary households received either a food basket (including micronutrient-fortified milk) or cash. A random sample of 206 rural communities in Southern Mexico was randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: a monthly food basket with or without health and nutrition education, a cash transfer with a cost to the government equivalent to the food basket (14 USD/mo) with education, or control. The impact after 14 mo of exposure was estimated in a panel of 5823 households using a double difference regression model with household fixed effects. PAL was associated with increases (P < 0.01) in the consumption of total energy (5-9%), energy from fruits and vegetables (24-28%), and energy from animal source foods (24-39%). It also affected iron, zinc, and vitamin A and C consumption (P < 0.05). The consumption of energy and all nutrients was greater in the food basket group (P < 0.05). Cash and in-kind transfers in populations that are not energy-deficient should be carefully redesigned to ensure that pulling poor families out of poverty leads to improved micronutrient intake but not to increased energy consumption.

Mother and Grandmother Parenting in Low-Income Three-Generation Rural Households

PubMed Central

Barnett, Melissa A.

2009-01-01

This study draws data from the Family Life Project to examine parenting behaviors observed for 105 mothers and grandmothers raising an infant in rural low-income multigenerational households. Multilevel models are used to examine the relationships between maternal age and psychological distress and parenting of the infant by both generations. The findings indicate that young maternal age is a risk factor for less sensitive parenting in the presence of other risks, including psychological distress. Further, young maternal age is associated with negative parenting behaviors by grandmothers only. Grandmothers and mothers displayed similar levels of negative intrusive parenting, but different factors were linked to the observed parenting of each generation. These findings contribute to understanding the benefits and risks of three-generation households. PMID:19946461

Small scale water treatment practice and associated factors at Burie Zuria Woreda Rural Households, Northwest Ethiopia, 2015: cross sectional study.

PubMed

Belay, Hailegebriel; Dagnew, Zewdu; Abebe, Nurilign

2016-08-26

Consuming unsafe water results in infections that lead to illness or death from water borne diseases. Though there is an increasing effort from Ethiopian government to access safe water still there are households with limited access of safe water as a result, they depend on rain, well and spring water source for domestic use. However, the water treatment practice with the available technology is not studied before in the study area. This study was conducted in rural area where there was no improved water source for domestic consumption. Households' access water from rain, spring, river and well water which need some ways of action to make water safe for the intended utilization termed as treatment. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess magnitude of small scale water treatment practices and associated factors at household level in Burie zuria woreda, North West Ethiopia, 2015. Community based cross-sectional study design with multi-stage sampling technique was used to evaluate water treatment practice and associated factors among rural households in Burie Zuria Woreda. A total of 797 households included in the study. Completeness of questionnaires were checked daily and data were coded and entered into Epi-Data and transported to SPSS version 16 software package for further analysis. Binary and multivariable logistic regression models fit to identify associated factors at 95 % CI and P-value <0.05. A total of 797 out of 846 participants responded to a questionnaire with a response rate of 94.2 %. The mean age of respondents was 44.9(SD ±10.7) years. Among the total study participants, 357(44.8 %) of them were practicing small scale water treatment at household level. Methods of water treatment at household level were; chlorine, boiling and let stand and settle. Associated factors were female headed households practice water treatment than male headed households (AOR = 1.80, 95 % CI = 1.24-2.62), educational status of being literate was associated with water treatment than illiterates (AOR = 2.07, 95 % CI = 1.51-2.83), dipping of water was associated with water treatment practice than pouring from the water collection jar (AOR = 4.11, 95 % CI = 2.89-5.85) and those households more frequently fetch water were practicing water treatment than those fetch less frequently (AOR = 4.90, 95 % CI = 2.92-8.22) and (AOR = 3.76, 95 % CI = 1.97-7.18) respectively were found to be significantly associated with small scale water treatment practice at household level. Small scale water treatment at household level is still low in the study area. Females headed households, educated people, dipping from the jar and those who fetch water more than twice a day were significant factors for water treatment. Therefore females' practice should be maintained and scale up for male headed households. Those with no primary education need special emphasis to educate them on the importance of water treatment. Encourage education through non formal mechanisms for rural people are also recommended.

The High Cost of Free Tuberculosis Services: Patient and Household Costs Associated with Tuberculosis Care in Ebonyi State, Nigeria

PubMed Central

Ukwaja, Kingsley N.; Alobu, Isaac; lgwenyi, Chika; Hopewell, Philip C.

2013-01-01

Objective Poverty is both a cause and consequence of tuberculosis. The objective of this study is to quantify patient/household costs for an episode of tuberculosis (TB), its relationships with household impoverishment, and the strategies used to cope with the costs by TB patients in a resource-limited high TB/HIV setting. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in three rural hospitals in southeast Nigeria. Consecutive adults with newly diagnosed pulmonary TB were interviewed to determine the costs each incurred in their care-seeking pathway using a standardised questionnaire. We defined direct costs as out-of-pocket payments, and indirect costs as lost income. Results Of 452 patients enrolled, majority were male 55% (249), and rural residents 79% (356), with a mean age of 34 (±11.6) years. Median direct pre-diagnosis/diagnosis cost was $49 per patient. Median direct treatment cost was $36 per patient. Indirect pre-diagnostic and treatment costs were $416, or 79% of total patient costs, $528. The median total cost of TB care per household was $592; corresponding to 37% of median annual household income pre-TB. Most patients reported having to borrow money 212(47%), sell assets 42(9%), or both 144(32%) to cope with the cost of care. Following an episode of TB, household income reduced increasing the proportion of households classified as poor from 54% to 79%. Before TB illness, independent predictors of household poverty were; rural residence (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.8), HIV-positive status (aOR 4.8), and care-seeking at a private facility (aOR 5.1). After TB care, independent determinants of household poverty were; younger age (≤35 years; aOR 2.4), male gender (aOR 2.1), and HIV-positive status (aOR 2.5). Conclusion Patient and household costs for TB care are potentially catastrophic even where services are provided free-of-charge. There is an urgent need to implement strategies for TB care that are affordable for the poor. PMID:24015293

The high cost of free tuberculosis services: patient and household costs associated with tuberculosis care in Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

PubMed

Ukwaja, Kingsley N; Alobu, Isaac; Lgwenyi, Chika; Hopewell, Philip C

2013-01-01

Poverty is both a cause and consequence of tuberculosis. The objective of this study is to quantify patient/household costs for an episode of tuberculosis (TB), its relationships with household impoverishment, and the strategies used to cope with the costs by TB patients in a resource-limited high TB/HIV setting. A cross-sectional study was conducted in three rural hospitals in southeast Nigeria. Consecutive adults with newly diagnosed pulmonary TB were interviewed to determine the costs each incurred in their care-seeking pathway using a standardised questionnaire. We defined direct costs as out-of-pocket payments, and indirect costs as lost income. Of 452 patients enrolled, majority were male 55% (249), and rural residents 79% (356), with a mean age of 34 (± 11.6) years. Median direct pre-diagnosis/diagnosis cost was $49 per patient. Median direct treatment cost was $36 per patient. Indirect pre-diagnostic and treatment costs were $416, or 79% of total patient costs, $528. The median total cost of TB care per household was $592; corresponding to 37% of median annual household income pre-TB. Most patients reported having to borrow money 212(47%), sell assets 42(9%), or both 144(32%) to cope with the cost of care. Following an episode of TB, household income reduced increasing the proportion of households classified as poor from 54% to 79%. Before TB illness, independent predictors of household poverty were; rural residence (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.8), HIV-positive status (aOR 4.8), and care-seeking at a private facility (aOR 5.1). After TB care, independent determinants of household poverty were; younger age (≤ 35 years; aOR 2.4), male gender (aOR 2.1), and HIV-positive status (aOR 2.5). Patient and household costs for TB care are potentially catastrophic even where services are provided free-of-charge. There is an urgent need to implement strategies for TB care that are affordable for the poor.

Unequal Education, Poverty and Low Growth--A Theoretical Framework for Rural Education of China

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wu, Fangwei; Zhang, Deyuan; Zhang, Jinghua

2008-01-01

This paper constructs an intertemporal substitution educational model based on endogenous growth theory and examines the rural education, farmer income and rural economic growth problems in China. It shows that the households originally with the same economic endowment but different education endowment take different growth routes, the income…

Two Aspects of the Rural-Urban Divide and Educational Stratification in China: A Trajectory Analysis

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Hao, Lingxin; Hu, Alfred; Lo, Jamie

2014-01-01

Contextualized in China's social change of the past half-century, this article conceptualizes the two aspects of China's rural-urban divide in educational inequality--the household registration system ("hukou") assigns people to a hierarchy, and the rural-urban schooling system institutionalizes unequal resource distribution and diverse…

Divergent Urban-Rural Trends in College Attendance: State Policy Bias and Structural Exclusion in China

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Tam, Tony; Jiang, Jin

2015-01-01

Despite the massive expansion of higher education in China since 1998, the cohort trends of urban and rural "hukou" holders in college attendance have widened sharply. Prevailing explanations emphasize the advantages of urban students over rural students in school quality and household financial resources. We propose the structural…

Participating in a Food-Assisted Maternal and Child Nutrition and Health Program in Rural Guatemala Alters Household Dietary Choices.

PubMed

Jensen, Melissa L; Frongillo, Edward A; Leroy, Jef L; Blake, Christine E

2016-08-01

Food assistance programs may alter food choices, but factors determining households' decisions regarding food acquisition, preparation, and consumption in the context of food aid are not well understood. This study aimed to understand how the Programa Comunitario Materno Infantil de Diversificación Alimentaria (Mother-Child Community Food Diversification Program; PROCOMIDA), a food-assisted maternal and child health and nutrition program in rural Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, altered household food choices. We conducted semistructured interviews and focus groups with 63 households in 3 participating (n = 32 households) and 3 control (n = 31) villages. A last-day food recall (without estimating quantities) and food-frequency questionnaire that used food cards assessed dietary choices. Qualitative analysis used thematic a priori and emergent coding; food group consumption frequencies were analyzed by using 2-level, logistic, mixed modeling, and chi-square testing while accounting for community clustering. Compared with control households, PROCOMIDA changed household food choices through a combination of providing food resources (with monthly food rations) and new knowledge and skills related to health and food (in the program's behavior change communication component) while reinforcing existing knowledge and beliefs. PROCOMIDA families consumed rice, red beans, and oil more frequently than did control families (differences of 2.20 (P < 0.001), 2.68 (P < 0.001), and 1.64 (P = 0.038) times/wk, respectively); these foods were in the rations. PROCOMIDA families also ate chicken, local plants, and some vegetables more frequently. The importance of these foods was emphasized in the behavioral change communication component; these foods may have been more accessible because provision of food rations freed resources. Our findings suggest that if a program provides food free of cost to rural indigenous families in the context of a maternal and child nutrition and health program, it may be important to include a well-designed behavioral change communication component to improve household food choices. © 2016 American Society for Nutrition.

[Impact of rural land market on farm household's behavior of soil & water conservation and its regional difference: A case study of Xingguo, Shangrao, and Yujiang County in Jiangxi province ecologically vulnerable districts].

PubMed

Zhong, Tai-Yang; Huang, Xian-jin

2006-02-01

The paper analyzed the farm households' decision-making progress of soil & water conservation and its two-stage conceptual model. It also discussed the impacts of rural land market on the farm households' behavior of soil & water conservation. Given that, the article established models for the relations between the land market and soil & water conservation, and the models' parameters were estimated with Heckman's two-stage approach by using the farm household questionnaires in Xingguo, Shangrao and Yujiang counties of Jiangxi province. The paper analyzed the impact o f rural land market on farm household's behavior of soil & water conservation and its regional difference with the result of model estimation. The results show that the perception of soil & water loss and the tax & fee on the farm land have significant influence upon the soil and water conservation from the view of the population; however, because of different social and economic condition, and soil & water loss, there are differences of the influence among the three sample counties. These differences go as follows in detail: In Xingguo County, the rent-in land area and its cost have remarkable effect on the farm households' soil & water conservation behavior; In Yujiang County, the rent-in land area, rent-in cost and rent-out land area remarkably influence the farm households' behavior of soil and water conservation, with the influence of the rent-in land area being greater than Xingguo County; In Shangrao County, only rent-out land area has significant influence on the behaviors of soil & water conservation; In all samples, Xingguo County and Yujiang County samples, the rent-out income has no significant influence on the farm household's decision-making behavior soil and water conservation. Finally, the paper put forward some suggestions on how to bring the soil & water loss under control and use land resource in sustainable ways.

Health Care Access and Utilization after the 2010 Pakistan Floods.

PubMed

Jacquet, Gabrielle A; Kirsch, Thomas; Durrani, Aqsa; Sauer, Lauren; Doocy, Shannon

2016-10-01

Introduction The 2010 floods submerged more than one-fifth of Pakistan's land area and affected more than 20 million people. Over 1.6 million homes were damaged or destroyed and 2,946 direct injuries and 1,985 deaths were reported. Infrastructure damage was widespread, including critical disruptions to the power and transportation networks. Hypothesis Damage and loss of critical infrastructure will affect the population's ability to seek and access adequate health care for years to come. This study sought to evaluate factors associated with access to health care in the aftermath of the 2010 Pakistan floods. A population-proportional, randomized cluster-sampling survey method with 80 clusters of 20 (1,600) households of the flood-affected population was used. Heads of households were surveyed approximately six months after flood onset. Multivariate analysis was used to determine significance. A total of 77.8% of households reported needing health services within the first month after the floods. Household characteristics, including rural residence location, large household size, and lower pre- and post-flood income, were significantly associated (P<.05) with inadequate access to health care after the disaster. Households with inadequate access to health care were more likely to have a death or injury in the household. Significantly higher odds of inadequate access to health care were observed in rural populations (adjusted OR 4.26; 95% CI, 1.89-9.61). Adequate health care access after the 2010 Pakistani floods was associated with urban residence location, suggesting that locating health care providers in rural areas may be difficult. Access to health services also was associated with post-flood income level, suggesting health resources are not readily available to households suffering great income losses. Jacquet GA , Kirsch T , Durrani A , Sauer L , Doocy S . Health care access and utilization after the 2010 Pakistan floods. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2016;31(5):485-491.

Expanding Home-Based Primary Care to American Indian Reservations and Other Rural Communities: An Observational Study.

PubMed

Kramer, B Josea; Creekmur, Beth; Mitchell, Michael N; Saliba, Debra

2018-04-01

Home-based primary care (HBPC) is a comprehensive, interdisciplinary program to meet the medical needs of community-dwelling populations needing long-term care (LTC). The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) expanded its HBPC program to underserved rural communities, including American Indian reservations, providing a "natural laboratory" to study change in access to VA LTC benefits and utilization outcomes for rural populations that typically face challenges in accessing LTC medical support. Pretest-Posttest quasi-experimental approach with interrupted time-series design using linked VA, Medicare, and Indian Health Service (IHS) records. American Indian reservations and non-Indian communities in rural HBPC catchment areas. 376 veterans (88 IHS beneficiaries, 288 non-IHS beneficiaries) with a HBPC length of stay of 12 months or longer. Baseline demographic and health characteristics, activities of daily living (ADL), previous VA enrollment, and hospital admissions and emergency department (ED) visits as a function of time, accounting for IHS beneficiary and functional statuses. For HBPC users, VA enrollment increased by 22%. At baseline, 30% of IHS and non-IHS beneficiaries had 2 or more ADLs impairments; IHS populations were younger (P < .001) and had more diagnosed chronic diseases (P = .007). Overall, hospital admissions decreased by 0.10 (95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.14 to -0.05) and ED visits decreased by 0.13 (95% CI = -0.19 to -0.07) in the 90 days after HBPC admission (Ps < .001) and these decreases were maintained over 1 year follow-up. Before HBPC, probability of hospital admission was 12% lower for IHS than non-IHS beneficiaries (P = .02). Introducing HBPC to rural areas increased access to LTC and enrollment for healthcare benefits, with equitable outcomes in IHS and non-IHS populations. Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Soil-Transmitted Helminth Eggs Are Present in Soil at Multiple Locations within Households in Rural Kenya

PubMed Central

Steinbaum, Lauren; Njenga, Sammy M.; Kihara, Jimmy; Boehm, Alexandria B.; Davis, Jennifer; Null, Clair; Pickering, Amy J.

2016-01-01

Almost one-quarter of the world’s population is infected with soil-transmitted helminths (STH). We conducted a study to determine the prevalence and location of STH—Ascaris, Trichuris, and hookworm spp.—egg contamination in soil within rural household plots in Kenya. Field staff collected soil samples from July to September 2014 from the house entrance and the latrine entrance of households in Kakamega County; additional spatial sampling was conducted at a subset of households (N = 22 samples from 3 households). We analyzed soil samples using a modified version of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method for enumerating Ascaris in biosolids. We found 26.8% of households had one or more species of STH eggs present in the soil in at least one household location (n = 18 out of 67 households), and Ascaris was the most commonly detected STH (19.4%, n = 13 out of 67 households). Prevalence of STH eggs in soil was equally likely at the house entrance (19.4%, N = 67) as at the latrine entrance (11.3%, N = 62) (p = 0.41). We also detected STH eggs at bathing and food preparation areas in the three houses revisited for additional spatial sampling, indicating STH exposure can occur at multiple sites within a household plot, not just near the latrine. The highest concentration of eggs in one house occurred in the child’s play area. Our findings suggest interventions to limit child exposure to household soil could complement other STH control strategies. PMID:27341102

Population-Based Study of Intra-Household Gender Differences in Water Insecurity: Reliability and Validity of a Survey Instrument for Use in Rural Uganda

PubMed Central

Tsai, Alexander C.; Kakuhikire, Bernard; Mushavi, Rumbidzai; Vořechovská, Dagmar; Perkins, Jessica M.; McDonough, Amy Q.; Bangsberg, David R.

2015-01-01

Hundreds of millions of persons worldwide lack adequate access to water. Water insecurity, which is defined as having limited or uncertain availability of safe water or the ability to acquire safe water in socially acceptable ways, is typically overlooked by development organizations focusing on water availability. To address the urgent need in the literature for validated measures of water insecurity, we conducted a population-based study in rural Uganda with 327 reproductive-age women and 204 linked men from the same households. We used a novel method of photo identification so that we could accurately elicit study participants’ primary household water sources, thereby enabling us to identify water sources for objective water quality testing and distance/elevation measurement. Our psychometric analyses provided strong evidence of the internal structure, reliability, and validity of a new 8-item Household Water Insecurity Access Scale. Important intra-household gender differences in perceptions of water insecurity were observed, with men generally perceiving household water insecurity as being less severe compared to women. In summary, the Household Water Insecurity Access Scale represents a reliable and valid measure of water insecurity, particularly among women, and may be useful for informing and evaluating interventions to improve water access in resource limited settings. PMID:27105413

Biomass fuel use for cooking in Sri Lanka: analysis of data from national demographic health surveys.

PubMed

Nandasena, Sumal; Wickremasinghe, Ananda R; Sathiakumar, Nalini

2012-12-01

Biomass cooking fuel is the main source of indoor air pollution in the majority of households in the developing world. Sri Lanka is an island of about 20 million population with urban, rural, and estate population of 14.6%, 80.0%, and 5.4%, respectively. This study describes biomass fuel use for cooking in Sri Lanka. We analyzed data from two national Demographic Health Surveys (2000 and 2007) to identify the use and determinants of cooking fuels in Sri Lankan households. The results are based on a sample of 8,169 households in 2000 and 19,862 households in 2007. Wood was the principal cooking fuel used in 78.3% and 78.5% of households in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2007, 96.3% of estate sector households used firewood as compared to 84.2% in the rural and 34.6% in the urban sectors. Similar trends were noted in 2000 as well. The shift from firewood to cleaner fuels in Sri Lanka is negligible from 2000 to 2007. Improving the quality of life of the population does not necessarily predict a shift towards the use of cleaner cooking fuels in Sri Lanka. Copyright © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Biomass Fuel Use for Cooking in Sri Lanka: Analysis of Data from National Demographic Health Surveys

PubMed Central

Nandasena, Sumal; Wickremasinghe, Ananda Rajitha; Sathiakumar, Nalini

2011-01-01

Background Biomass cooking fuel is the main source of indoor air pollution in the majority of households in the developing world. Sri Lanka is an island of about 20 million population with urban, rural and estate population of 14.6%, 80.0% and 5.4%, respectively. This study describes biomass fuel use for cooking in Sri Lanka. Methods We analyzed data from two national Demographic Health Surveys (2000 and 2007) to identify the use and determinants cooking fuels in Sri Lankan households. The results are based on a sample of 8,169 households in 2000 and 19,862 households in 2007. Results Wood was the principal cooking fuel used in 78.3% and 78.5% of households in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2007, 96.3% of estate sector households used firewood as compared to 84.2% in the rural and 34.6% in the urban sectors. Similar trends were noted in 2000 as well. Conclusions The shift from firewood to cleaner fuels in Sri Lanka is negligible from 2000 to 2007. Improving the quality of life of the population does not necessarily predict a shift towards the use of cleaner cooking fuels in Sri Lanka. PMID:22068890

Dry land tree management for improved household livelihoods: farmer managed natural regeneration in Niger.

PubMed

Haglund, Eric; Ndjeunga, Jupiter; Snook, Laura; Pasternak, Dov

2011-07-01

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR), a set of practices farmers use to foster the growth of indigenous trees on agricultural land, has drawn substantial attention as a contributing factor to a trend of increasing vegetation greenness in the Republic of Niger. This paper identifies drivers of FMNR adoption and assesses its impacts on rural households in the Region of Maradi, Niger, an area covering 42,000 square kilometers. The results show that 26% of households practice a form of FMNR involving both pruning and protecting woody vegetation. Adoption is strongly linked to soil type, market access, and the education level of the head of household. FMNR raises household income and increases crop diversity, household migration rates, and the density and diversity of trees on farmland. It is estimated that FMNR raises the annual gross income of the region by between 17 and 21 million USD and has contributed an additional 900,000 to 1,000,000 trees to the local environment. These findings support the value of continued promotion of FMNR as an inexpensive means of enhancing rural livelihoods and an attractive alternative to reforestation efforts relying on tree planting. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Prevalence and determinants of airflow limitation in urban and rural children exposed to cooking fuels in South-East Nigeria.

PubMed

Oguonu, Tagbo; Obumneme-Anyim, Ijeoma N; Eze, Joy N; Ayuk, Adaeze C; Okoli, Chinyere V; Ndu, Ikenna K

2018-05-01

Background Biofuels and other cooking fuels are used in households in low- and middle-income countries. Aim To investigate the impact of cooking fuels on lung function in children in urban and rural households in South-East Nigeria. Methods The multi-stage sampling method was used to enroll children exposed to cooking fuel in the communities. Lung function values FEV1, FVC and the FEV1/FVC ratio, were measured with ndd EasyOne R spirometer. Airflow limitation was determined with FEV1/FVC Z-score values at -1.64 as the lower limit of normal (LLN5). The Global Lung Function Initiative 2012 software was used to calculate the lung function indices. Results The median age (range) of the 912 children enrolled was 10.6 years (6-18). Altogether, 468 (51.6%) children lived in rural areas. Seven hundred and thirty-seven (80.7%) were directly exposed to cooking fuels (418/737, 56.5% in rural areas). Wood and kerosene were the dominant fuels in rural and urban households. The respective mean Z-scores of the exposed children in rural and urban were zFEV1 -0.62, FVC -0.21, FEV1/FVC -0.83 and zFEV1 -0.57, zFVC -0.14, FEV1/FVC -0.75. Few (5.2%, 38/737) of the children had airflow limitation. Most of them (60.5%, 25/38) lived in the rural community; the lowest FEV1/FVC Z-scores were those of exposed to a combination of fuels. Conclusion Exposure to cooking fuels affects lung function in children with airway limitation in a small proportion, Control measures are advocated to reduce the morbidity related to cooking fuels exposure.

Energy Balance of Rural Ecosystems In India

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Chhabra, A.; Madhava Rao, V.; Hermon, R. R.; Garg, A.; Nag, T.; Bhaskara Rao, N.; Sharma, A.; Parihar, J. S.

2014-11-01

India is predominantly an agricultural and rural country. Across the country, the villages vary in geographical location, area, human and livestock population, availability of resources, agricultural practices, livelihood patterns etc. This study presents an estimation of net energy balance resulting from primary production vis-a-vis energy consumption through various components in a "Rural Ecosystem". Seven sites located in different agroclimatic regions of India were studied. An end use energy accounting "Rural Energy Balance Model" is developed for input-output analysis of various energy flows of production, consumption, import and export through various components of crop, trees outside forest plantations, livestock, rural households, industry or trade within the village system boundary. An integrated approach using field, ancillary, GIS and high resolution IRS-P6 Resourcesat-2 LISS IV data is adopted for generation of various model inputs. The primary and secondary field data collection of various energy uses at household and village level were carried out using structured schedules and questionnaires. High resolution multi-temporal Resourcesat-2 LISS IV data (2013-14) was used for generating landuse/landcover maps and estimation of above-ground Trees Outside Forests phytomass. The model inputs were converted to energy equivalents using country-specific energy conversion factors. A comprehensive geotagged database of sampled households and available resources at each study site was also developed in ArcGIS framework. Across the study sites, the estimated net energy balance ranged from -18.8 Terra Joules (TJ) in a high energy consuming Hodka village, Gujarat to 224.7 TJ in an agriculture, aquaculture and plantation intensive Kollaparru village, Andhra Pradesh. The results indicate that the net energy balance of a Rural Ecosystem is largely driven by primary production through crops and natural vegetation. This study provides a significant insight to policy relevant recommendations for Energy Sustainable Rural India.

Relative benefits of on-plot water supply over other 'improved' sources in rural Vietnam.

PubMed

Brown, Joe; Hien, Vo Thi; McMahan, Lanakila; Jenkins, Marion W; Thie, Lauren; Liang, Kaida; Printy, Erin; Sobsey, Mark D

2013-01-01

Access to improved water sources is rapidly expanding in rural central Vietnam. We examined one NGO-led piped water supply programme to assess the drinking water quality and health impacts of piped water systems where access to 'improved' water sources is already good. This longitudinal, prospective cohort study followed 300 households in seven project areas in Da Nang province, Vietnam: 224 households who paid for an on-plot piped water connection and 76 control households from the same areas relying primarily on 'improved' water sources outside the home. The 4-month study was intended to measure the impact of the NGO-led water programmes on households' drinking water quality and health and to evaluate system performance. We found that: (i) households connected to a piped water supply had consistently better drinking water quality than those relying on other sources, including 'improved' sources and (ii) connected households experienced less diarrhoea than households without a piped water connection (adjusted longitudinal prevalence ratio: 0.57 (95% CI 0.39-0.86, P = 0.006) and households using an 'improved' source not piped to the plot: (adjusted longitudinal prevalence ratio: 0.59 (95% CI 0.39-0.91, P = 0.018). Our results suggest that on-plot water service yields benefits over other sources that are considered 'improved' by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Socio-economic, environmental and nutritional characteristics of urban and rural South Indian women in early pregnancy: findings from the South Asian Birth Cohort (START).

PubMed

Dwarkanath, Pratibha; Vasudevan, Anil; Thomas, Tinku; Anand, Sonia S; Desai, Dipika; Gupta, Milan; Menezes, Gladys; Kurpad, Anura V; Srinivasan, Krishnamachari

2018-06-01

High frequency of low birth weight (LBW) is observed in rural compared with urban Indian women. Since maternal BMI is known to be associated with pregnancy outcomes, the present study aimed to investigate factors associated with BMI in early pregnancy of urban and rural South Indian women. Prospective observational cohort. A hospital-based study conducted at an urban and a rural health centre in Karnataka State. Pregnant women (n 843) aged 18-40 years recruited in early pregnancy from whom detailed sociodemographic, environmental, anthropometric and dietary intake information was collected. A high proportion of low BMI (32 v. 26 %, P<0·000) and anaemia (48 v. 23 %, P<0·000) was observed in the rural v. the urban cohort. Rural women were younger, had lower body weight, tended to be shorter and less educated. They lived in poor housing conditions, had less access to piped water and good sanitation, used unrefined fuel for cooking and had lower standard of living score. The age (β=0·21, 95 % CI 0·14, 0·29), education level of their spouse (β=1·36, 95 % CI 0·71, 2·71) and fat intake (β=1·24, 95 % CI 0·20, 2·28) were positively associated with BMI in urban women. Our findings indicate that risk factors associated with BMI in early pregnancy are different in rural and urban settings. It is important to study population-specific risk factors in relation to perinatal health.

43 CFR 404.56 - If a financial assistance agreement is entered into for a rural water supply project that...

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-10-01

... entered into for a rural water supply project that benefits more than one Indian tribe, is the approval of... Lands BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR RECLAMATION RURAL WATER SUPPLY PROGRAM Miscellaneous § 404.56 If a financial assistance agreement is entered into for a rural water supply project that...

An Experimental Project on Energy Education for Rural Women, Primary School Children and Teachers Report.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Pathak, Yogini; Mankodi, Hina

One of the University of Baroda's (India) Rural/Tribal Block Placement Program's major aims during the year 1988-89 was to develop energy consciousness in women, primary school children and teachers. An experimental project was designed for a rural Indian village. The objectives were to obtain information on rural energy resources; assess the role…

78 FR 38361 - Announcement of Funding Awards for the Rural Capacity Building for Community Development and...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-06-26

... business and administrative capabilities of rural community-based housing development organizations, CDCs... community-based housing development organizations, CDCs, CHDOs, and local governments in addition to Indian... Awards for the Rural Capacity Building for Community Development and Affordable Housing Program Fiscal...

Indian Student Involvement in Tribal Community-Based Research: Underage Drinking Prevention among Rural Native Californians

PubMed Central

Lee, Juliet P.; Calac, Daniel; Montag, Annika C.; Brodine, Stephanie; Luna, Juan A.; Flores, Rosalie Y.; Gilder, David A.; Moore, Roland S.

2013-01-01

The critical need for increased numbers of American Indian/Alaska Native scientists and health professionals motivated the development of the California Native American Research Center for Health (CA-NARCH) initiative. One strategy of the initiative has been to encourage opportunities for applied research experiences for American Indian/Alaska Native students. Placement of CA-NARCH students in funded research assistant positions for a research project “Preventing Underage Drinking by Southwest California Indians: Building Capacity” based at the Southern California Tribal Health Clinic, Inc., in a rural part of Southern California, provides a model in which both American Indian//Alaska Native students and research investigators have benefitted. Six students received training in research ethics, data collection methods and data management and analysis. The students’ participation in project activities has resulted in positive experiences for themselves, a productive research staff for the project and positive responses from community members to this sensitive research project. PMID:25356438

Prevalence and intensity of catastrophic health care expenditures in Iran from 2008 to 2015: a study on Iranian household income and expenditure survey.

PubMed

Yazdi-Feyzabadi, Vahid; Bahrampour, Mina; Rashidian, Arash; Haghdoost, Ali-Akbar; Akbari Javar, Mohammadreza; Mehrolhassani, Mohammad Hossein

2018-04-13

Households exposure to catastrophic health expenditure is a valuable measure to monitor financial protection in health sector payments. The present study had two aims: first, to estimate the prevalence and intensity of catastrophic health expenditures (CHE) in Iran. Second, to investigate main factors that influence the probability of CHE. CHE is defined as an occasion in which a household's out-of-pocket (OOP) spending exceeds 40% of the total income that remains after subtraction of living expenses. This study used the data from eight national repeated cross-sectional surveys on households' income and expenditure. The proportion of households facing CHE, as a prevalence measure, was estimated for rural and urban areas. The intensity of CHE was also calculated using overshoot and mean positive overshoot (MPO) measures. The factors affecting the CHE were also analyzed using logistic random effects regression model. We also used ArcMap 10.1 to display visually disparities across the country. An increasing number of Iranians has been subject to catastrophic health care costs over the study period in both rural and urban areas (CHE = 2.57% in 2008 and 3.25% in 2015). In the same period, the overshoot of CHE and the mean positive overshoot ranged from 0.26% to 0.65% and from 12.26% to 20.86%, respectively. The average absolute monetary value of OOP spending per month has been low in rural areas over the years, but the prevalence of CHE has been higher than urban areas. Generally put, rural settlement, higher income, receiving inpatient and outpatient services, and existence of elderly people in the household led to increase in CHE prevalence (p < 0.05). Interestingly, provinces with more limited geographical and cultural accessibility had the lowest CHE. According to the findings, Iran's healthcare system has failed to realize the aim of five-year national development plan regarding CHE prevalence (1% CHE prevalence according to the plan). Therefore, revision of financial health care protection policies focusing on pre-payments seems mandatory. For instance, these policies should extend the interventions that target low-income populations particularly in rural areas, provide more coverage for catastrophic medical services in basic benefit packages, and develop supplementary health insurance.

An epidemiological study of blindness in an Indian rural community.

PubMed Central

Srivastava, R N; Verma, B L

1978-01-01

A house-to-house survey of blindness in an Indian rural community covering a population of 20 134 in 12 villages revealed a prevalence rate of 35 blind and 144 partially blind persons per 10 000 population. Blindness was significantly associated with the age, sex, marital status, occupation, and socioeconomic status of the respondents. Caratact, glaucoma, smallpox and trachoma were the main causes of blindness. Preventive measures can reduce the toll of blindness in such a community. PMID:681587

An Indian Workshop Evaluation: Learner Needs; Materials, Teachers and Training

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Roy, Prodipto

1974-01-01

The focus of the experimental functional literacy project is the health and nutritional status of the young child; the target population are pregnant women and new mothers in rural Indian villages. (AJ)

Evaluating the Sustained Health Impact of Household Chlorination of Drinking Water in Rural Haiti

PubMed Central

Harshfield, Eric; Lantagne, Daniele; Turbes, Anna; Null, Clair

2012-01-01

The Jolivert Safe Water for Families program has sold sodium hypochlorite solution (chlorine) and conducted household visits in rural Haiti since 2002. To assess the impact of the program on diarrheal disease, in 2010 we conducted a survey and water quality testing in 201 program participants and 425 control households selected at random. Fifty-six percent of participants (versus 10% of controls) had free chlorine residuals between 0.2 and 2.0 mg/L, indicating correct water treatment. Using intention-to-treat analysis, we found that significantly fewer children < 5 in participant households had an episode of diarrhea in the previous 48 hours (32% versus 52%; P < 0.001) with 59% reduced odds (odds ratio = 0.41, 95% confidence interval = 0.21–0.79). Treatment-on-treated estimates of the odds of diarrhea indicated larger program effects for participants who met more stringent verifications of participation. Diarrheal disease reduction in this long-term program was comparable with that seen in short-term randomized, controlled interventions, suggesting that household chlorination can be an effective long-term water treatment strategy. PMID:22987657

Access to Safe Water in Rural Artibonite, Haiti 16 Months after the Onset of the Cholera Epidemic

PubMed Central

Patrick, Molly; Berendes, David; Murphy, Jennifer; Bertrand, Fabienne; Husain, Farah; Handzel, Thomas

2013-01-01

Haiti has the lowest improved water and sanitation coverage in the Western Hemisphere and is suffering from the largest cholera epidemic on record. In May of 2012, an assessment was conducted in rural areas of the Artibonite Department to describe the type and quality of water sources and determine knowledge, access, and use of household water treatment products to inform future programs. It was conducted after emergency response was scaled back but before longer-term water, sanitation, and hygiene activities were initiated. The household survey and source water quality analysis documented low access to safe water, with only 42.3% of households using an improved drinking water source. One-half (50.9%) of the improved water sources tested positive for Escherichia coli. Of households with water to test, 12.7% had positive chlorine residual. The assessment reinforces the identified need for major investments in safe water and sanitation infrastructure and the importance of household water treatment to improve access to safe water in the near term. PMID:24106191

[What to do to avoid death by starvation? Domestic dynamics and childhood feeding practices in a rural area of extreme poverty in Mexico].

PubMed

Pelcastre-Villafuerte, Blanca; Riquer-Fernández, Florinda; de León-Reyes, Verónica; Reyes-Morales, Hortensia; Gutiérrez-Trujillo, Gonzalo; Bronfman, Mario

2006-01-01

To describe and compare household dynamics in terms of structure, beliefs and nutrition-related behavior in the homes of malnourished and well-nourished children less than five years of age. The authors carried out a qualitative ethnographic study using participant observation, and in depth interviews. Interviews were conducted with the child's caretaker or key informants, prior oral informed consent. Child care and childhood feeding practices at home and in the community were the focus of observations. The study included two periods of field work conducted in 2001, in three rural municipalities from the Río Balsas region, in Guerrero state, Mexico. The study's ethical and methodological aspects were approved by the National Research Commission of the Mexican Institute of Social Security. Households were differentially characterized by number of members, composition, type of relationship, source of income, and interactions among household members and with the community. Monoparental structures, in an early stage of the household cycle, give rise to conditions that render the child prone to malnutrition. Extended family structure represented more favorable household dynamics.

Evaluating the sustained health impact of household chlorination of drinking water in rural Haiti.

PubMed

Harshfield, Eric; Lantagne, Daniele; Turbes, Anna; Null, Clair

2012-11-01

The Jolivert Safe Water for Families program has sold sodium hypochlorite solution (chlorine) and conducted household visits in rural Haiti since 2002. To assess the impact of the program on diarrheal disease, in 2010 we conducted a survey and water quality testing in 201 program participants and 425 control households selected at random. Fifty-six percent of participants (versus 10% of controls) had free chlorine residuals between 0.2 and 2.0 mg/L, indicating correct water treatment. Using intention-to-treat analysis, we found that significantly fewer children < 5 in participant households had an episode of diarrhea in the previous 48 hours (32% versus 52%; P < 0.001) with 59% reduced odds (odds ratio = 0.41, 95% confidence interval = 0.21-0.79). Treatment-on-treated estimates of the odds of diarrhea indicated larger program effects for participants who met more stringent verifications of participation. Diarrheal disease reduction in this long-term program was comparable with that seen in short-term randomized, controlled interventions, suggesting that household chlorination can be an effective long-term water treatment strategy.

Off-Premise Alcohol Outlets On and Around Tribal Land: Risks for Rural California Indian Youth

PubMed Central

Lee, Juliet P.; Moore, Roland S.; Roberts, Jennifer; Nelson, Nadeana; Calac, Daniel; Gilder, David A.; Ehlers, Cindy L.

2015-01-01

Investigating the alcohol environment for rural American Indian youth, we conducted 70 interviews with leading members and youth representatives of nine Southern California tribes. We also conducted brief observations in all 13 stores licensed to sell alcohol on and close to the reservation lands of the nine tribes. Underage youth may obtain alcoholic beverages at stores either directly through illegal sales to minors or indirectly through social sources. Stores are also environments within which alcoholic beverages and heavy drinking may become normalized for youth. Limitations and implications for convenience store-based prevention research on alcohol retail environment for youth in rural population areas are discussed. PMID:25529892

Drinking Shops and Social Structure: Some Ideas on Lower-Class West Indian Male Behavior

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Brana-Shute, Gary

1976-01-01

Given the circumstances, the mating system, the attitudes of women, household organizations, and the mens' marginal position in the occupational hierarchy, the street corner behavior demonstrated by lower class West Indian males is a response to a system that demands nothing more from them. (Author/AM)

Assessment of the Acceptability and Feasibility of Child Potties for Safe Child Feces Disposal in Rural Bangladesh

PubMed Central

Hussain, Faruqe; Luby, Stephen P.; Unicomb, Leanne; Leontsini, Elli; Naushin, Tania; Buckland, Audrey J.; Winch, Peter J.

2017-01-01

Abstract. Indiscriminate defecation among young children and the unsafe disposal of their feces increases fecal contamination in the household environment and the risk of diarrheal disease transmission. Improved sanitary technology for children too young to use a latrine may facilitate safe feces disposal and reduce fecal contamination in the household environment. We assessed the acceptability and feasibility of child potties in rural Bangladesh in 2010. Our team introduced child potties into 26 households for 30 days, and conducted semistructured interviews, group discussions, and observations to assess the acceptability and feasibility of their use for parents and children. Residents of this rural Bangladeshi community accepted the child potties and caregivers found them to be a feasible means of managing child feces. The color, shape, design, and size of the potty influenced its acceptability and use. These residents reported that regular use of the potty improved the household’s physical environment and caregiver and child personal hygiene. Regular potty use also reduced caregivers’ work load by making feces collection and disposal easier. Primary caregivers viewed 4–6 months as the appropriate age to initiate potty training. Sanitation interventions should integrate and emphasize potties for children’s feces management to reduce household environmental contamination. PMID:28722606

Predictors of Drinking Water Boiling and Bottled Water Consumption in Rural China: A Hierarchical Modeling Approach.

PubMed

Cohen, Alasdair; Zhang, Qi; Luo, Qing; Tao, Yong; Colford, John M; Ray, Isha

2017-06-20

Approximately two billion people drink unsafe water. Boiling is the most commonly used household water treatment (HWT) method globally and in China. HWT can make water safer, but sustained adoption is rare and bottled water consumption is growing. To successfully promote HWT, an understanding of associated socioeconomic factors is critical. We collected survey data and water samples from 450 rural households in Guangxi Province, China. Covariates were grouped into blocks to hierarchically construct modified Poisson models and estimate risk ratios (RR) associated with boiling methods, bottled water, and untreated water. Female-headed households were most likely to boil (RR = 1.36, p < 0.01), and among boilers those using electric kettles rather than pots had higher income proxies (e.g., per capita TV ownership RR = 1.42, p < 0.01). Higher-income households with younger, literate, and male heads were more likely to purchase (frequently contaminated) bottled water, or use electric kettles if they boiled. Our findings show that boiling is not an undifferentiated practice, but one with different methods of varying effectiveness, environmental impact, and adoption across socioeconomic strata. Our results can inform programs to promote safer and more efficient boiling using electric kettles, and suggest that if rural China's economy continues to grow then bottled water use will increase.

A Framework for Revitalisation of Rural Education and Training Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strengthening the Human Resource Base for Food Security and Sustainable Livelihoods

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wallace, Ian

2007-01-01

Recent studies of the current state of rural education and training (RET) systems in sub-Saharan Africa have assessed their ability to provide for the learning needs essential for more knowledgeable and productive small-scale rural households. These are most necessary if the endemic causes of rural poverty (poor nutrition, lack of sustainable…

Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China.

PubMed

Ward, Patrick S

2016-02-01

China's economic reforms starting in the late 1970s have resulted in rapid economic growth, with annual growth in gross domestic product averaging greater than 10 percent per year for more than thirty years. Accompanying this rapid growth in national accounts have been rapid and widespread reductions in poverty. With these reductions in poverty, however, there has often been observed an increase in income inequality, both between as well as within rural and urban sectors. This rising income gap challenges the notion that economic reforms in China have been as successful as the poverty statistics would suggest. In this paper, we suggest that an alternative view would be to consider the effects of these reforms on changing the chronic nature of poverty and reducing household vulnerability to poverty. Using a balanced panel from rural China from 1991 through 2006, we find that most poverty among our sample has shifted from being chronic in nature to being transient, with households either shifting into a state of being non-poor moving in and out of poverty. Among our sample, vulnerability to poverty has been declining over time, but the declines are not uniform over time or space. We decompose household vulnerability status into two proximate causes: low expected income and high income variability, finding vulnerability increasingly due to income variability. Additionally, we demonstrate that vulnerable households have very different characteristics than non-vulnerable households.

Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China

PubMed Central

Ward, Patrick S.

2015-01-01

China’s economic reforms starting in the late 1970s have resulted in rapid economic growth, with annual growth in gross domestic product averaging greater than 10 percent per year for more than thirty years. Accompanying this rapid growth in national accounts have been rapid and widespread reductions in poverty. With these reductions in poverty, however, there has often been observed an increase in income inequality, both between as well as within rural and urban sectors. This rising income gap challenges the notion that economic reforms in China have been as successful as the poverty statistics would suggest. In this paper, we suggest that an alternative view would be to consider the effects of these reforms on changing the chronic nature of poverty and reducing household vulnerability to poverty. Using a balanced panel from rural China from 1991 through 2006, we find that most poverty among our sample has shifted from being chronic in nature to being transient, with households either shifting into a state of being non-poor moving in and out of poverty. Among our sample, vulnerability to poverty has been declining over time, but the declines are not uniform over time or space. We decompose household vulnerability status into two proximate causes: low expected income and high income variability, finding vulnerability increasingly due to income variability. Additionally, we demonstrate that vulnerable households have very different characteristics than non-vulnerable households. PMID:26855470

The economic determinants of land degradation in developing countries

PubMed Central

Barbier, E. B.

1997-01-01

The following paper investigates the economic determinants of land degradation in developing countries. The main trends examined are rural households' decisions to degrade as opposed to conserve land resources, and the expansion of frontier agricultural activity that contributes to forest and marginal land conversion. These two phenomena appear often to be linked. In many developing areas, a poor rural household's decision whether to undertake long-term investment in improving existing agricultural land must be weighed against the decision to abandon this land and migrate to environmentally fragile areas. Economic factors play a critical role in determining these relationships. Poverty, imperfect capital markets and insecure land tenure may reinforce the tendency towards short-term time horizons in production decisions, and may bias land use decisions against long-term land management strategies. In periods of commodity booms and land speculation, wealthier households generally take advantage of their superior political and market power to ensure initial access to better quality resources, in order to capture a larger share of the resource rents. Poorer households are confined either to marginal environmental areas where resource rents are limited, or only have access to resources once they are degraded and rents dissipated.
Overall trends in land degradation and deforestation are examined, followed by an overview of rural households' resource management decisions with respect to land management, frontier agricultural expansion, and migration from existing agricultural land to frontiers. Finally, the discussion focuses on the scope for policy improvements to reduce economic constraints to effective land management.

Change comes slowly for women in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Balk, D

1997-04-01

Survey results from two disparate rural areas of Bangladesh, Sirajgong and Gopalpur subdistricts in the north-central part of the country and Abhoynagar and Fultala subdistricts in the southwest, offer the opportunity to assess the changing status of women in rural Bangladesh. The survey, conducted by the Mother and Child Health/Family Planning Extension Project of the International Center for Diarrheal Disease Control during 1982-89, collected data on 7433 ever-married women 15-56 years old. The analysis focused on two indicators: women's freedom to move outside their homes (mobility) and women's authority in household decision making. Although most respondents moved freely between households, they rarely traveled outside their village alone. In addition, respondents had little input in household decisions regarding health or expenditures. 65% felt they should be able to decide whether to see a doctor when they were ill or to buy medicine for a sick child, but only 7% actually made such decisions on their own. The majority approved of women working outside their homes, but only 11% did so. Both mobility and authority tended to increase with a woman's age. Women who lived in households headed by their in-laws had less mobility and much less authority. Women from poor homes had greater mobility, but wealth had little effect on household decision making. Education tended to increase decision-making authority but decrease mobility. Finally, the greater economic development, ecological stability, cultural diversity, and social progressiveness in the southwestern region tended to increase both mobility and authority.

Risk Factors for Self-Reported Cholera Within HIV-Affected Households in Rural Haiti

PubMed Central

Cheung, Hoi Ching; Meiselbach, Mark K; Jerome, Gregory; Ternier, Ralph; Ivers, Louise C

2018-01-01

Abstract Background Cholera continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and is now endemic in Haiti since first being introduced in 2010. Cholera and HIV have significant geographic overlap globally, but little is known about the clinical features and risk of cholera among HIV-infected people and their households. Methods We assessed HIV-affected households originally recruited for a randomized controlled trial of food supplements. We assessed for correlation between household and individual factors and reported history of cholera since 2010 using univariable and multivariable analyses. Results There were 352 HIV-infected household members, 32 with reported history of medically attended cholera, and 1968 other household members, 55 with reported history of medically attended cholera. Among HIV-infected individuals in this study, no variables correlated with reported history of cholera in univariable analyses. Among all household members, known HIV infection (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 3.75; 95% CI, 2.43–5.79; P < .0001), source of income in the household (AOR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.05–3.15; P = .034), time required to fetch water (AOR, 1.07 per 5-minute increase; 95% CI, 1.01–1.12; P = .015), and severe household food insecurity (AOR, 3.23; 95% CI, 1.25–8.34; P = .016) were correlated with reported history of cholera in a multivariable analysis. Conclusions Known HIV infection, source of household income, time required to fetch water, and severe household food insecurity were independently associated with reported history of medically attended cholera in HIV-affected households in rural Haiti. Further research is required to better understand the interactions between HIV and cholera. PMID:29942825

Surface discharge of raw wastewater among unsewered homes in central Alabama

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Elliott, M.; Das, P.; Blackwell, A.; Aytekin, E.; Hu, Y.; White, K.; Jones, R.; Lu, Y.

2017-12-01

Discussions of future water and wastewater challenges in the US typically focus on crumbling infrastructure. However, another major challenge has been almost entirely neglected. A growing body of evidence indicates that household discharge of untreated wastewater to the surface (through so-called "straight pipes") is widespread in poor rural communities of Appalachia and the southeastern US. The US Census included water and wastewater questions until 1990. However, the census questions do not appear to differentiate clearly between legal onsite treatment and discharge of raw wastewater to the ground (EPA, 1999; US Census, 2015). Although straight pipes are illegal, many reports from the southern US and Appalachia indicate that the practice is still common in poor rural areas (e.g., EPA Region 4, 2002; du Albuquerque, 2011). A representative, county-scale report on straight pipes in Madison County, NC (Baldwin, 2000) found that 5.6% of unsewered rural households directly discharged raw wastewater and a 2005 study of Bibb County, AL, reported 15% straight pipe among households not connected to sewer (White and Jones, 2006). We focused on two Alabama counties (Hale and Wilcox) with high rates of rural poverty (26.6% and 39.2% of households in poverty, respectively) and soils unsuited for conventional septic systems. We used two main methods (1) site-by-site inspections of a random sample of unsewered rural homes and (2) water sample collection and analysis from impacted streams. We found high rates of straight pipe use and substantial impacts on water quality in local streams. For example, in Wilcox Co., 60% of unsewered households had a visible straight pipe; conservatively, these homes discharge 500,000 gallons of raw sewage to the ground in Wilcox Co. each day. Water sampling upstream and downstream of an unsewered town with many straight pipes indicated major impacts on surface water quality. Additionally, the literature reveals possible health impacts from onsite wastewater; the most recent survey of soil-transmitted helminths (worms) in Alabama was in Wilcox Co. and showed that 33% of children were positive for one or more helminths (Badham, 1993). We will also address possible solutions to onsite wastewater failures in rural Alabama and current evidence for how widespread these issues may be in the US.

Social class related inequalities in household health expenditure and economic burden: evidence from Kerala, south India

PubMed Central

2011-01-01

Background In the Indian context, a household's caste characteristics are most relevant for identifying its poverty and vulnerability status. Inadequate provision of public health care, the near-absence of health insurance and increasing dependence on the private health sector have impoverished the poor and the marginalised, especially the scheduled tribe population. This study examines caste-based inequalities in households' out-of-pocket health expenditure in the south Indian state of Kerala and provides evidence on the consequent financial burden inflicted upon households in different caste groups. Methods Using data from a 2003-2004 panel survey in Kottathara Panchayat that collected detailed information on health care consumption from 543 households, we analysed inequality in per capita out-of-pocket health expenditure across castes by considering households' health care needs and types of care utilised. We used multivariate regression to measure the caste-based inequality in health expenditure. To assess health expenditure burden, we analysed households incurring high health expenses and their sources of finance for meeting health expenses. Results The per capita health expenditures reported by four caste groups accord with their status in the caste hierarchy. This was confirmed by multivariate analysis after controlling for health care needs and influential confounders. Households with high health care needs are more disadvantaged in terms of spending on health care. Households with high health care needs are generally at higher risk of spending heavily on health care. Hospitalisation expenditure was found to have the most impoverishing impacts, especially on backward caste households. Conclusion Caste-based inequality in household health expenditure reflects unequal access to quality health care by different caste groups. Households with high health care needs and chronic health care needs are most affected by this inequality. Households in the most marginalised castes and with high health care need require protection against impoverishing health expenditures. Special emphasis must be given to funding hospitalisation, as this expenditure puts households most at risk in terms of mobilising monetary resources. However, designing protection instruments requires deeper understanding of how the uncovered financial burden of out-patient and hospitalisation expenditure creates negative consequences and of the relative magnitude of this burden on households. PMID:21214941

Urban rural differences in diet, physical activity and obesity in India: are we witnessing the great Indian equalisation? Results from a cross-sectional STEPS survey.

PubMed

Tripathy, Jaya Prasad; Thakur, J S; Jeet, Gursimer; Chawla, Sohan; Jain, Sanjay; Prasad, Rajender

2016-08-18

The rising morbidity and mortality due to non-communicable diseases can be partly attributed to the urbanized lifestyle leading to unhealthy dietary practices and increasing physical levels of inactivity. The demographic and nutrition transition in India has also contributed to the emerging epidemic of non-communicable diseases in this country. In this context, there is limited information in India on dietary patterns, levels of physical activity and obesity. The aim of the present study was thus to assess the urban rural differences in dietary habits, physical activity and obesity in India. A household survey was done in the state of Punjab, India in a multistage stratified sample of 5127 individuals using the WHO STEPS questionnaire. No rural urban difference was found in dietary practices and prevalence of overweight and obesity except the fact that a significantly higher proportion of respondents belonging to rural area (15.6 %) always/often add salt before/when eating as compared to urban area (9.1 %). Overall 95.8 % (94.6-97.0) of participants took less than 5 servings of fruits and/or vegetables on average per day. No significant urban rural difference was noted in both sexes in all three domains of physical activity such as work, transport and recreation. However, rural females (19.1 %) were found to be engaged in vigorous activity more than the urban females (6.3 %). Males reported high levels of physical activity in both the settings. Absence of recreational activity was reported by more than 95 % of the subjects. Higher prevalence of obesity (asian cut offs used) was seen among urban females (34.3 %) as compared to their rural counterparts (23.2 %). Abdominal obesity was found to be significantly higher among females in both the settings compared to males (p < 0.001). Poor dietary practices and physical inactivity seems to fuel the non-communicable disease epidemic in India. Non communicable disease control strategy need to address these issues with a gender equity lens. Rapid urbanization of rural India might be responsible for the absence of a significant urban rural difference.

Enrollment Quota Control, Elite Selection and Access to Education in Rural China

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Zhao, Luan

2010-01-01

In China, the access to education is determined by not only student's demand for schooling, but also the allocation of educational resources and the schools' selection of candidate students. Based on the data obtained from the rural life level and rural social assistance household surveys in four provinces in 2005, the demand-identified bivariate…

The Household and the Family in Rural Russia

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Patsiorkovskii, V. V.; Patsiorkovskaia, V. V.

2011-01-01

There is a great need to improve rural life in Russia, and this must involve the development of the agricultural economy. This will require improving life for rural families, making it easier for them to obtain land to farm, and providing adequate housing and cultural facilities in the Russian village. (Contains 1 table.) [This article was…

An Examination of the Receptivity of Mexican-American and Anglo Rural Disadvantaged to Educational Programs.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Tindall, Lloyd W.; And Others

In order to determine the willingness of rural disadvantaged to participate in educational programs, 125 rural male Anglo and Mexican American household heads, both on and off welfare, were interviewed. The stratified sample was drawn from 4 Michigan counties. Based on findings from the 81 questions, these conclusions were made: Mexican Americans…

Socio-Economic Inequality of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in Bangladesh.

PubMed

Biswas, Tuhin; Islam, Md Saimul; Linton, Natalie; Rawal, Lal B

2016-01-01

Chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a major public health challenge, and undermine social and economic development in much of the developing world, including Bangladesh. Epidemiologic evidence on the socioeconomic status (SES)-related pattern of NCDs remains limited in Bangladesh. This study assessed the relationship between three chronic NCDs and SES among the Bangladeshi population, paying particular attention to the differences between urban and rural areas. Data from the 2011 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey were used for this study. Using a concentration index (CI), we measured relative inequality across pre-diabetes, diabetes, pre-hypertension, hypertension, and BMI (underweight, normal weight, and overweight/obese) in urban and rural areas in Bangladesh. A CI and its associated curve can be used to identify whether socioeconomic inequality exists for a given health variable. In addition, we estimated the health achievement index, integrating mean coverage and the distribution of coverage by rural and urban populations. Socioeconomic inequalities were observed across diseases and risk factors. Using CI, significant inequalities observed for pre-hypertension (CI = 0.09, p = 0.001), hypertension (CI = 0.10, p = 0.001), pre-diabetes (CI = -0.01, p = 0.005), diabetes (CI = 0.19, p<0.001), and overweight/obesity (CI = 0.45, p<0.001). In contrast to the high prevalence of the chronic health conditions among the urban richest, a significant difference in CI was observed for pre-hypertension (CI = -0.20, p = 0.001), hypertension (CI = -0.20, p = 0.005), pre-diabetes (CI = -0.15, p = 0.005), diabetes (CI = -0.26, p = 0.004) and overweight/obesity (CI = 0.25, p = 0.004) were observed more among the low wealth quintiles of rural population. In the same vein, the poorest rural households had more co-morbidities compared to the richest rural households (p = 0.003), and prevalence of co-morbidities was much higher for the richest urban households compared to the poorest urban households. On the other hand in rural the "disachievement" of health indicators is more noticeable than the urban ones. The findings indicate the high burden of selected NCDs among the low wealth quintile populations in rural areas and wealthy populations in urban areas. Particular attentions may be necessary to address the problem of NCDs among these groups.

Socio-Economic Inequality of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in Bangladesh

PubMed Central

Biswas, Tuhin; Islam, Md. Saimul; Linton, Natalie; Rawal, Lal B.

2016-01-01

Introduction Chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a major public health challenge, and undermine social and economic development in much of the developing world, including Bangladesh. Epidemiologic evidence on the socioeconomic status (SES)-related pattern of NCDs remains limited in Bangladesh. This study assessed the relationship between three chronic NCDs and SES among the Bangladeshi population, paying particular attention to the differences between urban and rural areas. Materials and Method Data from the 2011 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey were used for this study. Using a concentration index (CI), we measured relative inequality across pre-diabetes, diabetes, pre-hypertension, hypertension, and BMI (underweight, normal weight, and overweight/obese) in urban and rural areas in Bangladesh. A CI and its associated curve can be used to identify whether socioeconomic inequality exists for a given health variable. In addition, we estimated the health achievement index, integrating mean coverage and the distribution of coverage by rural and urban populations. Results Socioeconomic inequalities were observed across diseases and risk factors. Using CI, significant inequalities observed for pre-hypertension (CI = 0.09, p = 0.001), hypertension (CI = 0.10, p = 0.001), pre-diabetes (CI = -0.01, p = 0.005), diabetes (CI = 0.19, p<0.001), and overweight/obesity (CI = 0.45, p<0.001). In contrast to the high prevalence of the chronic health conditions among the urban richest, a significant difference in CI was observed for pre-hypertension (CI = -0.20, p = 0.001), hypertension (CI = -0.20, p = 0.005), pre-diabetes (CI = -0.15, p = 0.005), diabetes (CI = -0.26, p = 0.004) and overweight/obesity (CI = 0.25, p = 0.004) were observed more among the low wealth quintiles of rural population. In the same vein, the poorest rural households had more co-morbidities compared to the richest rural households (p = 0.003), and prevalence of co-morbidities was much higher for the richest urban households compared to the poorest urban households. On the other hand in rural the “disachievement” of health indicators is more noticeable than the urban ones. Conclusion The findings indicate the high burden of selected NCDs among the low wealth quintile populations in rural areas and wealthy populations in urban areas. Particular attentions may be necessary to address the problem of NCDs among these groups. PMID:27902760

Household and community socioeconomic influences on early childhood malnutrition in Africa.

PubMed

Fotso, Jean-Christophe; Kuate-Defo, Barthelemy

2006-05-01

This paper uses multilevel modelling and Demographic and Health Survey data from five African countries to investigate the relative contributions of compositional and contextual effects of socioeconomic status and place of residence in perpetuating differences in the prevalence of malnutrition among children in Africa. It finds that community clustering of childhood malnutrition is accounted for by contextual effects over and above likely compositional effects, that urban-rural differentials are mainly explained by the socioeconomic status of communities and households, that childhood malnutrition occurs more frequently among children from poorer households and/or poorer communities and that living in deprived communities has an independent effect in some instances. This study also reveals that socioeconomic inequalities in childhood malnutrition are more pronounced in urban centres than in rural areas.

Coverage and beliefs about temephos application for control of dengue vectors and impact of a community-based prevention intervention: secondary analysis from the Camino Verde trial in Mexico.

PubMed

Legorreta-Soberanis, José; Paredes-Solís, Sergio; Morales-Pérez, Arcadio; Nava-Aguilera, Elizabeth; de Los Santos, Felipé René Serrano; Sánchez-Gervacio, Belén Madeline; Ledogar, Robert J; Cockcroft, Anne; Andersson, Neil

2017-05-30

Temephos in domestic water containers remains a mainstay of Latin American government programmes for control of Aedes aegypti and associated illnesses, including dengue. There is little published evidence about coverage of routine temephos programmes. A cluster randomised controlled trial of community mobilisation in Mexico and Nicaragua reduced vector indices, dengue infection, and clinical dengue cases. Secondary analysis from the Mexican arm of the trial examined temephos coverage and beliefs, and the impact of the trial on these outcomes. The trial impact survey in December 2012, in 10,491 households in 45 intervention and 45 control clusters, asked about visits from the temephos programme, retention of applied temephos, and views about temephos and mosquito control. Fieldworkers noted if temephos was present in water containers. Some 42.4% of rural and 20.7% of urban households reported no temephos programme visits within the last 12 months. Overall, 42.0% reported they had temephos placed in their water containers less than 3 months previously. Fieldworkers observed temephos in at least one container in 21.1% of households. Recent temephos application and observed temephos were both significantly more common in urban households, when other household variables were taken into account; in rural areas, smaller households were more likely to have temephos present. Most households (74.4%) did not think bathing with water containing temephos carried any health risk. Half (51%) believed drinking or cooking with such water could be harmful and 17.6% were unsure. Significantly fewer households in intervention sites (16.5%) than in control sites (26.0%) (Risk Difference - 0.095, 95% confidence interval - 0.182 to -0.009) had temephos observed in their water; more households in intervention clusters (41.8%) than in control clusters (31.6%) removed the applied temephos quickly. Although fewer households in intervention sites (82.7%) compared with control sites (86.7%) (RD -0.04, 95% CI -0.067 to -0.013) agreed temephos and fumigation was the best way to avoid mosquitoes, the proportion believing this remained very high. Coverage with the government temephos programme was low, especially in rural areas. Despite an intervention encouraging non-chemical mosquito control, most households continued to believe that chemicals are the best control method. ISRCTN: 27581154 .

Changes in Body Mass Index During a 3-Year Elementary School-Based Obesity Prevention Program for American Indian and White Rural Students.

PubMed

Vogeltanz-Holm, Nancy; Holm, Jeffrey

2018-04-01

Childhood obesity is a significant but largely modifiable health risk, disproportionately affecting socioeconomically disadvantaged, racial/ethnic minority, and rural children. Elementary school-aged children typically experience the greatest increases in excess weight gain and therefore are important targets for reducing adolescent and adult obesity while improving children's health. Our study evaluated outcomes of a 3-year elementary school-based program for reducing obesity in American Indian and White students attending eight rural schools in the U.S. upper Midwest. Researchers measured body mass indexes (BMI) and other health indicators and behaviors of 308 beginning third-grade students and then again at the end of students' third, fourth, and fifth grades. The primary focus of this study is a mixed multilevel longitudinal model testing changes in age- and gender-adjusted BMI z scores ( zBMI). There was a significant decrease in zBMI across the 3-year study period. Ethnicity analyses showed that White students had overall decreases in zBMI whereas American Indian students' zBMIs remained stable across the program. Comparisons with children from an age- and cohort-matched national sample provided support for the effectiveness of the school program in reducing BMI and obesity during the study period. An elementary school-based health program that addresses a range of students' obesity-related health behaviors, the school health environment, and that involves educators and parents is an effective intervention for reducing or stabilizing BMI in rural White and American Indian students. School health programs for students living in rural communities may be especially effective due to greater school and community cohesiveness, and valuing of the school's primary role in improving community health.

Assessing willingness to pay for improved sanitation in rural Vietnam.

PubMed

Van Minh, Hoang; Nguyen-Viet, Hung; Thanh, Nguyen Hoang; Yang, Jui-Chen

2013-07-01

The willingness to pay (WTP) for the construction of bathrooms with a flush toilet was assessed in households in a rural community in northern Vietnam. We also examined the effects of socio-economic factors on the WTP. The contingent valuation method, an economic survey technique, was used. We used the iterative bidding game technique to elicit household WTP that involved a sequence of dichotomous choice questions followed by a final open-ended question. A total of 370 households that did not have toilets were selected for this study. Respondents to the questionnaire were the primary income earners and decision-makers of their respective household. Of those responding to the questionnaire, 62.1 % reported being willing to pay for the construction of bathrooms with a flush toilet. The mean and median of maximum WTP amounts were Viet Nam Dong (VND) 15.6 million and VND 13.0 million, respectively (minimum VND 2.0 million; maximum VND 45.0 million). Significant correlates of the WTP rate were: (1) gender of the head of household, (2) age of the head of household, (3) economic status of household, (4) type of current toilet, (5) satisfaction with existing toilet, and (6) knowledge of health effects of poor sanitation. The significant determinants of WTP amount were (1) geographic location and (2) economic status of household. About two-third of the households in the study area were willing to pay for an improvement in their current sanitation arrangements. Both WTP rate and WP amount were strongly influenced by the economic status of the households and health knowledge of the study respondents.

Relative household wealth and non-fatal road crashes: analysis of population-representative data of Kenyan adults.

PubMed

Kraemer, John D

2018-05-18

This study aims to examine potential road crash disparities across relative wealth and location of residence in Kenya by analyzing population-representative Demographic and Health Survey data. Relative wealth was measured by household assets, converted into an index by polychoric principal components analysis. Location and sex-stratified associations between wealth quantiles and crashes were flexibly estimated using fractional polynomial models. Structural equation models were fit to examine whether observed differences may operate through previously identified determinants. In rural areas, crashes were least common for both the poorest men (-5.2 percentage points, 95% CI: -7.3 to -3.2) and women (-1.6 percentage points, 95% CI: -2.9 to -0.4). In urban areas, male crashes were lowest (-3.0 percentage points, 95% CI: -5.2 to -0.8) among the wealthiest, while they peaked in the middle of the female wealth distribution (2.0 percentage points, 95% CI: 0.3-3.8). Male differences operate partially though occupational driving and vehicle ownership. Urban female differences operate partially through household vehicle ownership, but differences for rural women were not explained by modeled determinants. Relative wealth and road crash have opposite associations in rural and urban areas. Especially in rural areas, it is important to mitigate potential unintended effects of economic development.

Analyzing the Mobile “Digital Divide”: Changing Determinants of Household Phone Ownership Over Time in Rural Bangladesh

PubMed Central

Mehra, Sucheta; Ali, Hasmot; Shaikh, Saijuddin; Mitra, Maithilee; Christian, Parul; West Jr, Keith

2015-01-01

Background We had a unique opportunity to examine demographic determinants of household mobile phone ownership in rural Bangladesh using socioeconomic data collected as part of a multiyear longitudinal cohort study of married women of reproductive age. Objectives This paper explores how the demographics of household mobile phone owners have changed over time in a representative population of rural Bangladesh. Methods We present data collected between 2008 and 2011 on household mobile phone ownership and related characteristics including age, literacy, education, employment, electricity access, and household wealth among 35,306 individuals. Respondents were enrolled when found to be newly pregnant and contributed socioeconomic information once over the course of the time period serving as a “sample” of families within the population at that time. Univariate and multiple logistic regressions analyses were performed to identify the socioeconomic determinants of household phone ownership. Results Across 3 fiscal years, we found that reported household ownership of at least 1 working mobile phone grew from 29.85% in the first fiscal year to 56.07% in the third fiscal year. Illiteracy, unavailability of electricity, and low quartiles of wealth were identified as overall demographic constraints to mobile phone ownership. However, over time, these barriers became less evident and equity gaps among demographic status began to dissipate as access to mobile technology became more democratized. We saw a high growth rate in ownership among households in lower economic standing (illiterate, without electricity, low and lowest wealth index), likely a result of competitive pricing and innovative service packages that improve access to mobile phones as the mobile phone market matures. In contrast, as market saturation is rapidly attained in the most privileged demographics (literate, secondary schooling, electricity, high wealth index), members of the lower wealth quartiles seem to be following suit, with more of an exponential growth. Conclusions Upward trends in household mobile phone ownership in vulnerable populations over time underline the potential to leverage this increasingly ubiquitous infrastructure to extend health and finance services across social and economic strata. PMID:25720457

Analyzing the mobile "digital divide": changing determinants of household phone ownership over time in rural bangladesh.

PubMed

Tran, Michael Clifton; Labrique, Alain Bernard; Mehra, Sucheta; Ali, Hasmot; Shaikh, Saijuddin; Mitra, Maithilee; Christian, Parul; West, Keith

2015-02-25

We had a unique opportunity to examine demographic determinants of household mobile phone ownership in rural Bangladesh using socioeconomic data collected as part of a multiyear longitudinal cohort study of married women of reproductive age. This paper explores how the demographics of household mobile phone owners have changed over time in a representative population of rural Bangladesh. We present data collected between 2008 and 2011 on household mobile phone ownership and related characteristics including age, literacy, education, employment, electricity access, and household wealth among 35,306 individuals. Respondents were enrolled when found to be newly pregnant and contributed socioeconomic information once over the course of the time period serving as a "sample" of families within the population at that time. Univariate and multiple logistic regressions analyses were performed to identify the socioeconomic determinants of household phone ownership. Across 3 fiscal years, we found that reported household ownership of at least 1 working mobile phone grew from 29.85% in the first fiscal year to 56.07% in the third fiscal year. Illiteracy, unavailability of electricity, and low quartiles of wealth were identified as overall demographic constraints to mobile phone ownership. However, over time, these barriers became less evident and equity gaps among demographic status began to dissipate as access to mobile technology became more democratized. We saw a high growth rate in ownership among households in lower economic standing (illiterate, without electricity, low and lowest wealth index), likely a result of competitive pricing and innovative service packages that improve access to mobile phones as the mobile phone market matures. In contrast, as market saturation is rapidly attained in the most privileged demographics (literate, secondary schooling, electricity, high wealth index), members of the lower wealth quartiles seem to be following suit, with more of an exponential growth. Upward trends in household mobile phone ownership in vulnerable populations over time underline the potential to leverage this increasingly ubiquitous infrastructure to extend health and finance services across social and economic strata.

The economic burden of chronic non-communicable diseases in rural Malawi: an observational study.

PubMed

Wang, Qun; Brenner, Stephan; Kalmus, Olivier; Banda, Hastings Thomas; De Allegri, Manuela

2016-09-01

Evidence from population-based studies on the economic burden imposed by chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) is still sparse in Sub-Saharan Africa. Our study aimed to fill this existing gap in knowledge by estimating both the household direct, indirect, and total costs incurred due to CNCDs and the economic burden households bear as a result of these costs in Malawi. The study used data from the first round of a longitudinal household health survey conducted in 2012 in three rural districts in Malawi. A cost-of-illness method was applied to estimate the economic burden of CNCDs. Indicators of catastrophic spending and impoverishment were used to estimate the economic burden imposed by CNCDs on households. A total 475 out of 5643 interviewed individuals reported suffering from CNCDs. Mean total costs of all reported CNCDs were 1,040.82 MWK, of which 56.8 % was contributed by direct costs. Individuals affected by chronic cardiovascular conditions and chronic neuropsychiatric conditions bore the highest levels of direct, indirect, and total costs. Using a threshold of 10 % of household non-food expenditure, 21.3 % of all households with at least one household member reporting a CNCD and seeking care for such a condition incurred catastrophic spending due to CNCDs. The poorest households were more likely to incur catastrophic spending due to CNCDs. An additional 1.7 % of households reporting a CNCD fell under the international poverty line once considering direct costs due to CNCDs. Our study showed that the economic burden of CNCDs is high, causes catastrophic spending, and aggravates poverty in rural Malawi, a country where in principle basic care for CNCDs should be offered free of charge at point of use through the provision of an Essential Health Package (EHP). Our findings further indicated that particularly high direct, indirect, and total costs were linked to specific diagnoses, although costs were high even for conditions targeted by the EHP. Our findings point at clear gaps in coverage in the current Malawian health system and call for further investments to ensure adequate affordable care for people suffering from CNCDs.

Network visualization for outbreak response: Mapping the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) chains of transmission in N'Zérékoré, Guinea.

PubMed

Valencia, C; Bah, H; Fatoumata, B; Rodier, G; Diallo, B; Koné, M; Giese, C; Conde, L; Malano, E; Mollet, T; Jansa, J; Coulombier, D; Sudre, B

2017-03-01

During the 2014-2015 Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak in N'Zérékoré, Forested Guinea, modes of transmission remained unexamined for a number of new cases. We used network visualization to investigate EVD transmission chains (TC) in seven sub-prefectures of N'Zérékoré in order to adapt outbreak response. Between August 2014 and February 2015, the EVD outbreak response team including the World Health Organization (WHO) and local health authorities routinely collected information among new cases regarding hospital visits, cases within a household, participation in burials, as well as dates of symptom onset, serial intervals (SI) and exposure to EVD. SI's were defined as the interval between symptom onset in an index case and symptom onset in a secondary case infected by that index case. Cases who reported hospital visits, contact with a case in the household or participating in burials were attributed to these exposures. We identified seven TC (two urban and five rural) gathering characteristics of 109 probable/confirmed cases. Overall, 61% (66 cases, SI range: 7-20 days) were household related, 32% (35 cases, SI range 8-30 days) were household or burial related and 7% (8 cases, SI range: 4-20 days) were hospital-related. In the urban chains (18 cases, SI range: 7-20 days), 12 cases were household related and 6 cases were hospital related, none where household or burial related. In the rural chains (84 cases, SI range: 7-30 days), 60% (50 cases) were household related, 1% (1 case) was hospital related and 39% (34 cases) were household or burial related. No cases reported multiple exposures. Network visualization during field response is crucial in enhancing local control strategies, refining outbreak response and aiding rapid response teams in insuring psychosocial and socio-economic recovery. Urban settings need to focus on reducing hospital EVD transmission whereas rural settings should focus on raising awareness of transmission within a household and safeguarding EVD burials. Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Child health in rural Colombia: determinants and policy interventions.

PubMed

Attanasio, Orazio; Gomez, Luis Carlos; Rojas, Ana Gomez; Vera-Hernández, Marcos

2004-12-01

We study the determinants of child anthropometrics on a sample of poor Colombian children living in small municipalities. We focus on the influence of household consumption, and public infrastructure, taking into account the endogeneity of household consumption using two different sets of instruments: household assets and municipality average wage. We find that both household consumption and public infrastructure are important determinants of child health. We have also found that the coverage of the piped water network positively influenced child health if the parents have some education.

American Indian identity in mental health services utilization data from a rural midwestern sample.

PubMed

Hack, Samantha M; Larrison, Christopher R; Gone, Joseph P

2014-01-01

The governing bodies for psychiatry, psychology, and social work all publicly support culturally competent mental health care and have called for increased awareness of the importance of racial, ethnic, and cultural identity in mental health treatment and outcomes. However, since 1960 the population of people identifying as American Indian in the United States has grown faster than can be explained by birth rates, raising questions about the personal meaning of identity for newly self-designated American Indians. For this research, interviews were conducted with 14 self-identified American Indian clients receiving rural mental health care services in the Midwest. The goal was to assess clients' cultural connection to their racial identity and to understand what impact their American Indian identity had on their mental health care experiences. A modified Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method was used to develop the interview protocol and code responses. Interview data revealed that clients primarily based their racial identity on family stories of an American Indian ancestor and the majority did not feel their identification as American Indian was relevant to their mental health care. Regardless of lack of cultural connection, participants often reported feeling personal pride associated with identifying as American Indian. Implications for both researchers collecting self-reported race data and for mental health practitioners who might serve self-identified American Indian clients are discussed.

Association of the Familial Coexistence of Child Stunting and Maternal Overweight with Indigenous Women in Guatemala.

PubMed

Lee, J; Houser, R; Must, A; Palma, P; Bermudez, O

2017-11-01

Objectives This study investigated the association of the familial coexistence of child stunting and maternal overweight with indigenous women in Guatemala. Methods We selected 2388 child-mother pairs from the data set of the Living Standards Measurement Study conducted in Guatemala in 2000. This study examined the association between maternal and household characteristics and the nutritional status of children aged 6-60 months and mothers aged 18-49 years by using multivariable logistic regression models. Results Compared with non-indigenous households, a significantly higher percentage of indigenous households exhibited stunted child and overweight mother (SCOM) pairs (15.9 vs. 22.2%). Compared with normal-weight mothers, overweight mothers were less likely to have stunted children [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.50-0.88]. However, compared with mothers who were not short and overweight, short and overweight mothers were significantly more likely to have stunted children (AOR 1.80, 95% CI 1.19-2.73) and were more likely to be indigenous women living in urban areas (AOR 3.01, 95% CI 1.19-7.60) or rural areas (AOR 3.02, 95% CI 1.28-7.14). The order of observed prevalence of SCOM pairs in different types of households was as follows: urban indigenous (25.0%), rural indigenous (21.2%), rural non-indigenous (19.8%), and urban non-indigenous households (10.7%). Conclusions for Practice Urban indigenous households were more likely to have SCOM pairs. This study provided useful information for identifying the most vulnerable groups and areas with a high prevalence of the familial coexistence of child stunting and maternal overweight.

Using microfinance to facilitate household investment in sanitation in rural Cambodia.

PubMed

Geissler, Kimberley H; Goldberg, Jeffrey; Leatherman, Sheila

2016-11-01

Improved sanitation access is extremely low in rural Cambodia. Non-governmental organizations have helped build local supply side latrine markets to promote household latrine purchase and use, but households cite inability to pay as a key barrier to purchase. To examine the extent to which microfinance can be used to facilitate household investment in sanitation, we applied a two-pronged assessment: (1) to address the gap between interest in and use of microfinance, we conducted a pilot study to assess microfinance demand and feasibility of integration with a sanitation marketing program and (2) using a household survey (n = 935) at latrine sales events in two rural provinces, we assessed attitudes about microfinance and financing for sanitation. We found substantial stated intent to use a microfinance institution (MFI) loan to purchase a latrine (27%). Five percent of current owners used an MFI loan for latrine purchase. Credit officers attended 159 events, with 4761 individuals attending. Actual loan applications were low, with 4% of sales events attendees applying for a loan immediately following the event (mean = 1.7 loans per event). Ongoing coordination was challenging, requiring management commitment from the sanitation marketing program and commitment to social responsibility from the MFI. Given the importance of improving sanitation coverage and concomitant health impacts, linking functional sanitation markets to already operational finance markets has the potential to give individuals and households more financial flexibility. Further product research and better integration of private vendors and financing modalities are necessary to create a scalable microfinance option for sanitation markets. © The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press in association with The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.

Non-farmed fish contribute to greater micronutrient intakes than farmed fish: results from an intra-household survey in rural Bangladesh.

PubMed

Bogard, Jessica R; Marks, Geoffrey C; Mamun, Abdullah; Thilsted, Shakuntala H

2017-03-01

Fish is the most important animal-source food (ASF) in Bangladesh, produced from capture fisheries (non-farmed) and aquaculture (farmed) sub-sectors. Large differences in micronutrient content of fish species from these sub-sectors exist. The importance of fish in diets of vulnerable groups compared with other ASF; contribution from non-farmed and farmed species to nutrient intakes; and differences in fish consumption among age, gender, wealth groups and geographic regions were analysed, using quantitative intra-household fish consumption data, focusing on the first 1000 d of life. Two-stage stratified sample. Nationally representative of rural Bangladesh. Households (n 5503) and individuals (n 24 198). Fish consumption in poor households was almost half that in wealthiest households; and lower in females than males in all groups, except the wealthiest, and for those aged ≥15 years (P<0·01). In infants of complementary feeding age, 56 % did not consume ASF on the survey day, despite 78 % of mothers knowing this was recommended. Non-farmed fish made a larger contribution to Fe, Zn, Ca, vitamin A and vitamin B12 intakes than farmed fish (P<0·0001). Policies and programmes aimed to increase fish consumption as a means to improve nutrition in rural Bangladesh should focus on women and young children, and on the poorest households. Aquaculture plays an important role in increasing availability and affordability of fish; however, non-farmed fish species are better placed to contribute to greater micronutrient intakes. This presents an opportunity for aquaculture to contribute to improved nutrition, utilising diverse production technologies and fish species, including small fish.

Household water insecurity, missed schooling, and the mediating role of caregiver depression in rural Uganda.

PubMed

Cooper-Vince, C E; Kakuhikire, B; Vorechovska, D; McDonough, A Q; Perkins, J; Venkataramani, A S; Mushavi, R C; Baguma, C; Ashaba, S; Bangsberg, D R; Tsai, A C

2017-01-01

School attendance rates in sub-Saharan Africa are among the lowest worldwide, placing children at heightened risk for poor educational and economic outcomes. One understudied risk factor for missed schooling is household water insecurity, which is linked to depression among women and may increase children's water-fetching burden at the expense of educational activities, particularly among children of depressed caregivers. In this study conducted in rural Uganda, we assessed the association between household water insecurity and child school participation and the mediating pathways behind these associations. We conducted a population-based, cross-sectional study of female household heads ( N = 257) and their children ages 5-17 ( N = 551) in the rural regions surrounding the town of Mbarara, in southwestern Uganda. We used multivariable linear regressions to estimate the association between water insecurity and missed schooling. We then assessed the extent to which the association was mediated by caregiver depression. Among children, water insecurity had a statistically significant association with the number of missed school days (a standard deviation increase in water insecurity resulted in 0.30 more missed school days in the last week). The estimated association was partially mediated by caregiver depression. When stratified by sex, this mediating pathway remained significant for boys, but not among girls. Water insecurity is a risk factor for missed schooling among children in rural Uganda. Caregiver depression partially mediated this relationship. Also addressing caregiver mental health in water insecure families may more fully address the needs of sub-Saharan African families and promote educational participation among youth.

Validity and reliability of the Arabic version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale in rural Lebanon.

PubMed

Naja, Farah; Hwalla, Nahla; Fossian, Talar; Zebian, Dina; Nasreddine, Lara

2015-02-01

To assess the validity and reliability of the Arabic version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) in rural Lebanon. A cross-sectional study on a sample of households with at least one child aged 0-2 years. In a one-to-one interview, participants completed an adapted Arabic version of the HFIAS. In order to evaluate the validity of the HFIAS, basic sociodemographic information, anthropometric measurements of the mother and child, and dietary intake data of the child were obtained. In order to examine reproducibility, the HFIAS was re-administered after 3 months. Rural Lebanon. Mother and child pairs (n 150). Factor analysis of HFIAS items revealed two factors: 'insufficient food quality' and 'insufficient food quantity'. Using Pearson's correlation, food insecurity was inversely associated with mother's and father's education levels, number of cars and electrical appliances in the household, income, weight-for-age and length-for-age of the child and the child's dietary adequacy. In contrast, mother's BMI and crowding index were positively associated with food insecurity scores (P < 0·05 for all correlations). Cronbach's α of the scale was 0·91. A moderate correlation was observed between the two administrations of the questionnaire (intra-class correlation = 0·58; P < 0·05). Our findings indicated that the adapted Arabic version of the HFIAS is a valid and reliable tool to assess food insecurity in rural Lebanon, lending further evidence to the utility of the HFIAS in assessing food insecurity in culturally diverse populations.

Values and Academic Achievement Among Rural Indian High School Students in North Dakota.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Clark, Janet Lee

The role of differential values as they relate to educational achievement was investigated by examining school records of and administering the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and questionnaires eliciting personal information, character trait preferences, and perceptions of self, ideal self, and others to 328 Indian and 271 non-Indian students from 7…

Barriers and facilitators to being physically active on a rural, Northern Plains American Indian Reservation

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

American Indians have among the highest prevalence of obesity and chronic disease in the US. Physical activity (PA) is associated with maintenance of a healthy body weight and prevention of some chronic diseases, yet a large proportion of American Indians do not engage in any PA. The objectives of t...

From Indian Village to Chicano Suburb: Problems of Identity and Suburbanization.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Haltom, John F.; Singleton, James F.

A case study of social change, this paper describes the community of Tortugas, an American Indian-Mexican village at the southern edge of Las Cruces, New Mexico. The Indian inhabitants of the community have been assimilated into the rural Mexican American subculture, which has become increasingly suburban through a process little explored in the…

Fine particle number and mass concentration measurements in urban Indian households.

PubMed

Mönkkönen, P; Pai, P; Maynard, A; Lehtinen, K E J; Hämeri, K; Rechkemmer, P; Ramachandran, G; Prasad, B; Kulmala, M

2005-07-15

Fine particle number concentration (D(p)>10 nm, cm(-3)), mass concentrations (approximation of PM(2.5), microg m(-3)) and indoor/outdoor number concentration ratio (I/O) measurements have been conducted for the first time in 11 urban households in India, 2002. The results indicate remarkable high indoor number and mass concentrations and I/O number concentration ratios caused by cooking. Besides cooking stoves that used liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or kerosene as the main fuel, high indoor concentrations can be explained by poor ventilation systems. Particle number concentrations of more than 300,000 cm(-3) and mass concentrations of more than 1000 microg m(-3) were detected in some cases. When the number and mass concentrations during cooking times were statistically compared, a correlation coefficient r>0.50 was observed in 63% of the households. Some households used other fuels like wood and dung cakes along with the main fuel, but also other living activities influenced the concentrations. In some areas, outdoor combustion processes had a negative impact on indoor air quality. The maximum concentrations observed in most cases were due to indoor combustion sources. Reduction of exposure risk and health effects caused by poor indoor air in urban Indian households is possible by improving indoor ventilation and reducing penetration of outdoor particles.

Ownership and Use of Insecticide-Treated Nets among People Living in Malaria Endemic Areas of Eastern Myanmar.

PubMed

Aung, Tin; Wei, Chongyi; McFarland, Willi; Aung, Ye Kyaw; Khin, Hnin Su Su

2016-01-01

Myanmar has the highest burden of malaria in the Greater Mekong. However, there is limited information on ownership and use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) in areas of Myanmar most severely affected by malaria. We describe ownership and use of ITNs among people in the malaria-endemic eastern parts of Myanmar and factors associated with ITN use. A cross-sectional household survey using a multi-stage cluster design was conducted in malaria-endemic townships in eastern Myanmar during the high malaria season of August to September, 2014. An effective ITN was defined as 1) a long-lasting insecticide-treated net obtained within the past three years, or 2) any net treated with insecticide within the past year. In 4,679 households, the average number of ITNs per household was higher in rural compared to urban areas (0.6 vs. 0.4, p <0.001) as well as the proportion of households owning at least one ITN (27.3% vs. 15.5%, p<0.001). The proportion of households in which all members slept under an ITN was also higher in rural compared to urban areas (15.3% vs 6.9%, p<0.001). In multivariate analysis, rural households (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.78, 95% CI: 1.43-2.21, p<0.001), households in which respondents knew malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes (aOR 1.35, 95% CI: 1.10-1.65, p = 0.004), and in which respondents knew malaria can be prevented by ITN use (aOR 1.86, 95% CI: 1.28-2.70, p<0.001) were more likely to have all members sleep under an ITN. Compared to the lowest socio-economic quintile, households in the richest quintile were less likely to have all members sleep under an ITN (aOR 0.47; 95% CI: 0.33-0.66, p<0.001). Households in which the main income earner was a skilled worker or a businessman were less likely to have all members sleep under an ITN (aOR, 0.70, 95% CI: 0.52-0.96, p<0.025) compared to those headed by farmers or fishermen. Households in which all children slept under an ITN were more likely to be in rural areas (aOR 1.58, 95% CI: 1.19-2.09, p = 0.002) and have a household head who knew malaria can be prevented by ITN use (aOR 2.13, 95% CI: 1.30-3.50, p = 0.003). Children were less likely to have slept under an ITN in houses headed by skilled workers or businessmen (aOR 0.50, 95% CI: 0.33-0.75, p = 0.001) or unskilled workers (aOR 0.66, 95% CI: 0.49-0.89, p = 0.006) compared to households with farmers or fishermen. Higher socio-economic level was associated with lower ITN use by children (aOR 0.56, 95% CI: 0.36-0.88, p = 0.012, highest vs. lowest quintile). The study found ownership of ITNs was low in Myanmar in comparison to the goal of one for every two household members. Use of ITNs was low even when present. Findings are of concern given the study areas were part of enhanced efforts to reduce artemisinin-resistant malaria. Nonetheless, groups vulnerable to malaria such as individuals in rural settings, lower socio-economic households, and workers in high mosquito exposure jobs, had higher rates of ITN ownership. Malaria knowledge was linked to effective ITN use suggesting that distribution campaigns should be complemented by behavior change communications.

Antibiotic Resistance in an Indian Rural Community: A 'One-Health' Observational Study on Commensal Coliform from Humans, Animals, and Water.

PubMed

Purohit, Manju Raj; Chandran, Salesh; Shah, Harshada; Diwan, Vishal; Tamhankar, Ashok J; Stålsby Lundborg, Cecilia

2017-04-06

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are an escalating grim menace to global public health. Our aim is to phenotype and genotype antibiotic-resistant commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) from humans, animals, and water from the same community with a 'one-health' approach. The samples were collected from a village belonging to demographic surveillance site of Ruxmaniben Deepchand (R.D.) Gardi Medical College Ujjain, Central India. Commensal coliforms from stool samples from children aged 1-3 years and their environment (animals, drinking water from children's households, common source- and waste-water) were studied for antibiotic susceptibility and plasmid-encoded resistance genes. E. coli isolates from human ( n = 127), animal ( n = 21), waste- ( n = 12), source- ( n = 10), and household drinking water ( n = 122) carried 70%, 29%, 41%, 30%, and 30% multi-drug resistance, respectively. Extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers were 57% in human and 23% in environmental isolates. Co-resistance was frequent in penicillin, cephalosporin, and quinolone. Antibiotic-resistance genes bla CTX-M-9 and qnrS were most frequent. Group D-type isolates with resistance genes were mainly from humans and wastewater. Colistin resistance, or the mcr-1 gene, was not detected. The frequency of resistance, co-resistance, and resistant genes are high and similar in coliforms from humans and their environment. This emphasizes the need to mitigate antibiotic resistance with a 'one-health' approach.