Evaluation of human enteric viruses in surface water and drinking water resources in southern Ghana.

PubMed

Gibson, Kristen E; Opryszko, Melissa C; Schissler, James T; Guo, Yayi; Schwab, Kellogg J

2011-01-01

An estimated 884 million people worldwide do not have access to an improved drinking water source, and the microbial quality of these sources is often unknown. In this study, a combined tangential flow, hollow fiber ultrafiltration (UF), and real-time PCR method was applied to large volume (100 L) groundwater (N = 4), surface water (N = 9), and finished (i.e., receiving treatment) drinking water (N = 6) samples for the evaluation of human enteric viruses and bacterial indicators. Human enteric viruses including norovirus GI and GII, adenovirus, and polyomavirus were detected in five different samples including one groundwater, three surface water, and one drinking water sample. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli assessed for each sample before and after UF revealed a lack of correlation between bacterial indicators and the presence of human enteric viruses.

Evaluation of Human Enteric Viruses in Surface Water and Drinking Water Resources in Southern Ghana

PubMed Central

Gibson, Kristen E.; Opryszko, Melissa C.; Schissler, James T.; Guo, Yayi; Schwab, Kellogg J.

2011-01-01

An estimated 884 million people worldwide do not have access to an improved drinking water source, and the microbial quality of these sources is often unknown. In this study, a combined tangential flow, hollow fiber ultrafiltration (UF), and real-time PCR method was applied to large volume (100 L) groundwater (N = 4), surface water (N = 9), and finished (i.e., receiving treatment) drinking water (N = 6) samples for the evaluation of human enteric viruses and bacterial indicators. Human enteric viruses including norovirus GI and GII, adenovirus, and polyomavirus were detected in five different samples including one groundwater, three surface water, and one drinking water sample. Total coliforms and Escherichia coli assessed for each sample before and after UF revealed a lack of correlation between bacterial indicators and the presence of human enteric viruses. PMID:21212196

A One Year Study on the Concentrations of Norovirus and Enteric Adenoviruses in Wastewater and A Surface Drinking Water Source in Norway.

PubMed

Grøndahl-Rosado, Ricardo C; Yarovitsyna, Ekaterina; Trettenes, Elin; Myrmel, Mette; Robertson, Lucy J

2014-12-01

Enteric viruses transmitted via the faecal-oral route occur in high concentrations in wastewater and may contaminate drinking water sources and cause disease. In order to quantify enteric adenovirus and norovirus genotypes I and II (GI and GII) impacting a drinking source in Norway, samples of surface water (52), wastewater inlet (64) and outlet (59) were collected between January 2011 and April 2012. Samples were concentrated in two steps, using an electropositive disc filter and polyethylene glycol precipitation, followed by nucleic acid extraction and analysis by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Virus was detected in 47/52 (90.4%) of surface water, 59/64 (92%) of wastewater inlet and 55/59 (93%) of wastewater outlet samples. Norovirus GI occurred in the highest concentrations in surface water (2.51e + 04) and adenovirus in wastewater (2.15e + 07). While adenovirus was the most frequently detected in all matrices, norovirus GI was more frequently detected in surface water and norovirus GII in wastewater. This study is the first in Norway to monitor both sewage and a drinking water source in parallel, and confirms the year-round presence of norovirus and adenovirus in a Norwegian drinking water source.

Occurrence of bisphenol A in surface water, drinking water and plasma from Malaysia with exposure assessment from consumption of drinking water.

PubMed

Santhi, V A; Sakai, N; Ahmad, E D; Mustafa, A M

2012-06-15

This study investigated the level of bisphenol A (BPA) in surface water used as potable water, drinking water (tap and bottled mineral water) and human plasma in the Langat River basin, Malaysia. BPA was present in 93% of the surface water samples at levels ranging from below limit of quantification (LOQ; 1.3 ng/L) to 215 ng/L while six fold higher levels were detected in samples collected near industrial and municipal sewage treatment plant outlets. Low levels of BPA were detected in most of the drinking water samples. BPA in tap water ranged from 3.5 to 59.8 ng/L with the highest levels detected in samples collected from taps connected to PVC pipes and water filter devices. Bottled mineral water had lower levels of BPA (3.3±2.6 ng/L) although samples stored in poor storage condition had significantly higher levels (11.3±5.3 ng/L). Meanwhile, only 17% of the plasma samples had detectable levels of BPA ranging from 0.81 to 3.65 ng/mL. The study shows that BPA is a ubiquitous contaminant in surface, tap and bottled mineral water. However, exposure to BPA from drinking water is very low and is less than 0.01% of the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A SYSTEMATIC STUDY ON THE SURFACE CHARGE OF MICROORGANISMS IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

The removal of microbiological pathogens from drinking water is an important function of water treatment. The mechanisms of particle and pathogen removal during coagulation/flocculation/filtration processes are well known. Surface charge is particularly important in particle dest...

Drinking water: a major source of lead exposure in Karachi, Pakistan.

PubMed

Ul-Haq, N; Arain, M A; Badar, N; Rasheed, M; Haque, Z

2011-11-01

Excess lead in drinking water is a neglected source of lead toxicity in Pakistan. A cross-sectional survey in 2007/08 was made of water samples from drinking water sources in Karachi, a large industrial city. This study aimed to compare lead levels between untreated ground water and treated surface (tap) water in 18 different districts. Of 216 ground and surface water samples collected, 86% had lead levels higher than the World Health Organization maximum acceptable concentration of l0 ppb. Mean lead concentration in ground water [146 (SD 119) ppb] was significantly higher than in surface water [77.1 (SD 54) ppb]. None of the 18 districts had a mean lead level of ground or surface water below the WHO cut-off and ground water sources in 9 districts had a severe level of contamination (>150 ppb). Urgent action is needed to eliminate sources of contamination.

Bacterial repopulation of drinking water pipe walls after chlorination.

PubMed

Mathieu, Laurence; Francius, Grégory; El Zein, Racha; Angel, Edith; Block, Jean-Claude

2016-09-01

The short-term kinetics of bacterial repopulation were evaluated after chlorination of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) colonized with drinking water biofilms and compared with bare HDPE surfaces. The effect of chlorination was partial as a residual biofilm persisted and was time-limited as repopulation occurred immediately after water resupply. The total number of bacteria reached the same levels on both the bare and chlorinated biofilm-fouled HDPE after a seven-day exposure to drinking water. Due to the presence of a residual biofilm, the hydrophobicity of chlorinated biofilm-fouled surface exhibited much lower adhesion forces (2.1 nN) compared to bare surfaces (8.9 nN). This could explain the rapid repopulation after chlorination, with a twofold faster bacterial accumulation rate on the bare HDPE surface. γ-Proteobacteria dominated the early stages of repopulation of both surfaces and a shift in the dominance occurred over the colonization time. Such observations define a timescale for cleaning frequency in industrial environments and guidelines for a rinsing procedure using drinking water.

IN-FIELD PRESERVATION OF ARSENIC SPECIES IN DRINKING WATER USING EDTA

EPA Science Inventory

The two predominant inorganic arsenic species found in drinking waters are As(III) and As(V). As(III) is commonly associated with ground waters while As(V) is associated with surface waters. The efficiency of arsenic removal from a drinking water supply is dependent on the oxid...

75 FR 8500 - 1,2,3-Propanetriol, Homopolymer Diisooctadecanoate; Exemption from the Requirement of a Tolerance

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-02-25

....'' This includes exposure through drinking water and in residential settings, but does not include..., EPA examines exposure to the pesticide through food, drinking water, and through other exposures that... other non-occupational exposures, including drinking water from ground water or surface water and...

Survey of the Mutagenicity of Surface Water, Sediments, and Drinking Water from the Penobscot Indian Nation.

EPA Science Inventory

Survey of the Mutagenicity of Surface Water, Sediments, andDrinking Water from the Penobscot Indian NationSarah H. Warren, Larry D. Claxton,1, Thomas J. Hughes,*, Adam Swank,Janet Diliberto, Valerie Marshall, Daniel H. Kusnierz, Robert Hillger, David M. DeMariniNational Health a...

SMALL DRINKING WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR COMPLIANCE WITH THE ENHANCED SURFACE WATER TREATMENT RULES

EPA Science Inventory

According to FY2003 statistics compiled by the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, the U.S. regulates about 160,000 small drinking water systems that impact close to 70 million people. Small systems (serving transient and non-transient populations of 10,000 people or less...

76 FR 57740 - Program Requirement Revisions Related to the Public Water System Supervision Programs for the...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2011-09-16

... System Supervision (PWSS) programs to meet the requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The State of Rhode Island has adopted drinking water regulations for the Arsenic Rule (66 FR 6976... adopted drinking water regulations for the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (63 FR 69477...

Occurrence of cocaine and benzoylecgonine in drinking and source water in the São Paulo State region, Brazil.

PubMed

Campestrini, Iolana; Jardim, Wilson F

2017-01-15

The occurrence of illicit drugs in natural waters (surface, source and drinking water) is of interest due to the poor sanitation coverage and the high consumption of drugs of abuse in Brazil. In addition, little is known about the effects of these compounds on aquatic organisms and human health. This work investigates the occurrence of cocaine (COC) and its major metabolite, benzoylecgonine (BE), in surface and drinking water collected in rivers from a populated geographic area in Brazil. Surface water samples were collected in 22 locations from 16 different rivers and one dam from São Paulo State, whereas drinking water samples were collected in 5 locations. Samples were collected during the dry and wet season. Among the 34 surface water samples analyzed, BE was detected above the LOD in 94%, while COC in 85%. BE concentrations ranged from 10ngL -1 to 1019ngL -1 and COC concentrations from 6ngL -1 to 62ngL -1 . In the drinking water samples analyzed, BE and COC were found in 100% of the samples analyzed. For BE, concentrations were found in the range from 10ngL -1 to 652ngL -1 , and COC was quantified in concentrations between 6 and 22ngL -1 . These concentrations are one of the highest found in urban surface waters and may pose some risk to aquatic species. However, no human health risk was identified using the Hazard Quotient. BE is proposed as a reliable indicator of sewage contamination in both source and drinking water. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of endocrine-disrupting and other wastewater compunds during water treatment with case studies from Lincoln, Nebraska and Berlin, Germany

USGS Publications Warehouse

Verstraeten, Ingrid M.; Heberer, T.; Vogel, J.R.; Speth, T.; Zuehlke, S.; Duennbier, U.

2003-01-01

Research on the fate and transport of endocrine-disrupting compounds and other organic wastewater compounds released into the environment and their potential presence in drinking water is in its infancy. Studies conducted during the last decade in Lincoln, Nebraska, and Berlin, Germany, indicate that removal of less polar compounds probably can be obtained through bank filtration, ground-water enrichment, and additional drinking-water and wastewater treatment processes. Polar compounds, such as atrazine and some metabolites, occur in drinking water obtained from contaminated surface water or ground water, but at concentrations generally lower than those occurring in wastewater and surface water. The results of the studies also suggest that concentrations of nonpolar estrogenic compounds decrease during drinking-water pretreatment processes such as bank filtration and ground-water enrichment.

Legislation and policy for the protection of the drinking water supply in The Netherlands.

PubMed

van Dijk-Looijaard, A M; de Kruijf, H A

1985-12-01

The drinking water supply in The Netherlands is particularly influenced by the pollution of surface water with organic micropollutants as the country is located at the delta of the polluted rivers Rhine and Meuse. Also ground water pollution, resulting from intensive industrial and agricultural activities in this densely populated country, is becoming increasingly important. Consequently the Dutch Government has great interest in international research, discussions and agreements concerning the protection of raw water sources. This paper summarizes the drinking water quality regulations together with the present legislation and activities carried out for the protection of both surface water and ground water. Most measures are now taken in the international frameworks of the EC (European Community) or IRC (International Rhine Commission), but in the Dutch legislation and sanitation policy additional activities are being carried out to safeguard the quality of drinking water in The Netherlands. Finally the policy of the Dutch government to continue the safe and durable provision of drinking water in the future is discussed.

Single particle ICP-MS characterization of titanium dioxide, silver, and gold nanoparticles during drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Donovan, Ariel R; Adams, Craig D; Ma, Yinfa; Stephan, Chady; Eichholz, Todd; Shi, Honglan

2016-02-01

One of the most direct means for human exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) released into the environment is drinking water. Therefore, it is critical to understand the occurrence and fate of NPs in drinking water systems. The objectives of this study were to develop rapid and reliable analytical methods and apply them to investigate the fate and transportation of NPs during drinking water treatments. Rapid single particle ICP-MS (SP-ICP-MS) methods were developed to characterize and quantify titanium-containing, titanium dioxide, silver, and gold NP concentration, size, size distribution, and dissolved metal element concentration in surface water and treated drinking water. The effectiveness of conventional drinking water treatments (including lime softening, alum coagulation, filtration, and disinfection) to remove NPs from surface water was evaluated using six-gang stirrer jar test simulations. The selected NPs were nearly completely (97 ± 3%) removed after lime softening and alum coagulation/activated carbon adsorption treatments. Additionally, source and drinking waters from three large drinking water treatment facilities utilizing similar treatments with the simulation test were collected and analyzed by the SP-ICP-MS methods. Ti-containing particles and dissolved Ti were present in the river water samples, but Ag and Au were not present. Treatments used at each drinking water treatment facility effectively removed over 93% of the Ti-containing particles and dissolved Ti from the source water. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

MUTAGENICITY AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN SURFACE DRINKING WATER DISINFECTED WITH PERACETIC ACID

EPA Science Inventory

The aims of this research were to study the influence of peracetic acid (PAA) on the formation of mutagens in surface waters used for human consumption and to assess its potential application for the disinfection of drinking water. The results obtained using PAA were compared to ...

Comparison of in vitro estrogenic activity and estrogen concentrations in source and treated waters from 25 U.S. drinking water treatment plants

EPA Science Inventory

In vitro bioassays have been successfully used to screen for estrogenic activity in wastewater and surface water, however, few have been applied to treated drinking water. Here, extracts of source and treated drinking water samples were assayed for estrogenic activity using T47D...

Environmental surveillance master sampling schedule

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Bisping, L.E.

This document contains the planned 1994 schedules for routine collection of samples for the Surface Environmental Surveillance Project (SESP), Drinking Water Project, and Ground-Water Surveillance Project. Samples are routinely collected for the SESP and analyzed to determine the quality of air, surface water, soil, sediment, wildlife, vegetation, foodstuffs, and farm products at Hanford Site and surrounding communities. The responsibility for monitoring the onsite drinking water falls outside the scope of the SESP. The Hanford Environmental Health Foundation is responsible for monitoring the nonradiological parameters as defined in the National Drinking Water Standards while PNL conducts the radiological monitoring of themore » onsite drinking water. PNL conducts the drinking water monitoring project concurrent with the SESP to promote efficiency and consistency, utilize the expertise developed over the years, and reduce costs associated with management, procedure development, data management, quality control and reporting. The ground-water sampling schedule identifies ground-water sampling events used by PNL for environmental surveillance of the Hanford Site.« less

Pattern of dental caries experience on tooth surfaces in an adult population.

PubMed

Hopcraft, Matthew Scott; Morgan, Michael Vivian

2006-06-01

To determine the pattern of caries experience across teeth and surfaces in an adult population depending on age and exposure to water fluoridation. Between November 2002 and March 2003 a total of 973 subjects aged 17-51 years had a clinical examination using visual and tactile criteria. Subsequent to this examination, bitewing radiographs were taken and viewed separately. Approximal and occlusal surfaces of molars and premolars were examined on the radiographs. Caries experience was relatively low, with mean DMFS scores of 3.21, 5.12, 9.61, 13.04 and 24.35 for subjects aged 17-20, 21-25, 26-30, 31-35 and 36-51 years respectively. The first molar teeth had the greatest caries experience, and occlusal surfaces had more caries experience than approximal surfaces. Subjects with a lifetime exposure to fluoridated drinking water had significantly lower caries experience than those who had no exposure to fluoridated drinking water. This study showed that caries prevalence, although relatively low in the study population, was found predominantly in occlusal surfaces, with an increasing prevalence in approximal surfaces of posterior teeth in older subjects. Subjects with a lifetime exposure to fluoridated drinking water had a lower level of caries experience than those with no exposure to fluoridated drinking water, and this was more noticeable in approximal surfaces than occlusal surfaces.

Microbial Community Profile of a Lead Service Line Removed from a Drinking Water Distribution System

EPA Science Inventory

A corroded lead water pipe was removed from a drinking water distribution system and the microbial community was profiled using 16S rDNA techniques. This is the first report of the characterization of biofilm on a surface of a corroded lead drinking water pipe. The majority of ...

Presence and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in surface water and drinking water.

PubMed

Sanderson, Hans

2011-01-01

Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals have been detected in surface waters in the nano- to microgram per liter range, and in drinking water in the nanogram/L range. The environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in surface waters have been evaluated and generally found to be low if the wastewater is treated before release to the environment. The human health risks of trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in drinking water have however not been evaluated in any great depth. Preliminary screening level assessments suggest risk to be low--but the public and decision-makers are concerned and would like the matter investigated more thoroughly, especially with regards to mixture effects, chronic long-term effects and sensitive sub-populations. The World Health Organization is currently evaluating the need for credible health based guidance associated with low concentrations of pharmaceuticals in drinking water. The aim of this paper is to summarize the state-of-the-science and the ongoing international debate on the topic.

High prevalence of enteric viruses in untreated individual drinking water sources and surface water in Slovenia.

PubMed

Steyer, Andrej; Torkar, Karmen Godič; Gutiérrez-Aguirre, Ion; Poljšak-Prijatelj, Mateja

2011-09-01

Waterborne infections have been shown to be important in outbreaks of gastroenteritis throughout the world. Although improved sanitary conditions are being progressively applied, fecal contaminations remain an emerging problem also in developed countries. The aim of our study was to investigate the prevalence of fecal contaminated water sources in Slovenia, including surface waters and groundwater sources throughout the country. In total, 152 water samples were investigated, of which 72 samples represents groundwater from individual wells, 17 samples from public collection supplies and 63 samples from surface stream waters. Two liters of untreated water samples were collected and concentrated by the adsorption/elution technique with positively charged filters followed by an additional ultracentrifugation step. Group A rotaviruses, noroviruses (genogroups I and II) and astroviruses were detected with real-time RT-PCR method in 69 (45.4%) out of 152 samples collected, of which 31/89 (34.8%) drinking water and 38/63 (60.3%) surface water samples were positive for at least one virus tested. In 30.3% of drinking water samples group A rotaviruses were detected (27/89), followed by noroviruses GI (2.2%; 2/89) and astroviruses (2.2%; 2/89). In drinking groundwater samples group A rotaviruses were detected in 27 out of 72 tested samples (37.5%), genogroup I noroviruses in two (2.8%), and human astroviruses in one (1.4%) samples. In surface water samples norovirus genogroup GII was the most frequently detected (41.3%; 26/63), followed by norovirus GI (33.3%; 21/63), human astrovirus (27.0%; 17/63) and group A rotavirus (17.5%; 11/63). Our study demonstrates relatively high percentage of groundwater contamination in Slovenia and, suggests that raw groundwater used as individual drinking water supply may constitute a possible source of enteric virus infections. In the future, testing for enteric viruses should be applied for drinking water sources in waterborne outbreaks. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Characterization of Copper Corrosion Products in Drinking Water by Combining Electrochemical and Surface Analyses

EPA Science Inventory

This study focuses on the application of electrochemical approaches to drinking water copper corrosion problems. Applying electrochemical approaches combined with copper solubility measurements, and solid surface analysis approaches were discussed. Tafel extrapolation and Electro...

Characterization of Copper Corrosion Products Formed in Drinking Water by Combining Electrochemical and Surface Analyses

EPA Science Inventory

This study focuses on the application of electrochemical approaches to drinking water copper corrosion problems. Applying electrochemical approaches combined with copper solubility measurements, and solid surface analysis approaches were discussed. Tafel extrapolation and Electro...

Assessment of the Unintentional Reuse of Municipal Wastewater

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Okasaki, S.; Fono, L.; Sedlak, D. L.; Dracup, J. A.

2002-12-01

Many surface waters that receive wastewater effluent also serve as source waters for drinking water treatment plants. Recent research has shown that a number of previously undiscovered wastewater-derived contaminants are present in these surface waters, including pharmaceuticals and human hormones, several of which are suspected carcinogens or endocrine disrupters and are, as of yet, unregulated through drinking water standards. This research has been designed to determine the extent of contamination of specific wastewater-derived contaminants in surface water bodies that both receive wastewater effluent and serve as a source of drinking water to a sizeable population. We are testing the hypothesis that surface water supplies during low flow are potentially of worse quality than carefully monitored reclaimed water. The first phase of our research involves: (1) the selection of sites for study; (2) a hydrologic analysis of the selected sites to determine average flow of the source water during median- and low-flow conditions; and (3) the development and testing of chemical analyses, including both conservative and reactive tracers that have been studied in microcosms and wetlands for attenuation rates. The second phase involves the development and use of the hydrologic model QUAL2E to simulate each of the selected watersheds in order to estimate potential stream water quality impairments at the drinking water intake at each site. The results of the model are verified with field sampling at designated locations at each site. We expect to identify several critical river basins where surface water at the drinking water intake contains sufficient wastewater-derived contaminants to warrant concern. If wastewater-derived contaminants are detected, we will estimate the average annual exposure of consumers of this water. We will compare these expected and actual concentrations with typical constituent concentrations found in wastewater that has undergone advanced treatment for reclamation. We may demonstrate that the surface water supplies during low flow are actually of worse quality than carefully monitored reclaimed water.

Public Infrastructure Disparities and the Microbiological and Chemical Safety of Drinking and Surface Water Supplies in a Community Bordering a Landfill

PubMed Central

Heaney, Christopher D.; Wing, Steve; Wilson, Sacoby M.; Campbell, Robert L.; Caldwell, David; Hopkins, Barbara; O’Shea, Shannon; Yeatts, Karin

2015-01-01

The historically African-American Rogers-Eubanks community straddles unincorporated boundaries of two municipalities in Orange County, North Carolina, and predates a regional landfill sited along its border in 1972. Community members from the Rogers-Eubanks Neighborhood Association (RENA), concerned about deterioration of private wells and septic systems and a lack of public drinking water and sewer services, implemented a community-driven research partnership with university scientists and community-based organizations to investigate water and sewer infrastructure disparities and the safety of drinking and surface water supplies. RENA drafted memoranda of agreement with partners and trained community monitors to collect data (inventory households, map water and sewer infrastructure, administer household water and sewer infrastructure surveys, and collect drinking and surface water samples). Respondents to the surveys reported pervasive signs of well vulnerability (100%) and septic system failure (68%). Each 100-m increase in distance from the landfill was associated with a 600 most probable number/100 mL decrease in enterococci concentrations in surface water (95% confidence interval = −1106, −93). Pervasive private household water and sewer infrastructure failures and poor water quality were identified in this community bordering a regional landfill, providing evidence of a need for improved water and sanitation services. PMID:23858663

The Accumulation Of Radium And Other Radionuclides In Drinking Water Distribution Systems

EPA Science Inventory

The tendency for iron solid surfaces to adsorb trace contaminants such as arsenic is well known and has become the basis for several drinking water treatment approaches. It is reasonable to assume that iron-based solids, such as corrosion deposits present in drinking water distr...

Herbicide micropollutants in surface, ground and drinking waters within and near the area of Zagreb, Croatia.

PubMed

Fingler, Sanja; Mendaš, G; Dvoršćak, M; Stipičević, S; Vasilić, Ž; Drevenkar, V

2017-04-01

The frequency and mass concentrations of 13 herbicide micropollutants (triazines, phenylureas, chloroacetanilides and trifluralin) were investigated during 2014 in surface, ground and drinking waters in the area of the city of Zagreb and its suburbs. Herbicide compounds were accumulated from water by solid-phase extraction using either octadecylsilica or styrene-divinylbenzene sorbent cartridges and analysed either by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV-diode array detector or gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. Atrazine was the most frequently detected herbicide in drinking (84 % of samples) and ground (61 % of samples) waters in mass concentrations of 5 to 68 ng L -1 . It was followed by metolachlor and terbuthylazine, the former being detected in 54 % of drinking (up to 15 ng L -1 ) and 23 % of ground (up to 100 ng L -1 ) waters, and the latter in 45 % of drinking (up to 20 ng L -1 ) and 26 % of ground (up to 25 ng L -1 ) water samples. Acetochlor was the fourth most abundant herbicide in drinking waters, detected in 32 % of samples. Its mass concentrations of 107 to 117 ng L -1 in three tap water samples were the highest of all herbicides measured in the drinking waters. The most frequently (62 % of samples) and highly (up to 887 ng L -1 ) detected herbicide in surface waters was metolachlor, followed by terbuthylazine detected in 49 % of samples in mass concentrations of up to 690 ng L -1 , and atrazine detected in 30 % of samples in mass concentrations of up to 18 ng L -1 . The seasonal variations in herbicide concentrations in surface waters were observed for terbuthylazine, metolachlor, acetochlor, chlortoluron and isoproturon with the highest concentrations measured from April to August.

Presence of active pharmaceutical ingredients in the continuum of surface and ground water used in drinking water production.

PubMed

Ahkola, Heidi; Tuominen, Sirkku; Karlsson, Sanja; Perkola, Noora; Huttula, Timo; Saraperä, Sami; Artimo, Aki; Korpiharju, Taina; Äystö, Lauri; Fjäder, Päivi; Assmuth, Timo; Rosendahl, Kirsi; Nysten, Taina

2017-12-01

Anthropogenic chemicals in surface water and groundwater cause concern especially when the water is used in drinking water production. Due to their continuous release or spill-over at waste water treatment plants, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are constantly present in aquatic environment and despite their low concentrations, APIs can still cause effects on the organisms. In the present study, Chemcatcher passive sampling was applied in surface water, surface water intake site, and groundwater observation wells to estimate whether the selected APIs are able to end up in drinking water supply through an artificial groundwater recharge system. The API concentrations measured in conventional wastewater, surface water, and groundwater grab samples were assessed with the results obtained with passive samplers. Out of the 25 APIs studied with passive sampling, four were observed in groundwater and 21 in surface water. This suggests that many anthropogenic APIs released to waste water proceed downstream and can be detectable in groundwater recharge. Chemcatcher passive samplers have previously been used in monitoring several harmful chemicals in surface and wastewaters, but the path of chemicals to groundwater has not been studied. This study provides novel information on the suitability of the Chemcatcher passive samplers for detecting APIs in groundwater wells.

Quantifying the role of National Forest system lands in providing surface drinking water supply for the Southern United States

Treesearch

Peter Caldwell; Corinne Muldoon; Chelcy Ford-Miniat; Erika Cohen; Suzanne Krieger; Ge Sun; Steven McNulty; Paul V. Bolstad

2014-01-01

Forests and water are inextricably linked, and people are dependent on forested lands to provide clean, reliable water supplies for drinking and to support local economies. These water supplies are at risk of degradation from a growing population, continued conversion of forests to other land uses, and climate change. Given the variety of threats to surface water, it...

Human Health Benchmarks for Pesticides

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Advanced testing methods now allow pesticides to be detected in water at very low levels. These small amounts of pesticides detected in drinking water or source water for drinking water do not necessarily indicate a health risk. The EPA has developed human health benchmarks for 363 pesticides to enable our partners to better determine whether the detection of a pesticide in drinking water or source waters for drinking water may indicate a potential health risk and to help them prioritize monitoring efforts.The table below includes benchmarks for acute (one-day) and chronic (lifetime) exposures for the most sensitive populations from exposure to pesticides that may be found in surface or ground water sources of drinking water. The table also includes benchmarks for 40 pesticides in drinking water that have the potential for cancer risk. The HHBP table includes pesticide active ingredients for which Health Advisories or enforceable National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (e.g., maximum contaminant levels) have not been developed.

Modeling Source Water Threshold Exceedances with Extreme Value Theory

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Rajagopalan, B.; Samson, C.; Summers, R. S.

2016-12-01

Variability in surface water quality, influenced by seasonal and long-term climate changes, can impact drinking water quality and treatment. In particular, temperature and precipitation can impact surface water quality directly or through their influence on streamflow and dilution capacity. Furthermore, they also impact land surface factors, such as soil moisture and vegetation, which can in turn affect surface water quality, in particular, levels of organic matter in surface waters which are of concern. All of these will be exacerbated by anthropogenic climate change. While some source water quality parameters, particularly Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and bromide concentrations, are not directly regulated for drinking water, these parameters are precursors to the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), which are regulated in drinking water distribution systems. These DBPs form when a disinfectant, added to the water to protect public health against microbial pathogens, most commonly chlorine, reacts with dissolved organic matter (DOM), measured as TOC or dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and inorganic precursor materials, such as bromide. Therefore, understanding and modeling the extremes of TOC and Bromide concentrations is of critical interest for drinking water utilities. In this study we develop nonstationary extreme value analysis models for threshold exceedances of source water quality parameters, specifically TOC and bromide concentrations. In this, the threshold exceedances are modeled as Generalized Pareto Distribution (GPD) whose parameters vary as a function of climate and land surface variables - thus, enabling to capture the temporal nonstationarity. We apply these to model threshold exceedance of source water TOC and bromide concentrations at two locations with different climate and find very good performance.

40 CFR 141.65 - Maximum residual disinfectant levels.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

.... 141.65 Section 141.65 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking Water... only ground water not under the direct influence of surface water must comply with this subpart...

40 CFR 141.65 - Maximum residual disinfectant levels.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

.... 141.65 Section 141.65 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking Water... only ground water not under the direct influence of surface water must comply with this subpart...

40 CFR 141.65 - Maximum residual disinfectant levels.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

.... 141.65 Section 141.65 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking Water... only ground water not under the direct influence of surface water must comply with this subpart...

40 CFR 141.65 - Maximum residual disinfectant levels.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

.... 141.65 Section 141.65 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking Water... only ground water not under the direct influence of surface water must comply with this subpart...

Vulnerability of drinking water supplies to engineered nanoparticles.

PubMed

Troester, Martin; Brauch, Heinz-Juergen; Hofmann, Thilo

2016-06-01

The production and use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) inevitably leads to their release into aquatic environments, with the quantities involved expected to increase significantly in the future. Concerns therefore arise over the possibility that ENPs might pose a threat to drinking water supplies. Investigations into the vulnerability of drinking water supplies to ENPs are hampered by the absence of suitable analytical methods that are capable of detecting and quantifiying ENPs in complex aqueous matrices. Analytical data concerning the presence of ENPs in drinking water supplies is therefore scarce. The eventual fate of ENPs in the natural environment and in processes that are important for drinking water production are currently being investigated through laboratory based-experiments and modelling. Although the information obtained from these studies may not, as yet, be sufficient to allow comprehensive assessment of the complete life-cycle of ENPs, it does provide a valuable starting point for predicting the significance of ENPs to drinking water supplies. This review therefore addresses the vulnerability of drinking water supplies to ENPs. The risk of ENPs entering drinking water is discussed and predicted for drinking water produced from groundwater and from surface water. Our evaluation is based on reviewing published data concerning ENP production amounts and release patterns, the occurrence and behavior of ENPs in aquatic systems relevant for drinking water supply and ENP removability in drinking water purification processes. Quantitative predictions are made based on realistic high-input case scenarios. The results of our synthesis of current knowledge suggest that the risk probability of ENPs being present in surface water resources is generally limited, but that particular local conditions may increase the probability of raw water contamination by ENPs. Drinking water extracted from porous media aquifers are not generally considered to be prone to ENP contamination. In karstic aquifers, however, there is an increased probability that if any ENPs enter the groundwater system they will reach the extraction point of a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). The ability to remove ENPs during water treatment depends on the specific design of the treatment process. In conventional DWTPs with no flocculation step a proportion of ENPs, if present in the raw water, may reach the final drinking water. The use of ultrafiltration techniques improves drinking water safety with respect to ENP contamination. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diversity and antibiotic resistance of Aeromonas spp. in drinking and waste water treatment plants.

PubMed

Figueira, Vânia; Vaz-Moreira, Ivone; Silva, Márcia; Manaia, Célia M

2011-11-01

The taxonomic diversity and antibiotic resistance phenotypes of aeromonads were examined in samples from drinking and waste water treatment plants (surface, ground and disinfected water in a drinking water treatment plant, and raw and treated waste water) and tap water. Bacteria identification and intra-species variation were determined based on the analysis of the 16S rRNA, gyrB and cpn60 gene sequences. Resistance phenotypes were determined using the disc diffusion method. Aeromonas veronii prevailed in raw surface water, Aeromonas hydrophyla in ozonated water, and Aeromonas media and Aeromonas puntacta in waste water. No aeromonads were detected in ground water, after the chlorination tank or in tap water. Resistance to ceftazidime or meropenem was detected in isolates from the drinking water treatment plant and waste water isolates were intrinsically resistant to nalidixic acid. Most of the times, quinolone resistance was associated with the gyrA mutation in serine 83. The gene qnrS, but not the genes qnrA, B, C, D or qepA, was detected in both surface and waste water isolates. The gene aac(6')-ib-cr was detected in different waste water strains isolated in the presence of ciprofloxacin. Both quinolone resistance genes were detected only in the species A. media. This is the first study tracking antimicrobial resistance in aeromonads in drinking, tap and waste water and the importance of these bacteria as vectors of resistance in aquatic environments is discussed. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effect of agrochemical use on the drinking water quality of Agogo, a tomato growing community in Ashanti Akim, Ghana.

PubMed

Obiri-Danso, K; Adonadaga, M G; Hogarh, J N

2011-01-01

The effect of agrochemical use in agricultural activities on the drinking water quality of ground and surface water within Agogo, a prominent tomato growing area in the Ashanti region of Ghana was assessed by monitoring physicochemical parameters, trace metals and microbial quality of two water sources. Levels of contamination were greater in surface water than groundwater. Trace metal levels (mg/L) were 1.40, 0.12, 0.08 and 0.18 in surface water and 0.08, 0.10, 0.05 and 0.08 in groundwater for Fe, Pb, Zn and Cd, respectively. Lead and Cd in surface and groundwater exceeded USEPA maximum acceptable levels (MCLs) for drinking water. Bacterial indicator numbers (geometric means/100 mL) in surface water varied from 9.35 x 10⁵ to 1.57 x 10¹¹ for total coliforms, 4.15 x 10⁴ to 2.10 x 10⁷ for faecal coliforms and 2.80 x 10 to 3.25 x 10² for enterococci, but none was found in groundwater.

Assessing metaldehyde concentrations in surface water catchments and implications for drinking water abstraction

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Asfaw, Alemayehu; Shucksmith, James; Smith, Andrea; Cherry, Katherine

2015-04-01

Metaldehyde is an active ingredient in agricultural pesticides such as slug pellets, which are heavily applied to UK farmland during the autumn application season. There is current concern that existing drinking water treatment processes may be inadequate in reducing potentially high levels of metaldehyde in surface waters to below the UK drinking water quality regulation limit of 0.1 µg/l. In addition, current water quality monitoring methods can miss short term fluctuations in metaldehyde concentration caused by rainfall driven runoff, hampering prediction of the potential risk of exposure. Datasets describing levels, fate and transport of metaldehyde in river catchments are currently very scarce. This work presents results from an ongoing study to quantify the presence of metaldehyde in surface waters within a UK catchment used for drinking water abstraction. High resolution water quality data from auto-samplers installed in rivers are coupled with radar rainfall, catchment characteristics and land use data to i) understand which hydro-meteorological characteristics of the catchment trigger the peak migration of metaldehyde to surface waters; ii) assess the relationship between measured metaldehyde levels and catchment characteristics such as land use, topographic index, proximity to water bodies and runoff generation area; iii) describe the current risks to drinking water supply and discuss mitigation options based on modelling and real-time control of water abstraction. Identifying the correlation between catchment attributes and metaldehyde generation will help in the development of effective catchment management strategies, which can help to significantly reduce the amount of metaldehyde finding its way into river water. Furthermore, the effectiveness of current water quality monitoring strategy in accurately quantifying the generation of metaldehyde from the catchment and its ability to benefit the development of effective catchment management practices has also been investigated.

In vitro genotoxicity of chlorinated drinking water processed from humus-rich surface water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Liimatainen, A.; Grummt, T.

Chlorination by-products of drinking waters are capable of inducing sister chromatid exchanges (SCE) and chromosome aberrations (CA) in vitro, in addition to their mutagenic activity in the Ames test. Finnish drinking waters, processed from humus-rich surface water using chlorine disinfection, have been found to be highly mutagenic in the Ames' test. The highest activities have been found in the acidic, non-volatile fraction of the water concentrates using tester strain TA100 without metabolic activation by S9mix. The mutagenicities have varied between 500 and 14,000 induced revertants per liter. These figures are one to two magnitudes higher than those reported elsewhere. Themore » authors studied five Finnish drinking water samples for their potency to exert genotoxic effects, SCEs and CAs, in mammalian cells in vitro (human peripheral lymphocytes and Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts).« less

The importance of waterborne disease outbreak surveillance in the United States.

PubMed

Craun, Gunther Franz

2012-01-01

Analyses of the causes of disease outbreaks associated with contaminated drinking water in the United States have helped inform prevention efforts at the national, state, and local levels. This article describes the changing nature of disease outbreaks in public water systems during 1971-2008 and discusses the importance of a collaborative waterborne outbreak surveillance system established in 1971. Increasing reports of outbreaks throughout the early 1980s emphasized that microbial contaminants remained a health-risk challenge for suppliers of drinking water. Outbreak investigations identified the responsible etiologic agents and deficiencies in the treatment and distribution of drinking water, especially the high risk associated with unfiltered surface water systems. Surveillance information was important in establishing an effective research program that guided government regulations and industry actions to improve drinking water quality. Recent surveillance statistics suggest that prevention efforts based on these research findings have been effective in reducing outbreak risks especially for surface water systems.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceutical products and by-products, from resource to drinking water.

PubMed

Mompelat, S; Le Bot, B; Thomas, O

2009-07-01

Among all emerging substances in water, pharmaceutical products (PPs) and residues are a lot of concern. These last two years, the number of studies has increased drastically, however much less for water resources and drinking water than for wastewater. This literature review based on recent works, deals with water resources (surface or groundwater), focusing on characteristics, occurrence and fate of numerous PPs studied, and drinking water including water quality. Through this review, it appears that the pharmaceutical risk must be considered even in drinking water where concentrations are very low. Moreover, there is a lack of research for by-products (metabolites and transformation products) characterization, occurrence and fate in all water types and especially in drinking water.

Aerobic spore-forming bacteria for assessing quality of drinking water produced from surface water.

PubMed

Mazoua, Stephane; Chauveheid, Eric

2005-12-01

Cryptosporidium and Giardia represent a major microbiological issue for drinking water production from surface water. As their monitoring through a treatment process is rather tedious and as low-concentration goals should be reached for drinking water, aerobic spore-forming bacteria (ASFB) have been studied as an indicator microorganism for a drinking water treatment plant using surface water. The results reveal that monitoring naturally occurring ASFB better highlights daily achievable performances and identifies unusual process events for global disinfection, for both physical and chemical treatment steps in a multi-barrier drinking water treatment plant. Advantages of ASFB over usual process parameters are that these microorganisms are more sensitive to process fluctuations. The use of ASFB also showed that the efficiency of ozone disinfection is not as significantly influenced by the water temperature as reported, despite similar or higher CT values applied during warmer periods. Thus, the disinfection of resistant microorganisms with ozone can also be an efficient process at lower water temperature. ASFB have been shown to be a conservative indicator for Cryptosporidium and Giardia up to a 1st stage filtration and the ASFB Log removals can be used to estimate Log removals for Cryptosporidium and Giardia: compared to ASFB, the Log removals for Cryptosporidium or Giardia are at least equal or 50% higher, respectively. Thus, the monitoring of ASFB along a drinking water treatment process could be a useful tool for performing risk analysis for parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia, and would further allow integration of daily variability into a risk analysis.

Pollution of water sources and removal of pollutants by advanced drinking-water treatment in China.

PubMed

Wang, L; Wang, B

2000-01-01

The pollution of water resources and drinking water sources in China is described in this paper with basic data. About 90% of surface waters and over 60% of drinking water sources in urban areas have been polluted to different extents. The main pollutants present in drinking water sources are organic substances, ammonia nitrogen, phenols, pesticides and pathogenic micro-organisms, some of which cannot be removed effectively by the traditional water treatment processes like coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination, and the product water usually does not meet Chinese national drinking water standards, when polluted source water is treated. In some drinking-water plants in China, advanced treatment processes including activated carbon filtration and adsorption, ozonation, biological activated carbon and membrane separation have been employed for further treatment of the filtrate from a traditional treatment system producing unqualified drinking water, to make final product water meet the WHO guidelines and some developed countries' standards, as well as the Chinese national standards for drinking water. Some case studies of advanced water treatment plants are described in this paper as well.

Tangential-flow ultrafiltration with integrated inhibition detection for recovery of surrogates and human pathogens from large-volume source water and finished drinking water.

PubMed

Gibson, Kristen E; Schwab, Kellogg J

2011-01-01

Tangential-flow ultrafiltration was optimized for the recovery of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens spores, bacteriophages MS2 and PRD1, murine norovirus, and poliovirus seeded into 100-liter surface water (SW) and drinking water (DW) samples. SW and DW collected from two drinking water treatment plants were then evaluated for human enteric viruses.

Characterization of the cell surface properties of drinking water pathogens by microbial adhesion to hydrocarbon and electrophoretic mobility measurements.

PubMed

Popovici, Jonathan; White, Colin P; Hoelle, Jill; Kinkle, Brian K; Lytle, Darren A

2014-06-01

The surface characteristics of microbial cells directly influence their mobility and behavior within aqueous environments. The cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) and electrophoretic mobility (EPM) of microbial cells impact a number of interactions and processes including aggregation, adhesion to surfaces, and stability of the cells within the aqueous environments. These cell characteristics are unique to the bacterial species and are a reflection of the large diversity of surface structures, proteins, and appendages of microorganisms. CSH and EPM of bacterial cells contribute substantially to the effectiveness of drinking water treatment to remove them, and therefore an investigation of these properties will be useful in predicting their removal through drinking water treatment processes and transport through drinking water distribution systems. EPM and CSH measurements of six microbiological pathogen or surrogate species suspended in phosphate-buffered water are reported in this work. Two strains of Vibrio cholerae were hydrophobic, while three strains of Escherichia coli were hydrophilic. Bacillus cereus was categorized as moderately hydrophobic. The strains of E. coli had the highest (most negative) EPM. Based on the measurements, E. coli species is predicted to be most difficult to remove from water while V. cholerae will be the easiest to remove. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Resource protection and resource management of drinking water-reservoirs in Thuringia--a prerequisite for high drinking-water quality.

PubMed

Willmitzer, H

2000-01-01

In face of widespread pollution of surface waters, strategies must be developed for the use of surface waters which protect the high quality standards of drinking water, starting with the catchment area via the reservoir to the consumer. As a rule, priority is given to the avoidance of contaminants directly at their point of origin. Water protection is always cheaper than expensive water-body restoration and water treatment. Complementary to the generally practised technical methods of raw water treatment with all their associated problems of energy input requirements, costs, and waste products, there is an increasing number of environmentally sound treatment technologies which use ecological principles as a basis to support the self-cleaning properties of flowing and dammed waters.

Differences in staining intensities affect reported occurrences and concentrations of Giardia spp. in surface drinking water sources

EPA Science Inventory

Aim USEPA Method 1623, or its equivalent, is currently used to monitor for protozoan contamination of surface drinking water sources worldwide. At least three approved staining kits used for detecting Cryptosporidium and Giardia are commercially available. This study focuses on ...

A hydrodynamics-based approach to evaluating the risk of waterborne pathogens entering drinking water intakes in a large, stratified lake.

PubMed

Hoyer, Andrea B; Schladow, S Geoffrey; Rueda, Francisco J

2015-10-15

Pathogen contamination of drinking water lakes and reservoirs is a severe threat to human health worldwide. A major source of pathogens in surface sources of drinking waters is from body-contact recreation in the water body. However, dispersion pathways of human waterborne pathogens from recreational beaches, where body-contact recreation is known to occur to drinking water intakes, and the associated risk of pathogens entering the drinking water supply remain largely undocumented. A high spatial resolution, three-dimensional hydrodynamic and particle tracking modeling approach has been developed to analyze the risk and mechanisms presented by pathogen dispersion. The pathogen model represents the processes of particle release, transport and survival. Here survival is a function of both water temperature and cumulative exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Pathogen transport is simulated using a novel and computationally efficient technique of tracking particle trajectories backwards, from a drinking water intake toward their source areas. The model has been applied to a large, alpine lake - Lake Tahoe, CA-NV (USA). The dispersion model results reveal that for this particular lake (1) the risk of human waterborne pathogens to enter drinking water intakes is low, but significant; (2) this risk is strongly related to the depth of the thermocline in relation to the depth of the intake; (3) the risk increases with the seasonal deepening of the surface mixed layer; and (4) the risk increases at night when the surface mixed layer deepens through convective mixing and inactivation by UV radiation is eliminated. While these risk factors will quantitatively vary in different lakes, these same mechanisms will govern the process of transport of pathogens. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Review of Selected References and Data sets on Ambient Ground- and Surface-Water Quality in the Metedeconk River, Toms River, and Kettle Creek Basins, New Jersey, 1980-2001

USGS Publications Warehouse

Nicholson, Robert S.; Hunchak-Kariouk, Kathryn; Cauller, Stephen J.

2003-01-01

Surface water and ground water from unconfined aquifers are the primary sources of drinking water for much of the population, about 391,000, in the Metedeconk River, Toms River, and Kettle Creek watersheds in the New Jersey Coastal Plain. The quality of these sources of drinking water is a concern because they are vulnerable to contamination. Indications of the occurrence, distribution, and likely sources and transport mechanisms of certain contaminants were obtained from 48 selected reports and 2 selected data sets on water quality in or near the watersheds (1980-2001). These indications are described and briefly summarized in this report. The findings of studies on ground-water quality indicate that shallow ground water within the study area generally meets primary drinking-water standards, with notable exceptions. Volatile organic compounds, mercury, arsenic, radionuclides, nitrate, and coliform bacteria have been detected in shallow ground water in some areas at levels that exceed Federal and State drinking-water standards. For example, results of analyses of untreated samples collected from more than 13,000 private wells during 1983-99 indicated that concentrations of volatile organic compounds in samples from 7.3 percent of the wells exceeded at least 1 of 11 drinking-water standards, according to records maintained by the Ocean County Health Department. In cases of exceedances, however, water treatment, well replacement, and (or) retesting assured that applicable drinking-water standards were being met at the tap. Reported concentrations of the pesticide chlordane in some areas exceeded the drinking-water standard; few data are available on the occurrence of other pesticides. Studies of nearby areas, however, indicate that pesticide concentrations generally could be expected to be below drinking-water standards. The combination of low pH and low dissolved solids in many areas results in shallow ground water that is highly corrosive and, if untreated, able to leach trace elements and release asbestos fibers from plumbing materials. Reported concentrations of nitrate, volatile organic compounds, trace elements, and pesticides in samples from the monitored mainstem and tributary streams within the study area generally are below maximum contaminant levels for drinking water or below detection limits. Results of studies in other areas indicate that pesticide concentrations in surface water could be considerably higher during high flows soon after the application of pesticides to crops than during low flows. Fecal coliform bacteria counts in streams vary considerably. Concentrations or counts of these classes of surface-water-quality constituents likely are functions of the intensity and type of upstream development. Results of limited monitoring for radionuclide concentrations reported by the Brick Township Municipal Utilities Authority of the Metedeconk River indicate that radionuclide concentrations or activities do not exceed maximum contaminant levels for drinking water. As a consequence of organic matter in surface water, the formati ultraviolet absorbance in samples from the Metedeconk River and the Toms River exceeded the alternative compliance criteria for source water (2.0 milligrams per liter for total organic carbon and 0.02 absorbance units-liters per milligram-centimeter for specific ultraviolet absorbance) with respect to treatment requirements for preventing elevated concentrations of disinfection by-products in treated water. Water-quality and treatment issues associated with use of ground and surface water for potable supply in the study area are related to human activities and naturally occurring factors. Additional monitoring and analysis of ground and surface water would be needed to determine conclusively the occurrence and distribution of some contaminants and the relative importance of various potential contaminant sources, transport and attenuation mechanisms, and transport pathways.

Perceived agricultural runoff impact on drinking water.

PubMed

Crampton, Andrea; Ragusa, Angela T

2014-09-01

Agricultural runoff into surface water is a problem in Australia, as it is in arguably all agriculturally active countries. While farm practices and resource management measures are employed to reduce downstream effects, they are often either technically insufficient or practically unsustainable. Therefore, consumers may still be exposed to agrichemicals whenever they turn on the tap. For rural residents surrounded by agriculture, the link between agriculture and water quality is easy to make and thus informed decisions about water consumption are possible. Urban residents, however, are removed from agricultural activity and indeed drinking water sources. Urban and rural residents were interviewed to identify perceptions of agriculture's impact on drinking water. Rural residents thought agriculture could impact their water quality and, in many cases, actively avoided it, often preferring tank to surface water sources. Urban residents generally did not perceive agriculture to pose health risks to their drinking water. Although there are more agricultural contaminants recognised in the latest Australian Drinking Water Guidelines than previously, we argue this is insufficient to enhance consumer protection. Health authorities may better serve the public by improving their proactivity and providing communities and water utilities with the capacity to effectively monitor and address agricultural runoff.

Quality of water on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, May 2001 through August 2003

USGS Publications Warehouse

Ross Schmidt, Heather C.

2004-01-01

Water-quality samples were collected from 20 surface-water sites and 11 ground-water sites on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation in northeastern Kansas in an effort to describe existing water-quality conditions on the reservation and to compare water-quality conditions to results from previous reports published as part of a multiyear cooperative study with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation. Water is a valuable resource to the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation as tribal members use the streams draining the reservation, Soldier, Little Soldier, and South Cedar Creeks, to fulfill subsistence hunting and fishing needs and as the tribe develops an economic base on the reservation. Samples were collected once at 20 surface-water monitoring sites during June 2001, and quarterly samples were collected at 5 of the 20 monitoring sites from May 2001 through August 2003. Ground-water-quality samples were collected once from seven wells and twice from four wells during April through May 2003 and in August 2003. Surface-water-quality samples collected from May through August 2001 were analyzed for physical properties, nutrients, pesticides, fecal indicator bacteria, and total suspended solids. In November 2001, an additional analysis for dissolved solids, major ions, trace elements, and suspended-sediment concentration was added for surface-water samples. Ground-water samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and fecal indicator bacteria. Chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds were analyzed in a sample from one monitoring well located near a construction and demolition landfill on the reservation. Previous reports published as a part of this ongoing study identified total phosphorus, triazine herbicides, and fecal coliform bacteria as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria in surface water on the reservation. Previous ground-water assessments identified occasional sample concentrations of dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and manganese as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria. Forty percent of the 65 surface-water samples analyzed for total phosphorus exceeded the aquatic-life goal of 0.1 mg/L (milligrams per liter) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Concentrations of dissolved solids and sodium occasionally exceeded USEPA Secondary Drinking-Water Regulations and Drinking-Water Advisory Levels, respectively. One of the 20 samples analyzed for atrazine concentrations exceeded the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 3.0 ?g/L (micrograms per liter) as an annual average established for drinking water by USEPA. A triazine herbicide screen was used on 63 surface-water samples, and triazine compounds were frequently detected. Triazine herbicides and their degradates are listed on the USEPA Contaminant Candidate List. Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations in two ground-water samples from one monitoring well exceeded the MCL of 10 mg/L established by USEPA for drinking water. Arsenic concentrations in two samples from one monitoring well also exceeded the proposed MCL of 10 ?g/L established by the USEPA for drinking water. Concentrations of dissolved solids and sulfate in some ground-water samples exceeded their respective Secondary Drinking-Water Regulations, and concentrations exceeded the taste threshold of the USEPA?s Drinking-Water Advisory Level for sodium. Consequently, in the event that ground water on the reservation is to be used as a drinking-water source, additional treatment may be necessary to remove excess dissolved solids, sulfate, and sodium.

Safety of packaged water distribution limited by household recontamination in rural Cambodia.

PubMed

Holman, Emily J; Brown, Joe

2014-06-01

Packaged water treatment schemes represent a growing model for providing safer water in low-income settings, yet post-distribution recontamination of treated water may limit this approach. This study evaluates drinking water quality and household water handling practices in a floating village in Tonlé Sap Lake, Cambodia, through a pilot cross-sectional study of 108 households, approximately half of which used packaged water as the main household drinking water source. We hypothesized that households purchasing drinking water from local packaged water treatment plants would have microbiologically improved drinking water at the point of consumption. We found no meaningful difference in microbiological drinking water quality between households using packaged, treated water and those collecting water from other sources, including untreated surface water, however. Households' water storage and handling practices and home hygiene may have contributed to recontamination of drinking water. Further measures to protect water quality at the point-of-use may be required even if water is treated and packaged in narrow-mouthed containers.

Coliform species recovered from untreated surface water and drinking water by the membrane filter, standard, and modified most-probable-number techniques.

PubMed Central

Evans, T M; LeChevallier, M W; Waarvick, C E; Seidler, R J

1981-01-01

The species of total coliform bacteria isolated from drinking water and untreated surface water by the membrane filter (MF), the standard most-probable-number (S-MPN), and modified most-probable-number (M-MPN) techniques were compared. Each coliform detection technique selected for a different profile of coliform species from both types of water samples. The MF technique indicated that Citrobacter freundii was the most common coliform species in water samples. However, the fermentation tube techniques displayed selectivity towards the isolation of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella. The M-MPN technique selected for more C. freundii and Enterobacter spp. from untreated surface water samples and for more Enterobacter and Klebsiella spp. from drinking water samples than did the S-MPN technique. The lack of agreement between the number of coliforms detected in a water sample by the S-MPN, M-MPN, and MF techniques was a result of the selection for different coliform species by the various techniques. PMID:7013706

Concentrations of asbestos fibers and metals in drinking water caused by natural crocidolite asbestos in the soil from a rural area.

PubMed

Wei, Binggan; Ye, Bingxiong; Yu, Jiangping; Jia, Xianjie; Zhang, Biao; Zhang, Xiuwu; Lu, Rongan; Dong, Tingrong; Yang, Linsheng

2013-04-01

Asbestos fibers and metals in drinking water are of significant importance to the field of asbestos toxicology. However, little is known about asbestos fibers and metals in drinking water caused by naturally occurring asbestos. Therefore, concentrations of asbestos fibers and metals in well and surface waters from asbestos and control areas were measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), inductively coupled plasma (ICP) optical emission spectrometer, and ICP-mass spectrometry in this study. The results indicated that the mean concentration of asbestos fibers was 42.34 millions of fibers per liter by SEM, which was much higher than the permission exposure level. The main compositions of both asbestos fibers in crocidolite mineral and in drinking water were Na, Mg, Fe, and Si based on energy dispersive X-ray analysis. This revealed that the drinking water has been contaminated by asbestos fibers from crocidolite mineral in soil and rock. Except for Cr, Pb, Zn, and Mn, the mean concentrations of Ni, Na, Mg, K, Fe, Ca, and SiO2 were much higher in both surface water and well waters from the asbestos area than in well water from the control area. The results of principal component and cluster analyses indicated that the metals in surface and well waters from the asbestos area were significantly influenced by crocidolite mineral in soil and rock. In the asbestos area, the mean concentrations of asbestos fibers and Ni, Na, Mg, K, Fe, Ca, and SiO2 were higher in surface and well waters, indicating that asbestos fibers and the metals were significantly influenced by crocidolite in soil and rock.

Small Community and Household Water Systems Research on Removal of Metals and Pesticides from Drinking Water Sources

EPA Science Inventory

The presentation entitled “Small Community and Household Water Systems Research on Removal of Metals and Pesticides from Drinking Water Sources” provides treatment alternatives for removal of metals and pesticides from surface and ground waters before human consumption. The pres...

78 FR 18336 - Public Water System Supervision Program Approval for the State of Michigan

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-03-26

... comply with the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, including the Ground Water Rule, the Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule, the Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, the Lead... following offices: Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Office of Drinking Water and Municipal...

40 CFR 141.63 - Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for microbiological contaminants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... water pressure in all parts of the distribution system; (4) Filtration and/or disinfection of surface water, as described in subpart H, or disinfection of ground water using strong oxidants such as chlorine... (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking...

Evaluation of riverbank infiltration as a process for removing particles and DBP precursors

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Wang, J.; Smith, J.; Dooley, L.

1996-11-01

Recent outbreaks of waterborne disease attributed to Cryptosporidium in drinking water have raised serious concerns over the effectiveness of conventional water treatment processes to produce safe drinking water supplies. Past studies have shown Cryptosporidium and Giardia to be prevalent in surface water supplies, particularly in urban-impacted surface waters such as the Ohio River which Louisville Water Company (LWC) treatment facilities utilize as their source water. Such indications of the widespread occurrence of these pathogens in source waters underscore the need for the water supply industry to evaluate alternative technologies to conventional water treatment to reduce the risk of waterborne diseasemore » occurrence. Public health concerns, shared by the water utility industry, drinking water regulators, and public water supply consumers alike, prompted the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to propose regulatory action aimed at balancing the risks of microbial disease occurrence and the health risks associated with exposure to potentially harmful compounds formed during drinking water disinfection. In pursuit of this objective, USEPA proposed the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR) to improve public water supply treatment performance for microbial removal and proposed the Disinfectant/Disinfection Byproduct (D/DBP) Rule to reduce DBP exposure levels. As a consequence of these rules, many water utilities will be tasked with the challenge of developing treatment capabilities which improve microbial removal performance while minimizing the production of DBPs.« less

Drugs, diagnostic agents and disinfectants in wastewater and water--a review.

PubMed

Kümmerer, K

2000-01-01

After administration pharmaceuticals are excreted by the patients into the aquatic environment via wastewater. Unused medications are sometimes disposed of in drains. The drugs may enter the aquatic environment and eventually reach drinking water, if they are not biodegraded or eliminated during sewage treatment. Additionally, antibiotics and disinfectants are assumed to disturb the wastewater treatment process and the microbial ecology in surface waters. Furthermore, resistant bacteria may be selected in the aeration tanks of sewage treatment plants by the antibiotic substances present. Since the 1980s, data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in natural surface waters and the effluents of sewage treatment plants have been reported. More recently, pharmaceuticals have been detected in ground and drinking water. However, only little is known about the risk imposed on humans by pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in surface and drinking water. An overview of input, occurrence, elimination (e.g. biodegradability) and possible effects of different pharmaceutical groups such as anti-tumour drugs, antibiotics and contrast media as well as AOX resulting from hospitals effluent input into sewage water and surface water is presented.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface and treated waters of Louisiana, USA and Ontario, Canada.

PubMed

Boyd, Glen R; Reemtsma, Helge; Grimm, Deborah A; Mitra, Siddhartha

2003-07-20

A newly developed analytical method was used to measure concentrations of nine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in samples from two surface water bodies, a sewage treatment plant effluent and various stages of a drinking water treatment plant in Louisiana, USA, and from one surface water body, a drinking water treatment plant and a pilot plant in Ontario, Canada. The analytical method provides for simultaneous extraction and quantification of the following broad range of PPCPs and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: naproxen; ibuprofen; estrone; 17beta-estradiol; bisphenol A; clorophene; triclosan; fluoxetine; and clofibric acid. Naproxen was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 81-106 ng/l and Louisiana and Ontario surface waters at 22-107 ng/l. Triclosan was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 10-21 ng/l. Of the three surface waters sampled, clofibric acid was detected in Detroit River water at 103 ng/l, but not in Mississippi River or Lake Pontchartrain waters. None of the other target analytes were detected above their method detection limits. Based on results at various stages of treatment, conventional drinking-water treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation) plus continuous addition of powdered activated carbon at a dosage of 2 mg/l did not remove naproxen from Mississippi River waters. However, chlorination, ozonation and dual media filtration processes reduced the concentration of naproxen below detection in Mississippi River and Detroit River waters and reduced clofibric acid in Detroit River waters. Results of this study demonstrate that existing water treatment technologies can effectively remove certain PPCPs. In addition, our study demonstrates the importance of obtaining data on removal mechanisms and byproducts associated with PPCPs and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water and sewage treatment processes.

Effect of bromide in a surface water intake on the formation of brominated trihalomethanes at a public water system treatment plant

EPA Science Inventory

This project is a collaborative drinking water research study. EPA is evaluating water samples collected by PWS operators in order to investigate relationships between bromide in source water and the formation of brominated DBPs in finished drinking water. This study will includ...

Occurrence and Control of Genotoxins in Drinking Water: A Monitoring Proposal

PubMed Central

Ceretti, Elisabetta; Moretti, Massimo; Zerbini, Ilaria; Villarini, Milena; Zani, Claudia; Monarca, Silvano; Feretti, Donatella

2016-01-01

Many studies have shown the presence of numerous organic genotoxins and carcinogens in drinking water. These toxic substances derive not only from pollution, but also from the disinfection treatments, particularly when water is obtained from surface sources and then chlorinated. Most of the chlorinated compounds in drinking water are nonvolatile and are difficult to characterize. Thus, it has been proposed to study such complex mixtures using short-term genotoxicity tests predictive of carcinogenic activity. Mutagenicity of water before and after disinfection has mainly been studied by the Salmonella/microsome (Ames test); in vitro genotoxicity tests have also been performed in yeasts and mammalian cells; in situ monitoring of genotoxins has also been performed using complete organisms such as aquatic animals or plants (in vivo). The combination of bioassay data together with results of chemical analyses would give us a more firm basis for the assessment of human health risks related to the consumption of drinking water. Tests with different genetic end-points complement each other with regard to sensitivity toward environmental genotoxins and are useful in detecting low genotoxicity levels which are expected in drinking water samples. Significance for public health The provision of a safe drinking water is an important public health problem. Many studies have shown the presence of numerous genotoxins and carcinogens in drinking water. These toxic substances derive not only from pollution, but also from the disinfection treatments, particularly when water is obtained from surface sources and then chlorinated. The potential health risks of disinfection by-products (DBPs) from drinking water include cancer and adverse reproductive outcomes. People are exposed to disinfected drinking/shower/bathing water as a mixture of at least 600 identified DBPs and other toxic compounds via dermal, inhalation, and ingestion routes. Many of these substances are present in trace concentration, hardly detectable by chemical standard analysis. The monitoring of environmental genotoxins by short-term bioassays could allow a better evaluation of the global human exposure to water genotoxins and could help health officers and drinking water managers to reduce genotoxic hazards and distribute high quality drinking water. PMID:28083525

Ground Water Discharges (EPA's Underground Injection ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

2017-07-06

Most ground water used for drinking occurs near the earth's surface and is easily contaminated. Of major concern is the potential contamination of underground sources of drinking water by any of the hundreds of thousands of subsurface wastewater disposal injection wells nationwide.

Nanofiltration Membranes for Removal of Color and Pathogens in Small Public Drinking Water Sources

EPA Science Inventory

Small public water supplies that use surface water as a source for drinking water are frequently faced with elevated levels of color and natural organic matter (NOM) that are precursors for chlorinated disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation. Nanofiltration (NF) systems can preve...

Concentrating Toxoplasma gondii and Cyclospora cayetanensis from Surface Water and Drinking Water by Continuous Separation Channel Centrifugation

EPA Science Inventory

Aims: To evaluate the effectiveness of continuous separation channel centrifugation for concentrating Toxoplasma gondii and Cyclospora cayetanensis from drinking water and environmental waters. Methods and Results: Ready-to-seed vials with known quantities of Toxoplasma gondii a...

Quality of water and chemistry of bottom sediment in the Rillito Creek basin, Tucson, Arizona, 1986-92

USGS Publications Warehouse

Tadayon, Saeid; Smith, C.F.

1994-01-01

Data were collected on physical properties and chemistry of 4 surface water, l4 ground water, and 4 bottom sediment sites in the Rillito Creek basin where artificial recharge of surface runoff is being considered. Concentrations of suspended sediment in streams generally increased with increases in streamflow and were higher during the summer. The surface water is a calcium and bicarbonate type, and the ground water is calcium sodium and bicarbonate type. Total trace ek=nents in surface water that exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency primary maximum contaminant levels for drinking-water standards were barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury and nickel. Most unfiltered samples for suspended gross alpha as uranium, and unadjusted gross alpha plus gross beta in surface water exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Arizona drinking-water standards. Comparisons of trace- element concentrations in bottom sediment with those in soils of the western conterminous United States generally indicate similar concentrations for most of the trace elements, with the exceptions of scandium and tin. The maximum concentration of total nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen in three ground- samples and total lead in one ground-water sample exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency primary maximum contaminant levels for drinking- water standards, respectively. Seven organochlorine pesticides were detected in surface-water samples and nine in bottom-sediment samples. Three priority pollutants were detected in surface water, two were detected in ground water, and eleven were detected in bottom sediment. Low concentrations of oil and grease were detected in surface-water and bottom- sediment samples.

Surface-water, water-quality, and meteorological data for the Cambridge, Massachusetts, drinking-water source area, water years 2007-08

USGS Publications Warehouse

Smith, Kirk P.

2011-01-01

Water samples were collected in nearly all of the subbasins in the Cambridge drinking-water source area and from Fresh Pond during the study period. Discrete water samples were collected during base-flow conditions with an antecedent dry period of at least 3 days. Composite sampl

EARLY WARNING IN DRINKING WATER INTAKE PROTECTION: CORRELATING CHEMICAL DATA AND BIOLOGICAL WARNING SYSTEMS

EPA Science Inventory

The WRK Water Works is responsible for the abstraction and partial purifcation of surface water for the drinking water production of some 2m people in the Netherlands. Two water winning stations, one at a side canal of the Rhine, the other at IJsselmeer lake provide an annual tot...

78 FR 9047 - Public Water System Supervision Program Revision for the State of Texas

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2013-02-07

... Water System Supervision Program. Texas has adopted three EPA drinking water rules, namely the: (1) Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2), (2) the Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection... Drinking Water Section (MC-155), Building F, 12100 Park 35 Circle, Austin, TX 78753; and United States...

Determination of total arsenic and arsenic species in drinking water, surface water, wastewater, and snow from Wielkopolska, Kujawy-Pomerania, and Lower Silesia provinces, Poland.

PubMed

Komorowicz, Izabela; Barałkiewicz, Danuta

2016-09-01

Arsenic is a ubiquitous element which may be found in surface water, groundwater, and drinking water. In higher concentrations, this element is considered genotoxic and carcinogenic; thus, its level must be strictly controlled. We investigated the concentration of total arsenic and arsenic species: As(III), As(V), MMA, DMA, and AsB in drinking water, surface water, wastewater, and snow collected from the provinces of Wielkopolska, Kujawy-Pomerania, and Lower Silesia (Poland). The total arsenic was analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and arsenic species were analyzed with use of high-performance liquid chromatography inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC/ICP-MS). Obtained results revealed that maximum total arsenic concentration determined in drinking water samples was equal to 1.01 μg L(-1). The highest concentration of total arsenic in surface water, equal to 3778 μg L(-1) was determined in Trująca Stream situated in the area affected by geogenic arsenic contamination. Total arsenic concentration in wastewater samples was comparable to those determined in drinking water samples. However, significantly higher arsenic concentration, equal to 83.1 ± 5.9 μg L(-1), was found in a snow sample collected in Legnica. As(V) was present in all of the investigated samples, and in most of them, it was the sole species observed. However, in snow sample collected in Legnica, more than 97 % of the determined concentration, amounting to 81 ± 11 μg L(-1), was in the form of As(III), the most toxic arsenic species.

Serological responses to Cryptosporidium antigens in inhabitants of Hungary using conventionally filtered surface water and riverbank filtered drinking water.

PubMed

Farkas, K; Plutzer, J; Moltchanova, E; Török, A; Varró, M J; Domokos, K; Frost, F; Hunter, P R

2015-10-01

In this study the putative protective seroprevalence (PPS) of IgG antibodies to the 27-kDa and 15/17-kDa Cryptosporidium antigens in sera of healthy participants who were and were not exposed to Cryptosporidium oocysts via surface water-derived drinking water was compared. The participants completed a questionnaire regarding risk factors that have been shown to be associated with infection. The PPS was significantly greater (49-61%) in settlements where the drinking water originated from surface water, than in the control city where riverbank filtration was used (21% and 23%). Logistic regression analysis on the risk factors showed an association between bathing/swimming in outdoor pools and antibody responses to the 15/17-kDa antigen complex. Hence the elevated responses were most likely due to the use of contaminated water. Results indicate that waterborne Cryptosporidium infections occur more frequently than reported but may derive from multiple sources.

Significant Findings from a Water-Quality Study on Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

USGS Publications Warehouse

Mehl, Heidi E.; Schmidt, Heather C. Ross; Pope, Larry M.

2007-01-01

Water-quality samples were collected from surface- (stream-) and ground-water sites on and near the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation in northeastern Kansas (fig. 1) from June 1996 through August 2006 as part of a cooperative study between the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation (Schmidt and others, 2007). Surface- and ground-water quality were evaluated using applicable drinking-water standards to consider whether these resources can be used in the future to supply drinking water for the reservation. Presently (2007), drinking water on the reservation is purchased from Rural Water District #3 in Jackson County (Sharon Bosse, Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation Department of Planning and Environmental Protection, oral commun., 2007). Results of water-quality analyses are summarized in the following sections. Water-quality activities for this study are documented in several reports (Trombley, 1999, 2001; Schmidt, 2004; Schmidt and others, 2007).

The South Australian Safe Drinking Water Act: summary of the first year of operation.

PubMed

Froscio, Suzanne M; Bolton, Natalie; Cooke, Renay; Wittholz, Michelle; Cunliffe, David

2016-06-01

The Safe Drinking Water Act 2011 was introduced in South Australia to provide clear direction to drinking water providers on how to achieve water safety. The Act requires drinking water providers to register with SA Health and develop a risk management plan (RMP) for their water supply that includes operational and verification monitoring plans and an incident notification and communication protocol. During the first year of operation, 212 drinking water providers registered under the Act, including one major water utility and a range of small to medium sized providers in regional and remote areas of the State. Information was captured on water source(s) used and water treatment. Rainwater was the most frequently reported drinking water source (66%), followed by bore water (13%), on-supply or carting of mains water (13%), mixed source (rainwater with bore water backup) (6%) and surface water (3%). The majority of providers (91%) treated the water supply, 87% used disinfection. During the first year of operation, 16 water quality incidents were formally reported to SA Health. These included both microbial and chemical incidents. Case studies presented highlight how the RMPs are assisting drinking water providers to identify incidents of potential health concern and implement corrective actions.

40 CFR 192.01 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. (i) Secretary means the Secretary of Energy. (j... water below the ground surface in a zone of saturation. (r) Underground source of drinking water means... system; and (A) Currently supplies drinking water for human consumption; or (B) Contains fewer than 10...

40 CFR 192.01 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. (i) Secretary means the Secretary of Energy. (j... water below the ground surface in a zone of saturation. (r) Underground source of drinking water means... system; and (A) Currently supplies drinking water for human consumption; or (B) Contains fewer than 10...

EVALUATION OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR EDC REMOVAL

EPA Science Inventory

Many of the chemicals identified as potential endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may be present in surface or ground waters used as drinking water sources, due to their disposal via domestic and industrial sewage treatment systems and wet-weather runoff. In order to decrease t...

Water quality in the Cambridge, Massachusetts, drinking-water source area, 2005-8

USGS Publications Warehouse

Smith, Kirk P.; Waldron, Marcus C.

2015-01-01

During 2005-8, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Cambridge, Massachusetts, Water Department, measured concentrations of sodium and chloride, plant nutrients, commonly used pesticides, and caffeine in base-flow and stormwater samples collected from 11 tributaries in the Cambridge drinking-water source area. These data were used to characterize current water-quality conditions, to establish a baseline for future comparisons, and to describe trends in surface-water quality. The data also were used to assess the effects of watershed characteristics on surface-water quality and to inform future watershed management.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in a water supply system and related human health risk assessment.

PubMed

de Jesus Gaffney, Vanessa; Almeida, Cristina M M; Rodrigues, Alexandre; Ferreira, Elisabete; Benoliel, Maria João; Cardoso, Vitor Vale

2015-04-01

A monitoring study of 31 pharmaceuticals along Lisbon's drinking water supply system was implemented, which comprised the analysis of 250 samples including raw water (surface water and groundwater), and drinking water. Of the 31 pharmaceutical compounds, only sixteen were quantified in the analyzed samples, with levels ranging from 0.005 to 46 ng/L in raw water samples and 0.09-46 ng/L in drinking water samples. The human health risk assessment performed showed that appreciable risks to the consumer's health arising from exposure to trace levels of pharmaceuticals in drinking water are extremely unlikely, as RQs values were all below 0.001. Also, pharmaceuticals were selected as indicators to be used as a tool to control the quality of raw water and the treatment efficiency in the drinking water treatment plants. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Field study on evaluation of the efficacy and usability of two disinfectants for drinking water treatment at small cattle breeders and dairy cattle farms.

PubMed

Mohammed, Asmaa N

2016-03-01

The hygienic quality of drinking water for cattle originated from different sources together with the efficacy and usability of two types of disinfectants against waterborne pathogens were assessed for small cattle breeders and dairy cattle farms. A total of 120 drinking water samples were collected from water troughs representing three different water sources commonly used for cattle drinking (tap, underground and surface water; n = 65, 25, and 30, respectively). Collected samples were cultured for isolation and identification of pathogenic bacteria using serological techniques and PCR. The bactericidal efficacy of the disinfectants, sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 50%, at different concentrations were evaluated by the determination of total viable and coliform counts of water prior and postwater treatment. In small cattle breeders, Escherichia coli was the most prevalent bacterial isolates from surface water (56.7%) followed by Staphylococcus aureus (36.7%), Salmonella spp. (26.7%), Streptococcus faecalis (23.3%), Shigella flexneri (16.7%), Proteus spp. (16.7%), and Klebsiella pneumonae (10.0 %) at X(2) = 9, P ≤ 0.01. Prior to the use of disinfectants, the averages of total bacterial and coliform counts were the highest in surface water (3.56 × 10(7), 240.0, and 38.0 CFU/100 ml, respectively). It has been found that hydrogen peroxide 50% at a concentration of 35 mg/l had a lethal effect (100 %) on indicator microorganisms compared with NaDCC at concentration of 2 mg/l. In conclusion, the higher bacterial contaminants in drinking water were found in surface water followed by tap water, particularly for small cattle breeders. Therefore, the usage of more hygienic water troughs with their regular treatment by hydrogen peroxide 50% at concentration of 35 mg/l is highly recommended to control waterborne bacteria and consequently improve and maintain the animal health.

Health risks from large-scale water pollution: Current trends and implications for improving drinking water quality in the lower Amu Darya drainage basin, Uzbekistan

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Törnqvist, Rebecka; Jarsjö, Jerker

2010-05-01

Safe drinking water is a primary prerequisite to human health, well being and development. Yet, there are roughly one billion people around the world that lack access to safe drinking water supply. Health risk assessments are effective for evaluating the suitability of using various water sources as drinking water supply. Additionally, knowledge of pollutant transport processes on relatively large scales is needed to identify effective management strategies for improving water resources of poor quality. The lower Amu Darya drainage basin close to the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan suffers from physical water scarcity and poor water quality. This is mainly due to the intensive agriculture production in the region, which requires extensive freshwater withdrawals and use of fertilizers and pesticides. In addition, recurrent droughts in the region affect the surface water availability. On average 20% of the population in rural areas in Uzbekistan lack access to improved drinking water sources, and the situation is even more severe in the lower Amu Darya basin. In this study, we consider health risks related to water-borne contaminants by dividing measured substance concentrations with health-risk based guideline values from the World Health Organisation (WHO). In particular, we analyse novel results of water quality measurements performed in 2007 and 2008 in the Mejdurechye Reservoir (located in the downstream part of the Amu Darya river basin). We furthermore identify large-scale trends by comparing the Mejdurechye results to reported water quality results from a considerable stretch of the Amu Darya river basin, including drainage water, river water and groundwater. The results show that concentrations of cadmium and nitrite exceed the WHO health-risk based guideline values in Mejdurechye Reservoir. Furthermore, concentrations of the since long ago banned and highly toxic pesticides dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH) were detected in the reservoir water for the first time in a decade. However, a relatively pronounced temporal variability in concentrations was observed for many of the substances, implying that the reservoir could contain low-risk waters temporarily. Health risk factors related to lead and chromium concentrations in groundwater were up to 200 times higher than for river water. The identified major divergence in health risk between groundwater and surface water illuminates the risk of using groundwater for drinking water supply during recurrent surface water deficits in the study area. However, the severe water scarcity and lack of financial resources in the region makes the choices of alternative water supply sources limited. Due to the presence of multiple contaminants, it appears reasonable that the aggregated toxicity of contaminant mixtures should be in focus in surface and groundwater water monitoring and management in the region. Key words: Aral Sea, Drinking water, Groundwater, Health Risk, Surface Water

Microbial Community Profile of a Lead Service Line Removed from a Drinking Water Distribution System▿

PubMed Central

White, Colin; Tancos, Matthew; Lytle, Darren A.

2011-01-01

A corroded lead service line was removed from a drinking water distribution system, and the microbial community was profiled using 16S rRNA gene techniques. This is the first report of the characterization of a biofilm on the surface of a corroded lead drinking water service line. The majority of phylotypes have been linked to heavy-metal-contaminated environments. PMID:21652741

Oropharyngeal Tularemia Outbreak Associated with Drinking Contaminated Tap Water, Turkey, July-September 2013.

PubMed

Aktas, Dilber; Celebi, Bekir; Isik, Mehmet Emirhan; Tutus, Celal; Ozturk, Huseyin; Temel, Fehminaz; Kizilaslan, Mecit; Zhu, Bao-Ping

2015-12-01

In 2013, an oropharyngeal tularemia outbreak in Turkey affected 55 persons. Drinking tap water during the likely exposure period was significantly associated with illness (attack rate 27% vs. 11% among non-tap water drinkers). Findings showed the tap water source had been contaminated by surface water, and the chlorination device malfunctioned.

40 CFR 141.63 - Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for microbiological contaminants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... parts of the distribution system; (4) Filtration and/or disinfection of surface water, as described in subparts H, P, T, and W of this part, or disinfection of ground water, as described in subpart S of this... (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking...

40 CFR 141.63 - Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for microbiological contaminants.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... parts of the distribution system; (4) Filtration and/or disinfection of surface water, as described in subparts H, P, T, and W of this part, or disinfection of ground water, as described in subpart S of this... (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS National Primary Drinking...

EVALUATION OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR REMOVAL OF ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING CHEMICALS (EDCS)

EPA Science Inventory

A number of the chemicals identified as potential EDCs have been observed in surface and ground waters leading to concern over the possible presence of EDCs in finished drinking waters. Although there has not yet been a determination of risks posed by EDCs in finished waters, it ...

CHARACTERIZATION OF ENDEMIC DISEASE: HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENCES IN SOURCE WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT

EPA Science Inventory

A study in Canada by Payment et al. found that up to 35% of gastrointestinal illness in a community served by surface water was associated with drinking water that met current drinking water standards. A similar follow-up study by the same investigators tended to repeat the resul...

Screening and human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and their transformation products in Dutch surface waters and drinking water.

PubMed

de Jongh, Cindy M; Kooij, Pascal J F; de Voogt, Pim; ter Laak, Thomas L

2012-06-15

Numerous studies describe the presence of pharmaceuticals in the water cycle, while their transformation products are usually not included. In the current study 17 common pharmaceuticals and 9 transformation products were monitored in the Dutch waters, including surface waters, pre-treated surface waters, river bank filtrates, two groundwater samples affected by surface water and drinking waters. In these samples, 12 pharmaceuticals and 7 transformation products were present. Concentrations were generally highest in surface waters, intermediate in treated surface waters and river bank filtrates and lowest or not detected in produced drinking water. However, the concentrations of phenazone and its environmental transformation product AMPH were significantly higher in river bank filtrates, which is likely due to historical contamination. Fairly constant ratios were observed between concentrations of transformation products and parent pharmaceuticals. This might enable prediction of concentrations of transformation products from concentrations of parent pharmaceuticals. The toxicological relevance of the observed pharmaceuticals and transformation products was assessed by deriving (i) a substance specific provisional guideline value (pGLV) and (ii) a group pGLV for groups of related compounds were under the assumption of additivity of effects within each group. A substantial margin exists between the maximum summed concentrations of these compounds present in different water types and the derived (group) pGLVs. Based on the results of this limited screening campaign no adverse health effects of the studied compounds are expected in (sources of) drinking water in the Netherlands. The presence of transformation products with similar pharmacological activities and concentration levels as their parents illustrates the relevance of monitoring transformation products, and including these in risk assessment. More thorough monitoring yielding information on statistical uncertainty and variability in time and space, and research on possible synergistic effects of low concentration mixtures of compounds belonging to similar pharmacological classes require attention. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A review of contamination of surface-, ground-, and drinking water in Sweden by perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs).

PubMed

Banzhaf, Stefan; Filipovic, Marko; Lewis, Jeffrey; Sparrenbom, Charlotte J; Barthel, Roland

2017-04-01

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are found in aquatic systems, flora, and fauna worldwide. These potentially harmful compounds are also frequently detected in Sweden and have already resulted in severe problems for public drinking water supply, i.e., some wells had to be closed due to high PFAS concentrations both in raw water and produced drinking water. Knowledge on PFAS occurrence in Sweden is still quite low, although monitoring is currently ongoing. This work describes potential sources for PFASs to enter the drinking water supply in Sweden and compares different occurrences of PFASs in raw and drinking water in the country. Moreover, the monitoring history, the legal situation, and remediation actions taken are presented. Finally, future challenges and the way forward in Sweden are discussed.

Innovative Approach to Validation of Ultraviolet (UV) Reactors for Disinfection in Drinking Water Systems - presentation

EPA Science Inventory

UV disinfection is an effective process for inactivating many microbial pathogens found in source waters with the potential as stand-alone treatment or in combination with other disinfectants. For surface and groundwater sourced drinking water applications, the U.S. Environmental...

EVALUATION OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR REMOVAL OF ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING COMPOUNDS

EPA Science Inventory

Many of the chemicals identified as potential endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) may be present in surface or ground waters used as drinking water sources due to their introduction from domestic and industrial sewage treatment systems and wet-weather runoff. In order to dec...

Simultaneous detection of perchlorate and bromate using rapid high-performance ion exchange chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and perchlorate removal in drinking water.

PubMed

West, Danielle M; Mu, Ruipu; Gamagedara, Sanjeewa; Ma, Yinfa; Adams, Craig; Eichholz, Todd; Burken, Joel G; Shi, Honglan

2015-06-01

Perchlorate and bromate occurrence in drinking water causes health concerns due to their effects on thyroid function and carcinogenicity, respectively. The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to advance a sensitive method for simultaneous rapid detection of perchlorate and bromate in drinking water system, (2) to systematically study the occurrence of these two contaminants in Missouri drinking water treatment systems, and (3) to examine effective sorbents for minimizing perchlorate in drinking water. A rapid high-performance ion exchange chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPIC-MS/MS) method was advanced for simultaneous detection of perchlorate and bromate in drinking water. The HPIC-MS/MS method was rapid, required no preconcentration of the water samples, and had detection limits for perchlorate and bromate of 0.04 and 0.01 μg/L, respectively. The method was applied to determine perchlorate and bromate concentrations in total of 23 selected Missouri drinking water treatment systems during differing seasons. The water systems selected include different source waters: groundwater, lake water, river water, and groundwater influenced by surface water. The concentrations of perchlorate and bromate were lower than or near to method detection limits in most of the drinking water samples monitored. The removal of perchlorate by various adsorbents was studied. A cationic organoclay (TC-99) exhibited effective removal of perchlorate from drinking water matrices.

CHARACTERIZING THE EFFECT OF CHLORINE AND CHLORAMINES ON THE FORMATION OF BIOFILM IN A SIMULATED DRINKING WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking wate treatment in the US has played a major role in protecting public health through the reduction of wateborne disease. However, carcinogenic and toxic contaminants continue to threaten the quality of surface and ground water in the US. The passage of the Safe Drinking ...

Outbreak of giardiasis associated with a community drinking-water source.

PubMed

Daly, E R; Roy, S J; Blaney, D D; Manning, J S; Hill, V R; Xiao, L; Stull, J W

2010-04-01

Giardiasis is a common waterborne gastrointestinal illness. In 2007, a community giardiasis outbreak occurred in New Hampshire, USA. We conducted a cohort study to identify risk factors for giardiasis, and stool and environmental samples were analysed. Consuming tap water was significantly associated with illness (risk ratio 4.7, 95% confidence interval 1.5-14.4). Drinking-water samples were coliform-contaminated and a suspect Giardia cyst was identified in a home water filter. One well was coliform-contaminated, and testing indicated that it was potentially under the influence of surface water. The well was located 12.5 m from a Giardia-contaminated brook, although the genotype differed from clinical specimens. Local water regulations require well placement at least 15 m from surface water. This outbreak, which caused illness in 31 persons, represents the largest community drinking-water-associated giardiasis outbreak in the USA in 10 years. Adherence to well placement regulations might have prevented this outbreak.

Proactive modeling of water quality impacts of extreme precipitation events in a drinking water reservoir.

PubMed

Jeznach, Lillian C; Hagemann, Mark; Park, Mi-Hyun; Tobiason, John E

2017-10-01

Extreme precipitation events are of concern to managers of drinking water sources because these occurrences can affect both water supply quantity and quality. However, little is known about how these low probability events impact organic matter and nutrient loads to surface water sources and how these loads may impact raw water quality. This study describes a method for evaluating the sensitivity of a water body of interest from watershed input simulations under extreme precipitation events. An example application of the method is illustrated using the Wachusett Reservoir, an oligo-mesotrophic surface water reservoir in central Massachusetts and a major drinking water supply to metropolitan Boston. Extreme precipitation event simulations during the spring and summer resulted in total organic carbon, UV-254 (a surrogate measurement for reactive organic matter), and total algae concentrations at the drinking water intake that exceeded recorded maximums. Nutrient concentrations after storm events were less likely to exceed recorded historical maximums. For this particular reservoir, increasing inter-reservoir transfers of water with lower organic matter content after a large precipitation event has been shown in practice and in model simulations to decrease organic matter levels at the drinking water intake, therefore decreasing treatment associated oxidant demand, energy for UV disinfection, and the potential for formation of disinfection byproducts. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Occurrence and potential health risk of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in different water catchments in Belgium.

PubMed

Ehsan, Amimul; Geurden, Thomas; Casaert, Stijn; Paulussen, Jef; De Coster, Lut; Schoemaker, Toon; Chalmers, Rachel; Grit, Grietje; Vercruysse, Jozef; Claerebout, Edwin

2015-02-01

Human wastewater and livestock can contribute to contamination of surface water with Cryptosporidium and Giardia. In countries where a substantial proportion of drinking water is produced from surface water, e.g., Belgium, this poses a constant threat on drinking water safety. Our objective was to monitor the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in different water catchment sites in Belgium and to discriminate between (oo)cysts from human or animal origin using genotyping. Monthly samples were collected from raw water and purified drinking water at four catchment sites. Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected using USEPA method 1623 and positive samples were genotyped. No contamination was found in purified water at any site. In three catchments, only low numbers of (oo)cysts were recovered from raw water samples (<1/liter), but raw water samples from one catchment site were frequently contaminated with Giardia (92 %) and Cryptosporidium (96 %), especially in winter and spring. Genotyping of Giardia in 38 water samples identified the presence of Giardia duodenalis assemblage AI, AII, BIV, BIV-like, and E. Cryptosporidium andersoni, Cryptosporidium suis, Cryptosporidium horse genotype, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Cryptosporidium hominis were detected. The genotyping results suggest that agriculture may be a more important source of surface water contamination than human waste in this catchment. In catchment sites with contaminated surface water, such as the Blankaart, continuous monitoring of treated water for the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia would be justified and (point) sources of surface water contamination should be identified.

From municipal sewage to drinking water: fate and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment in urban areas.

PubMed

Heberer, Th; Reddersen, K; Mechlinski, A

2002-01-01

Recently, the occurrence and fate of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the aquatic environment was recognized as one of the emerging issues in environmental chemistry and as a matter of public concern. Residues of PhACs have been found as contaminants in sewage, surface, and ground- and drinking water samples. Since June 2000, a new long-term monitoring program of sewage, surface, ground- and drinking water has been carried out in Berlin, Germany. Samples, collected periodically from selected sites in the Berlin area, are investigated for residues of PhACs and related contaminants. The purpose of this monitoring is to investigate these compounds over a long time period to get more reliable data on their occurrence and fate in the different aquatic compartments. Moreover, the surface water investigations allow the calculation of season-dependent contaminant loads in the Berlin waters. In the course of the monitoring program, PhACs and some other polar compounds were detected at concentrations up to the microg/L-level in all compartments of the Berlin water cycle. The monitoring is accompanied and supported by several other investigations such as laboratory column experiments and studies on bank filtration and drinking water treatment using conventional or membrane filtration techniques.

Drinking water vulnerability to climate change and alternatives for adaptation in coastal South and South East Asia.

PubMed

Hoque, M A; Scheelbeek, P F D; Vineis, P; Khan, A E; Ahmed, K M; Butler, A P

Drinking water in much of Asia, particularly in coastal and rural settings, is provided by a variety of sources, which are widely distributed and frequently managed at an individual or local community level. Coastal and near-inland drinking water sources in South and South East (SSE) Asia are vulnerable to contamination by seawater, most dramatically from tropical cyclone induced storm surges. This paper assesses spatial vulnerabilities to salinisation of drinking water sources due to meteorological variability and climate change along the (ca. 6000 km) coastline of SSE Asia. The risks of increasing climatic stresses are first considered, and then maps of relative vulnerability along the entire coastline are developed, using data from global scale land surface models, along with an overall vulnerability index. The results show that surface and near-surface drinking water in the coastal areas of the mega-deltas in Vietnam and Bangladesh-India are most vulnerable, putting more than 25 million people at risk of drinking 'saline' water. Climate change is likely to exacerbate this problem, with adverse consequences for health, such as prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. There is a need for identifying locations that are most at risk of salinisation in order for policy makers and local officials to implement strategies for reducing these health impacts. To counter the risks associated with these vulnerabilities, possible adaptation measures are also outlined. We conclude that detailed and fine scale vulnerability assessments may become crucial for planning targeted adaptation programmes along these coasts.

Determination of phenoxyacid herbicides and their phenolic metabolites in surface and drinking water.

PubMed

Marchese, Stefano; Perret, Daniela; Gentili, Alessandra; D'Ascenzo, Guiseppe; Faberi, Angelo

2002-01-01

An evaluation was made of the feasibility of using reversed-phase liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry with an electrospray interface (LC/ESI-MS/MS) to measure traces of phenoxyacid herbicides and their metabolites in surface and drinking water samples. The procedure involved passing 0.5 L of river and drinking water samples through a 0.5 g graphitized carbon black (GCB) extraction cartridge. Recovery was higher than 85% irrespective of the aqueous matrix in which the analytes were dissolved. A conventional 4.6-mm i.d. reversed-phase LC C-18 column operating with a mobile phase flow rate of 1 mL/min was used to chromatograph the analytes. A flow of 200 microL/min of the column effluent was diverted to the ESI source. The limits of detection (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) of the method for the pesticides considered in drinking and surface water samples are less than 0.1 ng/L for phenoxyacid herbicides, and about 5-10 ng/L for their metabolites (2,4-dichlorophenol and 4-chloro-2-methylphenol). Copyright 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Role of mafic and ultramafic rocks in drinking water quality and its potential health risk assessment, Northern Pakistan.

PubMed

Begum, Shaheen; Shah, Mohammad Tahir; Muhammad, Said; Khan, Sardar

2015-12-01

This study investigates the drinking water (groundwater and surface water) quality and potential risk assessment along mafic and ultramafic rocks in the Swat district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Provence, Pakistan. For this purpose, 82 groundwater and 33 surface water samples were collected and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters. Results showed that the majority of the physico-chemical parameters were found to be within the drinking water guidelines set by the World Health Organization. However, major cationic metals such as magnesium (Mg), and trace metals (TM) including iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and cobalt (Co) showed exceeded concentrations in 13%, 4%, 2%, 20%, 20% and 55% of water samples, respectively. Health risk assessment revealed that the non-carcinogenic effects or hazard quotient values through the oral ingestion pathway of water consumption for the TM (viz., Fe, Cr and Mn) were found to be greater than 1, could result in chronic risk to the exposed population. Results of statistical analyses revealed that mafic and ultramafic rocks are the main sources of metal contamination in drinking water, especially Ni and Cr. Both Ni and Cr have toxic health effects and therefore this study suggests that contaminated sites should be avoided or treated for drinking and domestic purposes.

40 CFR 141.73 - Filtration.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Filtration and Disinfection § 141.73 Filtration. A public water system that uses a surface water source or a ground water source under the direct influence of surface water...

Evaluation of an Innovative Approach to Validation of Ultraviolet (UV) Reactors for Disinfection in Drinking Water Systems

EPA Science Inventory

UV disinfection is an effective process for inactivating many microbial pathogens found in source waters with the potential as stand-alone treatment or in combination with other disinfectants. For surface and groundwater sourced drinking water applications, the U.S. Environmental...

THE PERSISTENCE OF MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM IN A DRINKING WATER SYSTEM AFTER THE ADDITION OF FILTRATION

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water is increasingly recognized as a major source of pathogenic nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) associated with human infection. Our goal was to determine if the prevalence of NTM would decrease after the addition of filtration treatment to an unfiltered surface water...

ISSUES IN MANAGING THE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH PERCHLORATE IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Perchlorate (ClO₄^-) contamination of ground and surface waters has placed drinking water supplies at risk in communities throughout the US, especially in the West. Several major assessment studies of that risk in terms of health and environmental impact are ...

THE USE OF RT-PCR FOR THE DETECTION OF ENTERIC VIRUSES IN PRAIRIE SURFACE DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES

EPA Science Inventory

Concerns over the microbial safety of drinking water supplies have focused on bacteria and parasites while the occurrence of pathogenic waterborne viruses have been largely ignored. In fact, water supplies are not routinely monitored for human enteric viruses. This is despite t...

One-year Surveillance of Human Enteric Viruses in Raw and Treated Wastewaters, Downstream River Waters, and Drinking Waters.

PubMed

Iaconelli, M; Muscillo, M; Della Libera, S; Fratini, M; Meucci, L; De Ceglia, M; Giacosa, D; La Rosa, G

2017-03-01

Human enteric viruses are a major cause of waterborne diseases, and can be transmitted by contaminated water of all kinds, including drinking and recreational water. The objectives of the present study were to assess the occurrence of enteric viruses (enterovirus, norovirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A and E virus) in raw and treated wastewaters, in rivers receiving wastewater discharges, and in drinking waters. Wastewater treatment plants' (WWTP) pathogen removal efficiencies by adenovirus quantitative real-time PCR and the presence of infectious enterovirus, by cell culture assays, in treated wastewaters and in surface waters were also evaluated. A total of 90 water samples were collected: raw and treated wastewaters (treated effluents and ultrafiltered water reused for industrial purposes), water from two rivers receiving treated discharges, and drinking water. Nested PCR assays were used for the identification of viral DNA/RNA, followed by direct amplicon sequencing. All raw sewage samples (21/21), 61.9 % of treated wastewater samples (13/21), and 25 % of ultrafiltered water samples (3/12) were contaminated with at least one viral family. Multiple virus families and genera were frequently detected. Mean positive PCRs per sample decreased significantly from raw to treated sewage and to ultrafiltered waters. Moreover, quantitative adenovirus data showed a reduction in excess of 99 % in viral genome copies following wastewater treatment. In surface waters, 78.6 % (22/28) of samples tested positive for one or more viruses by molecular methods, but enterovirus-specific infectivity assays did not reveal infectious particles in these samples. All drinking water samples tested negative for all viruses, demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment in removing viral pathogens from drinking water. Integrated strategies to manage water from all sources are crucial to ensure water quality.

Food and water security issues in Russia II: water security in general population of Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East, 2000-2011.

PubMed

Dudarev, Alexey A; Dushkina, Eugenia V; Sladkova, Yuliya N; Alloyarov, Pavel R; Chupakhin, Valery S; Dorofeyev, Vitaliy M; Kolesnikova, Tatjana A; Fridman, Kirill B; Evengard, Birgitta; Nilsson, Lena M

2013-01-01

Poor state of water supply systems, shortage of water purification facilities and disinfection systems, low quality of drinking water generally in Russia and particularly in the regions of the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East have been defined in the literature. However, no standard protocol of water security assessment has been used in the majority of studies. Uniform water security indicators collected from Russian official statistical sources for the period 2000-2011 were used for comparison for 18 selected regions in the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East. The following indicators of water security were analyzed: water consumption, chemical and biological contamination of water reservoirs of Categories I and II of water sources (centralized--underground and surface, and non-centralized) and of drinking water. Water consumption in selected regions fluctuated from 125 to 340 L/person/day. Centralized water sources (both underground and surface sources) are highly contaminated by chemicals (up to 40-80%) and biological agents (up to 55% in some regions), mainly due to surface water sources. Underground water sources show relatively low levels of biological contamination, while chemical contamination is high due to additional water contamination during water treatment and transportation in pipelines. Non-centralized water sources are highly contaminated (both chemically and biologically) in 32-90% of samples analyzed. Very high levels of chemical contamination of drinking water (up to 51%) were detected in many regions, mainly in the north-western part of the Russian Arctic. Biological contamination of drinking water was generally much lower (2.5-12%) everywhere except Evenki AO (27%), and general and thermotolerant coliform bacteria predominated in drinking water samples from all regions (up to 17.5 and 12.5%, correspondingly). The presence of other agents was much lower: Coliphages--0.2-2.7%, Clostridia spores, Giardia cysts, pathogenic bacteria, Rotavirus--up to 0.8%. Of a total of 56 chemical pollutants analyzed in water samples from centralized water supply systems, 32 pollutants were found to be in excess of hygienic limits, with the predominant pollutants being Fe (up to 55%), Cl (up to 57%), Al (up to 43%) and Mn (up to 45%). In 18 selected regions of the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East Category I and II water reservoirs, water sources (centralized--underground, surface; non-centralized) and drinking water are highly contaminated by chemical and biological agents. Full-scale reform of the Russian water industry and water security system is urgently needed, especially in selected regions.

Application of nanofiltration for the removal of carbamazepine, diclofenac and ibuprofen from drinking water sources.

PubMed

Vergili, I

2013-09-30

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) are persistent during the process used to treat drinking water and, because drinking water treatment plants are not specifically designed to remove PhACs, these compounds are found in drinking water. Although there are currently no regulations or drinking water directives for PhACs, precautionary principles suggest ensuring maximal removal of PhACs through improved or existing treatment techniques. This study was designed to investigate the performance of a nanofiltration membrane in cross-flow filtration equipment for the removal of three PhACs [carbamazepine (CBZ), diclofenac (DIC) and ibuprofen (IBU)] that were spiked in water taken from a drinking water treatment plant using surface water. Because of their low solubilities, high log Kow values, low dipole moments and negative charges, higher rejection values were obtained for DIC and IBU. Low to moderate rejection values were most likely due to the small molecular sizes of the PhACs (i.e., MW < MWCO) and the divalent ions present in the raw water. Flux declines obtained from DIC studies was attributed to the adsorption of DIC ions inside the membrane pores, which decreases the flux. The most evident change in the FT-IR spectrum after nanofiltration was the appearance of new intense bands at 1072 cm(-1) and 1011 cm(-1), indicating the deposition of calcium salts on the membrane surface. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Analysis of endocrine activity in drinking water, surface water and treated wastewater from six countries.

PubMed

Leusch, Frederic D L; Neale, Peta A; Arnal, Charlotte; Aneck-Hahn, Natalie H; Balaguer, Patrick; Bruchet, Auguste; Escher, Beate I; Esperanza, Mar; Grimaldi, Marina; Leroy, Gaela; Scheurer, Marco; Schlichting, Rita; Schriks, Merijn; Hebert, Armelle

2018-08-01

The aquatic environment can contain numerous micropollutants and there are concerns about endocrine activity in environmental waters and the potential impacts on human and ecosystem health. In this study a complementary chemical analysis and in vitro bioassay approach was applied to evaluate endocrine activity in treated wastewater, surface water and drinking water samples from six countries (Germany, Australia, France, South Africa, the Netherlands and Spain). The bioassay test battery included assays indicative of seven endocrine pathways, while 58 different chemicals, including pesticides, pharmaceuticals and industrial compounds, were analysed by targeted chemical analysis. Endocrine activity was below the limit of quantification for most water samples, with only two of six treated wastewater samples and two of six surface water samples exhibiting estrogenic, glucocorticoid, progestagenic and/or anti-mineralocorticoid activity above the limit of quantification. Based on available effect-based trigger values (EBT) for estrogenic and glucocorticoid activity, some of the wastewater and surface water samples were found to exceed the EBT, suggesting these environmental waters may pose a potential risk to ecosystem health. In contrast, the lack of bioassay activity and low detected chemical concentrations in the drinking water samples do not suggest a risk to human endocrine health, with all samples below the relevant EBTs. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Identification and significance of sulphonamides (p-TSA, o-TSA, BSA) in an urban water cycle (Berlin, Germany).

PubMed

Richter, Doreen; Massmann, Gudrun; Dünnbier, Uwe

2008-03-01

Because of the nature of the water cycle in Berlin, a number of persistent wastewater residues are present in the surface water and may potentially reach the groundwater via bank filtration and artificial recharge. The occurrence and behaviour of the wastewater residues para-toluenesulphonamide (p-TSA), ortho-toluenesulphonamide (o-TSA) and benzenesulphonamide (BSA) through wastewater treatment, surface water, bank filtration and drinking water treatment was studied. In addition, groundwater below a former sewage farm was investigated. All three compounds are ubiquitous in the aquatic environment of Berlin. p-TSA concentrations are much higher than those of o-TSA and BSA. p-TSA was found in high concentrations in the wastewater influent (2 to 15microg/L), in the wastewater effluent (<0.15 to 2.34microg/L) and in sewage farm groundwater (<0.05 to 20microg/L) and in lower concentrations in the surface water (<0.05 to 1.15microg/L), bank filtrate (<0.05 to 0.30microg/L) and drinking water (<0.05 to 0.54microg/L). p-TSA is considerably depleted during waste- and drinking water treatment ( approximately 90% reduction each). The concentration ranges for o-TSA and BSA in wastewater influents were 0.11 to 8microg/L and <0.05 to 0.64microg/L, respectively, while the values for wastewater effluents were 0.14 to 4microg/L for o-TSA and 0.25 to 0.49microg/L for BSA. Wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment do not reduce the concentrations of o-TSA and BSA. The behaviour of o-TSA during wastewater treatment varies largely between different wastewater treatment plants where concentrations increase, remain constant or decrease. BSA forms during treatment. The concentrations measured in surface water, sewage farm groundwater, bank filtrate and drinking water were <0.05 to 1.74microg/L for o-TSA and <0.05 to 0.53microg/L for BSA.

Ground and Surface Water for Drinking: A Laboratory Study on Genotoxicity Using Plant Tests

PubMed Central

Feretti, Donatella; Ceretti, Elisabetta; Gustavino, Bianca; Zerbini, llaria; Zani, Claudia; Monarca, Silvano; Rizzoni, Marco

2012-01-01

Surface waters are increasingly utilized for drinking water because groundwater sources are often polluted. Several monitoring studies have detected the presence of mutagenicity in drinking water, especially from surface sources due to the reaction of natural organic matter with disinfectant. The study aimed to investigate the genotoxic potential of the products of reaction between humic substances, which are naturally present in surface water, and three disinfectants: chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite and peracetic acid. Commercial humic acids dissolved in distilled water at different total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations were studied in order to simulate natural conditions of both ground water (TOC=2.5 mg/L) and surface water (TOC=7.5 mg/L). These solutions were treated with the biocides at a 1:1 molar ratio of C:disinfectant and tested for genotoxicity using the anaphase chromosomal aberration and micronucleus tests in Allium cepa, and the Vicia faba and Tradescantia micronucleus tests. The tests were carried out after different times and with different modes of exposure, and at 1:1 and 1:10 dilutions of disinfected and undisinfected humic acid solutions. A genotoxic effect was found for sodium hypochlorite in all plant tests, at both TOCs considered, while chlorine dioxide gave positive results only with the A.cepa tests. Some positive effects were also detected for PAA (A.cepa and Tradescantia). No relevant differences were found in samples with different TOC values. The significant increase in all genotoxicity end-points induced by all tested disinfectants indicates that a genotoxic potential is exerted even in the presence of organic substances at similar concentrations to those frequently present in drinking water. PMID:25170443

Nitrogen species in drinking water indicate potential exposure pathway for Balkan Endemic Nephropathy.

PubMed

Niagolova, Nedialka; McElmurry, Shawn P; Voice, Thomas C; Long, David T; Petropoulos, Evangelos A; Havezov, Ivan; Chou, Karen; Ganev, Varban

2005-03-01

This study explored two hypotheses relating elevated concentrations of nitrogen species in drinking water and the disease Balkan Endemic Nephropathy (BEN). Drinking water samples were collected from a variety of water supplies in both endemic and non-endemic villages in the Vratza and Montana districts of Bulgaria. The majority of well water samples exceeded US drinking water standards for nitrate + nitrite. No statistically significant difference was observed for any of the nitrogen species between villages classified as endemic and non-endemic. Other constituents (sodium, potassium and chloride) known to be indicators of anthropogenic pollution were also found at elevated concentrations and all followed the order wells > springs > taps. This ordering coincides with the proximity of human influences to the water sources. Our results clearly establish an exposure pathway between anthropogenic activity and drinking water supplies, suggesting that the causative agent for BEN could result from surface contamination.

Slowly biodegradable organic compounds impact the biostability of non-chlorinated drinking water produced from surface water.

PubMed

Hijnen, W A M; Schurer, R; Bahlman, J A; Ketelaars, H A M; Italiaander, R; van der Wal, A; van der Wielen, P W J J

2018-02-01

It is possible to distribute drinking water without a disinfectant residual when the treated water is biologically stable. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of easily and slowly biodegradable compounds on the biostability of the drinking water at three full-scale production plants which use the same surface water, and on the regrowth conditions in the related distribution systems. Easily biodegradable compounds in the drinking water were determined with AOC-P17/Nox during 2012-2015. Slowly biodegradable organic compounds measured as particulate and/or high-molecular organic carbon (PHMOC), were monitored at the inlet and after the different treatment stages of the three treatments during the same period. The results show that PHMOC (300-470 μg C L -1 ) was approximately 10% of the TOC in the surface water and was removed to 50-100 μg C L -1 . The PHMOC in the water consisted of 40-60% of carbohydrates and 10% of proteins. A significant and strong positive correlation was observed for PHMOC concentrations and two recently introduced bioassay methods for slowly biodegradable compounds (AOC-A3 and biomass production potential, BPC 14 ). Moreover, these three parameters in the biological active carbon effluent (BACF) of the three plants showed a positive correlation with regrowth in the drinking water distribution system, which was assessed with Aeromonas, heterotrophic plate counts, coliforms and large invertebrates. In contrast, the AOC-P17/Nox concentrations did not correlate with these regrowth parameters. We therefore conclude that slowly biodegradable compounds in the treated water from these treatment plants seem to have a greater impact on regrowth in the distribution system than easily biodegradable compounds. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Correlations of water quality parameters with mutagenicity of chlorinated drinking water samples.

PubMed

Schenck, Kathleen M; Sivaganesan, Mano; Rice, Glenn E

2009-01-01

Adverse health effects that may result from chronic exposure to mixtures of disinfection by-products (DBPs) present in drinking waters may be linked to both the types and concentrations of DBPs present. Depending on the characteristics of the source water and treatment processes used, both types and concentrations of DBPs found in drinking waters vary substantially. The composition of a drinking-water mixture also may change during distribution. This study evaluated the relationships between mutagenicity, using the Ames assay, and water quality parameters. The study included information on treatment, mutagenicity data, and water quality data for source waters, finished waters, and distribution samples collected from five full-scale drinking water treatment plants, which used chlorine exclusively for disinfection. Four of the plants used surface water sources and the fifth plant used groundwater. Correlations between mutagenicity and water quality parameters are presented. The highest correlation was observed between mutagenicity and the total organic halide concentrations in the treated samples.

Development, validation, and application of a novel LC-MS/MS trace analysis method for the simultaneous quantification of seven iodinated X-ray contrast media and three artificial sweeteners in surface, ground, and drinking water.

PubMed

Ens, Waldemar; Senner, Frank; Gygax, Benjamin; Schlotterbeck, Götz

2014-05-01

A new method for the simultaneous determination of iodated X-ray contrast media (ICM) and artificial sweeteners (AS) by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) operated in positive and negative ionization switching mode was developed. The method was validated for surface, ground, and drinking water samples. In order to gain higher sensitivities, a 10-fold sample enrichment step using a Genevac EZ-2 plus centrifugal vacuum evaporator that provided excellent recoveries (90 ± 6 %) was selected for sample preparation. Limits of quantification below 10 ng/L were obtained for all compounds. Furthermore, sample preparation recoveries and matrix effects were investigated thoroughly for all matrix types. Considerable matrix effects were observed in surface water and could be compensated by the use of four stable isotope-labeled internal standards. Due to their persistence, fractions of diatrizoic acid, iopamidol, and acesulfame could pass the whole drinking water production process and were observed also in drinking water. To monitor the fate and occurrence of these compounds, the validated method was applied to samples from different stages of the drinking water production process of the Industrial Works of Basel (IWB). Diatrizoic acid was found as the most persistent compound which was eliminated by just 40 % during the whole drinking water treatment process, followed by iopamidol (80 % elimination) and acesulfame (85 % elimination). All other compounds were completely restrained and/or degraded by the soil and thus were not detected in groundwater. Additionally, a direct injection method without sample preparation achieving 3-20 ng/L limits of quantification was compared to the developed method.

Viral persistence in surface and drinking water: Suitability of PCR pre-treatment with intercalating dyes.

PubMed

Prevost, B; Goulet, M; Lucas, F S; Joyeux, M; Moulin, L; Wurtzer, S

2016-03-15

After many outbreaks of enteric virus associated with consumption of drinking water, the study of enteric viruses in water has increased significantly in recent years. In order to better understand the dynamics of enteric viruses in environmental water and the associated viral risk, it is necessary to estimate viral persistence in different conditions. In this study, two representative models of human enteric viruses, adenovirus 41 (AdV 41) and coxsackievirus B2 (CV-B2), were used to evaluate the persistence of enteric viruses in environmental water. The persistence of infectious particles, encapsidated genomes and free nucleic acids of AdV 41 and CV-B2 was evaluated in drinking water and surface water at different temperatures (4 °C, 20 °C and 37 °C). The infectivity of AdV 41 and CV-B2 persisted for at least 25 days, whatever the water temperature, and for more than 70 days at 4 °C and 20 °C, in both drinking and surface water. Encapsidated genomes persisted beyond 70 days, whatever the water temperature. Free nucleic acids (i.e. without capsid) also were able to persist for at least 16 days in drinking and surface water. The usefulness of a detection method based on an intercalating dye pre-treatment, which specifically targets preserved particles, was investigated for the discrimination of free and encapsidated genomes and it was compared to virus infectivity. Further, the resistance of AdV 41 and CV-B2 against two major disinfection treatments applied in drinking water plants (UV and chlorination) was evaluated. Even after the application of UV rays and chlorine at high doses (400 mJ/cm(2) and 10 mg.min/L, respectively), viral genomes were still detected with molecular biology methods. Although the intercalating dye pre-treatment had little use for the detection of the effects of UV treatment, it was useful in the case of treatment by chlorination and less than 1 log10 difference in the results was found as compared to the infectivity measurements. Finally, for the first time, the suitability of intercalating dye pre-treatment for the estimation of the quality of the water produced by treatment plants was demonstrated using samples from four drinking-water plants and two rivers. Although 55% (27/49) of drinking water samples were positive for enteric viruses using molecular detection, none of the samples were positive when the intercalating dye pre-treatment method was used. This could indicate that the viruses that were detected are not infectious. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluating In-Situ Reactions of Chlorine and Chloramines at the Surface of Copper and Iron using Microelectrodes

EPA Science Inventory

Corrosion of drinking water plumbing materials is a significant cause of deterioration of treated drinking water quality and a failure to supply safe water to the public. As a result of the Lead and Copper Rule, many water utilities in the US have developed and evaluated corrosio...

METHOD 530 DETERMINATION OF SELECT SEMIVOLATILE ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN DRINKING WATER BY SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION AND GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/ MASS SPECTROMETRY (GC/MS)

EPA Science Inventory

1.1. This is a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method for the determination of selected semivolatile organic compounds in drinking waters. Accuracy and precision data have been generated in reagent water, and in finished ground and surface waters for the compounds li...

CHARACTERIZATION OF ENDEMIC DISEASE: HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENCES IN SOURCE WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT PROCESS

EPA Science Inventory

A study in Canada by Payment et al. found that up to 35% of gastrointestinal illness in a community served by surface water was associated with drinking water that met current drinking water standards. A similar follow-up study by the same investigators tended to repeat the resul...

Emerging Contaminants in the Drinking Water Cycle

EPA Science Inventory

In the past decade, the scientific community and general public have become increasingly aware of the potential for the presence of unregulated, and generally unmonitored contaminants, found at low concentrations (sub-µg/L) in surface, ground and drinking water. The most common...

Biotransformation of arsenite and bacterial aox activity in drinking water produced from surface water of floating houses: Arsenic contamination in Cambodia.

PubMed

Chang, Jin-Soo

2015-11-01

The potential arsenite bioteansformation activity of arsenic was investigated by examining bacterial arsenic arsenite-oxidizing gene such as aoxS, aoxR, aoxA, aoxB, aoxC, and aoxD in high arsenic-contaminated drinking water produced from the surface water of floating houses. There is a biogeochemical cycle of activity involving arsenite oxidase aox system and the ars (arsenic resistance system) gene operon and aoxR leader gene activity in Alcaligenes faecalis SRR-11 and aoxS leader gene activity in Achromobacter xylosoxidans TSL-66. Batch experiments showed that SRR-11 and TSL-66 completely oxidized 1 mM of As (III) to As (V) within 35-40 h. The leaders of aoxS and aoxR are important for gene activity, and their effects in arsenic bioremediation and mobility in natural water has a significant ecological role because it allows arsenite oxidase in bacteria to control the biogeochemical cycle of arsenic-contaminated drinking water produced from surface water of floating houses. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pyrosequence Analysis of the hsp65 Genes of Nontuberculous Mycobacterium Communities in Unchlorinated Drinking Water in the Netherlands

PubMed Central

Heijnen, Leo; van der Kooij, Dick

2013-01-01

Studies have shown that certain opportunistic pathogenic species of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) can be present in distributed drinking water. However, detailed information about NTM population composition in drinking water is lacking. Therefore, NTM communities in unchlorinated drinking water from the distribution system of five treatment plants in the Netherlands were characterized using 454 pyrosequencing of the hsp65 gene. Results showed high diversities in unchlorinated drinking water, with up to 28 different NTM operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in a single sample. Each drinking water sample had a unique NTM community, and most (81.1%) OTUs were observed only once. One OTU was observed in 14 of 16 drinking water samples, indicating that this NTM species is well adapted to unchlorinated drinking water conditions. A clear influence of season, source type (groundwater, surface water), easily assimilable organic carbon (AOC) concentration, biofilm formation rate, and active biomass in treated water on the establishment of an NTM community in drinking water was not observed. Apparently, local conditions are more important for the development of a specific NTM community in the drinking water distribution system. A low (4.2%) number of hsp65 gene sequences showed more than 97% similarity to sequences of the opportunistic pathogens M. avium, M. genavense, and M. gordonae. However, most (95.8%) NTM hsp65 gene sequences were related to not-yet-described NTM species that have not been linked to disease, indicating that most NTM species in unchlorinated drinking water from distribution systems in the Netherlands have a low public health significance. PMID:23913420

Pyrosequence analysis of the hsp65 genes of nontuberculous mycobacterium communities in unchlorinated drinking water in the Netherlands.

PubMed

van der Wielen, Paul W J J; Heijnen, Leo; van der Kooij, Dick

2013-10-01

Studies have shown that certain opportunistic pathogenic species of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) can be present in distributed drinking water. However, detailed information about NTM population composition in drinking water is lacking. Therefore, NTM communities in unchlorinated drinking water from the distribution system of five treatment plants in the Netherlands were characterized using 454 pyrosequencing of the hsp65 gene. Results showed high diversities in unchlorinated drinking water, with up to 28 different NTM operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in a single sample. Each drinking water sample had a unique NTM community, and most (81.1%) OTUs were observed only once. One OTU was observed in 14 of 16 drinking water samples, indicating that this NTM species is well adapted to unchlorinated drinking water conditions. A clear influence of season, source type (groundwater, surface water), easily assimilable organic carbon (AOC) concentration, biofilm formation rate, and active biomass in treated water on the establishment of an NTM community in drinking water was not observed. Apparently, local conditions are more important for the development of a specific NTM community in the drinking water distribution system. A low (4.2%) number of hsp65 gene sequences showed more than 97% similarity to sequences of the opportunistic pathogens M. avium, M. genavense, and M. gordonae. However, most (95.8%) NTM hsp65 gene sequences were related to not-yet-described NTM species that have not been linked to disease, indicating that most NTM species in unchlorinated drinking water from distribution systems in the Netherlands have a low public health significance.

Global occurrence of Torque teno virus in water systems.

PubMed

Charest, A J; Plummer, J D; Long, S C; Carducci, A; Verani, M; Sidhu, J P S

2015-09-01

Bacterial indicator organisms are used globally to assess the microbiological safety of waters. However, waterborne viral outbreaks have occurred in drinking water systems despite negative bacterial results. Using viral markers may therefore provide more accurate health risk assessment data. In this study, fecal, wastewater, stormwater, surface water (fresh and salt), groundwater, and drinking water samples were analyzed for the presence or concentration of traditional indicators, innovative indicators and viral markers. Samples were obtained in the United States, Italy, and Australia and results compared to those reported for studies conducted in Asia and South America as well. Indicators included total coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci, male-specific coliphages, somatic coliphages and microviradae. Viral markers included adenovirus, polyomavirus, and a potential new surrogate, Torque teno virus (TTV). TTV was more frequently found in wastewaters (38-100%) and waters influenced by waste discharges (25%) than in surface waters used as drinking water sources (5%). TTV was also specific to human rather than animal feces. While TTV numbers were strongly correlated to other viral markers in wastewaters, suggesting its utility as a fecal contamination marker, data limitations and TTV presence in treated drinking waters demonstrates that additional research is needed on this potential viral indicator.

Characterizing the concentration of Cryptosporidium in Australian surface waters for setting health-based targets for drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Petterson, S; Roser, D; Deere, D

2015-09-01

It is proposed that the next revision of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines will include 'health-based targets', where the required level of potable water treatment quantitatively relates to the magnitude of source water pathogen concentrations. To quantify likely Cryptosporidium concentrations in southern Australian surface source waters, the databases for 25 metropolitan water supplies with good historical records, representing a range of catchment sizes, land use and climatic regions were mined. The distributions and uncertainty intervals for Cryptosporidium concentrations were characterized for each site. Then, treatment targets were quantified applying the framework recommended in the World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality 2011. Based on total oocyst concentrations, and not factoring in genotype or physiological state information as it relates to infectivity for humans, the best estimates of the required level of treatment, expressed as log10 reduction values, ranged among the study sites from 1.4 to 6.1 log10. Challenges associated with relying on historical monitoring data for defining drinking water treatment requirements were identified. In addition, the importance of quantitative microbial risk assessment input assumptions on the quantified treatment targets was investigated, highlighting the need for selection of locally appropriate values.

Surface microlayer enrichment of volatile organic compounds and semi-volatile organic compounds in drinking water source.

PubMed

Huang, Zhi; Zhou, Wen; Yu, Ya-juan; Zhang, Ai-qian; Han, Shuo-kui; Wang, Lian-sheng

2004-01-01

Enrichment of volatile organic compounds(VOC) and semi-volatility organic compounds(SVOC) in surface microlayer(SM) of three drinking water sources were studied. The enrichment factor(EFs) were 0.67 to 13.37 and 0.16 to 136, respectively. The results showed some VOC and most SVOC could enrich in SM. Some EFs of SVOC was quite high. Suspension and temperature could affect EFs of SVOC, slim wind and water movement do not destroy enrichment of organic in SM.

Measuring sporadic gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking water - an overview of methodologies.

PubMed

Bylund, John; Toljander, Jonas; Lysén, Maria; Rasti, Niloofar; Engqvist, Jannes; Simonsson, Magnus

2017-06-01

There is an increasing awareness that drinking water contributes to sporadic gastrointestinal illness (GI) in high income countries of the northern hemisphere. A literature search was conducted in order to review: (1) methods used for investigating the effects of public drinking water on GI; (2) evidence of possible dose-response relationship between sporadic GI and drinking water consumption; and (3) association between sporadic GI and factors affecting drinking water quality. Seventy-four articles were selected, key findings and information gaps were identified. In-home intervention studies have only been conducted in areas using surface water sources and intervention studies in communities supplied by ground water are therefore needed. Community-wide intervention studies may constitute a cost-effective alternative to in-home intervention studies. Proxy data that correlate with GI in the community can be used for detecting changes in the incidence of GI. Proxy data can, however, not be used for measuring the prevalence of illness. Local conditions affecting water safety may vary greatly, making direct comparisons between studies difficult unless sufficient knowledge about these conditions is acquired. Drinking water in high-income countries contributes to endemic levels of GI and there are public health benefits for further improvements of drinking water safety.

Year-long evaluation on the occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and endocrine disrupting chemicals in an urban drinking water treatment plant.

PubMed

Padhye, Lokesh P; Yao, Hong; Kung'u, Francis T; Huang, Ching-Hua

2014-03-15

The occurrence and removal of thirty representative pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in an urban drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) were investigated for a period of one year to evaluate current system's treatment efficacy and assess occurrence of PPCPs and EDCs in finished drinking water. Results showed that the average total PPCPs and EDCs concentration in the surface water source was around 360 ng/L (median concentration = 340 ng/L) with 57% coefficient of variation (CV). The median concentrations of most of the individual PPCPs and EDCs in the surface water were below 15 ng/L except for N,N-diethyltoluamide (DEET) and nonylphenol, which were at 122 and 83 ng/L, respectively. The compounds DEET, nonylphenol, ibuprofen, triclosan, atrazine, tris(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate (TCEP), bisphenol-A, and caffeine (in the order of decreasing median concentration) were among twenty compounds detected at least once in the surface water, while all of the above detected compounds, except two, were also detected in the finished drinking water. The average total PPCPs and EDCs concentration in the finished drinking water was around 98 ng/L (median concentration = 96 ng/L) with 66% CV. The median concentrations of most detected PPCPs and EDCs in drinking water were below 5 ng/L except for DEET and nonylphenol, which were at 12 and 20 ng/L, respectively. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.97) between PPCPs and EDCs' concentrations in the source water and in the drinking water over the one-year study period when data points from two sampling events with unusual removals were excluded. Individual water treatment unit processes showed greater temporal variations of PPCPs and EDCs removal efficiencies than the overall treatment processes. The removal efficiencies also varied greatly among different PPCPs and EDCs. The average removal for total PPCPs and EDCs was 76 ± 18% at the DWTP, with ozonation showing the highest removal efficiency. Based on the similar occurrence and removal trends observed as that of total PPCPs and EDCs in this study, DEET and nonylphenol can be considered as potential indicator compounds for predicting the occurrence and removal of total PPCPs and EDCs in surface water. No strong correlations could be found between total PPCPs and EDCs removal and the removal of suspended solids, turbidity, or organic carbon. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Occurrence and fate of the angiotensin II receptor antagonist transformation product valsartan acid in the water cycle--a comparative study with selected β-blockers and the persistent anthropogenic wastewater indicators carbamazepine and acesulfame.

PubMed

Nödler, Karsten; Hillebrand, Olav; Idzik, Krzysztof; Strathmann, Martin; Schiperski, Ferry; Zirlewagen, Johannes; Licha, Tobias

2013-11-01

The substantial transformation of the angiotensin II receptor antagonist valsartan to the transformation product 2'-(2H-tetrazol-5-yl)-[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carboxylic acid (referred to as valsartan acid) during the activated sludge process was demonstrated in the literature and confirmed in the here presented study. However, there was a severe lack of knowledge regarding the occurrence and fate of this compound in surface water and its behavior during drinking water treatment. In this work a comparative study on the occurrence and persistency of valsartan acid, three frequently used β-blockers (metoprolol, atenolol, and sotalol), atenolol acid (one significant transformation product of atenolol and metoprolol), and the two widely distributed persistent anthropogenic wastewater indicators carbamazepine and acesulfame in raw sewage, treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, and tap water is presented. Median concentrations of valsartan acid in the analyzed matrices were 101, 1,310, 69, <1.0, and 65 ng L(-1), respectively. Treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants were confirmed as significant source. Regarding concentration levels of pharmaceutical residues in surface waters valsartan acid was found just as relevant as the analyzed β-blockers and the anticonvulsant carbamazepine. Regarding its persistency in surface waters it was comparable to carbamazepine and acesulfame. Furthermore, removal of valsartan acid during bank filtration was poor, which demonstrated the relevance of this compound for drinking water suppliers. Regarding drinking water treatment (Muelheim Process) the compound was resistant to ozonation but effectively eliminated (≥90%) by subsequent activated carbon filtration. However, without applying activated carbon filtration the compound may enter the drinking water distribution system as it was demonstrated for Berlin tap water. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An approach to monitoring cyanobacteria blooms at surface drinking water intakes using satellite imagery (10th National Monitoring Conference)

EPA Science Inventory

Cyanobacterial blooms occur worldwide and are associated with human respiratory irritation, undesirable taste and odor of potable water, increased drinking water treatment costs, loss of revenue from recreational use, and human illness as a result of ingestion or skin exposure du...

p-Nitrophenol and glutathione response in medaka (Oryzias latipes)exposed to MX, a drinking water carcinogen

EPA Science Inventory

When chlorine is introduced into public drinking water for disinfection, it can react with organic compounds in surface waters to form toxic by-products such as 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2[5H]-furanone (MX). We investigated the effect of exposure to MX on cytochrome ...

EVALUATION OF A PILOT-SCALE ULTRAVIOLET (UV) LIGHT AND OZONE TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR REMOVAL OF MTBE FROM DRINKING WATER SOURCES

EPA Science Inventory

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is currently evaluating package plant advanced oxidation process (AOP) systems to treat methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) in drinking water supplies (e.g., surface water, groundwater). MTBE has been identified as a potential carcin...

P-NITROPHENOL AND GLUTATHIONE RESPONSE IN MEDAKA (ORYZIAS LATIPES) EXPOSED TO MX, A DRINKING WATER CARCINOGEN.

EPA Science Inventory

When chlorine is introduced into public drinking water for disinfection, it can react with organic compounds in surface waters to form toxic by-products such as 3-chloro-4- (dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2[5H]-furanone (MX). We investigated the effect of exposure to MX on cytochr...

Technical Roundtables on EPA's Study of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources: Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal, November 16, 2012

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This project focuses on the efficacy of treatment processes at POTWs and CWTs, since discharge of treated wastewater to surface waters provides an opportunity for chemicals found in the effluent to be transported to downstream drinking water intakes.

Chapter 5: Surface water quality sampling in streams and canals

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

Surface water sampling and water quality assessments have greatly evolved in the United States since the 1970s establishment of the Clean Water Act. Traditionally, water quality referred to only the chemical characteristics of the water and its toxicological properties related to drinking water or ...

Emerging Contaminants in the Drinking Water Cycle.

EPA Science Inventory

In the past decade, the scientific community and general public have become increasingly aware of the potential for the presence of unregulated, and generally unmonitored contaminants, found at low concentrations (sub-g/L) in surface, ground and drinking water. The most common...

Emerging Contaminants in the Drinking Water Cycle - MCEARD

EPA Science Inventory

In the past decade, the scientific community and general public have become increasingly aware of the potential for the presence of unregulated, and generally unmonitored contaminants, found at low concentrations (sub-g/L) in surface, ground and drinking water. The most common...

Tracking persistent pharmaceutical residues from municipal sewage to drinking water

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Heberer, Thomas

2002-09-01

In urban areas such as Berlin (Germany) with high municipal sewage water discharges and low surface water flows there is a potential risk of drinking water contamination by polar organic compounds when groundwater recharge is used in drinking water production. Thus, some pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) are not eliminated completely in the municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs) and they are discharged as contaminants into the receiving waters. In terms of several monitoring studies carried out in Berlin between 1996 and 2000, PhACs such as clofibric acid, diclofenac, ibuprofen, propyphenazone, primidone and carbamazepine were detected at individual concentrations up to the μg/l-level in influent and effluent samples from STPs and in all surface water samples collected downstream from the STPs. Under recharge conditions, several compounds were also found at individual concentrations up to 7.3 μg/l in samples collected from groundwater aquifers near to contaminated water courses. A few of the PhACs were also identified at the ng/l-level in Berlin tap water samples.

Screening municipal wastewater effluent and surface water used for drinking water production for the presence of ampicillin and vancomycin resistant enterococci.

PubMed

Taučer-Kapteijn, Maja; Hoogenboezem, Wim; Heiliegers, Laura; de Bolster, Danny; Medema, Gertjan

2016-07-01

The emergence of clinical enterococcal isolates that are resistant to both ampicillin and vancomycin is a cause of great concern, as therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of infections caused by such organisms are becoming limited. Aquatic environments could play a role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistant enterococci. This study investigated the presence of ampicillin and vancomycin resistant enterococci in the treated effluent of six wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and in surface water used as a source for drinking water production in the Netherlands. Membrane filtration in combination with selective media with ampicillin or vancomycin was applied to determine the presence of ampicillin resistant Enterococcus (ARE) and vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE) species. Ampicillin resistant Enterococcus faecium (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) >16μg/mL; n=1033) was observed in all studied WWTP effluents. In surface water used for drinking water production (intake locations), no ARE or VRE were observed. At both types of location, intrinsic vancomycin resistant Pediococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp. and Lactobacillus spp. were isolated with the vancomycin medium. The ampicillin resistant E. faecium (AREfm) isolates (n=113) did not contain the vanA or vanB gene, but MIC testing for vancomycin showed intermediate vancomycin resistance (2-8μgmL(-1)) to occur in these AREfm strains. This study documents the discharge of ampicillin resistant E. faecium strains with intermediate vancomycin resistance by the WWTPs into the surface water, but no presence of these strains downstream at intake locations for drinking water production. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Centralized Drinking Water Treatment Operations Shape Bacterial and Fungal Community Structure.

PubMed

Ma, Xiao; Vikram, Amit; Casson, Leonard; Bibby, Kyle

2017-07-05

Drinking water microbial communities impact opportunistic pathogen colonization and corrosion of water distribution systems, and centralized drinking water treatment represents a potential control for microbial community structure in finished drinking water. In this article, we examine bacterial and fungal abundance and diversity, as well as the microbial community taxonomic structure following each unit operation in a conventional surface water treatment plant. Treatment operations drove the microbial composition more strongly than sampling time. Both bacterial and fungal abundance and diversity decreased following sedimentation and filtration; however, only bacterial abundance and diversity was significantly impacted by free chlorine disinfection. Similarly, each treatment step was found to shift bacterial and fungal community beta-diversity, with the exception of disinfection on the fungal community structure. We observed the enrichment of bacterial and fungal taxa commonly found in drinking water distribution systems through the treatment process, for example, Sphingomonas following filtration and Leptospirillium and Penicillium following disinfection. Study results suggest that centralized drinking water treatment processes shape the final drinking water microbial community via selection of community members and that the bacterial community is primarily driven by disinfection while the eukaryotic community is primarily controlled by physical treatment processes.

Assessment of the water chemical quality improvement based on human health risk indexes: Application to a drinking water treatment plant incorporating membrane technologies.

PubMed

López-Roldán, Ramón; Rubalcaba, Alicia; Martin-Alonso, Jordi; González, Susana; Martí, Vicenç; Cortina, Jose Luis

2016-01-01

A methodology has been developed in order to evaluate the potential risk of drinking water for the health of the consumers. The methodology used for the assessment considered systemic and carcinogenic effects caused by oral ingestion of water based on the reference data developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS) for chemical contaminants. The exposure includes a hypothetical dose received by drinking this water according to the analysed contaminants. An assessment of the chemical quality improvement of produced water in the Drinking Water Treatment Plant (DWTP) after integration of membrane technologies was performed. Series of concentration values covering up to 261 chemical parameters over 5 years (2008-2012) of raw and treated water in the Sant Joan Despí DWTP, at the lower part of the Llobregat River basin (NE Spain), were used. After the application of the methodology, the resulting global indexes were located below the thresholds except for carcinogenic risk in the output of DWTP, where the index was slightly above the threshold during 2008 and 2009 before the upgrade of the treatment works including membrane technologies was executed. The annual evolution of global indexes showed a reduction in the global values for all situations: HQ systemic index based on RAIS dropped from 0.64 to 0.42 for surface water and from 0.61 to 0.31 for drinking water; the R carcinogenic index based on RAIS was negligible for input water and varied between 4.2×10(-05) and 7.4×10(-06) for drinking water; the W systemic index based on the WHO data varied between 0.41 and 0.16 for surface water and between 0.61 and 0.31 for drinking water. A specific analysis for the indexes associated with trihalomethanes (THMs) showed the same pattern. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Modelling fate and transport of pesticides in river catchments with drinking water abstractions

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Desmet, Nele; Seuntjens, Piet; Touchant, Kaatje

2010-05-01

When drinking water is abstracted from surface water, the presence of pesticides may have a large impact on the purification costs. In order to respect imposed thresholds at points of drinking water abstraction in a river catchment, sustainable pesticide management strategies might be required in certain areas. To improve management strategies, a sound understanding of the emission routes, the transport, the environmental fate and the sources of pesticides is needed. However, pesticide monitoring data on which measures are founded, are generally scarce. Data scarcity hampers the interpretation and the decision making. In such a case, a modelling approach can be very useful as a tool to obtain complementary information. Modelling allows to take into account temporal and spatial variability in both discharges and concentrations. In the Netherlands, the Meuse river is used for drinking water abstraction and the government imposes the European drinking water standard for individual pesticides (0.1 ?g.L-1) for surface waters at points of drinking water abstraction. The reported glyphosate concentrations in the Meuse river frequently exceed the standard and this enhances the request for targeted measures. In this study, a model for the Meuse river was developed to estimate the contribution of influxes at the Dutch-Belgian border on the concentration levels detected at the drinking water intake 250 km downstream and to assess the contribution of the tributaries to the glyphosate loads. The effects of glyphosate decay on environmental fate were considered as well. Our results show that the application of a river model allows to asses fate and transport of pesticides in a catchment in spite of monitoring data scarcity. Furthermore, the model provides insight in the contribution of different sub basins to the pollution level. The modelling results indicate that the effect of local measures to reduce pesticides concentrations in the river at points of drinking water abstraction, might be limited due to dominant transboundary loads. This emphasizes the need for transboundary management strategies on a river catchment scale.

Surface Water Treatment Rules State Implementation Guidance

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

These documents provide guidance to states, tribes and U.S. EPA Regions exercising primary enforcement responsibility under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The documents contain EPA’s recommendations for implementation of the Surface Water Treatment Rules.

Integration of Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery and HACCP for Ensuring Drinking Water Quality

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Lee, S. I.; Ji, H. W.

2015-12-01

The integration of ASTR (Aquifer Storage Transfer and Recovery) and HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) is being attempted to ensure drinking water quality in a delta area. ASTR is a water supply system in which surface water is injected into a well for storage and recovered from a different well. During the process natural water treatment is achieved in the aquifer. ASTR has advantages over surface reservoirs in that the water is protected from external contaminants and free from water loss by evaporation. HACCP, originated from the food industry, can efficiently manage hazards and reduce risks when it is introduced to the drinking water production. The study area is the located in the Nakdong River Delta, South Korea. Water quality of this region has been deteriorated due to the increased pollution loads from the upstream cities and industrial complexes. ASTR equipped with HACCP system is suggested as a means to heighten the public trust in drinking water. After the drinking water supply system using ASTR was decomposed into ten processes, principles of HACCP were applied. Hazardous event analysis was conducted for 114 hazardous events and nine major hazardous events were identified based on the likelihood and the severity assessment. Potential risk of chemical hazards, as a function of amounts, travel distance and toxicity, was evaluated and the result shows the relative threat a city poses to the drinking water supply facility. Next, critical control points were determined using decision tree analysis. Critical limits, maximum and/or minimum values to which biological, chemical or physical parameters must be controlled, were established. Other procedures such as monitoring, corrective actions and will be presented.

Economic Impacts of Surface Mining on Household Drinking Water Supplies

EPA Science Inventory

This report provides information on the economic and social impacts of contaminated surface and ground water supplies on residents and households near surface mining operations. The focus is on coal slurry contamination of water supplies in Mingo County, West Virginia, and descr...

Drinking water as a proportion of total human exposure to volatile N-nitrosamines.

PubMed

Hrudey, Steve E; Bull, Richard J; Cotruvo, Joseph A; Paoli, Greg; Wilson, Margaret

2013-12-01

Some volatile N-nitrosamines, primarily N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), are recognized as products of drinking water treatment at ng/L levels and as known carcinogens. The U.S. EPA has identified the N-nitrosamines as contaminants being considered for regulation as a group under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Nitrosamines are common dietary components, and a major database (over 18,000 drinking water samples) has recently been created under the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule. A Monte Carlo modeling analysis in 2007 found that drinking water contributed less than 2.8% of ingested NDMA and less than 0.02% of total NDMA exposure when estimated endogenous formation was considered. Our analysis, based upon human blood concentrations, indicates that endogenous NDMA production is larger than expected. The blood-based estimates are within the range that would be calculated from estimates based on daily urinary NDMA excretion and an estimate based on methylated guanine in DNA of lymphocytes from human volunteers. Our analysis of ingested NDMA from food and water based on Monte Carlo modeling with more complete data input shows that drinking water contributes a mean proportion of the lifetime average daily NDMA dose ranging from between 0.0002% and 0.001% for surface water systems using free chlorine or between 0.001% and 0.01% for surface water systems using chloramines. The proportions of average daily dose are higher for infants (zero to six months) than other age cohorts, with the highest mean up to 0.09% (upper 95th percentile of 0.3%). © 2013 Society for Risk Analysis.

Bacterial community structure in the drinking water microbiome is governed by filtration processes.

PubMed

Pinto, Ameet J; Xi, Chuanwu; Raskin, Lutgarde

2012-08-21

The bacterial community structure of a drinking water microbiome was characterized over three seasons using 16S rRNA gene based pyrosequencing of samples obtained from source water (a mix of a groundwater and a surface water), different points in a drinking water plant operated to treat this source water, and in the associated drinking water distribution system. Even though the source water was shown to seed the drinking water microbiome, treatment process operations limit the source water's influence on the distribution system bacterial community. Rather, in this plant, filtration by dual media rapid sand filters played a primary role in shaping the distribution system bacterial community over seasonal time scales as the filters harbored a stable bacterial community that seeded the water treatment processes past filtration. Bacterial taxa that colonized the filter and sloughed off in the filter effluent were able to persist in the distribution system despite disinfection of finished water by chloramination and filter backwashing with chloraminated backwash water. Thus, filter colonization presents a possible ecological survival strategy for bacterial communities in drinking water systems, which presents an opportunity to control the drinking water microbiome by manipulating the filter microbial community. Grouping bacterial taxa based on their association with the filter helped to elucidate relationships between the abundance of bacterial groups and water quality parameters and showed that pH was the strongest regulator of the bacterial community in the sampled drinking water system.

Decontamination of chemical agents from drinking water infrastructure: a literature review and summary.

PubMed

Szabo, Jeff; Minamyer, Scott

2014-11-01

This report summarizes the current state of knowledge on the persistence of chemical contamination on drinking water infrastructure (such as pipes) along with information on decontamination should persistence occur. Decontamination options for drinking water infrastructure have been explored for some chemical contaminants, but important data gaps remain. In general, data on chemical persistence on drinking water infrastructure is available for inorganics such as arsenic and mercury, as well as select organics such as petroleum products, pesticides and rodenticides. Data specific to chemical warfare agents and pharmaceuticals was not found and data on toxins is scant. Future research suggestions focus on expanding the available chemical persistence data to other common drinking water infrastructure materials. Decontaminating agents that successfully removed persistent contamination from one infrastructure material should be used in further studies. Methods for sampling or extracting chemical agents from water infrastructure surfaces are needed. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Hydrochemical characteristics and water quality assessment of surface water and groundwater in Songnen plain, Northeast China.

PubMed

Zhang, Bing; Song, Xianfang; Zhang, Yinghua; Han, Dongmei; Tang, Changyuan; Yu, Yilei; Ma, Ying

2012-05-15

Water quality is the critical factor that influence on human health and quantity and quality of grain production in semi-humid and semi-arid area. Songnen plain is one of the grain bases in China, as well as one of the three major distribution regions of soda saline-alkali soil in the world. To assess the water quality, surface water and groundwater were sampled and analyzed by fuzzy membership analysis and multivariate statistics. The surface water were gather into class I, IV and V, while groundwater were grouped as class I, II, III and V by fuzzy membership analysis. The water samples were grouped into four categories according to irrigation water quality assessment diagrams of USDA. Most water samples distributed in category C1-S1, C2-S2 and C3-S3. Three groups were generated from hierarchical cluster analysis. Four principal components were extracted from principal component analysis. The indicators to water quality assessment were Na, HCO(3), NO(3), Fe, Mn and EC from principal component analysis. We conclude that surface water and shallow groundwater are suitable for irrigation, the reservoir and deep groundwater in upstream are the resources for drinking. The water for drinking should remove of the naturally occurring ions of Fe and Mn. The control of sodium and salinity hazard is required for irrigation. The integrated management of surface water and groundwater for drinking and irrigation is to solve the water issues. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

SEROLOGICAL RESPONSES TO CRYPTOSPORIDIUM ANTIGENS AMONG USERS OF SURFACE VERSUS UNDERGROUND DRINKING WATER SOURCES

EPA Science Inventory

Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in source and treated drinking waters in the United States and elsewhere. Enhanced enteric disease surveillance, initiated following detection of oocysts, has not often detected elevated rates of infection or of symptoms compatible with...

Preparation of fly ash based zeolite for removal of fluoride from drinking water

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Panda, Laxmidhar; Kar, Biswabandita; Dash, Subhakanta

2018-05-01

Fluoride contamination of drinking water is a worldwide phenomenon and scientists are working relentlessly to find ways to remove fluoride from drinking water. Out of the different methods employed for removal fluoride from drinking water adsorption process is the most suitable because in this process the adsorbent is regenerated and the process is cost effective. In the present study fly ash is used as the raw material, which is treated with alkali (NaOH) to form NaP1 zeolite. This zeolite is then subjected to characterization by standard procedures. It is found that the synthesized zeolite has more crystalline character than the raw fly ash and has also more voids and channels on its surface. The surface of the synthesized zeolite is modified with calcium chloride and the same is employed for removal of fluoride under varying pH, contact time, initial concentration of fluoride, temperature and adsorbent dose etc so as to assess the suitably or otherwise of the synthesized product.

Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water---United States, 2007--2008.

PubMed

Brunkard, Joan M; Ailes, Elizabeth; Roberts, Virginia A; Hill, Vincent; Hilborn, Elizabeth D; Craun, Gunther F; Rajasingham, Anu; Kahler, Amy; Garrison, Laurel; Hicks, Lauri; Carpenter, Joe; Wade, Timothy J; Beach, Michael J; Yoder Msw, Jonathan S

2011-09-23

Since 1971, CDC, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists have collaborated on the Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) for collecting and reporting data related to occurrences and causes of waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water. This surveillance system is the primary source of data concerning the scope and health effects of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. Data presented summarize 48 outbreaks that occurred during January 2007--December 2008 and 70 previously unreported outbreaks. WBDOSS includes data on outbreaks associated with drinking water, recreational water, water not intended for drinking (WNID) (excluding recreational water), and water use of unknown intent (WUI). Public health agencies in the states, U.S. territories, localities, and Freely Associated States are primarily responsible for detecting and investigating outbreaks and reporting them voluntarily to CDC by a standard form. Only data on outbreaks associated with drinking water, WNID (excluding recreational water), and WUI are summarized in this report. Outbreaks associated with recreational water are reported separately. A total of 24 states and Puerto Rico reported 48 outbreaks that occurred during 2007--2008. Of these 48 outbreaks, 36 were associated with drinking water, eight with WNID, and four with WUI. The 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks caused illness among at least 4,128 persons and were linked to three deaths. Etiologic agents were identified in 32 (88.9%) of the 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks; 21 (58.3%) outbreaks were associated with bacteria, five (13.9%) with viruses, three (8.3%) with parasites, one (2.8%) with a chemical, one (2.8%) with both bacteria and viruses, and one (2.8%) with both bacteria and parasites. Four outbreaks (11.1%) had unidentified etiologies. Of the 36 drinking water--associated outbreaks, 22 (61.1%) were outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI), 12 (33.3%) were outbreaks of acute respiratory illness (ARI), one (2.8%) was an outbreak associated with skin irritation, and one (2.8%) was an outbreak of hepatitis. All outbreaks of ARI were caused by Legionella spp. A total of 37 deficiencies were identified in the 36 outbreaks associated with drinking water. Of the 37 deficiencies, 22 (59.5%) involved contamination at or in the source water, treatment facility, or distribution system; 13 (35.1%) occurred at points not under the jurisdiction of a water utility; and two (5.4%) had unknown/insufficient deficiency information. Among the 21 outbreaks associated with source water, treatment, or distribution system deficiencies, 13 (61.9%) were associated with untreated ground water, six (28.6%) with treatment deficiencies, one (4.8%) with a distribution system deficiency, and one (4.8%) with both a treatment and a distribution system deficiency. No outbreaks were associated with untreated surface water. Of the 21 outbreaks, 16 (76.2%) occurred in public water systems (drinking water systems under the jurisdiction of EPA regulations and water utility management), and five (23.8%) outbreaks occurred in individual systems (all of which were associated with untreated ground water). Among the 13 outbreaks with deficiencies not under the jurisdiction of a water system, 12 (92.3%) were associated with the growth of Legionella spp. in the drinking water system, and one (7.7%) was associated with a plumbing deficiency. In the two outbreaks with unknown deficiencies, one was associated with a public water supply, and the other was associated with commercially bottled water. The 70 previously unreported outbreaks included 69 Legionella outbreaks during 1973--2000 that were not reportable previously to WBDOSS and one previously unreported outbreak from 2002. More than half of the drinking water--associated outbreaks reported during the 2007--2008 surveillance period were associated with untreated or inadequately treated ground water, indicating that contamination of ground water remains a public health problem. The majority of these outbreaks occurred in public water systems that are subject to EPA's new Ground Water Rule (GWR), which requires the majority of community water systems to complete initial sanitary surveys by 2012. The GWR focuses on identification of deficiencies, protection of wells and springs from contamination, and providing disinfection when necessary to protect against bacterial and viral agents. In addition, several drinking water--associated outbreaks that were related to contaminated ground water appeared to occur in systems that were potentially under the influence of surface water. Future efforts to collect data systematically on contributing factors associated with drinking water outbreaks and deficiencies, including identification of ground water under the direct influence of surface water and the criteria used for their classification, would be useful to better assess risks associated with ground water. During 2007--2008, Legionella was the most frequently reported etiology among drinking water--associated outbreaks, following the pattern observed since it was first included in WBDOSS in 2001. However, six (50%) of the 12 drinking water--associated Legionella outbreaks were reported from one state, highlighting the substantial variance in outbreak detection and reporting across states and territories. The addition of published and CDC-investigated legionellosis outbreaks to the WBDOSS database clarifies that Legionella is not a new public health issue. During 2009, Legionella was added to EPA's Contaminant Candidate List for the first time. CDC and EPA use WBDOSS surveillance data to identify the types of etiologic agents, deficiencies, water systems, and sources associated with waterborne disease outbreaks and to evaluate the adequacy of current technologies and practices for providing safe drinking water. Surveillance data also are used to establish research priorities, which can lead to improved water quality regulation development. Approximately two thirds of the outbreaks associated with untreated ground water reported during the 2007--2008 surveillance period occurred in public water systems. When fully implemented, the GWR that was promulgated in 2006 is expected to result in decreases in ground water outbreaks, similar to the decreases observed in surface water outbreaks after enactment of the Surface Water Treatment Rule in 1974 and its subsequent amendments. One third of drinking water--associated outbreaks occurred in building premise plumbing systems outside the jurisdiction of water utility management and EPA regulations; Legionella spp. accounted for >90% of these outbreaks, indicating that greater attention is needed to reduce the risk for legionellosis in building plumbing systems. Finally, a large communitywide drinking water outbreak occurred in 2008 in a public water system associated with a distribution system deficiency, underscoring the importance of maintaining and upgrading drinking water distribution system infrastructure to provide safe water and protect public health.

Residues of organochlorine pesticides in surface water of a megacity in central China: seasonal-spatial distribution and fate in Wuhan.

PubMed

Cui, Lili; Wei, Liangfu; Wang, Jun

2017-01-01

Surface water quality closely correlating with human health suffered increasing organochlorine pesticide (OCP) pollution due to the intensive anthropogenic activities in megacities. In the present study, 112 water samples collected from 14 lakes and 11 drinking water source sites in Wuhan were detected for the residues of OCPs in November 2013 and July 2014, respectively. The ΣOCPs ranged from 5.61 to 13.62 ng L -1 in summer with the maximum value in Yezhi Lake and 3.18 to 7.73 ng L -1 in winter with the highest concentration in Yandong Lake. Except dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), OCP concentrations in summer were significantly higher than those in winter mostly due to the non-point source pollution including land runoff in summer. Source apportionment of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and DDTs revealed the historical use of technical HCH and lindane and the new input of DDT, respectively. The spatial distribution of OCPs was not uniform in the surface water of Wuhan because of the significant influence of land development and fishery. The risk assessments showed the heptachlor, and heptachlor epoxide in most sampling sites exceeded the threshold set by the European Union, indicating the possible adverse effects for aquatic lives. Negligible non-carcinogenic risks for drinking and bathing as well as carcinogenic risks for bathing were found in the surface water. However, the total carcinogenic risks of all OCPs (∑Rs) caused by drinking in summer were higher than the safe level of 10 -7 in all sampling sites. It was implied that the surface water in Wuhan was not safe for directly drinking without effective purification.

Combining groundwater quality analysis and a numerical flow simulation for spatially establishing utilization strategies for groundwater and surface water in the Pingtung Plain

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jang, Cheng-Shin; Chen, Ching-Fang; Liang, Ching-Ping; Chen, Jui-Sheng

2016-02-01

Overexploitation of groundwater is a common problem in the Pingtung Plain area of Taiwan, resulting in substantial drawdown of groundwater levels as well as the occurrence of severe seawater intrusion and land subsidence. Measures need to be taken to preserve these valuable groundwater resources. This study seeks to spatially determine the most suitable locations for the use of surface water on this plain instead of extracting groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and aquaculture purposes based on information obtained by combining groundwater quality analysis and a numerical flow simulation assuming the planning of manmade lakes and reservoirs to the increase of water supply. The multivariate indicator kriging method is first used to estimate occurrence probabilities, and to rank townships as suitable or unsuitable for groundwater utilization according to water quality standards for drinking, irrigation, and aquaculture. A numerical model of groundwater flow (MODFLOW) is adopted to quantify the recovery of groundwater levels in townships after model calibration when groundwater for drinking and agricultural demands has been replaced by surface water. Finally, townships with poor groundwater quality and significant increases in groundwater levels in the Pingtung Plain are prioritized for the groundwater conservation planning based on the combined assessment of groundwater quality and quantity. The results of this study indicate that the integration of groundwater quality analysis and the numerical flow simulation is capable of establishing sound strategies for joint groundwater and surface water use. Six southeastern townships are found to be suitable locations for replacing groundwater with surface water from manmade lakes or reservoirs to meet drinking, irrigation, and aquaculture demands.

Health and environmental policy issues in Canada: the role of watershed management in sustaining clean drinking water quality at surface sources.

PubMed

Davies, John-Mark; Mazumder, Asit

2003-07-01

Sustaining clean and safe drinking water sources is increasingly becoming a priority because of global pollution. The means of attaining and maintaining clean drinking water sources requires effective policies that identify, document, and reduce watershed risks. These risks are defined by their potential impact to human health. Health and risk are, therefore, indelibly linked because they are in part defined by each other. Understanding pathogen ecology and identifying watershed sources remains a priority because of the associated acute risks. Surface water quality changes resulting from inputs of human waste, nutrients and chemicals are associated with higher drinking water risks. Nutrient input can increase primary production and the resulting increase of organic matter results in greater disinfection by-product formation or requires greater treatment intensity. Many drinking water disease outbreaks have resulted from breaches in treatment facilities, therefore, even with greater treatment intensity poor source water quality intrinsically has greater associated health risks. Government and international agencies play a critical role in developing policy. The goal of maintaining water supplies whose availability is maximized and risks are minimized (i.e. sustainable) should be a vital part of such policy. Health risks are discussed in the context of a multi-barrier perspective and it is concluded that both passive (protection) and active (prescriptive management) management is necessary for sustainability. Canadian aboriginal water systems, British Columbian water policy and US EPA policies are given as examples. The basis for developing effective policies includes a strong reliance on sound science and effective instrumentation with careful consideration of stakeholders' interests. Only with such directed policies can the future availability of clean drinking water sources be ensured.

Application of bimodal distribution to the detection of changes in uranium concentration in drinking water collected by random daytime sampling method from a large water supply zone.

PubMed

Garboś, Sławomir; Święcicka, Dorota

2015-11-01

The random daytime (RDT) sampling method was used for the first time in the assessment of average weekly exposure to uranium through drinking water in a large water supply zone. Data set of uranium concentrations determined in 106 RDT samples collected in three runs from the water supply zone in Wroclaw (Poland), cannot be simply described by normal or log-normal distributions. Therefore, a numerical method designed for the detection and calculation of bimodal distribution was applied. The extracted two distributions containing data from the summer season of 2011 and the winter season of 2012 (nI=72) and from the summer season of 2013 (nII=34) allowed to estimate means of U concentrations in drinking water: 0.947 μg/L and 1.23 μg/L, respectively. As the removal efficiency of uranium during applied treatment process is negligible, the effect of increase in uranium concentration can be explained by higher U concentration in the surface-infiltration water used for the production of drinking water. During the summer season of 2013, heavy rains were observed in Lower Silesia region, causing floods over the territory of the entire region. Fluctuations in uranium concentrations in surface-infiltration water can be attributed to releases of uranium from specific sources - migration from phosphate fertilizers and leaching from mineral deposits. Thus, exposure to uranium through drinking water may increase during extreme rainfall events. The average chronic weekly intakes of uranium through drinking water, estimated on the basis of central values of the extracted normal distributions, accounted for 3.2% and 4.1% of tolerable weekly intake. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Alizarin Dye based ultrasensitive plasmonic SERS probe for trace level Cadmium detection in drinking water

PubMed Central

Dasary, Samuel S.R.; Zones, Yolanda K.; Barnes, Sandra L.; Ray, P. C.; Singh, Anant K.

2015-01-01

Alizarin functionalized on plasmonic gold nanoparticle displays strong surface enhanced Raman scattering from the various Raman modes of Alizarin, which can be exploited in multiple ways for heavy metal sensing purposes. The present article reports a surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) probe for trace level Cadmium in water samples. Alizarin, a highly Raman active dye was functionalized on plasmonic gold surface as a Raman reporter, and then 3-mercaptopropionic acid, 2,6-Pyridinedicarboxylic acid at pH 8.5 was immobilized on the surface of the nanoparticle for the selective coordination of the Cd (II). Upon addition of Cadmium, gold nanoparticle provide an excellent hotspot for Alizarin dye and Raman signal enhancement. This plasmonic SERS assay provided an excellent sensitivity for Cadmium detection from the drinking water samples. We achieved as low as 10 ppt sensitivity from various drinking water sources against other Alkali and heavy metal ions. The developed SERS probe is quite simple and rapid with excellent repeatability and has great potential for prototype scale up for field application. PMID:26770012

Engineering Design and Operation Report: Biological Treatment Process for the Removal of Ammonia from a Small Drinking Water System in Iowa: Pilot to Full-Scale

EPA Science Inventory

Many regions in the United States have excessive levels of ammonia in their drinking water sources (e.g., ground and surface waters) as a result of naturally occurring processes, agricultural and urban runoff, concentrated animal feeding operations, municipal wastewater treatment...

Innovative Biological Treatment Process for the Removal of Ammonia, Arsenic, Iron and Manganese from a Small Drinking Water System in Gilbert, Iowa (Phase 1: Pilot Evaluation)

EPA Science Inventory

Many regions in the United States have excessive levels of ammonia in their drinking water sources (e.g., ground and surface waters) as a result of naturally occurring processes, agricultural and urban runoff, concentrated animal feeding operations, municipal wastewater treatment...

Food and water security issues in Russia II: Water security in general population of Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East, 2000–2011

PubMed Central

Dudarev, Alexey A.; Dushkina, Eugenia V.; Sladkova, Yuliya N.; Alloyarov, Pavel R.; Chupakhin, Valery S.; Dorofeyev, Vitaliy M.; Kolesnikova, Tatjana A.; Fridman, Kirill B.; Evengard, Birgitta; Nilsson, Lena M.

2013-01-01

Background Poor state of water supply systems, shortage of water purification facilities and disinfection systems, low quality of drinking water generally in Russia and particularly in the regions of the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East have been defined in the literature. However, no standard protocol of water security assessment has been used in the majority of studies. Study design and methods Uniform water security indicators collected from Russian official statistical sources for the period 2000–2011 were used for comparison for 18 selected regions in the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East. The following indicators of water security were analyzed: water consumption, chemical and biological contamination of water reservoirs of Categories I and II of water sources (centralized – underground and surface, and non-centralized) and of drinking water. Results Water consumption in selected regions fluctuated from 125 to 340 L/person/day. Centralized water sources (both underground and surface sources) are highly contaminated by chemicals (up to 40–80%) and biological agents (up to 55% in some regions), mainly due to surface water sources. Underground water sources show relatively low levels of biological contamination, while chemical contamination is high due to additional water contamination during water treatment and transportation in pipelines. Non-centralized water sources are highly contaminated (both chemically and biologically) in 32–90% of samples analyzed. Very high levels of chemical contamination of drinking water (up to 51%) were detected in many regions, mainly in the north-western part of the Russian Arctic. Biological contamination of drinking water was generally much lower (2.5–12%) everywhere except Evenki AO (27%), and general and thermotolerant coliform bacteria predominated in drinking water samples from all regions (up to 17.5 and 12.5%, correspondingly). The presence of other agents was much lower: Coliphages – 0.2–2.7%, Clostridia spores, Giardia cysts, pathogenic bacteria, Rotavirus – up to 0.8%. Of a total of 56 chemical pollutants analyzed in water samples from centralized water supply systems, 32 pollutants were found to be in excess of hygienic limits, with the predominant pollutants being Fe (up to 55%), Cl (up to 57%), Al (up to 43%) and Mn (up to 45%). Conclusion In 18 selected regions of the Russian Arctic, Siberia and Far East Category I and II water reservoirs, water sources (centralized – underground, surface; non-centralized) and drinking water are highly contaminated by chemical and biological agents. Full-scale reform of the Russian water industry and water security system is urgently needed, especially in selected regions. PMID:24350065

Compatibility Study of Silver Biocide in Drinking Water with Candidate Metals for Crew Exploration Vehicle Potable Water System

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Adam, Niklas M.

2009-01-01

The stability of silver biocide, used to keep drinking water on the CEV potable water sterile, is unknown as the system design is still in progress. Silver biocide in water can deplete rapidly when exposed to various metal surfaces. Additionally, silver depletion rates may be affected by the surface-area-to-volume (SA/V) ratios in the water system. Therefore, to facilitate the CEV water system design, it would be advantageous to know the biocide depletion rates in water exposed to the surfaces of these candidate metals at various SA/V ratios. Certain surface treatments can be employed to reduce the depletion rates of silver compared to the base metal. The purpose of this work is to determine the compatibility of specific spaceflight-certified metals that could used in the design of the CEV potable water system with silver biocide as well as understand the effect of surface are to volume ratios of metals used in the construction of the potable water system on the silver concentration.

MODELING INACTIVATION OF GIARDIA LAMBLIA

EPA Science Inventory

Under the auspices of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)the U.S. EPA hasa promulgated the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) requiring public water systems using surface water to provide minimum disinfection to Control Giardia Lamblia, enteric virsues, and bacteria. The C-t con...

Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health--a review.

PubMed

Azizullah, Azizullah; Khattak, Muhammad Nasir Khan; Richter, Peter; Häder, Donat-Peter

2011-02-01

Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country. Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated. Human activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of water quality. Microbial and chemical pollutants are the main factors responsible exclusively or in combination for various public health problems. This review discusses a detailed layout of drinking water quality in Pakistan with special emphasis on major pollutants, sources of pollution and the consequent health problems. The data presented in this review are extracted from various studies published in national and international journals. Also reports released by the government and non-governmental organizations are included. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Recreational Water Contact and Fish Consumption Assessment to Inform Risk Estimates and Evaluate Ecosystem Services

EPA Science Inventory

Background: Surface waters provide invaluable ecosystem services, including drinking water, food, waste water disposal, and recreation. The nature and frequency of recreational contact with surface waters is a critical consideration in evaluating benefits to human well-being (e.g...

Geogenic fluoride and arsenic contamination in the groundwater environments in Tanzania

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Bhattacharya, Prosun; Lesafi, Fina; Filemon, Regina; Ligate, Fanuel; Ijumulana, Julian; Mtalo, Felix

2016-04-01

Adequate, safe and accessible drinking water is an important aspect to human health worldwide. Understanding this importance, the Tanzanian Government has initiated a number of programmes to ensure access to high quality water by the citizens. However, elevated concentration of geochemical pollutants in many drinking water sources pose a serious challenge to water suppliers and users in the country. Fluoride is a widespread drinking water contaminant of geogenic origin occuring in both surface- and groundwater around volcanic mountains and many parts within the East African Rift Valley in regions including Arusha (10 mg/L), Shinyanga (2.9 mg/L) and Singida (1.8 mg/L). An estimated 90% of the population living along the Rift Valley region are affected by dental or skeletal fluorosis and bone crippling because of long term exposure to very high levels of fluoride in drinking water sources. In the mining areas within Lake Victoria basin, groundwater wit elevated concentrations of arsenic has been discovered over an extended area. Most of these geochemical and naturally occurring drinking water pollutants are patchy with uncertainities in their spatial and temporal distribution patterns. The adverse health effects of skin disorder and cancer due to an elevated As concentration are reported from the North Mara gold and Geita mining areas in the Lake Victoria basin. About 30% of the water sources used for drinking in Tanzania exceed the WHO guideline values of fluoride (1.5 mg/L) and arsenic (10 μg/L). There is a scarcity of baseline information on the water quality data especially on geogenic contaminants in the groundwater and surface water as potable sources. This information is crucial in exploring sources of safe drinking water aquifers, associated human health risks of fluoride and arsenic pollution. using Laboratory based studies during the past two decades have shown promising results on the removal of fluoride and arsenic using locally available adsorbent materials such as pumice, bauxite, ferralsols and bone char. Developing innovative technologies, pilot-scale implementation and scaling-up water purification based on the locally available adsorbents is thus necessary to safeguard the public health for communities exposed to high levels of fluoride and arsenic in drinking water.

The Perspective of Riverbank Filtration in China

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Li, J.; Teng, Y.; Zhai, Y.; Zuo, R.

2014-12-01

Sustainable drinking water supply can affect the health of people, and the surrounding ecosystems. According to statistics of the monitoring program of drinking water sources in 309 at or above prefecture level of China in 2013, the major pollutants index were total phosphorus, ammonia and manganese in surface drinking water sources, respectively, iron, ammonia and manganese in groundwater drinking water sources, respectively. More than 150 drinking water emergency environmental accidents happened since 2006, 52 of these accidents led to the disruption of water supply in waterworks, and a population of over ten million were affected. It indicated that there is a potential risk for people's health by the use of river water directly and it is necessary to require alternative techniques such as riverbank filtration for improving the drinking water quality. Riverbank filtration is an inexpensive natural process, not only smoothing out normal pollutant concentration found in surface water but also significantly reducing the risk from such emergency events as chemical spill into the river. Riverbank filtration technique has been used in many countries more than 100 years, including China. In China, in 1950s, the bank infiltration technique was first applied in northeast of China. Extensive bank infiltration application was conducted in 1980s, and more than 300 drinking water sources utilities bank infiltration established mainly near the Songhua River Basin, the Yellow River Basin, Haihe River Basin. However, the comparative lack of application and researches on riverbank filtration have formed critical scientific data gap in China. As the performance of riverbank filtration technique depend on not only the design and setting such as well type, pumping rate, but also the local hydrogeology and environmental properties. We recommend more riverbank filtration project and studies to be conducted to collect related significant environmental geology data in China. Additionally, the experience has demonstrated a number of water quality improvements associated with riverbank filtration. It is important to stress that the fate and behavior of emerging organic contaminants during riverbank filtration should be taken into special consideration.

[Parasitic zoonoses transmitted by drinking water. Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis].

PubMed

Exner, M; Gornik, V

2004-07-01

Nowadays, the parasitic zoonose organisms Giardia lamblia und Cryptosporidium spp. are among the most relevant pathogens of drinking water-associated disease outbreaks. These pathogens are transmitted via a fecal-oral route; in both cases the dose of infection is low. Apart from person-to-person or animal-to-person transmissions, the consumption of contaminated food and water are further modes of transmission. The disease is mainly characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. In industrialized countries, the prevalence rate of giardiasis is 2-5 % and of cryptosporidiosis 1-3%. Throughout the world, a large number of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis outbreaks associated with drinking water were published; in 2001 the first case in Germany was identified. Giardia and Cryptosporidium are detected in surface water and sporadically in unprotected groundwater. Use of these waters for drinking water abstraction makes high demands on the technology of the treatment process: because of the disinfectant resistance of the parasites, safe elimination methods are needed, which even at high contamination levels of source water guarantee safe drinking water. Further measures for prevention and control are implementation of the HACCP concept, which includes the whole chain of procedures of drinking water supply from catchment via treatment to tap and a quality management system.

IMPROVING THE QUALITY, AVAILABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES THROUGH ANTIFOULING AND ANTISCALING DESALINATION MEMBRANES

EPA Science Inventory

Surface modification with the selected polymers is expected to reduce the fouling and scaling propensity of desalination membranes by strongly binding water at the membrane surface. Foulants will interact with this bound water layer and not with the membrane surface itself....

Drinking water insecurity: water quality and access in coastal south-western Bangladesh.

PubMed

Benneyworth, Laura; Gilligan, Jonathan; Ayers, John C; Goodbred, Steven; George, Gregory; Carrico, Amanda; Karim, Md Rezaul; Akter, Farjana; Fry, David; Donato, Katherine; Piya, Bhumika

2016-01-01

National drinking water assessments for Bangladesh do not reflect local variability, or temporal differences. This paper reports on the findings of an interdisciplinary investigation of drinking water insecurity in a rural coastal south-western Bangladesh. Drinking water quality is assessed by comparison of locally measured concentrations to national levels and water quality criteria; resident's access to potable water and their perceptions are based on local social surveys. Residents in the study area use groundwater far less than the national average; salinity and local rainwater scarcity necessitates the use of multiple water sources throughout the year. Groundwater concentrations of arsenic and specific conductivity (SpC) were greater than surface water (pond) concentrations; there was no statistically significant seasonal difference in mean concentrations in groundwater, but there was for ponds, with arsenic higher in the dry season. Average arsenic concentrations in local water drinking were 2-4 times times the national average. All of the local groundwater samples exceeded the Bangladesh guidance for SpC, although the majority of residents surveyed did not perceive their water as having a 'bad' or 'salty' taste.

Outdoor water use and water conservation opportunities in Virginia Beach, Virginia

USGS Publications Warehouse

Eggleston, John R.

2010-01-01

The amount of seasonal water use is important to the City of Virginia Beach because the primary source of this water is a fragile, shallow aquifer that is the only fresh groundwater source available within the city. Residents in the mostly rural southern half of Virginia Beach rely solely on this aquifer, not only for outdoor water uses but also for indoor domestic uses such as drinking and bathing. Groundwater that is close to the land surface in Virginia Beach is mostly fresh, whereas water 200 feet or more below the land surface is mostly saline and generally too salty to drink or use for irrigating lawns and gardens.

Heavy metals contamination in surface and groundwater supply of an urban city.

PubMed

Dixit, R C; Verma, S R; Nitnaware, V; Thacker, N P

2003-04-01

There is a continuous increase in the demand of water supply in cities due to the industrialization and growing population. This extra supply is generally met by groundwaters or nearby available surface waters. It may lead into incomplete treatment and substandard supply of drinking water. To ensure that the intake water derived from surface and groundwater is clear, palatable, neither corrosive nor scale forming, free from undesirable taste, odor and acceptable from aesthetic and health point of view, the final water quality at Delhi have been evaluated. The final water supply of four treatment plants and 80 tubewells at Delhi were surveyed in 2000-2001 for cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, selenium and zinc. The levels of manganese, copper, selenium and cadmium were found marginally above the Indian Standards (IS) specification regulated for drinking water. The data was used to assess the final water quality supplied at Delhi.

Diversity and Significance of Mold Species in Norwegian Drinking Water▿

PubMed Central

Hageskal, Gunhild; Knutsen, Ann Kristin; Gaustad, Peter; de Hoog, G. Sybren; Skaar, Ida

2006-01-01

In order to determine the occurrence, distribution, and significance of mold species in groundwater- and surface water-derived drinking water in Norway, molds isolated from 273 water samples were identified. Samples of raw water, treated water, and water from private homes and hospital installations were analyzed by incubation of 100-ml membrane-filtered samples on dichloran-18% glycerol agar. The total count (number of CFU per 100 ml) of fungal species and the species diversity within each sample were determined. The identification of mold species was based on morphological and molecular methods. In total, 94 mold species belonging to 30 genera were identified. The mycobiota was dominated by species of Penicillium, Trichoderma, and Aspergillus, with some of them occurring throughout the drinking water system. Several of the same species as isolated from water may have the potential to cause allergic reactions or disease in humans. Other species are common contaminants of food and beverages, and some may cause unwanted changes in the taste or smell of water. The present results indicate that the mycobiota of water should be considered when the microbiological safety and quality of drinking water are assessed. In fact, molds in drinking water should possibly be included in the Norwegian water supply and drinking water regulations. PMID:17028226

Metagenomes of Microbial Communities in Arsenic- and Pathogen-Contaminated Well and Surface Water from Bangladesh

PubMed Central

Layton, Alice C.; Chauhan, Archana; Williams, Daniel E.; Mailloux, Brian; Knappett, Peter S. K.; Ferguson, Andrew S.; McKay, Larry D.; Alam, M. Jahangir; Matin Ahmed, Kazi; van Geen, Alexander

2014-01-01

The contamination of drinking water from both arsenic and microbial pathogens occurs in Bangladesh. A general metagenomic survey of well water and surface water provided information on the types of pathogens present and may help elucidate arsenic metabolic pathways and potential assay targets for monitoring surface-to-ground water pathogen transport. PMID:25414497

Ultra-trace level determination of diquat and paraquat residues in surface and drinking water using ion-pair liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry: a comparison of direct injection and solid-phase extraction methods.

PubMed

Oh, Jin-Aa; Lee, Jun-Bae; Lee, Soo-Hyung; Shin, Ho-Sang

2014-10-01

Direct injection and solid-phase extraction methods for the determination of diquat and paraquat in surface and drinking water were developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. The signal intensities of analytes based on six ion-pairing reagents were compared with each other, and 12.5 mM nonafluoropentanoic acid was selected as the best suited amongst them. A clean-up method was developed using Oasis hydrophilic-lipophilic balance; this was compared to the direct injection method, with respect to limits of detection, interference, precision, and accuracy. Limits of quantification of diquat and paraquat were 0.03 and 0.01 μg/L using the direct injection method, and 0.002 and 0.001 μg/L using the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance method. When the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance method was used to analyze target compounds in 114 surface water and 30 drinking water samples, paraquat and diquat were detected within a concentration range of 0.001-0.12 and 0.002-0.038 μg/L in surface water, respectively. When the direct injection method was used to analyze target compounds in the same samples, the detected concentrations of paraquat and diquat were within 25% in samples being >0.015 μg/L using the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance method. The liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method using direct injection can thus be used for routine monitoring of paraquat and diquat in surface and drinking water. © 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Behaviour and fate of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water treatment: a review.

PubMed

Rahman, Mohammad Feisal; Peldszus, Sigrid; Anderson, William B

2014-03-01

This article reviews perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) characteristics, their occurrence in surface water, and their fate in drinking water treatment processes. PFASs have been detected globally in the aquatic environment including drinking water at trace concentrations and due, in part, to their persistence in human tissue some are being investigated for regulation. They are aliphatic compounds containing saturated carbon-fluorine bonds and are resistant to chemical, physical, and biological degradation. Functional groups, carbon chain length, and hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity are some of the important structural properties of PFASs that affect their fate during drinking water treatment. Full-scale drinking water treatment plant occurrence data indicate that PFASs, if present in raw water, are not substantially removed by most drinking water treatment processes including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, biofiltration, oxidation (chlorination, ozonation, AOPs), UV irradiation, and low pressure membranes. Early observations suggest that activated carbon adsorption, ion exchange, and high pressure membrane filtration may be effective in controlling these contaminants. However, branched isomers and the increasingly used shorter chain PFAS replacement products may be problematic as it pertains to the accurate assessment of PFAS behaviour through drinking water treatment processes since only limited information is available for these PFASs. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure to bisphenol A.

PubMed

Arnold, Scott M; Clark, Kathryn E; Staples, Charles A; Klecka, Gary M; Dimond, Steve S; Caspers, Norbert; Hentges, Steven G

2013-03-01

A comprehensive search of studies describing bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in drinking water and source waters (i.e., surface water and groundwater) was conducted to evaluate the relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure and risk. Data from 65 papers were evaluated from North America (31), Europe (17), and Asia (17). The fraction of drinking water measurements reported as less than the detection limit is high; 95%, 48%, and 41%, for North America, Europe, and Asia, respectively. The maximum quantified (in excess of the detection limit) BPA concentrations from North America, Europe, and Asia are 0.099 μg/l, 0.014 μg/l, and 0.317 μg/l. The highest quantified median and 95th percentile concentrations of BPA in Asian drinking water are 0.026 μg/l and 0.19 μg/l, while high detection limits restricted the determination of representative median and 95th percentile concentrations in North America and Europe. BPA in drinking water represents a minor component of overall human exposure, and compared with the lowest available oral toxicity benchmark of 16 μg/kg-bw/day (includes an uncertainty factor of 300) gives margins of safety >1100. Human biomonitoring data indicate that ingestion of drinking water represents <2.8% of the total intake of BPA.

Forests, Water and People: Drinking water supply and forest lands in the Northeast and Midwest United States, June 2009

Treesearch

Martina Barnes; Albert Todd; Rebecca Whitney Lilja; Paul Barten

2009-01-01

Forests are critically important to the supply of clean drinking water in the Northeast and Midwest portion of the United States. In this part of the country more than 52 million people depend on surface water supplies that are protected in large part by forested lands. The public is generally unaware of the threats to their water supplies or the connection between...

A method for the analysis of perfluorinated compounds in environmental and drinking waters and the determination of their lowest concentration minimal reporting levels.

PubMed

Boone, J Scott; Guan, Bing; Vigo, Craig; Boone, Tripp; Byrne, Christian; Ferrario, Joseph

2014-06-06

A trace analytical method was developed for the determination of seventeen specific perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) in environmental and drinking waters. The objectives were to optimize an isotope-dilution method to increase the precision and accuracy of the analysis of the PFCs and to eliminate the need for matrix-matched standards. A 250 mL sample of environmental or drinking water was buffered to a pH of 4, spiked with labeled surrogate standards, extracted through solid phase extraction cartridges, and eluted with ammonium hydroxide in methyl tert-butyl ether: methanol solution. The sample eluents were concentrated to volume and analyzed by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The lowest concentration minimal reporting levels (LCMRLs) for the seventeen PFCs were calculated and ranged from 0.034 to 0.600 ng/L for surface water and from 0.033 to 0.640 ng/L for drinking water. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for all compounds were <20% for all concentrations above the LCMRL. The method proved effective and cost efficient and addressed the problems with the recovery of perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and other short chain PFCs. Various surface water and drinking water samples were used during method development to optimize this method. The method was used to evaluate samples from the Mississippi River at New Orleans and drinking water samples from a private residence in that same city. The method was also used to determine PFC contamination in well water samples from a fire training area where perfluorinated foams were used in training to extinguish fires. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Drinking Water Quality Assessment Studies for an Urbanized Part of the Nagpur District, Central India.

PubMed

Varade, Abhay M; Yenkie, Rajshree; Shende, Rahul; Kodate, Jaya

2014-01-01

The water quality of Hingna area of Nagpur district, Central India was assessed for its suitability as drinking water. 22 water samples, representing both the surface and groundwater sources, were collected and analysed for different inorganic constituents by using the standard procedures. The result depicted abundance of major ions; Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+ = HCO3- > Cl- > SO4(2-) > NO3-. The concentrations of different elements in water were compared with the drinking water standards defined by World Health Organization (WHO). The hydro-chemical results reveal that most of the samples were within the desirable limits of the drinking water quality. However, few samples of the area, showed higher values of total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), and magnesium (Mg) indicating their 'hard water type' nature and found to be unfit for the drinking purpose. Such poor water quality of these samples is found due to the combined effect of urbanization and industrial activities. The potential health risks associated with various water parameters have also been documented in this paper.

Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in Thanjavur city, Tamil Nadu, India.

PubMed

Nagarajan, R; Rajmohan, N; Mahendran, U; Senthamilkumar, S

2010-12-01

As groundwater is a vital source of water for domestic and agricultural activities in Thanjavur city due to lack of surface water resources, groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural usage were evaluated. In this study, 102 groundwater samples were collected from dug wells and bore wells during March 2008 and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, major ions, and nitrate. Results suggest that, in 90% of groundwater samples, sodium and chloride are predominant cation and anion, respectively, and NaCl and CaMgCl are major water types in the study area. The groundwater quality in the study site is impaired by surface contamination sources, mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and evaporation. Nitrate, chloride, and sulfate concentrations strongly express the impact of surface contamination sources such as agricultural and domestic activities, on groundwater quality, and 13% of samples have elevated nitrate content (>45 mg/l as NO(3)). PHREEQC code and Gibbs plots were employed to evaluate the contribution of mineral dissolution and suggest that mineral dissolution, especially carbonate minerals, regulates water chemistry. Groundwater suitability for drinking usage was evaluated by the World Health Organization and Indian standards and suggests that 34% of samples are not suitable for drinking. Integrated groundwater suitability map for drinking purposes was created using drinking water standards based on a concept that if the groundwater sample exceeds any one of the standards, it is not suitable for drinking. This map illustrates that wells in zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 are not fit for drinking purpose. Likewise, irrigational suitability of groundwater in the study region was evaluated, and results suggest that 20% samples are not fit for irrigation. Groundwater suitability map for irrigation was also produced based on salinity and sodium hazards and denotes that wells mostly situated in zones 2 and 3 are not suitable for irrigation. Both integrated suitability maps for drinking and irrigation usage provide overall scenario about the groundwater quality in the study area. Finally, the study concluded that groundwater quality is impaired by man-made activities, and proper management plan is necessary to protect valuable groundwater resources in Thanjavur city.

Toxicological risk assessment and prioritization of drinking water relevant contaminants of emerging concern.

PubMed

Baken, Kirsten A; Sjerps, Rosa M A; Schriks, Merijn; van Wezel, Annemarie P

2018-06-13

Toxicological risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in (sources of) drinking water is required to identify potential health risks and prioritize chemicals for abatement or monitoring. In such assessments, concentrations of chemicals in drinking water or sources are compared to either (i) health-based (statutory) drinking water guideline values, (ii) provisional guideline values based on recent toxicity data in absence of drinking water guidelines, or (iii) generic drinking water target values in absence of toxicity data. Here, we performed a toxicological risk assessment for 163 CEC that were selected as relevant for drinking water. This relevance was based on their presence in drinking water and/or groundwater and surface water sources in downstream parts of the Rhine and Meuse, in combination with concentration levels and physicochemical properties. Statutory and provisional drinking water guideline values could be derived from publically available toxicological information for 142 of the CEC. Based on measured concentrations it was concluded that the majority of substances do not occur in concentrations which individually pose an appreciable human health risk. A health concern could however not be excluded for vinylchloride, trichloroethene, bromodichloromethane, aniline, phenol, 2-chlorobenzenamine, mevinphos, 1,4-dioxane, and nitrolotriacetic acid. For part of the selected substances, toxicological risk assessment for drinking water could not be performed since either toxicity data (hazard) or drinking water concentrations (exposure) were lacking. In absence of toxicity data, the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) approach can be applied for screening level risk assessment. The toxicological information on the selected substances was used to evaluate whether drinking water target values based on existing TTC levels are sufficiently protective for drinking water relevant CEC. Generic drinking water target levels of 37 μg/L for Cramer class I substances and 4 μg/L for Cramer class III substances in drinking water were derived based on these CEC. These levels are in line with previously reported generic drinking water target levels based on original TTC values and are shown to be protective for health effects of the majority of contaminants of emerging concern evaluated in the present study. Since the human health impact of many chemicals appearing in the water cycle has been studied insufficiently, generic drinking water target levels are useful for early warning and prioritization of CEC with unknown toxicity in drinking water and its sources for future monitoring. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pesticide pollution of multiple drinking water sources in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: evidence from two provinces.

PubMed

Chau, N D G; Sebesvari, Z; Amelung, W; Renaud, F G

2015-06-01

Pollution of drinking water sources with agrochemicals is often a major threat to human and ecosystem health in some river deltas, where agricultural production must meet the requirements of national food security or export aspirations. This study was performed to survey the use of different drinking water sources and their pollution with pesticides in order to inform on potential exposure sources to pesticides in rural areas of the Mekong River delta, Vietnam. The field work comprised both household surveys and monitoring of 15 frequently used pesticide active ingredients in different water sources used for drinking (surface water, groundwater, water at public pumping stations, surface water chemically treated at household level, harvested rainwater, and bottled water). Our research also considered the surrounding land use systems as well as the cropping seasons. Improper pesticide storage and waste disposal as well as inadequate personal protection during pesticide handling and application were widespread amongst the interviewed households, with little overall risk awareness for human and environmental health. The results show that despite the local differences in the amount and frequency of pesticides applied, pesticide pollution was ubiquitous. Isoprothiolane (max. concentration 8.49 μg L(-1)), fenobucarb (max. 2.32 μg L(-1)), and fipronil (max. 0.41 μg L(-1)) were detected in almost all analyzed water samples (98 % of all surface samples contained isoprothiolane, for instance). Other pesticides quantified comprised butachlor, pretilachlor, propiconazole, hexaconazole, difenoconazole, cypermethrin, fenoxapro-p-ethyl, tebuconazole, trifloxystrobin, azoxystrobin, quinalphos, and thiamethoxam. Among the studied water sources, concentrations were highest in canal waters. Pesticide concentrations varied with cropping season but did not diminish through the year. Even in harvested rainwater or purchased bottled water, up to 12 different pesticides were detected at concentrations exceeding the European Commission's parametric guideline values for individual or total pesticides in drinking water (0.1 and 0.5 μg L(-1); respectively). The highest total pesticide concentration quantified in bottled water samples was 1.38 μg L(-1). Overall, we failed to identify a clean water source in the Mekong Delta with respect to pesticide pollution. It is therefore urgent to understand further and address drinking water-related health risk issues in the region.

Enhanced arsenic removal from water by hierarchically porous CeO₂-ZrO₂ nanospheres: role of surface- and structure-dependent properties.

PubMed

Xu, Weihong; Wang, Jing; Wang, Lei; Sheng, Guoping; Liu, Jinhuai; Yu, Hanqing; Huang, Xing-Jiu

2013-09-15

Arsenic contaminated natural water is commonly used as drinking water source in some districts of Asia. To meet the increasingly strict drinking water standards, exploration of efficient arsenic removal methods is highly desired. In this study, hierarchically porous CeO₂-ZrO₂ nanospheres were synthesized, and their suitability as arsenic sorbents was examined. The CeO₂-ZrO₂ hollow nanospheres showed an adsorption capacity of 27.1 and 9.2 mg g(-1) for As(V) and As(III), respectively, at an equilibrium arsenic concentration of 0.01 mg L(-1) (the standard for drinking water) under neutral conditions, indicating a high arsenic removal performance of the adsorbent at low arsenic concentrations. Such a great arsenic adsorption capacity was attributed to the high surface hydroxyl density and presence of hierarchically porous network in the hollow nanospheres. The analysis of Fourier transformed infrared spectra and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrated that the adsorption of arsenic on the CeO₂-ZrO₂ nanospheres was completed through the formation of a surface complex by substituting hydroxyl with arsenic species. In addition, the CeO₂-ZrO₂ nanospheres were able to remove over 97% arsenic in real underground water with initial arsenic concentration of 0.376 mg L(-1) to meet the guideline limit of arsenic in drinking water regulated by the World Health Organization without any pre-treatment and/or pH adjustment. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Drinking water treatment is not associated with an observed increase in neural tube defects in mice

PubMed Central

Melin, Vanessa E.; Johnstone, David W.; Etzkorn, Felicia A.

2018-01-01

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) arise when natural organic matter in source water reacts with disinfectants used in the water treatment process. Studies have suggested an association between DBPs and birth defects. Neural tube defects (NTDs) in embryos of untreated control mice were first observed in-house in May 2006 and have continued to date. The source of the NTD-inducing agent was previously determined to be a component of drinking water. Tap water samples from a variety of sources were analyzed for trihalomethanes (THMs) to determine if they were causing the malformations. NTDs were observed in CD-1 mice provided with treated and untreated surface water. Occurrence of NTDs varied by water source and treatment regimens. THMs were detected in tap water derived from surface water but not detected in tap water derived from a groundwater source. THMs were absent in untreated river water and laboratory purified waters, yet the percentage of NTDs in untreated river water were similar to the treated water counterpart. These findings indicate that THMs were not the primary cause of NTDs in the mice since the occurrence of NTDs was unrelated to drinking water disinfection. PMID:24497082

Cyanobacteria breakthrough: Effects of Limnothrix redekei contamination in an artificial bank filtration on a regional water supply.

PubMed

Rose, Adam K; Fabbro, Larelle; Kinnear, Susan

2018-06-01

Mitigation of cyanobacterial or "blue-green algal" blooms is a challenging task for water managers across Australia. In the present study, a regional drinking water source (located in Central Queensland) was studied to identify the potential risks posed by cyanobacteria. Data were collected from the drinking water source (a lagoon) as well as the drinking water supply infrastructure, at monthly intervals between September 2012 and December 2014. In March 2013 there was an extreme rainfall event where floodwaters infiltrated the water supply without passing through bank filtration. The floodwaters also compromised the bank filtration via erosion. The pump well and bank filtration system were subsequently upgraded/maintained in May 2013. Results showed that following the extreme event and infrastructure upgrade, two distinct Limnothrix redekei blooms microscopically identified, were detected in the drinking water supply chain. Further investigations indicated that the species was also present in the pump well infrastructure, a dark environment, growing on the surface of the newly installed pump well cement pipe. After observing the occurrence and habitat niche of this species during the present study, a suggestion was made to minimise cyanobacterial contamination and proliferation within the water supply chain infrastructure. The preliminary proposal is to use clean sand on the sub-surface layer of the bank filtration, complemented with biologically active sand as a surface cap. Furthermore, the culturing techniques reported in this study can potentially be used to optimize assessment for Limnothrix redekei populations surrounding water extraction points. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources--a review.

PubMed

Kümmerer, K

2001-11-01

After administration, pharmaceuticals are excreted by the patients into wastewater. Unused medications are sometimes disposed of in drains. The drugs enter the aquatic environment and eventually reach drinking water if they are not biodegraded or eliminated during sewage treatment. Additionally, antibiotics and disinfectants are supposed to disturb the wastewater treatment process and the microbial ecology in surface waters. Furthermore, resistant bacteria may be selected in the aeration tanks of STPs by the antibiotic substances present. Recently, pharmaceuticals have been detected in surface water, ground water and drinking water. However, only little is known about the significance of emissions from households and hospitals. A brief summary of input by different sources, occurrence, and elimination of different pharmaceutical groups such as antibiotics, anti-tumour drugs, anaesthetics and contrast media as well as AOX resulting from hospital effluent input into sewage water and surface water will be presented.

Quality of water and chemistry of bottom sediment in the Rillito Creek basin, Tucson, Arizona, 1992-93

USGS Publications Warehouse

Tadayon, Saeid

1995-01-01

Physical and chemical data were collected from four surface-water sites, six ground-water sites, and two bottom-sediment sites during 1992-93. Specific conductance, hardness, alkalinity, and dissolved- solids concentrations generally were higher in ground water than in surface water. The median concentrations of dissolved major ions, with the exception of potassium, were higher in ground water than in surface water. In surface water and ground water, calcium was the dominant cation, and bicarbonate was the dominant anion. Concentrations of dissolved nitrite and nitrite plus nitrate in surface water and ground water did not exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant levels of 1 and 10 milligrams per liter for drinking water, respectively. Ammonium plus organic nitrogen in bottom sediment was detected at the highest concentration of any nitrogen species. Median values for most of the dissolved trace elements in surface water and ground water were below the detection levels. Dissolved trace elements in surface water and ground water did not exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant levels for drinking water. Trace-element concentrations in bottom sediment were similar to trace-element concentrations reported for soils of the western conterminous United States. Several organochlorine pesticides and priority pollutants were detected in surface-water and bottom-sediment samples; however, they did not exceed water-quality standards. Pesticides or priority pollutants were not detected in ground-water samples.

Consideration of rainwater quality parameters for drinking purposes: A case study in rural Vietnam.

PubMed

Lee, Minju; Kim, Mikyeong; Kim, Yonghwan; Han, Mooyoung

2017-09-15

Rainwater, which is used for drinking purposes near Hanoi, Vietnam, was analysed for water quality based on 1.5 years of monitoring data. In total, 23 samples were collected from different points within two rainwater harvesting systems (RWHSs). Most parameters met the standard except micro-organisms. Coliform and Escherichia coli (E. coli) were detected when the rainwater was not treated with ultraviolet (UV) light; however, analysis of rainwater after UV sterilisation showed no trace of micro-organisms. The RWHSs appear to provide drinking water of relatively good quality compared with surface water and groundwater. The superior quality of the rainwater suggests the necessity for new drinking rainwater standards because applying all of the drinking water quality standards to rainwater is highly inefficient. The traditionally implemented standards could cause more difficulties for developing countries using RWHSs installed decentralized as a source of drinking water, particularly in areas not well supplied with testing equipment, because such countries must bear the expense and time for these measures. This paper proposes the necessity of rainwater quality guideline, which could serve as a safe and cost-effective alternative to provide an access to safe drinking water. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Microbiological effectiveness of locally produced ceramic filters for drinking water treatment in Cambodia.

PubMed

Brown, Joe; Sobsey, Mark D

2010-03-01

Low-cost options for the treatment of drinking water at the household level are being explored by the Cambodian government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in Cambodia, where many lack access to improved drinking water sources and diarrhoeal diseases are the most prevalent cause of death in children under 5 years of age. The ceramic water purifier (CWP), a locally produced, low-cost ceramic filter, is now being implemented by several NGOs, and an estimated 100,000+households in the country now use them for drinking water treatment. Two candidate filters were tested for the reduction of bacterial and viral surrogates for waterborne pathogens using representative Cambodian drinking water sources (rainwater and surface water) spiked with Escherichia coli and bacteriophage MS2. Results indicate that filters were capable of reducing key microbes in the laboratory with mean reductions of E. coli of approximately 99% and mean reduction of bacteriophages of 90-99% over >600 litres throughput. Increased effectiveness was not observed in filters with an AgNO3 amendment. At under US$10 per filter, locally produced ceramic filters may be a promising option for drinking water treatment and safe storage at the household level.

Long-term dynamics of dissolved organic carbon: implications for drinking water supply.

PubMed

Ledesma, José L J; Köhler, Stephan J; Futter, Martyn N

2012-08-15

Surface waters are the main source of drinking water in many regions. Increasing organic carbon concentrations are a cause for concern in Nordic countries since both dissolved and particulate organic carbon can transport contaminants and adversely affect drinking water treatment processes. We present a long-term study of dynamics of total (particulate and dissolved) organic carbon (TOC) concentrations in the River Fyris. This river supplies drinking water to approximately 200000 people in Uppsala, Sweden. The River Fyris is a main tributary to Lake Mälaren, which supplies drinking water to approximately 2 million people in the greater Stockholm area. Utilities responsible for drinking water supply in both Uppsala and Stockholm have expressed concerns about possible increases in TOC. We evaluate organic carbon dynamics within the Fyris catchment by calculating areal mass exports using observed TOC concentrations and modeled flows and by modeling dissolved organic carbon (as a proxy for TOC) using the dynamic, process based INCA-C model. Exports of TOC from the catchment ranged from 0.8 to 5.8 g m(-2) year(-1) in the period 1995-2010. The variation in annual exports was related to climatic variability which influenced seasonality and amount of runoff. Exports and discharge uncoupled at the end of 2008. A dramatic increase in TOC concentrations was observed in 2009, which gradually declined in 2010-2011. INCA-C successfully reproduced the intra- and inter-annual variation in concentrations during 1996-2008 and 2010-2011 but failed to capture the anomalous increase in 2009. We evaluated a number of hypotheses to explain the anomaly in 2009 TOC values, ultimately none proved satisfactory. We draw two main conclusions: there is at least one unknown or unmeasured process controlling or influencing surface water TOC and INCA-C can be used as part of the decision-making process for current and future use of rivers for drinking water supply. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Overview of environmental and hydrogeologic conditions at McGrath, Alaska

USGS Publications Warehouse

Dorava, J.M.

1994-01-01

The remote village of McGrath along the Kuskokwim River in southwestern Alaska has long cold winters and short summers. The village is located on the flood plain of the Kuskokwim River and obtains drinking water for its 533 residents from the Kuskokwim River. Surface spills and disposal of hazardous materials combined with frequent flooding of the Kuskokwim River could affect the quality of the drinking water. Alternative drinking-water sources are available but at greater cost than existing supplies. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) owns or operates airport support facilities in McGrath and wishes to consider the subsistence lifestyle of the residents and the quality of the current environ- ment when evaluating options for remediation of environmental contamination at their facilities. This report describes the history, socioeconomics, physical setting, ground- and surface-water hydrology, geology, climate, vegetation, soils, and flood potential of the areas surrounding the FAA facilities near McGrath.

The correlation of arsenic levels in drinking water with the biological samples of skin disorders.

PubMed

Kazi, Tasneem Gul; Arain, Muhammad Balal; Baig, Jameel Ahmed; Jamali, Muhammad Khan; Afridi, Hassan Imran; Jalbani, Nusrat; Sarfraz, Raja Adil; Shah, Abdul Qadir; Niaz, Abdul

2009-01-15

Arsenic (As) poisoning has become a worldwide public health concern. The skin is quite sensitive to As and skin lesions are the most common and earliest nonmalignant effects associated to chronic As exposure. In 2005-2007, a survey was carried out on surface and groundwater arsenic contamination and relationships between As exposure via the drinking water and related adverse health effects (melanosis and keratosis) on villagers resides on the banks of Manchar lake, southern part of Sindh, Pakistan. We screened the population from arsenic-affected villages, 61 to 73% population were identified patients suffering from chronic arsenic toxicity. The effects of As toxicity via drinking water were estimated by biological samples (scalp hair and blood) of adults (males and females), have or have not skin problem (n=187). The referent samples of both genders were also collected from the areas having low level of As (<10 microg/L) in drinking water (n=121). Arsenic concentration in drinking water and biological samples were analyzed using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The range of arsenic concentrations in lake surface water was 35.2-158 microg/L, which is 3-15 folds higher than World Health Organization [WHO, 2004. Guidelines for drinking-water quality third ed., WHO Geneva Switzerland.]. It was observed that As concentration in the scalp hair and blood samples were above the range of permissible values 0.034-0.319 microg As/g for hair and <0.5-4.2 microg/L for blood. The linear regressions showed good correlations between arsenic concentrations in water versus hair and blood samples of exposed skin diseased subjects (R2=0.852 and 0.718) as compared to non-diseased subjects (R2=0.573 and 0.351), respectively.

Perspectives of low cost arsenic remediation of drinking water in Pakistan and other countries.

PubMed

Malik, Amir Haider; Khan, Zahid Mehmood; Mahmood, Qaisar; Nasreen, Sadia; Bhatti, Zulfiqar Ahmed

2009-08-30

Arsenic concentrations above acceptable standards for drinking water have been detected in many countries and this should therefore is a global issue. The presence of arsenic in subsurface aquifers and drinking water systems is a potentially serious human health hazard. The current population growth in Pakistan and other developing countries will have direct bearing on the water sector for meeting the domestic, industrial and agricultural needs. Pakistan is about to exhaust its available water resources and is on the verge of becoming a water deficit country. Water pollution is a serious menace in Pakistan, as almost 70% of its surface waters as well as its groundwater reserves have contaminated by biological, organic and inorganic pollutants. In some areas of Pakistan, a number of shallow aquifers and tube wells are contaminated with arsenic at levels which are above the recommended USEPA arsenic level of 10 ppb (10 microg L(-1)). Adverse health effects including human mortality from drinking water are well documented and can be attributed to arsenic contamination. The present paper reviews appropriate and low cost methods for the elimination of arsenic from drinking waters. It is recommended that a combination of low cost chemical treatment like ion exchange, filtration and adsorption along with bioremediation may be useful option for arsenic removal from drinking water.

Quality of water for livestock in man-made impoundments in the northern High Plains

Treesearch

Mark A. Rumble

1985-01-01

Twenty-seven water quality parameters were measured in coal surface mine impoundments, bentonite surface mine impoundments, and livestock ponds in the Northern High Plains. Most impoundments were safe for use as a source for livestock drinking water. Eight water quality parameters were different (a

STUDY OF WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS DURING RIVERBANK FILTRATION AT THREE MIDWESTERN UNITED STATES DRINKING WATER UTILITIES

EPA Science Inventory

Riverbank filtration (RBF) is a process during which surface water is subjected to subsurface flow prior to extraction from wells. During infiltration and soil passage, surface water is subjected to a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes such as filtration...

Risk assessment for drugs of abuse in the Dutch watercycle.

PubMed

van der Aa, Monique; Bijlsma, Lubertus; Emke, Erik; Dijkman, Ellen; van Nuijs, Alexander L N; van de Ven, Bianca; Hernández, Felix; Versteegh, Ans; de Voogt, Pim

2013-04-01

A screening campaign of drugs of abuse (DOA) and their relevant metabolites in the aqueous environment was performed in the Netherlands. The presence of DOA, together with the potential risks for the environment and the possible human exposure to these compounds through consumption of drinking water was investigated. Sewage water (influent and effluent), surface water of the rivers Rhine and Meuse, and drinking water (raw and finished) were analysed by four different laboratories using fully in-house validated methods for a total number of 34 DOA and metabolites. In this way, data reported for several compounds could also be confirmed by other laboratories, giving extra confidence to the results obtained in this study. In total 17 and 22 DOA were detected and quantified in influent and effluent sewage samples, respectively. The tranquilizers oxazepam and temazepam, and cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine were found in high concentrations in sewage water. Nine compounds were possibly not efficiently removed during treatment and were detected in surface waters. The results indicated that substantial fractions of the total load of DOA and metabolites in the rivers Rhine and Meuse enter the Netherlands from abroad. For some compounds, loads appear to increase going downstream, which is caused by a contribution from Dutch sewage water effluents. As far as data are available, no environmental effects are expected of the measured DOA in surface waters. In raw water, three DOA were detected, whereas in only one finished drinking water out of the 17 tested, benzoylecgonine was identified, albeit at a concentration below the limit of quantification (<1 ng/L). Concentrations were well below the general signal value of 1 μg/L, which is specified for organic compounds of anthropogenic origin in the Dutch Drinking Water Act. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of multi-antibiotic resistant Pseudomonas spp. in drinking water produced from karstic hydrosystems.

PubMed

Flores Ribeiro, Angela; Bodilis, Josselin; Alonso, Lise; Buquet, Sylvaine; Feuilloley, Marc; Dupont, Jean-Paul; Pawlak, Barbara

2014-08-15

Aquatic environments could play a role in the spread of antibiotic resistance genes by enabling antibiotic-resistant bacteria transferred through wastewater inputs to connect with autochthonous bacteria. Consequently, drinking water could be a potential pathway to humans and animals for antibiotic resistance genes. The aim of this study was to investigate occurrences of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas spp. in drinking water produced from a karst, a vulnerable aquifer with frequent increases in water turbidity after rainfall events and run-offs. Water samples were collected throughout the system from the karstic springs to the drinking water tap during three non-turbid periods and two turbid events. E. coli densities in the springs were 10- to 1000-fold higher during the turbid events than during the non-turbid periods, indicating that, with increased turbidity, surface water had entered the karstic system and contaminated the spring water. However, no E. coli were isolated in the drinking water. In contrast, Pseudomonas spp. were isolated from the drinking water only during turbid events, while the densities in the springs were from 10- to 100-fold higher than in the non-turbid periods. All the 580 Pseudomonas spp. isolates obtained from the sampling periods were resistant (to between 1 and 10 antibiotics), with similar resistance patterns. Among all the Pseudomonas isolated throughout the drinking water production system, between 32% and 86% carried the major resistance pattern: ticarcillin, ticarcillin-clavulanic acid, cefsulodin, and/or aztreonam, and/or sulfamethoxazol-trimethoprim, and/or fosfomycin. Finally, 8 Pseudomonas spp. isolates, related to the Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas fluorescens species, were isolated from the drinking water. Thus, Pseudomonas could be involved in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance via drinking water during critical periods. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of acidic pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Turia River Basin: from waste to drinking water.

PubMed

Carmona, Eric; Andreu, Vicente; Picó, Yolanda

2014-06-15

The occurrence of 21 acidic pharmaceuticals, including illicit drugs, and personal care products (PPCPs) in waste, surface and drinking water and in sediments of the Turia River Basin (Valencia, Spain) was studied. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the determination of these PPCPs with electrospray (ESI) in negative ionization (NI) mode. Ammonium fluoride in the mobile phase improved ionization efficiency by an average increase in peak area of 5 compared to ammonium formate or formic acid. All studied compounds were detected and their concentration was waste water>surface water>drinking water. PPCPs were in waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) influents up to 7.26μgL(-1), dominated by ibuprofen, naproxen and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCOOH). WWTPs were highly effective in removing most of them, with an average removal rate of >90%. PPCPs were still detected in effluents in the 6.72-940ngL(-1) range, with the THCOOH, triclocarban, gemfibrozil and diclofenac as most prevalent. Similarly, diclofenac, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, naproxen and propylparaben were detected quite frequently from the low ngL(-1) range to 7μgL(-1) in the surface waters of Turia River. Ibuprofen, methylparaben, salicylic acid and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) were at concentrations up to 0.85ngg(-1) d.w. in sediments. The discharge of WWTP as well as of non-treated waters to this river is a likely explanation for the significant amount of PPCPs detected in surface waters and sediments. Mineral and tap waters also presented significant amounts (approx. 100ngL(-1)) of ibuprofen, naproxen, propylparaben and butylparaben. The occurrence at trace levels of several PPCPs in drinking water raises concerns about possible implications for human health. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

THE PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE OF BIOFILM SLIME IN DRINKING WATER PIPES: CREATING HIDEOUTS FOR THE PATHOGENIC UNDERWORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY

EPA Science Inventory

Biofilms consist of many species of bacteria, protozoa, and other microbes living together on almost any type of moist surface. Within drinking water distribution systems, biofilms grow readily on the inner walls of pipes, even in the presence of chlorine disinfectants. Some mi...

Arsenic Accumulation and Release Studies Using a Cast Iron Pipe Section from a Drinking Water Distribution System

EPA Science Inventory

The tendency of iron solid surfaces to adsorb arsenic and other ions is well known and has become the basis for several drinking water treatment approaches that remove these contaminants. It is reasonable to assume that iron-based solids, such as corrosion deposits present in dri...

Comparison between Synthesized Lead Particles and Lead Solids Formed on Surfaces in Real Drinking Water Distribution Systems

EPA Science Inventory

The objective of this work is to compare the properties of lead solids formed during bench-scale precipitation experiments to solids found on lead pipe removed from real drinking water distribution systems and metal coupons used in pilot scale corrosion testing. Specifically, so...

PRESENCE OF ENTERIC VIRUSES IN FRESHWATER AND THEIR REMOVAL BY THE CONVENTIONAL DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

EPA Science Inventory

A review of results published in English or French between 1980 and 1990 was carried out to determine the levels of indigenous human enteric viruses in untreated surface and subsurface freshwaters, as well as in drinking water that had undergone the complete conventional treatmen...

METHODS DEVELOPMENT TO IMPROVE LOW-LEVEL PERCHLORATE DETECTION IN DRINKING WATER BY CONDUCTIVITY AND MASS SPECTROMETRY - ISSUES AND IMPACT

EPA Science Inventory

The goal of this research is to develop a USEPA method for the determination of sub-ppb concentrations of the perchlorate anion in ground and surface drinking waters. To date, ion chromatography using a KOH mobile phase, electrolytic conductivity suppression and electrospray ion...

Piloting water quality testing coupled with a national socioeconomic survey in Yogyakarta province, Indonesia, towards tracking of Sustainable Development Goal 6.

PubMed

Cronin, Aidan A; Odagiri, Mitsunori; Arsyad, Bheta; Nuryetty, Mariet Tetty; Amannullah, Gantjang; Santoso, Hari; Darundiyah, Kristin; Nasution, Nur 'Aisyah

2017-10-01

There remains a pressing need for systematic water quality monitoring strategies to assess drinking water safety and to track progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). This study incorporated water quality testing into an existing national socioeconomic survey in Yogyakarta province, Indonesia; the first such study in Indonesia in terms of SDG tracking. Multivariate regression analysis assessed the association between faecal and nitrate contamination and drinking water sources household drinking water adjusted for wealth, education level, type of water sources and type of sanitation facilities. The survey observed widespread faecal contamination in both sources for drinking water (89.2%, 95%CI: 86.9-91.5%; n=720) and household drinking water (67.1%, 95%CI: 64.1-70.1%; n=917) as measured by Escherichia coli. This was despite widespread improved drinking water source coverage (85.3%) and commonly self-reported boiling practices (82.2%). E.coli concentration levels in household drinking water were associated with wealth, education levels of a household head, and type of water source (i.e. vender water or local sources). Following the proposed SDG definition for Target 6.1 (water) and 6.2 (sanitation), the estimated proportion of households with access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation was 8.5% and 45.5%, respectively in the study areas, indicating substantial difference from improved drinking water (82.2%) and improved sanitation coverage (70.9%) as per the MDGs targets. The greatest contamination and risk factors were found in the poorest households indicating the urgent need for targeted and effective interventions here. There is suggested evidence that sub-surface leaching from on-site sanitation adversely impacts on drinking water sources, which underscores the need for further technical assistance in promoting latrine construction. Urgent action is still needed to strengthen systematic monitoring efforts towards tracking SDG Goal 6. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of iodinated X-ray contrast media and their biotransformation products in the urban water cycle.

PubMed

Kormos, Jennifer Lynne; Schulz, Manoj; Ternes, Thomas A

2011-10-15

A LC tandem MS method was developed for the simultaneous determination of four iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) and 46 ICM biotransformation products (TPs) in raw and treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water. Recoveries ranged from 70% to 130%, and limits of quantification (LOQ) varied between 1 ng/L and 3 ng/L for surface water, groundwater and drinking water, and between 10 ng/L and 30 ng/L for wastewater. In a conventional wastewater treatment plant, iohexol, iomeprol, and iopromide were transformed to >80%, while iopamidol was transformed to 35%. In total, 26 TPs were detected above their LOQ in WWTP effluents. A significant change in the pattern of ICM TPs was observed after bank filtration and groundwater infiltration under aerobic conditions. Predominately, these TPs are formed at the end of the microbial transformation pathways in batch experiments with soil and sediment. These polar ICM TPs, such as iohexol TP599, iomeprol TP643, iopromide TP701A, and iopromide TP643, were not or only partially removed during drinking water treatment. As a consequence, several ICM TPs were detected in drinking water, at concentration levels exceeding 100 ng/L, with a maximum of 500 ng/L for iomeprol TP687.

Quantifying the role of forested lands in providing surface drinking water supply for Puerto Rico

Treesearch

Erika Cohen; Ge Sun; Liangxia Zhang; Peter Caldwell; Suzanne Krieger

2017-01-01

The Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture published a General Technical Report (GTR-SRS-197) in 2014 that quantified the role that water originating on National Forest System lands contributed to the drinking water supply and determined what population and communities were being served in the 13 Southern States of Region 8 of the Forest Service. The...

The occurrence of antibiotics in an urban watershed: From wastewater to drinking water

USGS Publications Warehouse

Watkinson, A.J.; Murby, E.J.; Kolpin, D.W.; Costanzo, S.D.

2009-01-01

The presence of 28 antibiotics in three hospital effluents, five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), six rivers and a drinking water storage catchment were investigated within watersheds of South–East Queensland, Australia. All antibiotics were detected at least once, with the exception of the polypeptide bacitracin which was not detected at all. Antibiotics were found in hospital effluent ranging from 0.01–14.5 μg L-1, dominated by the β-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Antibiotics were found in WWTP influent up to 64 μg L-1, dominated by the β-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Investigated WWTPs were highly effective in removing antibiotics from the water phase, with an average removal rate of greater than 80% for all targeted antibiotics. However, antibiotics were still detected in WWTP effluents in the low ng L-1 range up to a maximum of 3.4 μg L-1, with the macrolide, quinolone and sulphonamide antibiotics most prevalent. Similarly, antibiotics were detected quite frequently in the low ng L-1 range, up to 2 μg L-1 in the surface waters of six investigated rivers including freshwater, estuarine and marine samples. The total investigated antibiotic concentration (TIAC) within the Nerang River was significantly lower (p p < 0.001) was identified between TIACs at surface water sites with WWTP discharge compared to sites with no WWTP discharge, providing further evidence that WWTPs are an important source of antibiotics to streams. Despite the presence of antibiotics in surface waters used for drinking water extraction, no targeted antibiotics were detected in any drinking water samples.

Determination of pharmaceutical residues in drinking water in Poland using a new SPE-GC-MS(SIM) method based on Speedisk extraction disks and DIMETRIS derivatization.

PubMed

Caban, Magda; Lis, Ewa; Kumirska, Jolanta; Stepnowski, Piotr

2015-12-15

The presence of pharmaceuticals in drinking water, even at very low concentrations, has raised concerns among stakeholders such as drinking-water regulators, governments, water suppliers and the public, with regard to the potential risks to humans. Despite this, the occurrence and the fate of pharmaceuticals in drinking waters of many countries (e.g. in Poland) remains unknown. There is a lack of sufficiently sensitive and reliable analytical methods for such analyses and a need for more in-depth hydrogeological analysis of the possible sources of drug residues in drinking water. In this paper, a multi-residual method for the simultaneous determination of seventeen human pharmaceuticals in drinking waters has been developed. Large-volume extractions using Speedisk extraction disks, and derivatization prior to GC-MS-SIM analysis using a new silylating agent DIMETRIS were applied. The method detection limits (MDLs) ranged from 0.9 to 5.7ng/L and the absolute recoveries of the target compounds were above 80% for most analytes. The developed method was successfully applied in the analysis of the target compounds in drinking water collected in Gdansk (Poland), and of the 17 pharmaceuticals, 6 compounds were detected at least once. During the investigation, the geomorphology of the site region was taken into account, possible sources of pharmaceuticals in the analysed drinking water samples were investigated, and the presence of the drugs in ground and surface waters, raw and treated drinking waters was determined. Concentrations were also compared with those observed in other countries. As a result, this study has not only developed a new analytical method for determining pharmaceuticals in drinking waters as well as rendering missing information for Poland (a country with one of the highest consumptions of pharmaceuticals in Europe), but it also presents a modelled in-depth hydrogeological analysis of the real sources of drugs in drinking waters. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Water Quality on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, Northeastern Kansas, June 1996 through August 2006

USGS Publications Warehouse

Schmidt, Heather C. Ross; Mehl, Heidi E.; Pope, Larry M.

2007-01-01

This report describes surface- and ground-water-quality data collected on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation in northeastern Kansas from November 2003 through August 2006 (hereinafter referred to as the 'current study period'). Data from this study period are compared to results from June 1996 through August 2003, which are published in previous reports as part of a multiyear cooperative study with the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation. Surface and ground water are valuable resources to the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation as tribal members currently (2007) use area streams to fulfill subsistence hunting and fishing needs and because ground water potentially could support expanding commercial enterprise and development. Surface-water-quality samples collected from November 2003 through August 2006 were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, fecal-indicator bacteria, suspended-sediment concentration, and total suspended solids. Ground-water samples were analyzed for physical properties, dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and fecal-indicator bacteria. Chemical oxygen demand and volatile organic compounds were analyzed in all three samples from one monitoring well located near a construction and demolition landfill on the reservation, and in one sample from another well in the Soldier Creek drainage basin. Previous reports published as a part of this ongoing study identified total phosphorus, triazine herbicides, and fecal coliform bacteria as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria in surface water on the reservation. Previous ground-water assessments identified occasional sample concentrations of dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, boron, iron, and manganese as exceeding their respective water-quality criteria. Fifty-six percent of the 55 surface-water samples collected during the current study period and analyzed for total phosphorus exceeded the goal of 0.1 mg/L (milligram per liter) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to limit cultural eutrophication in flowing water. Concentrations of dissolved solids frequently exceeded the USEPA Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation (SDWR) of 500 mg/L in samples from two sites. Concentrations of sodium exceeded the Drinking-Water Advisory of 20 mg/L set by USEPA in almost 50 percent of the surface-water samples. All four samples analyzed for atrazine concentrations showed some concentration of the pesticide, but none exceeded the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established for drinking water by USEPA of 3.0 ?g/L (micrograms per liter) as an annual average. A triazine herbicide screen was used on 55 surface-water samples, and triazine compounds were frequently detected. Triazine herbicides and their degradates are listed on the USEPA Contaminant Candidate List. In 41 percent of surface-water samples, densities of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria exceeded the primary contact, single-sample maximum in public-access bodies of water (1,198 colonies per 100 milliliters of water for samples collected between April 1 and October 31) set by the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE). Nitrite plus nitrate concentrations in all three water samples from 1 of 10 monitoring wells exceeded the MCL of 10 mg/L established by USEPA for drinking water. Arsenic concentrations in all three samples from one well exceeded the proposed MCL of 10 ?g/L established by USEPA for drinking water. Boron also exceeded the drinking-water advisory in three samples from one well, and iron concentrations were higher than the SDWR in water from four wells. There was some detection of pesticides in ground-water samples from three of the wells, and one detection of the volatile organic compound diethyl ether in one well. Concentrations of dissolved solids exceeded the SDWR in 20 percent of ground-water samples collected during the current study period, and concentration

Formation and fates of nitrosamines and their formation potentials from a surface water source to drinking water treatment plants in Southern Taiwan.

PubMed

Chen, Wei-Hsiang; Wang, Chung-Ya; Huang, Tsung-Hsien

2016-10-01

Nitrosamines are toxic and emerging disinfection byproducts. In this study, three drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in southern Taiwan treating the same source water in Gaoping River with comparable technologies were selected. The objective was to evaluate the formation and fates of six nitrosamines and their formation potentials (FPs) from a surface water source to drinking water. Albeit decreased further downstream in the river, four nitrosamine-FPs were observed in the source water due to anthropogenic pollution in the upstream areas. In the DWTPs, nitrosamines were formed and NDMA was the main species. While high organic carbon concentrations indicated elevated nitrosamine-FPs in the source water, NDMA formation in the DWTPs was more positively associated with reductions of water parameters that quantify organic matters with double bonded ring structures. Although precursor removal via pre-oxidation is a viable approach to limit nitrosamine formation during post-disinfection, this study clearly indicates that a great portion of NDMA in treated water has been formed in the 1st oxidation step of drinking water treatment. The pre-oxidation simulations in the lab demonstrated the impact of pre-chlorination on nitrosamine formation. Given the limited removal in conventional treatment processes, avoiding nitrosamine-FPs in sources and/or nitrosamine formation during pre-oxidation become important issues to control the threats of nitrosamines in drinking water. Under current circumstance in which pre-oxidation is widely used to optimize the treatment effectiveness in many DWTPs, its adverse effect by forming nitrosamines needs to be carefully minimized and using technologies other than pre-chlorination (e.g., pre-ozonation) may be considered. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Considering the risk of infection by cryptosporidium via consumption of municipally treated drinking water from a surface water source in a Southwestern Ontario community.

PubMed

Pintar, K D M; Fazil, A; Pollari, F; Waltner-Toews, D; Charron, D F; McEwen, S A; Walton, T

2012-07-01

Through the use of case-control analyses and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), relative risks of transmission of cryptosporidiosis have been evaluated (recreational water exposure vs. drinking water consumption) for a Canadian community with higher than national rates of cryptosporidiosis. A QMRA was developed to assess the risk of Cryptosporidium infection through the consumption of municipally treated drinking water. Simulations were based on site-specific surface water contamination levels and drinking water treatment log₁₀ reduction capacity for Cryptosporidium. Results suggested that the risk of Cryptosporidium infection via drinking water in the study community, assuming routine operation of the water treatment plant, was negligible (6 infections per 10¹³ persons per day--5th percentile: 2 infections per 10¹⁵ persons per day; 95th percentile: 3 infections per 10¹² persons per day). The risk is essentially nonexistent during optimized, routine treatment operations. The study community achieves between 7 and 9 log₁₀ Cryptosporidium oocyst reduction through routine water treatment processes. Although these results do not preclude the need for constant vigilance by both water treatment and public health professionals in this community, they suggest that the cause of higher rates of cryptosporidiosis are more likely due to recreational water contact, or perhaps direct animal contact. QMRA can be successfully applied at the community level to identify data gaps, rank relative public health risks, and forecast future risk scenarios. It is most useful when performed in a collaborative way with local stakeholders, from beginning to end of the risk analysis paradigm. © 2011 Society for Risk Analysis.

Intensive exploitation of a karst aquifer leads to Cryptosporidium water supply contamination.

PubMed

Khaldi, S; Ratajczak, M; Gargala, G; Fournier, M; Berthe, T; Favennec, L; Dupont, J P

2011-04-01

Groundwater from karst aquifers is an important source of drinking water worldwide. Outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis linked to surface water and treated public water are regularly reported. Cryptosporidium oocysts are resistant to conventional drinking water disinfectants and are a major concern for the water industry. Here, we examined conditions associated with oocyst transport along a karstic hydrosystem, and the impact of intensive exploitation on Cryptosporidium oocyst contamination of the water supply. We studied a well-characterized karstic hydrosystem composed of a sinkhole, a spring and a wellbore. Thirty-six surface water and groundwater samples were analyzed for suspended particulate matter, turbidity, electrical conductivity, and Cryptosporidium and Giardia (oo)cyst concentrations. (Oo)cysts were identified and counted by means of solid-phase cytometry (ChemScan RDI(®)), a highly sensitive method. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 78% of both surface water and groundwater samples, while Giardia cysts were found in respectively 22% and 8% of surface water and groundwater samples. Mean Cryptosporidium oocyst concentrations were 29, 13 and 4/100 L at the sinkhole, spring and wellbore, respectively. Cryptosporidium oocysts were transported from the sinkhole to the spring and the wellbore, with respective release rates of 45% and 14%, suggesting that oocysts are subject to storage and remobilization in karst conduits. Principal components analysis showed that Cryptosporidium oocyst concentrations depended on variations in hydrological forcing factors. All water samples collected during intensive exploitation contained oocysts. Control of Cryptosporidium oocyst contamination during intensive exploitation is therefore necessary to ensure drinking water quality. Copyright © 2011. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Occurrence of Antibiotics in Surface and Groundwater of a Drinking Water Catchment Area in Germany.

PubMed

Burke, Victoria; Richter, Doreen; Greskowiak, Janek; Mehrtens, Anne; Schulz, Lena; Massmann, Gudrun

2016-07-01

The contamination of the aquatic environment with organic micropollutants, such as veterinary pharmaceuticals, has become an increasingly serious problem and has aroused attention in the course of the last decades. This study presents a screening for a series of veterinary antibiotics, potentially introduced by the application of liquid manure, in ground- and surface water of a drinking water catchment in Lower Saxony, Germany. Of the 26 compounds analyzed, eight, including sulfadiazine, sulfapyridine, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, dehydrato-erythromycin, sulfadimidine, tylosin, and tetracycline were detected in surface water samples. Trimethoprim was detected in 11 out of 15 shallow groundwater samples, indicating its high environmental relevance. Column sorption experiments conducted on trimethoprim show a comparatively moderate sorption affinity to sandy aquifer material with a retardation coefficient of 5.7.

Concentrating Toxoplasma gondii and Cyclospora cayetanensis from surface water and drinking water by continuous separation channel centrifugation.

PubMed

Borchardt, M A; Spencer, S K; Bertz, P D; Ware, M W; Dubey, J P; Alan Lindquist, H D

2009-10-01

To evaluate the effectiveness of continuous separation channel centrifugation for concentrating Toxoplasma gondii and Cyclospora cayetanensis from drinking water and environmental waters. Ready-to-seed vials with known quantities of T. gondii and C. cayetanensis oocysts were prepared by flow cytometry. Oocysts were seeded at densities ranging from 1 to 1000 oocysts l(-1) into 10 to 100 l test volumes of finished drinking water, water with manipulated turbidity, and the source waters from nine drinking water utilities. Oocysts were recovered using continuous separation channel centrifugation and counted on membrane filters using epifluorescent microscopy. Recovery efficiencies of both parasites were > or =84% in 10 l volumes of drinking water. In source waters, recoveries ranged from 64% to 100%, with the lowest recoveries in the most turbid waters. Method precision was between 10% and 20% coefficient of variation. Toxoplasma gondii and C. cayetanensis are effectively concentrated from various water matrices by continuous separation channel centrifugation. Waterborne transmission of T. gondii and C. cayetanensis presents another challenge in producing clean drinking water and protecting public health. Detection of these parasites relies on effectively concentrating oocysts from ambient water, otherwise false negatives may result. Validation data specific to T. gondii and C. cayetanensis concentration methods are limited. Continuous separation channel centrifugation recovers oocysts with high efficiency and precision, the method attributes required to accurately assess the risk of waterborne transmission.

Quantification of bisphenol A, 353-nonylphenol and their chlorinated derivatives in drinking water treatment plants.

PubMed

Dupuis, Antoine; Migeot, Virginie; Cariot, Axelle; Albouy-Llaty, Marion; Legube, Bernard; Rabouan, Sylvie

2012-11-01

Bisphenol A (BPA) and nonylphenols (NP) are of major concern to public health due to their high potential for human exposure and to their demonstrated toxicity (endocrine disruptor effect). A limited number of studies have shown that BPA and NP are present in drinking water. The chlorinated derivatives that may be formed during the chlorination step in drinking water treatment plants (DWTP) exhibit a higher level of estrogenic activity than their parent compounds. The aim of this study was to investigate BPA, 353NP, and their chlorinated derivative concentrations using an accurate and reproducible method of quantification. This method was applied to both surface and treated water samples from eight French DWTPs producing from surface water. Solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed in order to quantify target compounds from water samples. The limits of detection ranged from 0.3 to 2.3 ng/L for BPA and chlorinated BPA and from 1.4 to 63.0 ng/L for 353NP and chlorinated 353NP. BPA and 353NP were found in most analyzed water samples, at a level ranging from 2.0 to 29.7 ng/L and from 0 to 124.9 ng/L, respectively. In most of DWTPs a decrease of BPA and 353NP was observed between surface water and treated water (36.6 to 78.9 % and 2.2 to 100.0 % for BPA and 353NP, respectively). Neither chlorinated BPA nor chlorinated 353NP was detected. Even though BPA and 353NP have been largely removed in the DWTPs studied, they have not been completely eliminated, and drinking water may consequently remain a source of human exposure.

Relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure to bisphenol A

PubMed Central

Arnold, Scott M; Clark, Kathryn E; Staples, Charles A; Klecka, Gary M; Dimond, Steve S; Caspers, Norbert; Hentges, Steven G

2013-01-01

A comprehensive search of studies describing bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in drinking water and source waters (i.e., surface water and groundwater) was conducted to evaluate the relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure and risk. Data from 65 papers were evaluated from North America (31), Europe (17), and Asia (17). The fraction of drinking water measurements reported as less than the detection limit is high; 95%, 48%, and 41%, for North America, Europe, and Asia, respectively. The maximum quantified (in excess of the detection limit) BPA concentrations from North America, Europe, and Asia are 0.099 μg/l, 0.014 μg/l, and 0.317 μg/l. The highest quantified median and 95th percentile concentrations of BPA in Asian drinking water are 0.026 μg/l and 0.19 μg/l, while high detection limits restricted the determination of representative median and 95th percentile concentrations in North America and Europe. BPA in drinking water represents a minor component of overall human exposure, and compared with the lowest available oral toxicity benchmark of 16 μg/kg-bw/day (includes an uncertainty factor of 300) gives margins of safety >1100. Human biomonitoring data indicate that ingestion of drinking water represents <2.8% of the total intake of BPA. PMID:22805988

Inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of water storage containers using biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular and silver impregnated porous pot filtration systems

PubMed Central

Moropeng, Resoketswe Charlotte; Mpenyana-Monyatsi, Lizzy; Momba, Maggie Ndombo Benteke

2018-01-01

Development of biofilms occurring on the inner surface of storage vessels offers a suitable medium for the growth of microorganisms and consequently contributes to the deterioration of treated drinking water quality in homes. The aim of this study was to determine whether the two point-of-use technologies (biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular (BSZ-SICG) filter and silver-impregnated porous pot (SIPP) filter) deployed in a rural community of South Africa could inhibit the formation of biofilm on the surface of plastic-based containers generally used by rural households for the storage of their drinking water. Culture-based methods and molecular techniques were used to detect the indicator bacteria (Total coliforms, faecal coliform, E. coli) and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae) in intake water and on the surface of storage vessels containing treated water. Scanning electron microscopy was also used to visualize the development of biofilm. Results revealed that the surface water source used by the Makwane community was heavily contaminated and harboured unacceptably high counts of bacteria (heterotrophic plate count: 4.4–4.3 Log10 CFU/100mL, total coliforms: 2.2 Log10 CFU/100 mL—2.1 Log10 CFU/100 mL, faecal coliforms: 1.9 Log10 CFU/100 mL—1.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL, E. coli: 1.7 Log10 CFU/100 mL—1.6 Log10 CFU/100 mL, Salmonella spp.: 3 Log10 CFU/100 mL -8 CFU/100 mL; Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae had 1.0 Log10 CFU/100 mL and 0.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL respectively). Biofilm formation was apparent on the surface of the storage containers with untreated water within 24 h. The silver nanoparticles embedded in the clay of the filtration systems provided an effective barrier for the inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of household water storage containers. Biofilm formation occurred on the surface of storage plastic vessels containing drinking water treated with the SIPP filter between 14 and 21 days, and on those containing drinking water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter between 3 and 14 days. The attachment of target bacteria on the surface of the coupons inoculated in storage containers ranged from (0.07 CFU/cm2–227.8 CFU/cm2). To effectively prevent the development of biofilms on the surface of container-stored water, which can lead to the recontamination of treated water, plastic storage containers should be washed within 14 days for water treated with the SIPP filter and within 3 days for water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter. PMID:29621296

Inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of water storage containers using biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular and silver impregnated porous pot filtration systems.

PubMed

Budeli, Phumudzo; Moropeng, Resoketswe Charlotte; Mpenyana-Monyatsi, Lizzy; Momba, Maggie Ndombo Benteke

2018-01-01

Development of biofilms occurring on the inner surface of storage vessels offers a suitable medium for the growth of microorganisms and consequently contributes to the deterioration of treated drinking water quality in homes. The aim of this study was to determine whether the two point-of-use technologies (biosand zeolite silver-impregnated clay granular (BSZ-SICG) filter and silver-impregnated porous pot (SIPP) filter) deployed in a rural community of South Africa could inhibit the formation of biofilm on the surface of plastic-based containers generally used by rural households for the storage of their drinking water. Culture-based methods and molecular techniques were used to detect the indicator bacteria (Total coliforms, faecal coliform, E. coli) and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae) in intake water and on the surface of storage vessels containing treated water. Scanning electron microscopy was also used to visualize the development of biofilm. Results revealed that the surface water source used by the Makwane community was heavily contaminated and harboured unacceptably high counts of bacteria (heterotrophic plate count: 4.4-4.3 Log10 CFU/100mL, total coliforms: 2.2 Log10 CFU/100 mL-2.1 Log10 CFU/100 mL, faecal coliforms: 1.9 Log10 CFU/100 mL-1.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL, E. coli: 1.7 Log10 CFU/100 mL-1.6 Log10 CFU/100 mL, Salmonella spp.: 3 Log10 CFU/100 mL -8 CFU/100 mL; Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae had 1.0 Log10 CFU/100 mL and 0.8 Log10 CFU/100 mL respectively). Biofilm formation was apparent on the surface of the storage containers with untreated water within 24 h. The silver nanoparticles embedded in the clay of the filtration systems provided an effective barrier for the inhibition of biofilm formation on the surface of household water storage containers. Biofilm formation occurred on the surface of storage plastic vessels containing drinking water treated with the SIPP filter between 14 and 21 days, and on those containing drinking water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter between 3 and 14 days. The attachment of target bacteria on the surface of the coupons inoculated in storage containers ranged from (0.07 CFU/cm2-227.8 CFU/cm2). To effectively prevent the development of biofilms on the surface of container-stored water, which can lead to the recontamination of treated water, plastic storage containers should be washed within 14 days for water treated with the SIPP filter and within 3 days for water treated with the BSZ-SICG filter.

Antimicrobial Effect of An Essential Oil Blend on Surface-attached Salmonella on Polyvinyl Chloride

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

The majority of drinking water lines for broilers are made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and surface attachment of Salmonella on the inner surface of water lines can be the initial stage of biofilm development. These biofilms can be the source of Salmonella infection in water lines and are known to re...

The unintended energy impacts of increased nitrate contamination from biofuels production.

PubMed

Twomey, Kelly M; Stillwell, Ashlynn S; Webber, Michael E

2010-01-01

Increases in corn cultivation for biofuels production, due to the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, are likely to lead to increases in nitrate concentrations in both surface and groundwater resources in the United States. These increases might trigger the requirement for additional energy consumption for water treatment to remove the nitrates. While these increasing concentrations of nitrate might pose a human health concern, most water resources were found to be within current maximum contaminant level (MCL) limits of 10 mg L(-1) NO(3)-N. When water resources exceed this MCL, energy-intensive drinking water treatment is required to reduce nitrate levels below 10 mg L(-1). Based on prior estimates of water supplies currently exceeding the nitrate MCL, we calculate that advanced drinking water treatment might require an additional 2360 million kWh annually (for nitrate affected areas only)--a 2100% increase in energy requirements for water treatment in those same areas--to mitigate nitrate contamination and meet the MCL requirement. We predict that projected increases in nitrate contamination in water may impact the energy consumed in the water treatment sector, because of the convergence of several related trends: (1) increasing cornstarch-based ethanol production, (2) increasing nutrient loading in surface water and groundwater resources as a consequence of increased corn-based ethanol production, (3) additional drinking water sources that exceed the MCL for nitrate, and (4) potentially more stringent drinking water standards for nitrate.

Removal of estrogens through water disinfection processes and formation of by-products.

PubMed

Pereira, Renata Oliveira; Postigo, Cristina; de Alda, Miren López; Daniel, Luiz Antonio; Barceló, Damià

2011-02-01

Estrogens constitute a recognized group of environmental emerging contaminants which have been proven to induce estrogenic effects in aquatic organisms exposed to them. Low removal efficiency in wastewater treatment plants results in the presence of this type of contaminants in surface waters and also even in finished drinking water. This manuscript reviews the environmental occurrence of natural (estrone, estradiol and estriol) and synthetic (ethynyl estradiol) estrogens in different water matrices (waste, surface, ground and drinking water), and their removal mainly via chemical oxidative processes. Oxidative treatments have been observed to be very efficient in eliminating estrogens present in water; however, disinfection by-products (DBPs) are generated during the process. Characterization of these DBPs is essential to assess the risk that drinking water may potentially pose to human health since these DBPs may also have endocrine disrupting properties. This manuscript reviews the DBPs generated during oxidative processes identified so far in the literature and the estrogenicity generated by the characterized DBPs and/or by the applied disinfection technology. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Emerging pollutants in sewage, surface and drinking water in Galicia (NW Spain).

PubMed

Rodil, Rosario; Quintana, José Benito; Concha-Graña, Estefanía; López-Mahía, Purificación; Muniategui-Lorenzo, Soledad; Prada-Rodríguez, Darío

2012-03-01

A monitoring programme was carried out on wastewater, surface and drinking water on the NW area of Spain during the four seasons of a year period (November 2007-September 2008). This study covered a series of emerging pollutants of different classes, including pharmaceuticals, neutral and acidic organophosphorus flame retardant/plasticizers (OPs), triclosan, phenoxy-herbicides, insect repellents and UV filters. From the total set of 53 compounds, 19 were found in raw wastewater with median concentrations higher than 0.1 μg L(-1). Among them, salicylic acid, ibuprofen and the UV filter benzophenone-4 (BP-4) were the most concentrated, exceeding the 1 μg L(-1) median value. Subsequently, 11 of these contaminants are not efficiently enough removed in the small WWTPs tested and their median concentrations in effluents still surpassed the 0.1 μg L(-1), so that they can spread through surface water. These chemicals are the pharmaceuticals naproxen, diclofenac and atenolol; the OPs tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tri(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP), tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP), diphenyl phosphate (DPhP) and diethylhexyl phosphate (DEHP); and the sulphonate UV filters BP-4 and 2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulphonic acid (PBSA). These OPs were then the dominant emerging pollutants occurring in surface and drinking water, where they are detected in the 20-200 ng L(-1) range. Pharmaceuticals and UV filters are typically below the 10 ng L(-1) level. Finally, herbicides were only detected in the last sampling campaign under the 100 ng L(-1) drinking water European Union limit. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water and sediment near a drinking water reservoir in Northeastern China.

PubMed

Liu, Yu; Shen, Jimin; Chen, Zhonglin; Ren, Nanqi; Li, Yifan

2013-04-01

The levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the water and the sediment samples collected near the Mopanshan Reservoir-the most important drinking water resource of Harbin City in Northeast China-were examined. A total of 16 PAHs were concurrently identified and quantified in the three water bodies tested (Lalin River, Mangniu River, and Mopanshan Reservoir) and in the Mopanshan drinking water treatment plant during the high- and low water periods. The total PAH concentrations in the water and sediment samples ranged from 122.7 to 639.8 ng/L and from 89.1 to 749.0 ng/g dry weight, respectively. Similar spatial and temporal trends were also found for both samples. The lowest Σ16PAH concentration of the Mopanshan Reservoir was obtained during the high water period; by contrast, the Lalin River had the highest concentration during the low water period. The PAH profiles resembling the three water bodies, with high percentages of low-molecular weight PAHs and dominated by two- to three-ring PAHs (78.4 to 89.0%). Two of the molecular indices used reflected the possible PAH sources, indicating the main input from coal combustion, especially during the low water period. The conventional drinking water treatment operations resulted in a 20.7 to 67.0% decrease in the different-ringed PAHs in the Mopanshan-treated drinking water. These findings indicate that human activities negatively affect the drinking water resource. Without the obvious removal of the PAHs in the waterworks, drinking water poses certain potential health risks to people.

Regrowth and survival of indicator microorganisms on the surfaces of household containers used for the storage of drinking water in rural communities of South Africa.

PubMed

Momba, Maggy N B; Kaleni, P

2002-07-01

The present study covered two rural communities of South Africa: Ncera and Ntselamanzi villages. Raw water from Ncera river is used by the community of Ncera village for drinking, while the community of Ntselamanzi receives their drinking water from Alice purification system. Treated water is supplied to the community by a public standpipe system. In rural communities of South Africa, many households use polyethylene (PE) and galvanized steel (GS) containers for the storage of their drinking water. To investigate the regrowth and survival of indicator microorganisms on the surface of household containers during the storage of drinking water, PE and GS slides were suspended in the appropriate household containers for a period of 48 h. This period of 48 h was chosen as the study period because results from the questionnaire indicated that the largest percentage (62%) of households store their water for that length of time. The experiment was performed to test drinking water as it is collected and stored by rural communities. No disinfection of household containers or slides was done during the study period. Attached coliphages (F-RNA (FP) and somatic phage (SP), coliform bacteria (total coliform (TC), presumptive Escherichia coli (EC), Salmonella (Sal) and Clostridium perfringens (CP) were measured during the study period. With the exception of CP, attached indicator microorganisms consisted of TC, presumptive E. coli and Salmonella, somatic and F-RNA coliphages, although the yield (average count) for the last four groups (EC: < 1-3 cfu cm(-2), Sal: < 1-15 cfu cm(-2), FP: < 1-7 pfu cm(-2), SP: < 1-7pfu cm(-2)) was lower than that of TC (3-183 cfu cm(-2)). However, the lowest yield of indicator microorganisms was noted for presumptive E. coli. Whereas the occurrence and survival of TC was noted on the surface of household containers during the entire period of the experimental study, other indicator microorganisms occurred from time to time. The regrowth of indicator microorganisms occurred 48 h after the exposure of slides to both types of test waters. This length of time mostly resulted in the regrowth of TC (with an increase in bacterial counts) while the persistence of other indicator organism groups on the surface of the slides was apparent. A comparison between PE and GS containers showed that more TC (average count) regrew on PE than on GS containers (for river water, PE: from 36 to 55 cfu cm(-2), GS: from 25 to 26 cfu cm(-2); for standpipe water, PE: from 147 to 183 cfu cm(-2), GS from 3 to 4 cfu cm(-2)). This study revealed that both types of household containers supported the growth and survival of indicator microorganisms due to the bad quality of the intake water before storage. The storage of drinking water for 48 h mainly resulted in the regrowth of TC. Nevertheless, the persistence of other indicator microorganisms was observed on the surface of household containers.

Decontamination of radiological agents from drinking water infrastructure: a literature review and summary.

PubMed

Szabo, Jeff; Minamyer, Scott

2014-11-01

This report summarizes the current state of knowledge on the persistence of radiological agents on drinking water infrastructure (such as pipes) along with information on decontamination should persistence occur. Decontamination options for drinking water infrastructure have been explored for some important radiological agents (cesium, strontium and cobalt), but important data gaps remain. Although some targeted experiments have been published on cesium, strontium and cobalt persistence on drinking water infrastructure, most of the data comes from nuclear clean-up sites. Furthermore, the studies focused on drinking water systems use non-radioactive surrogates. Non-radioactive cobalt was shown to be persistent on iron due to oxidation with free chlorine in drinking water and precipitation on the iron surface. Decontamination with acidification was an effective removal method. Strontium persistence on iron was transient in tap water, but adherence to cement-mortar has been demonstrated and should be further explored. Cesium persistence on iron water infrastructure was observed when flow was stagnant, but not with water flow present. Future research suggestions focus on expanding the available cesium, strontium and cobalt persistence data to other common infrastructure materials, specifically cement-mortar. Further exploration chelating agents and low pH treatment is recommended for future decontamination studies. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Health hazards and mitigation of chronic poisoning from arsenic in drinking water: Taiwan experiences.

PubMed

Chen, Chien-Jen

2014-01-01

There are two endemic areas of long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking water in Taiwan. Residents in the southwestern and northeastern endemic areas started using high-arsenic artesian well water in the early 1910s and late 1940s, respectively. Public water supply system using surface water was implemented in southwestern and northeastern endemic areas in the 1970s and 1990s, respectively. Systemic health hazards of long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking water have been intensively investigated since the 1960s, especially after 1985 in Taiwan. Several diseases have been well documented to be associated with chronic arsenic poisoning from drinking water showing a dose-response relation. They include characteristic skin lesions like hyperpigmentation or depigmentation, hyperkeratosis in palms and soles, and Bowen disease, peripheral vascular disease (specifically blackfoot disease), ischemic heart disease, cerebral infarction, microvascular diseases, abnormal peripheral microcirculation, carotid atherosclerosis, QT prolongation and increased dispersion in electrocardiography, hypertension, goiter, diabetes mellitus, cataract (specifically posterior subcapsular lens opacity), pterygium, slow neural conduction, retarded neurobehavioral development, erectile dysfunction, and cancers of the skin, lung, urinary bladder, kidney, and liver. The method of choice to mitigate arsenic poisoning through drinking water is to use safe drinking water from uncontaminated sources.

Seasonality effects on pharmaceuticals and s-triazine herbicides in wastewater effluent and surface water from the Canadian side of the upper Detroit River.

PubMed

Hua, Wen Yi; Bennett, Erin R; Maio, Xui-Sheng; Metcalfe, Chris D; Letcher, Robert J

2006-09-01

The influence of seasonal changes in water conditions and parameters on several major pharmacologically active compounds (PhACs) and s-triazine herbicides was assessed in the wastewater and sewage treatment plant (WSTP) effluent as well as the downstream surface water from sites on the Canadian side of the upper Detroit River, between the Little River WSTP and near the water intake of a major drinking water treatment facility for the City of Windsor (ON, Canada). The assessed PhACs were of neutral (carbamazepine, cotinine, caffeine, cyclophosphamide, fluoxetine, norfluoxetine, pentoxifylline, and trimethoprim) and acidic (ibuprofen, bezafibrate, clofibric acid, diclofenac, fenoprofen, gemfibrozil, indomethacin, naproxen, and ketoprofen) varieties. The major assessed s-triazine herbicides were atrazine, simazine, propazine, prometon, ametryn, prometryn, and terbutryn. At sampling times from September 2002 to June 2003, 15 PhACs were detected in the WSTP effluent at concentrations ranging from 1.7 to 1244 ng/L. The PhAC concentrations decreased by as much 92 to 100% at the Little River/Detroit River confluence because of the river dilution effect, with further continual decreases at sites downstream from the WSTP. The only quantifiable s-triazine in WSTP effluent, atrazine, ranged from 6.7 to 200 ng/L and was higher in Detroit River surface waters than in WSTP effluent. Only carbamazepine, cotinine, and atrazine were detectable at the low-nanogram and subnanogram levels in surface waters near a drinking water intake site. Unlike the PhACs, atrazine in the Detroit River is not attributable to point sources, and it is heavily influenced by seasonal agricultural usage and runoff. Detroit River surface water concentrations of carbamazepine, cotinine, and atrazine may present a health concern to aquatic wildlife and to humans via the consumption of drinking water.

Occurrence and Control of Genotoxins in Drinking Water: A Monitoring Proposal.

PubMed

Ceretti, Elisabetta; Moretti, Massimo; Zerbini, Ilaria; Villarini, Milena; Zani, Claudia; Monarca, Silvano; Feretti, Donatella

2016-12-09

Many studies have shown the presence of numerous organic genotoxins and carcinogens in drinking water. These toxic substances derive not only from pollution, but also from the disinfection treatments, particularly when water is obtained from surface sources and then chlorinated. Most of the chlorinated compounds in drinking water are nonvolatile and are difficult to characterize. Thus, it has been proposed to study such complex mixtures using short-term genotoxicity tests predictive of carcinogenic activity. Mutagenicity of water before and after disinfection has mainly been studied by the Salmonella/microsome (Ames test); in vitro genotoxicity tests have also been performed in yeasts and mammalian cells; in situ monitoring of genotoxins has also been performed using complete organisms such as aquatic animals or plants (in vivo). The combination of bioassay data together with results of chemical analyses would give us a more firm basis for the assessment of human health risks related to the consumption of drinking water. Tests with different genetic end-points complement each other with regard to sensitivity toward environmental genotoxins and are useful in detecting low genotoxicity levels which are expected in drinking water samples.

Concentration of Ra-226 in Malaysian Drinking and Bottled Mineral Water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Amin, Y. B. Mohd; Jemangin, M. H.; Mahat, R. H.

2010-07-07

The concentration of the radionuclide {sup 226}Ra was determined in the drinking water which was taken from various sources. It was found that the concentration varies from non-detectable (ND) to highest value of 0.30 Bq per liter. The concentration was found to be high in mineral water as compare with surface water such as domestic pipe water. Some of these values have exceeded the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) of America regulations. The activity concentrations obtained are compared with data from other countries. The estimated annual effective doses from drinking the water are determined. The values obtained range from 0.02 mSvmore » to about 0.06 mSv per year.« less

Nationwide reconnaissance of contaminants of emerging concern in source and treated drinking waters of the United States

USGS Publications Warehouse

Glassmeyer, Susan T.; Furlong, Edward T.; Kolpin, Dana W.; Batt, Angela L.; Benson, Robert; Boone, J. Scott; Conerly, Octavia D.; Donohue, Maura J.; King, Dawn N.; Kostich, Mitchell S.; Mash, Heath E.; Pfaller, Stacy; Schenck, Kathleen M.; Simmons, Jane Ellen; Varughese, Eunice A.; Vesper, Stephen J.; Villegas, Eric N.; Wilson, Vickie S.

2017-01-01

When chemical or microbial contaminants are assessed for potential effect or possible regulation in ambient and drinking waters, a critical first step is determining if the contaminants occur and if they are at concentrations that may cause human or ecological health concerns. To this end, source and treated drinking water samples from 29 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) were analyzed as part of a two-phase study to determine whether chemical and microbial constituents, many of which are considered contaminants of emerging concern, were detectable in the waters. Of the 84 chemicals monitored in the 9 Phase I DWTPs, 27 were detected at least once in the source water, and 21 were detected at least once in treated drinking water. In Phase II, which was a broader and more comprehensive assessment, 247 chemical and microbial analytes were measured in 25 DWTPs, with 148 detected at least once in the source water, and 121 detected at least once in the treated drinking water. The frequency of detection was often related to the analyte's contaminant class, as pharmaceuticals and anthropogenic waste indicators tended to be infrequently detected and more easily removed during treatment, while per and polyfluoroalkyl substances and inorganic constituents were both more frequently detected and, overall, more resistant to treatment. The data collected as part of this project will be used to help inform evaluation of unregulated contaminants in surface water, groundwater, and drinking water.

Nationwide reconnaissance of contaminants of emerging concern in source and treated drinking waters of the United States.

PubMed

Glassmeyer, Susan T; Furlong, Edward T; Kolpin, Dana W; Batt, Angela L; Benson, Robert; Boone, J Scott; Conerly, Octavia; Donohue, Maura J; King, Dawn N; Kostich, Mitchell S; Mash, Heath E; Pfaller, Stacy L; Schenck, Kathleen M; Simmons, Jane Ellen; Varughese, Eunice A; Vesper, Stephen J; Villegas, Eric N; Wilson, Vickie S

2017-03-01

When chemical or microbial contaminants are assessed for potential effect or possible regulation in ambient and drinking waters, a critical first step is determining if the contaminants occur and if they are at concentrations that may cause human or ecological health concerns. To this end, source and treated drinking water samples from 29 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) were analyzed as part of a two-phase study to determine whether chemical and microbial constituents, many of which are considered contaminants of emerging concern, were detectable in the waters. Of the 84 chemicals monitored in the 9 Phase I DWTPs, 27 were detected at least once in the source water, and 21 were detected at least once in treated drinking water. In Phase II, which was a broader and more comprehensive assessment, 247 chemical and microbial analytes were measured in 25 DWTPs, with 148 detected at least once in the source water, and 121 detected at least once in the treated drinking water. The frequency of detection was often related to the analyte's contaminant class, as pharmaceuticals and anthropogenic waste indicators tended to be infrequently detected and more easily removed during treatment, while per and polyfluoroalkyl substances and inorganic constituents were both more frequently detected and, overall, more resistant to treatment. The data collected as part of this project will be used to help inform evaluation of unregulated contaminants in surface water, groundwater, and drinking water. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Effect of carbonated beverages, coffee, sports and high energy drinks, and bottled water on the in vitro erosion characteristics of dental enamel.

PubMed

Kitchens, Michael; Owens, Barry M

2007-01-01

This study evaluated the effect of carbonated and non-carbonated beverages, bottled and tap water, on the erosive potential of dental enamel with and without fluoride varnish protection. Beverages used in this study included: Coca Cola Classic, Diet Coke, Gatorade sports drink, Red Bull high-energy drink, Starbucks Frappuccino coffee drink, Dasani water (bottled), and tap water (control). Enamel surfaces were coated with Cavity Shield 5% sodium fluoride treatment varnish. Twenty-eight previously extracted human posterior teeth free of hypocalcification and caries were used in this study. The coronal portion of each tooth was removed and then sectioned transverse from the buccal to lingual surface using a diamond coated saw blade. The crown sections were embedded in acrylic resin blocks leaving the enamel surfaces exposed. The enamel surfaces were polished using 600 to 2000 grit abrasive paper and diamond paste. Test specimens were randomly distributed to seven beverage groups and comprised 4 specimens per group. Two specimens per beverage group were treated with a fluoride varnish while 2 specimens did not receive fluoride coating. Surface roughness (profilometer) readings were performed at baseline (prior to fluoride treatment and immersion in the beverage) and again, following immersion for 14 days (24 hours/day). The test beverages were changed daily and the enamel specimens were immersed at 37 degrees C. Surface roughness data was evaluated using multiple factor ANOVA at a significance level of p<0.05. Results showed that Coca-Cola Classic, Gatorade and Red Bull with/without fluoride revealed the highest post-treatment surface roughness measurements. Coca-Cola Classic, Diet Coke, Gatorade, and Red Bull all showed significantly higher post treatment readings than StarBucks coffee, Dasani water, and tap water. Fluoride varnish was not a significant impact factor; however, beverage (type) and exposure time were significant impact variables. Both carbonated and non-carbonated beverages displayed a significant erosive effect on dental enamel; however, fluoride varnish treatments did not demonstrate a significant protective influence on enamel surfaces.

Dissolved organic matter fluorescence at wavelength 275/342 nm as a key indicator for detection of point-source contamination in a large Chinese drinking water lake.

PubMed

Zhou, Yongqiang; Jeppesen, Erik; Zhang, Yunlin; Shi, Kun; Liu, Xiaohan; Zhu, Guangwei

2016-02-01

Surface drinking water sources have been threatened globally and there have been few attempts to detect point-source contamination in these waters using chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) fluorescence. To determine the optimal wavelength derived from CDOM fluorescence as an indicator of point-source contamination in drinking waters, a combination of field campaigns in Lake Qiandao and a laboratory wastewater addition experiment was used. Parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis identified six components, including three humic-like, two tryptophan-like, and one tyrosine-like component. All metrics showed strong correlation with wastewater addition (r(2) > 0.90, p < 0.0001). Both the field campaigns and the laboratory contamination experiment revealed that CDOM fluorescence at 275/342 nm was the most responsive wavelength to the point-source contamination in the lake. Our results suggest that pollutants in Lake Qiandao had the highest concentrations in the river mouths of upstream inflow tributaries and the single wavelength at 275/342 nm may be adapted for online or in situ fluorescence measurements as an early warning of contamination events. This study demonstrates the potential utility of CDOM fluorescence to monitor water quality in surface drinking water sources. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The occurrence of antibiotics in an urban watershed: from wastewater to drinking water.

PubMed

Watkinson, A J; Murby, E J; Kolpin, D W; Costanzo, S D

2009-04-01

The presence of 28 antibiotics in three hospital effluents, five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), six rivers and a drinking water storage catchment were investigated within watersheds of South-East Queensland, Australia. All antibiotics were detected at least once, with the exception of the polypeptide bacitracin which was not detected at all. Antibiotics were found in hospital effluent ranging from 0.01-14.5 microg L(-1), dominated by the beta-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Antibiotics were found in WWTP influent up to 64 microg L(-1), dominated by the beta-lactam, quinolone and sulphonamide groups. Investigated WWTPs were highly effective in removing antibiotics from the water phase, with an average removal rate of greater than 80% for all targeted antibiotics. However, antibiotics were still detected in WWTP effluents in the low ng L(-1) range up to a maximum of 3.4 microg L(-1), with the macrolide, quinolone and sulphonamide antibiotics most prevalent. Similarly, antibiotics were detected quite frequently in the low ng L(-1) range, up to 2 microg L(-1) in the surface waters of six investigated rivers including freshwater, estuarine and marine samples. The total investigated antibiotic concentration (TIAC) within the Nerang River was significantly lower (p<0.05) than all other rivers sampled. The absence of WWTP discharge to this river is a likely explanation for the significantly lower TIAC and suggests that WWTP discharges are a dominant source of antibiotics to investigated surface waters. A significant difference (p<0.001) was identified between TIACs at surface water sites with WWTP discharge compared to sites with no WWTP discharge, providing further evidence that WWTPs are an important source of antibiotics to streams. Despite the presence of antibiotics in surface waters used for drinking water extraction, no targeted antibiotics were detected in any drinking water samples.

Adenovirus, MS2 and PhiX174 interactions with drinking water biofilms developed on PVC, cement and cast iron.

PubMed

Helmi, K; Menard-Szczebara, F; Lénès, D; Jacob, P; Jossent, J; Barbot, C; Delabre, K; Arnal, C

2010-01-01

Biofilms colonizing pipe surfaces of drinking water distribution systems could provide habitat and shelter for pathogenic viruses present in the water phase. This study aims (i) to develop a method to detect viral particles present in a drinking water biofilm and (ii) to study viral interactions with drinking water biofilms. A pilot scale system was used to develop drinking water biofilms on 3 materials (7 cm(2) discs): PVC, cast iron and cement. Biofilms were inoculated with viral model including MS2, PhiX174 or adenovirus. Five techniques were tested to recover virus from biofilms. The most efficient uses beef extract and glycine at pH = 9. After sonication and centrifugation, the pH of the supernatant is neutralized prior to viral analysis. The calculated recovery rates varied from 29.3 to 74.6% depending on the virus (MS2 or PhiX174) and the material. Applying this protocol, the interactions of virus models (MS2 and adenovirus) with drinking water biofilms were compared. Our results show that adsorption of viruses to biofilms depends on their isoelectric points, the disc material and the hydrodynamic conditions. Applying hydrodynamic conditions similar to those existing in drinking water networks resulted in a viral adsorption corresponding to less than 1% of the initial viral load.

Drinking water treatment and risk of cancer death in Wisconsin.

PubMed Central

Kanarek, M S; Young, T B

1982-01-01

A case control study of drinking water treatment practices and female cancer mortality was conducted in Wisconsin. Cancer deaths for 1972-1977 from 28 Wisconsin counties and noncancer deaths matched to cancer deaths on age, year of death and county of residence, were compared for characteristics of drinking water supplied to their places of residence. Using logistic regression, estimates of relative risk associated with chlorinated water were examined allowing for the influence of indicators of water organics and the potential confounders of occupation, marital status and urbanicity. Only colon cancer appeared to be related significantly to chlorination in all models explored. A dose-response relationship was found between crude indicators of trihalomethane level (chlorination X organic contamination) and colon cancer death. The odds ratio for chlorinated surface water for colon cancer was 2.81 (p less than 0.01); approximately half this risk was found for chlorinated ground water. Consequently, a case control study of colon cancer and drinking water quality utilizing newly diagnosed patients is being conducted in Wisconsin. PMID:7151760

Setting action levels for drinking water: are we protecting our health or our economy (or our backs!)?

PubMed

Reimann, Clemens; Banks, David

2004-10-01

Clean and healthy drinking water is important for life. Drinking water can be drawn from streams, lakes and rivers, directly collected (and stored) from rain, acquired by desalination of ocean water and melting of ice or it can be extracted from groundwater resources. Groundwater may reach the earth's surface in the form of springs or can be extracted via dug or drilled wells; it also contributes significantly to river baseflow. Different water quality issues have to be faced when utilising these different water resources. Some of these are at present largely neglected in water quality regulations. This paper focuses on the inorganic chemical quality of natural groundwater. Possible health effects, the problems of setting meaningful action levels or maximum admissible concentrations (MAC-values) for drinking water, and potential shortcomings in current legislation are discussed. An approach to setting action levels based on transparency, toxicological risk assessment, completeness, and identifiable responsibility is suggested.

Mapping human health risks from exposure to trace metal contamination of drinking water sources in Pakistan.

PubMed

Bhowmik, Avit Kumar; Alamdar, Ambreen; Katsoyiannis, Ioannis; Shen, Heqing; Ali, Nadeem; Ali, Syeda Maria; Bokhari, Habib; Schäfer, Ralf B; Eqani, Syed Ali Musstjab Akber Shah

2015-12-15

The consumption of contaminated drinking water is one of the major causes of mortality and many severe diseases in developing countries. The principal drinking water sources in Pakistan, i.e. ground and surface water, are subject to geogenic and anthropogenic trace metal contamination. However, water quality monitoring activities have been limited to a few administrative areas and a nationwide human health risk assessment from trace metal exposure is lacking. Using geographically weighted regression (GWR) and eight relevant spatial predictors, we calculated nationwide human health risk maps by predicting the concentration of 10 trace metals in the drinking water sources of Pakistan and comparing them to guideline values. GWR incorporated local variations of trace metal concentrations into prediction models and hence mitigated effects of large distances between sampled districts due to data scarcity. Predicted concentrations mostly exhibited high accuracy and low uncertainty, and were in good agreement with observed concentrations. Concentrations for Central Pakistan were predicted with higher accuracy than for the North and South. A maximum 150-200 fold exceedance of guideline values was observed for predicted cadmium concentrations in ground water and arsenic concentrations in surface water. In more than 53% (4 and 100% for the lower and upper boundaries of 95% confidence interval (CI)) of the total area of Pakistan, the drinking water was predicted to be at risk of contamination from arsenic, chromium, iron, nickel and lead. The area with elevated risks is inhabited by more than 74 million (8 and 172 million for the lower and upper boundaries of 95% CI) people. Although these predictions require further validation by field monitoring, the results can inform disease mitigation and water resources management regarding potential hot spots. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Perfluorinated alkylated acids in groundwater and drinking water: identification, origin and mobility.

PubMed

Eschauzier, Christian; Raat, Klaasjan J; Stuyfzand, Pieter J; De Voogt, Pim

2013-08-01

Human exposure to perfluorinated alkylated acids (PFAA) occurs primarily via the dietary intake and drinking water can contribute significantly to the overall PFAA intake. Drinking water is produced from surface water and groundwater. Waste water treatment plants have been identified as the main source for PFAA in surface waters and corresponding drinking water. However, even though groundwater is an important source for drinking water production, PFAA sources remain largely uncertain. In this paper, we identified different direct and indirect sources of PFAA to groundwater within the catchment area of a public supply well field (PSWF) in The Netherlands. Direct sources were landfill leachate and water draining from a nearby military base/urban area. Indirect sources were infiltrated rainwater. Maximum concentrations encountered in groundwater within the landfill leachate plume were 1.8 μg/L of non branched perfluorooctanoic acid (L-PFOA) and 1.2 μg/L of perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA). Sum concentrations amounted to 4.4 μg/L total PFAA. The maximum concentration of ΣPFAA in the groundwater originating from the military camp was around 17 ng/L. Maximum concentrations measured in the groundwater halfway the landfill and the PWSF (15 years travel distance) were 29 and 160 ng/L for L-PFOA and PFBA, respectively. Concentrations in the groundwater pumping wells (travel distance >25 years) were much lower: 0.96 and 3.5 ng/L for L-PFOA and PFBA, respectively. The chemical signature of these pumping wells corresponded to the signature encountered in other wells sampled which were fed by water that had not been in contact with potential contaminant sources, suggesting a widespread diffuse contamination from atmospheric deposition. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ground Water Modeling Research

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

EPA is supporting region, state, and tribal partners at Superfund sites and brownfields to develop new methods to better characterize, monitor, and treat ground water contamination; in order to protect drinking water, surface water, and indoor air.

Irrigation waters and pipe-based biofilms as sources for antibiotic-resistant bacteria

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in environmental surface waters has gained recent attention. Wastewater- and drinking water distribution systems are known to disseminate antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with the biofilms that form on the inner-surfaces of the pipeline as a hotspot for pr...

Transport and transformation of pharmaceuticals and other contaminants of emerging concern from wastewater discharge through surface water to drinking water intake and treatment

EPA Science Inventory

The ubiquitous presence of pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in surface-water resources have necessitated research that better elucidates pathways of transport and transformation for these compounds from their discharged wastewater, thro...

A Systems Approach to Manage Drinking Water Quality ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Drinking water supplies can be vulnerable to impacts from short-term weather events, long-term changes in land-use and climate, and water quality controls in treatment and distribution. Disinfection by-product (DBP) formation in drinking water is a prominent example to illustrate the water supply vulnerability and examine technological options in adaptation. Total organic carbon (TOC) in surface water can vary significantly due to changes or a combination of changes in watershed land use, climate variability, and extreme meteorological events (e.g., hurricanes). On the other hand, water demand is known to vary temporarily and spatially leading to changes in water ages and hence DBP formation potential. Typically a drinking water facility is designed to operate within a projected range of influent water quality and water demand. When the variations exceed the design range, water supply becomes vulnerable in the compliance to Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Stage-II disinfection by-product (DBP) rules. This paper describes a framework of systems-level modeling, monitoring and control in adaptive planning and system operation. The framework, built upon the integration of model projections, adaptive monitoring and systems control, has three primary functions. Its advantages and limitations will be discussed with the application examples in Cincinnati (Ohio, USA) and Las Vegas (Nevada, USA). At a conceptual level, an integrated land use and hydrological model

Chemical quality and regulatory compliance of drinking water in Iceland.

PubMed

Gunnarsdottir, Maria J; Gardarsson, Sigurdur M; Jonsson, Gunnar St; Bartram, Jamie

2016-11-01

Assuring sufficient quality of drinking water is of great importance for public wellbeing and prosperity. Nations have developed regulatory system with the aim of providing drinking water of sufficient quality and to minimize the risk of contamination of the water supply in the first place. In this study the chemical quality of Icelandic drinking water was evaluated by systematically analyzing results from audit monitoring where 53 parameters were assessed for 345 samples from 79 aquifers, serving 74 water supply systems. Compliance to the Icelandic Drinking Water Regulation (IDWR) was evaluated with regard to parametric values, minimum requirement of sampling, and limit of detection. Water quality compliance was divided according to health-related chemicals and indicators, and analyzed according to size. Samples from few individual locations were benchmarked against natural background levels (NBLs) in order to identify potential pollution sources. The results show that drinking compliance was 99.97% in health-related chemicals and 99.44% in indicator parameters indicating that Icelandic groundwater abstracted for drinking water supply is generally of high quality with no expected health risks. In 10 water supply systems, of the 74 tested, there was an indication of anthropogenic chemical pollution, either at the source or in the network, and in another 6 water supplies there was a need to improve the water intake to prevent surface water intrusion. Benchmarking against the NBLs proved to be useful in tracing potential pollution sources, providing a useful tool for identifying pollution at an early stage. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

A National survey of methyl tert-butyl ether and other volatile organic compounds in drinking-water sources: Results of the random source-water survey

USGS Publications Warehouse

Grady, Stephen J.

2002-01-01

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was detected in source water used by 8.7 percent of randomly selected community water systems (CWSs) in the United States at concentrations that ranged from 0.2 to 20 micrograms per liter (μg/L). The Random Survey conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and the Oregon Health & Science University, was designed to provide an assessment of the frequency of detection, concentration, and distribution of MTBE, three other ether gasoline oxygenates, and 62 other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ground- and surface-water sources used for drinking-water supplies. The Random Survey was the first of two components of a national assessment of the quality of source water supplying CWSs sponsored by the American Water Works Association Research Foundation. A total of 954 CWSs were selected for VOC sampling from the population of nearly 47,000 active, self-supplied CWSs in all 50 States, Native American Lands, and Puerto Rico based on a statistical design that stratified on CWS size (population served), type of source water (ground and surface water), and geographic distribution (State).At a reporting level of 0.2 μg/L, VOCs were detected in 27 percent of source-water samples collected from May 3, 1999 through October 23, 2000. Chloroform (in 13 percent of samples) was the most frequently detected of 42 VOCs present in the source-water samples, followed by MTBE. VOC concentrations were generally less than 10 μg/L 95 percent of the 530 detections and 63 percent were less than 1.0 μg/L. Concentrations of 1,1-dichloroethene, tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene, vinyl chloride, and total trihalomethanes (TTHMs), however, exceeded drinking-water regulations in eight samples.Detections of most VOCs were more frequent in surface-water sources than in ground-water sources, with gasoline compounds collectively and MTBE individually detected significantly more often in surface water. Use of personal and commercial motorized watercraft on surface-water bodies that are drinking-water sources is probably the reason for the elevated detections of gasoline contaminants relative to ground water. MTBE detections demonstrated a seasonal pattern with more frequent detections in surface water in summer months, which is consistent with seasonal watercraft use.The detection frequency of most VOCs was significantly related to urban land use and population density. Detections of any VOC, non-trihalo-methane compounds, gasoline compounds collectively, the specific gasoline compounds benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX), MTBE, solvents, and refrigerants were significantly greater in areas with more than 60 percent urban land use and (or) population density greater than 1,000 people per square mile than in source waters from less urbanized or lower population-density areas. MTBE detections were five times more frequent in source waters from areas with high MTBE use than in source waters from low or no MTBE use, but, unlike other gasoline compounds, MTBE detections were not significantly related to the density of gasoline storage tanks near drinking-water sources.

Cyanotoxins: characteristics, production and degradation routes in drinking water treatment with reference to the situation in Serbia.

PubMed

Pantelić, Dijana; Svirčev, Zorica; Simeunović, Jelica; Vidović, Milka; Trajković, Ivana

2013-04-01

Cyanobacteria are members of phytoplankton of the surface freshwaters. The accelerated eutrophication of freshwaters, especially reservoirs for drinking water, by human activity has increased the occurrence and intensity of cyanobacterial blooms. They are of concern due to their ability to produce taste and odors compounds, a wide range of toxins, which have a hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, cytotoxic and dermatotoxic behavior, being dangerous to animal and human health. Therefore, the removal of cyanobacteria, without cell lysis, and releasing of intracellular metabolites, would significantly reduce the concentration of these metabolites in the finished drinking water, as a specific aim of the water treatment processes. This review summarizes the existing data on characteristics of the cyanotoxins, their productions in environment and effective treatment processes to remove these toxins from drinking water. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessment of groundwater under direct influence of surface water.

PubMed

Nnadi, Fidelia N; Fulkerson, Mark

2002-08-01

Waterborne pathogens are known to reside in surface water systems throughout the U.S. Cryptosporidium outbreaks over recent years are the result of drinking water supplied from such sources. Contamination of aquifers has also led to several reported cases from drinking water wells. With high resistance to typical groundwater treatment procedures, aquifer infiltration by Cryptosporidium poses a serious threat. As groundwater wells are the main source of drinking water supply in the State of Florida, understanding factors that affect the presence of Cryptosporidium would prevent future outbreaks. This study examines karst geology, land use, and hydrogeology in the State of Florida as they influence the risk of groundwater contamination. Microscopic Particulate Analysis (MPA) sampling was performed on 719 wells distributed across Florida. The results of the sampling described each well as having high, moderate, or low risk to surface water influence. The results of this study indicated that the hydrogeology of an area tends to influence the MPA Risk Index (RI) of a well. Certain geologic formations were present for the majority of the high risk wells. Residential land use contained nearly half of the wells sampled. The results also suggested that areas more prone to sinkhole development are likely to contain wells with a positive RI.

Efficacy of water treatment processes and endemic gastrointestinal illness - A multi-city study in Sweden.

PubMed

Tornevi, Andreas; Simonsson, Magnus; Forsberg, Bertil; Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Toljander, Jonas

2016-10-01

Outbreaks of acute gastrointestinal illnesses (AGI) have been linked to insufficient drinking water treatment on numerous occasions in the industrialized world, but it is largely unknown to what extent public drinking water influences the endemic level of AGI. This paper aimed to examine endemic AGI and the relationship with pathogen elimination efficacy in public drinking water treatment processes. For this reason, time series data of all telephone calls to the Swedish National Healthcare Guide between November 2007 and February 2014 from twenty Swedish cities were obtained. Calls concerning vomiting, diarrhea or abdominal pain (AGI calls) were separated from other concerns (non-AGI calls). Information on which type of microbial barriers each drinking water treatment plant in these cities have been used were obtained, together with the barriers' theoretical pathogen log reduction efficacy. The total log reduction in the drinking water plants varied between 0.0 and 6.1 units for viruses, 0.0-14.6 units for bacteria and 0.0-7.3 units regarding protozoans. To achieve one general efficacy parameter for each plant, a weighted mean value of the log reductions (WLR) was calculated, with the weights based on how commonly these pathogen groups cause AGI. The WLR in the plants varied between 0.0 and 6.4 units. The effect of different pathogen elimination efficacy on levels of AGI calls relative non-AGI calls was evaluated in regression models, controlling for long term trends, population size, age distribution, and climatological area. Populations receiving drinking water produced with higher total log reduction was associated with a lower relative number of AGI calls. In overall, AGI calls decreased by 4% (OR = 0.96, CI: 0.96-0.97) for each unit increase in the WLR. The findings apply to both groundwater and surface water study sites, but are particularly evident among surface water sites during seasons when viruses are the main cause of AGI. This study proposes that the endemic level of gastroenteritis can indeed be reduced with more advanced treatment processes at many municipal drinking water treatment plants. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Survival, Biofilm Formation, and Growth Potential of Environmental and Enteric Escherichia coli Strains in Drinking Water Microcosms

PubMed Central

Abberton, Cathy L.; Bereschenko, Ludmila; van der Wielen, Paul W. J. J.

2016-01-01

ABSTRACT Escherichia coli is the most commonly used indicator for fecal contamination in drinking water distribution systems (WDS). The assumption is that E. coli bacteria are of enteric origin and cannot persist for long outside their host and therefore act as indicators of recent contamination events. This study investigates the fate of E. coli in drinking water, specifically addressing survival, biofilm formation under shear stress, and regrowth in a series of laboratory-controlled experiments. We show the extended persistence of three E. coli strains (two enteric isolates and one soil isolate) in sterile and nonsterile drinking water microcosms at 8 and 17°C, with T90 (time taken for a reduction in cell number of 1 log10 unit) values ranging from 17.4 ± 1.8 to 149 ± 67.7 days, using standard plate counts and a series of (reverse transcription-)quantitative PCR [(RT-)Q-PCR] assays targeting 16S rRNA, tuf, uidA, and rodA genes and transcripts. Furthermore, each strain was capable of attaching to a surface and replicating to form biofilm in the presence of nutrients under a range of shear stress values (0.6, 2.0, and 4.4 dynes [dyn] cm−2; BioFlux system; Fluxion); however, cell numbers did not increase when drinking water flowed over the biofilm (P > 0.05 by t test). Finally, E. coli regrowth within drinking water microcosms containing polyethylene PE-100 pipe wall material was not observed in the biofilm or water phase using a combination of culturing and Q-PCR methods for E. coli. The results of this work highlight that when E. coli enters drinking water it has the potential to survive and attach to surfaces but that regrowth within drinking water or biofilm is unlikely. IMPORTANCE The provision of clean, safe drinking water is fundamental to society. WDS deliver water to consumers via a vast network of pipes. E. coli is used as an indicator organism for recent contamination events based on the premise that it cannot survive for long outside its host. A key public health concern therefore arises around the fate of E. coli on entering a WDS; its survival, ability to form a biofilm, and potential for regrowth. In particular, if E. coli bacteria have the ability to incorporate and regrow within the pipe wall biofilm of a WDS, they could reinoculate the water at a later stage. This study sheds light on the fate of environmental and enteric strains of E. coli in drinking water showing extended survival, the potential for biofilm formation under shear stress, and importantly, that regrowth in the presence of an indigenous microbial community is unlikely. PMID:27342552

Survival, Biofilm Formation, and Growth Potential of Environmental and Enteric Escherichia coli Strains in Drinking Water Microcosms.

PubMed

Abberton, Cathy L; Bereschenko, Ludmila; van der Wielen, Paul W J J; Smith, Cindy J

2016-09-01

Escherichia coli is the most commonly used indicator for fecal contamination in drinking water distribution systems (WDS). The assumption is that E. coli bacteria are of enteric origin and cannot persist for long outside their host and therefore act as indicators of recent contamination events. This study investigates the fate of E. coli in drinking water, specifically addressing survival, biofilm formation under shear stress, and regrowth in a series of laboratory-controlled experiments. We show the extended persistence of three E. coli strains (two enteric isolates and one soil isolate) in sterile and nonsterile drinking water microcosms at 8 and 17°C, with T90 (time taken for a reduction in cell number of 1 log10 unit) values ranging from 17.4 ± 1.8 to 149 ± 67.7 days, using standard plate counts and a series of (reverse transcription-)quantitative PCR [(RT-)Q-PCR] assays targeting 16S rRNA, tuf, uidA, and rodA genes and transcripts. Furthermore, each strain was capable of attaching to a surface and replicating to form biofilm in the presence of nutrients under a range of shear stress values (0.6, 2.0, and 4.4 dynes [dyn] cm(-2); BioFlux system; Fluxion); however, cell numbers did not increase when drinking water flowed over the biofilm (P > 0.05 by t test). Finally, E. coli regrowth within drinking water microcosms containing polyethylene PE-100 pipe wall material was not observed in the biofilm or water phase using a combination of culturing and Q-PCR methods for E. coli The results of this work highlight that when E. coli enters drinking water it has the potential to survive and attach to surfaces but that regrowth within drinking water or biofilm is unlikely. The provision of clean, safe drinking water is fundamental to society. WDS deliver water to consumers via a vast network of pipes. E. coli is used as an indicator organism for recent contamination events based on the premise that it cannot survive for long outside its host. A key public health concern therefore arises around the fate of E. coli on entering a WDS; its survival, ability to form a biofilm, and potential for regrowth. In particular, if E. coli bacteria have the ability to incorporate and regrow within the pipe wall biofilm of a WDS, they could reinoculate the water at a later stage. This study sheds light on the fate of environmental and enteric strains of E. coli in drinking water showing extended survival, the potential for biofilm formation under shear stress, and importantly, that regrowth in the presence of an indigenous microbial community is unlikely. Copyright © 2016, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Comparison of two filtration-elution procedures to improve the standard methods ISO 10705-1 & 2 for bacteriophage detection in groundwater, surface water and finished water samples.

PubMed

Helmi, K; Jacob, P; Charni-Ben-Tabassi, N; Delabre, K; Arnal, C

2011-09-01

To select a reliable method for bacteriophage concentration prior detection by culture from surface water, groundwater and drinking water to enhance the sensitivity of the standard methods ISO 10705-1 & 2. Artificially contaminated (groundwater and drinking water) and naturally contaminated (surface water) 1-litre samples were processed for bacteriophages detection. The spiked samples were inoculated with about 150 PFU of F-specific RNA bacteriophages and somatic coliphages using wastewater. Bacteriophage detection in the water samples was achieved using the standard method without and with a concentration step (electropositive Anodisc membrane or a pretreated electronegative Micro Filtration membrane, MF). For artificially contaminated matrices (drinking and ground waters), recovery rates using the concentration step were superior to 70% whilst analyses without concentration step mainly led to false negative results. Besides, the MF membrane presented higher performances compared with the Anodisc membrane. The concentration of a large volume of water (up to one litre) on a filter membrane avoids false negative results obtained by direct analysis as it allows detecting low number of bacteriophages in water samples. The addition of concentration step before applying the standard method could be useful to enhance the reliability of bacteriophages monitoring in water samples as bio-indicators to highlight faecal pollution. © No claim to French Government works. Letters in Applied Microbiology © 2011 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

Communitywide cryptosporidiosis outbreak associated with a surface water-supplied municipal water system--Baker City, Oregon, 2013.

PubMed

DeSilva, M B; Schafer, S; Kendall Scott, M; Robinson, B; Hills, A; Buser, G L; Salis, K; Gargano, J; Yoder, J; Hill, V; Xiao, L; Roellig, D; Hedberg, K

2016-01-01

Cryptosporidium, a parasite known to cause large drinking and recreational water outbreaks, is tolerant of chlorine concentrations used for drinking water treatment. Human laboratory-based surveillance for enteric pathogens detected a cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Baker City, Oregon during July 2013 associated with municipal drinking water. Objectives of the investigation were to confirm the outbreak source and assess outbreak extent. The watershed was inspected and city water was tested for contamination. To determine the community attack rate, a standardized questionnaire was administered to randomly sampled households. Weighted attack rates and confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Water samples tested positive for Cryptosporidium species; a Cryptosporidium parvum subtype common in cattle was detected in human stool specimens. Cattle were observed grazing along watershed borders; cattle faeces were observed within watershed barriers. The city water treatment facility chlorinated, but did not filter, water. The community attack rate was 28·3% (95% CI 22·1-33·6), sickening an estimated 2780 persons. Watershed contamination by cattle probably caused this outbreak; water treatments effective against Cryptosporidium were not in place. This outbreak highlights vulnerability of drinking water systems to pathogen contamination and underscores the need for communities to invest in system improvements to maintain multiple barriers to drinking water contamination.

Decontamination of Drinking Water Infrastructure ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Technical Brief This study examines the effectiveness of decontaminating corroded iron and cement-mortar coupons that have been contaminated with spores of Bacillus atrophaeus subsp. globigii (B. globigii), which is often used as a surrogate for pathogenic B. anthracis (anthrax) in disinfection studies. Bacillus spores are persistent on common drinking water material surfaces like corroded iron, requiring physical or chemical methods to decontaminate the infrastructure. In the United States, free chlorine and monochloramine are the primary chemical disinfectants used by the drinking water industry to inactivate microorganisms. Flushing is also a common, easily implemented practice in drinking water distribution systems, although large volumes of contaminated water needing treatment could be generated. Identifying readily available alternative disinfectant formulations for infrastructure decontamination could give water utilities options for responding to specific types of contamination events. In addition to presenting data on flushing alone, which demonstrated the persistence of spores on water infrastructure in the absence of high levels of disinfectants, data on acidified nitrite, chlorine dioxide, free chlorine, monochloramine, ozone, peracetic acid, and followed by flushing are provided.

DEVELOPMENT OF A CT EQUATION TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION THE EFFECT OF LOT VARIABILITY ON THE INACTIVATION OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM OOCYSTS WITH OZONE

EPA Science Inventory

Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts are prevalent in surface water and ground water under the influence of surface water, and are difficult to inactivate using free chlorine, the most common disinfectant currently used for treating drinking water. In contrast, it has been shown...

Sensory aspects and water quality impacts of chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water in contact with HDPE and cPVC pipe.

PubMed

Heim, Timothy H; Dietrich, Andrea M

2007-02-01

Pipes constructed with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (cPVC) are commonly used in drinking water distribution systems and premise plumbing. In this comprehensive investigation, the effects on odor, organic chemical release, trihalomethane (THM) formation, free chlorine demand and monochloramine demand were determined for water exposed to HDPE and cPVC pipes. The study was conducted in accordance with the Utility Quick Test (UQT), a migration/leaching protocol for analysis of materials in contact with drinking water. The sensory panel consistently attributed a weak to moderate intensity of a "waxy/plastic/citrus" odor to the water from the HDPE pipes but not the cPVC-contacted water samples. The odor intensity generated by the HDPE pipe remained relatively constant for multiple water flushes, and the odor descriptors were affected by disinfectant type. Water samples stored in both types of pipe showed a significant increase in the leaching of organic compounds when compared to glass controls, with HDPE producing 0.14 microgTOC/cm(2) pipe surface, which was significantly greater than the TOC release from cPVC. Water stored in both types of pipe showed disinfectant demands of 0.1-0.9 microg disinfectant/cm(2) pipe surface, with HDPE exerting more demand than cPVC. No THMs were detected in chlorinated water exposed to the pipes. The results demonstrate the impact that synthetic plumbing materials can have on sensory and chemical water quality, as well as the significant variations in drinking water quality generated from different materials.

Modeling MIC copper release from drinking water pipes.

PubMed

Pizarro, Gonzalo E; Vargas, Ignacio T; Pastén, Pablo A; Calle, Gustavo R

2014-06-01

Copper is used for household drinking water distribution systems given its physical and chemical properties that make it resistant to corrosion. However, there is evidence that, under certain conditions, it can corrode and release unsafe concentrations of copper to the water. Research on drinking water copper pipes has developed conceptual models that include several physical-chemical mechanisms. Nevertheless, there is still a necessity for the development of mathematical models of this phenomenon, which consider the interaction among physical-chemical processes at different spatial scales. We developed a conceptual and a mathematical model that reproduces the main processes in copper release from copper pipes subject to stagnation and flow cycles, and corrosion is associated with biofilm growth on the surface of the pipes. We discuss the influence of the reactive surface and the copper release curves observed. The modeling and experimental observations indicated that after 10h stagnation, the main concentration of copper is located close to the surface of the pipe. This copper is associated with the reactive surface, which acts as a reservoir of labile copper. Thus, for pipes with the presence of biofilm the complexation of copper with the biomass and the hydrodynamics are the main mechanisms for copper release. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Seasonal Variation in Drinking and Domestic Water Sources and Quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria

PubMed Central

Kumpel, Emily; Cock-Esteb, Alicea; Duret, Michel; de Waal, Dominick; Khush, Ranjiv

2017-01-01

We compared dry and rainy season water sources and their quality in the urban region of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Representative sampling indicated that municipal water supplies represent < 1% of the water sources. Residents rely on privately constructed and maintained boreholes that are supplemented by commercially packaged bottled and sachet drinking water. Contamination by thermotolerant coliforms increased from 21% of drinking water sources in the dry season to 42% of drinking water sources in the rainy season (N = 356 and N = 397). The most significant increase was in sachet water, which showed the lowest frequencies of contamination in the dry season compared with other sources (15%, N = 186) but the highest frequencies during the rainy season (59%, N = 76). Only half as many respondents reported drinking sachet water in the rainy season as in the dry season. Respondents primarily used flush or pour-flush toilets connected to septic tanks (85%, N = 399). The remainder relied on pit latrines and hanging (pier) latrines that drained into surface waters. We found significant associations between fecal contamination in boreholes and the nearby presence of hanging latrines. Sanitary surveys of boreholes showed that more than half were well-constructed, and we did not identify associations between structural or site deficiencies and microbial water quality. The deterioration of drinking water quality during the rainy season is a serious public health risk for both untreated groundwater and commercially packaged water, highlighting a need to address gaps in monitoring and quality control. PMID:27821689

Fine-Scale Spatial Heterogeneity in the Distribution of Waterborne Protozoa in a Drinking Water Reservoir.

PubMed

Burnet, Jean-Baptiste; Ogorzaly, Leslie; Penny, Christian; Cauchie, Henry-Michel

2015-09-23

The occurrence of faecal pathogens in drinking water resources constitutes a threat to the supply of safe drinking water, even in industrialized nations. To efficiently assess and monitor the risk posed by these pathogens, sampling deserves careful design, based on preliminary knowledge on their distribution dynamics in water. For the protozoan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia, only little is known about their spatial distribution within drinking water supplies, especially at fine scale. Two-dimensional distribution maps were generated by sampling cross-sections at meter resolution in two different zones of a drinking water reservoir. Samples were analysed for protozoan pathogens as well as for E. coli, turbidity and physico-chemical parameters. Parasites displayed heterogeneous distribution patterns, as reflected by significant (oo)cyst density gradients along reservoir depth. Spatial correlations between parasites and E. coli were observed near the reservoir inlet but were absent in the downstream lacustrine zone. Measurements of surface and subsurface flow velocities suggest a role of local hydrodynamics on these spatial patterns. This fine-scale spatial study emphasizes the importance of sampling design (site, depth and position on the reservoir) for the acquisition of representative parasite data and for optimization of microbial risk assessment and monitoring. Such spatial information should prove useful to the modelling of pathogen transport dynamics in drinking water supplies.

Occurrence and distribution of methyl tert-butyl ether and other volatile organic compounds in drinking water in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States, 1993-98

USGS Publications Warehouse

Grady, S.J.; Casey, G.D.

2001-01-01

Data on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water supplied by 2,110 randomly selected community water systems (CWSs) in 12 Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States indicate 64 VOC analytes were detected at least once during 1993-98. Selection of the 2,110 CWSs inventoried for this study targeted 20 percent of the 10,479 active CWSs in the region and represented a random subset of the total distribution by State, source of water, and size of system. The data include 21,635 analyses of drinking water collected for compliance monitoring under the Safe Drinking Water Act; the data mostly represent finished drinking water collected at the pointof- entry to, or at more distal locations within, each CWS?s distribution system following any watertreatment processes. VOC detections were more common in drinking water supplied by large systems (serving more than 3,300 people) that tap surface-water sources or both surface- and groundwater sources than in small systems supplied exclusively by ground-water sources. Trihalomethane (THM) compounds, which are potentially formed during the process of disinfecting drinking water with chlorine, were detected in 45 percent of the randomly selected CWSs. Chloroform was the most frequently detected THM, reported in 39 percent of the CWSs. The gasoline additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was the most frequently detected VOC in drinking water after the THMs. MTBE was detected in 8.9 percent of the 1,194 randomly selected CWSs that analyzed samples for MTBE at any reporting level, and it was detected in 7.8 percent of the 1,074 CWSs that provided MTBE data at the 1.0-?g/L (microgram per liter) reporting level. As with other VOCs reported in drinking water, most MTBE concentrations were less than 5.0 ?g/L, and less than 1 percent of CWSs reported MTBE concentrations at or above the 20.0-?g/L lower limit recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency?s Drinking-Water Advisory. The frequency of MTBE detections in drinking water is significantly related to high- MTBE-use patterns. Detections are five times more likely in areas where MTBE is or has been used in gasoline at greater than 5 percent by volume as part of the oxygenated or reformulated (OXY/RFG) fuels program. Detection frequencies of the individual gasoline compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX)) were mostly less than 3 percent of the randomly selected CWSs, but collectively, BTEX compounds were detected in 8.4 percent of CWSs. BTEX concentrations also were low and just three drinkingwater samples contained BTEX at concentrations exceeding 20 ?g/L. Co-occurrence of MTBE and BTEX was rare, and only 0.8 percent of CWSs reported simultaneous detections of MTBE and BTEX compounds. Low concentrations and cooccurrence of MTBE and BTEX indicate most gasoline contaminants in drinking water probably represent nonpoint sources. Solvents were frequently detected in drinking water in the 12-State area. One or more of 27 individual solvent VOCs were detected at any reporting level in 3,080 drinking-water samples from 304 randomly selected CWSs (14 percent) and in 206 CWSs (9.8 percent) at concentrations at or above 1.0 ?g/L. High co-occurrence among solvents probably reflects common sources and the presence of transformation by-products. Other VOCs were relatively rarely detected in drinking water in the 12-State area. Six percent (127) of the 2,110 randomly selected CWSs reported concentrations of 16 VOCs at or above drinking-water criteria. The 127 CWSs collectively serve 2.6 million people. The occurrence of VOCs in drinking water was significantly associated (p<0.0001) with high population- density urban areas. New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, States with substantial urbanization and high population density, had the highest frequency of VOC detections among the 12 States. More than two-thirds of the randomly selected CWSs in New Jersey reported detecting VOC concentrations in drinking water at or above 1

Pesticides in Surface Drinking-Water Supplies of the Northern Great Plains

PubMed Central

Donald, David B.; Cessna, Allan J.; Sverko, Ed; Glozier, Nancy E.

2007-01-01

Background Human health anomalies have been associated with pesticide exposure for people living in rural landscapes in the northern Great Plains of North America. Objective The objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of 45 pesticides in drinking water from reservoirs in this area that received water primarily from snowmelt and rainfall runoff from agricultural crop lands. Methods Water from 15 reservoirs was sampled frequently during the spring pesticide application period (early May to mid-August) and less frequently for the remainder of the year. Drinking water was sampled in early July. Sample extracts were analyzed for pesticide content using mass spectrometric detection. Results We detected two insecticides and 27 herbicides in reservoir water. Consistent detection of a subset of 7 herbicides suggested that atmospheric deposition, either directly or in rain, was the principal pathway from fields to the reservoirs. However, the highest concentrations and number of herbicides in drinking water were associated with runoff from a localized 133-mm rainfall over 15 days toward the end of spring herbicide application. Water treatment removed from 14 to 86% of individual herbicides. Drinking water contained 3–15 herbicides (average, 6.4). Conclusions We estimated the mean annual calculated concentration of herbicides in drinking water to be 75 ng/L (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid, 31 ng/L (2-chloro-4-methylphenoxy)acetic acid, 24 ng/L clopyralid, 11 ng/L dichlorprop, 4 ng/L dicamba, 3 ng/L mecoprop, and 1 ng/L bro-moxynil. The maximum total concentration of herbicides in drinking water was 2,423 ng/L. For the seven herbicides with established drinking water guidelines, all concentrations of the individual chemicals were well below their respective guideline. However, guidelines have not been established for the majority of the herbicides found in drinking water or for mixtures of pesticides. PMID:17687445

40 CFR 141.72 - Disinfection.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Filtration and Disinfection § 141.72 Disinfection. A public water... the direct influence of surface water and provides filtration treatment must provide disinfection...) Disinfection requirements for public water systems which provide filtration. Each public water system that...

Are luminescent bacteria suitable for online detection and monitoring of toxic compounds in drinking water and its sources?

PubMed

Woutersen, Marjolijn; Belkin, Shimshon; Brouwer, Bram; van Wezel, Annemarie P; Heringa, Minne B

2011-05-01

Biosensors based on luminescent bacteria may be valuable tools to monitor the chemical quality and safety of surface and drinking water. In this review, an overview is presented of the recombinant strains available that harbour the bacterial luciferase genes luxCDABE, and which may be used in an online biosensor for water quality monitoring. Many bacterial strains have been described for the detection of a broad range of toxicity parameters, including DNA damage, protein damage, membrane damage, oxidative stress, organic pollutants, and heavy metals. Most lux strains have sensitivities with detection limits ranging from milligrams per litre to micrograms per litre, usually with higher sensitivities in compound-specific strains. Although the sensitivity of lux strains can be enhanced by various molecular manipulations, most reported detection thresholds are still too high to detect levels of individual contaminants as they occur nowadays in European drinking waters. However, lux strains sensing specific toxic effects have the advantage of being able to respond to mixtures of contaminants inducing the same effect, and thus could be used as a sensor for the sum effect, including the effect of compounds that are as yet not identified by chemical analysis. An evaluation of the suitability of lux strains for monitoring surface and drinking water is therefore provided.

Environmental Assessment for the Construction of a Phase I Surface Deployment and Distribution Command Transportation Command Consolidation Facility and a Phase I & II Mobility Air Force Logistics Support Center

DTIC Science & Technology

2006-04-01

Interagency Working Group on Environmental Justice defines adverse as “having deleterious effects on human health or the environment that is significant...Drinking water for Scott AFB is provided by the Illinois-American Water Company and no potable water wells are located on the installation. As a result...Environment Scott Air Force Base, Illinois April 2006 Illinois-American Water Company uses the Mississippi River as its source of drinking water and

Irrigation water as a source of drinking water: is safe use possible?

PubMed

van der Hoek, W; Konradsen, F; Ensink, J H; Mudasser, M; Jensen, P K

2001-01-01

In arid and semi-arid countries there are often large areas where groundwater is brackish and where people have to obtain water from irrigation canals for all uses, including domestic ones. An alternative to drawing drinking water directly from irrigation canals or village water reservoirs is to use the water that has seeped from the irrigation canals and irrigated fields and that has formed a small layer of fresh water on top of the brackish groundwater. The objective of this study was to assess whether use of irrigation seepage water for drinking results in less diarrhoea than direct use of irrigation water and how irrigation water management would impact on health. The study was undertaken in an irrigated area in the southern Punjab, Pakistan. Over a one-year period, drinking water sources used and diarrhoea episodes were recorded each day for all individuals of 200 households in 10 villages. Separate surveys were undertaken to collect information on hygiene behaviour, sanitary facilities, and socio-economic status. Seepage water was of much better quality than surface water, but this did not translate into less diarrhoea. This could only be partially explained by the generally poor quality of water in the in-house storage vessels, reflecting considerable in-house contamination of drinking water. Risk factors for diarrhoea were absence of a water connection and water storage facility, lack of a toilet, low standard of hygiene, and low socio-economic status. The association between water quality and diarrhoea varied by the level of water availability and the presence or absence of a toilet. Among people having a high quantity of water available and a toilet, the incidence rate of diarrhoea was higher when surface water was used for drinking than when seepage water was used (relative risk 1.68; 95% CI 1.31-2.15). For people with less water available the direction of the association between water quality and diarrhoea was different (relative risk 0.80; 95% CI 0.69-0.93). This indicates that good quality drinking water provides additional health benefits only when sufficient quantities of water and a toilet are available. In a multivariate analysis no association was found between water quality and diarrhoea but there was a significant effect of water quantity on diarrhoea which was to a large extent mediated through sanitation and hygiene behaviour. Increasing the availability of water in the house by having a household connection and a storage facility is the most important factor associated with reduced diarrhoea in this area. Safe use of canal irrigation water seems possible if households can pump seepage water to a large storage tank in their house and have a continuous water supply for sanitation and hygiene. Irrigation water management clearly has an impact on health and bridging the gap between the irrigation and drinking water supply sectors could provide important health benefits by taking into account the domestic water availability when managing irrigation water.

Overview of environmental and hydrogeologic conditions at Fort Yukon, Alaska

USGS Publications Warehouse

Nakanishi, Allan S.; Dorava, Joseph M.

1994-01-01

The village of Fort Yukon along the Yukon River in east-central Alaska has long cold winters and short summers. The Federal Aviation Administration operates and supports some airport facilities in Fort Yukon and is evaluating the severity of environmental contamination and options for remediation of such contamination at their facilites. Fort Yukon is located on the flood plain of the Yukon River and obtains its drinking water from a shallow aquifer located in the thick alluvium underlying the village. Surface spills and disposal of hazardous materials combined with annual flooding of the Yukon River may affect the quality of the ground water. Alternative drinking-water sources are available from local surface-water bodies or from presently unidentified confined aquifers.

Biopolymer-reinforced synthetic granular nanocomposites for affordable point-of-use water purification.

PubMed

Sankar, Mohan Udhaya; Aigal, Sahaja; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen M; Chaudhary, Amrita; Anshup; Kumar, Avula Anil; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Pradeep, Thalappil

2013-05-21

Creation of affordable materials for constant release of silver ions in water is one of the most promising ways to provide microbially safe drinking water for all. Combining the capacity of diverse nanocomposites to scavenge toxic species such as arsenic, lead, and other contaminants along with the above capability can result in affordable, all-inclusive drinking water purifiers that can function without electricity. The critical problem in achieving this is the synthesis of stable materials that can release silver ions continuously in the presence of complex species usually present in drinking water that deposit and cause scaling on nanomaterial surfaces. Here we show that such constant release materials can be synthesized in a simple and effective fashion in water itself without the use of electrical power. The nanocomposite exhibits river sand-like properties, such as higher shear strength in loose and wet forms. These materials have been used to develop an affordable water purifier to deliver clean drinking water at US $2.5/y per family. The ability to prepare nanostructured compositions at near ambient temperature has wide relevance for adsorption-based water purification.

Biopolymer-reinforced synthetic granular nanocomposites for affordable point-of-use water purification

PubMed Central

Sankar, Mohan Udhaya; Aigal, Sahaja; Maliyekkal, Shihabudheen M.; Chaudhary, Amrita; Anshup; Kumar, Avula Anil; Chaudhari, Kamalesh; Pradeep, Thalappil

2013-01-01

Creation of affordable materials for constant release of silver ions in water is one of the most promising ways to provide microbially safe drinking water for all. Combining the capacity of diverse nanocomposites to scavenge toxic species such as arsenic, lead, and other contaminants along with the above capability can result in affordable, all-inclusive drinking water purifiers that can function without electricity. The critical problem in achieving this is the synthesis of stable materials that can release silver ions continuously in the presence of complex species usually present in drinking water that deposit and cause scaling on nanomaterial surfaces. Here we show that such constant release materials can be synthesized in a simple and effective fashion in water itself without the use of electrical power. The nanocomposite exhibits river sand-like properties, such as higher shear strength in loose and wet forms. These materials have been used to develop an affordable water purifier to deliver clean drinking water at US $2.5/y per family. The ability to prepare nanostructured compositions at near ambient temperature has wide relevance for adsorption-based water purification. PMID:23650396

Environmental Education: Where Does Your Water Come From?

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This document contains instructions for a taste test will illustrate the differences between groundwater and surface water, highlight some of the common contaminants in natural water and encourage student thought on the sources of drinking water.

Production of mycotoxins by filamentous fungi in untreated surface water.

PubMed

Oliveira, Beatriz R; Mata, Ana T; Ferreira, João P; Barreto Crespo, Maria T; Pereira, Vanessa J; Bronze, Maria R

2018-04-16

Several research studies reported that mycotoxins and other metabolites can be produced by fungi in certain matrices such as food. In recent years, attention has been drawn to the wide occurrence and identification of fungi in drinking water sources. Due to the large demand of water for drinking, watering, or food production purposes, it is imperative that further research is conducted to investigate if mycotoxins may be produced in water matrices. This paper describes the results obtained when a validated analytical method was applied to detect and quantify the presence of mycotoxins as a result of fungi inoculation and growth in untreated surface water. Aflatoxins B1 and B2, fumonisin B3, and ochratoxin A were detected at concentrations up to 35 ng/L. These results show that fungi can produce mycotoxins in water matrices in a non-negligible quantity and, as such, attention must be given to the presence of fungi in water.

U.S. drinking water challenges in the twenty-first century.

PubMed

Levin, Ronnie B; Epstein, Paul R; Ford, Tim E; Harrington, Winston; Olson, Erik; Reichard, Eric G

2002-02-01

The access of almost all 270 million U.S. residents to reliable, safe drinking water distinguishes the United States in the twentieth century from that of the nineteenth century. The United States is a relatively water-abundant country with moderate population growth; nonetheless, current trends are sufficient to strain water resources over time, especially on a regional basis. We have examined the areas of public water infrastructure, global climate effects, waterborne disease (including emerging and resurging pathogens), land use, groundwater, surface water, and the U.S. regulatory history and its horizon. These issues are integrally interrelated and cross all levels of public and private jurisdictions. We conclude that U.S. public drinking water supplies will face challenges in these areas in the next century and that solutions to at least some of them will require institutional changes.

U.S. drinking water challenges in the twenty-first century.

PubMed Central

Levin, Ronnie B; Epstein, Paul R; Ford, Tim E; Harrington, Winston; Olson, Erik; Reichard, Eric G

2002-01-01

The access of almost all 270 million U.S. residents to reliable, safe drinking water distinguishes the United States in the twentieth century from that of the nineteenth century. The United States is a relatively water-abundant country with moderate population growth; nonetheless, current trends are sufficient to strain water resources over time, especially on a regional basis. We have examined the areas of public water infrastructure, global climate effects, waterborne disease (including emerging and resurging pathogens), land use, groundwater, surface water, and the U.S. regulatory history and its horizon. These issues are integrally interrelated and cross all levels of public and private jurisdictions. We conclude that U.S. public drinking water supplies will face challenges in these areas in the next century and that solutions to at least some of them will require institutional changes. PMID:11834462

Spatial and temporal analogies in microbial communities in natural drinking water biofilms.

PubMed

Douterelo, I; Jackson, M; Solomon, C; Boxall, J

2017-03-01

Biofilms are ubiquitous throughout drinking water distribution systems (DWDS), playing central roles in system performance and delivery of safe clean drinking water. However, little is known about how the interaction of abiotic and biotic factors influence the microbial communities of these biofilms in real systems. Results are presented here from a one-year study using in situ sampling devices installed in two operational systems supplied with different source waters. Independently of the characteristics of the incoming water and marked differences in hydraulic conditions between sites and over time, a core bacterial community was observed in all samples suggesting that internal factors (autogenic) are central in shaping biofilm formation and composition. From this it is apparent that future research and management strategies need to consider the specific microorganisms found to be able to colonise pipe surfaces and form biofilms, such that it might be possible to exclude these and hence protect the supply of safe clean drinking water. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in drinking water of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany and new approach to assess drinking water contamination by shorter-chained C4-C7 PFCs.

PubMed

Wilhelm, Michael; Bergmann, Sabine; Dieter, Hermann H

2010-06-01

After detection of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in drinking water at concentrations up to 0.64 microg/l in Arnsberg, Sauerland, Germany, the German Drinking Water Commission (TWK) assessed perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in drinking water and set for the first time worldwide in June 2006 a health-based guide value for safe lifelong exposure at 0.3 microg/l (sum of PFOA and perfluorooctanesulfonate, PFOS). PFOA and PFOS can be effectively removed from drinking water by percolation over granular activated carbon. Additionally, recent EU-regulations require phasing out use of PFOS and ask to voluntarily reduce the one of PFOA. New and shorter-chained PFCs (C4-C7) and their mixtures are being introduced as replacements. We assume that some of these "new" compounds could be main contributors to total PFC levels in drinking water in future, especially since short-chained PFCs are difficult to remove from drinking water by common treatment techniques and also by filtration over activated carbon. The aims of the study were to summarize the data from the regularly measured PFC levels in drinking water and in the drinking water resources in North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) for the sampling period 2008-2009, to give an overview on the general approach to assess PFC mixtures and to assess short-chained PFCs by using toxicokinetic instead of (sub)chronic data. No general increase of substitutes for PFOS and PFOA in wastewater and surface water was detected. Present findings of short-chained PFC in drinking waters in NRW were due to extended analysis and caused by other impacts. Additionally, several PFC contamination incidents in drinking water resources (groundwater and rivers) have been reported in NRW. The new approach to assess short-chained PFCs is based on a ranking of their estimated half-lives for elimination from the human body. Accordingly, we consider the following provisional health-related indication values (HRIV) as safe in drinking water for lifelong exposure: perfluorobutanoate (PFBA) 7 microg/l, perfluoropentanoate (PFPA) 3 microg/l, perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA) 1 microg/l, perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA) 0.3 microg/l, perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS) 3 microg/l, perfluoropentanesulfonate (PFPS) 1 microg/l, perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) 0.3 microg/l and perfluoroheptanesulfonate (PFHpS) 0.3 microg/l. For all PFCs the long-term lowest maximal quality goal (general precautionary value, PVg) in drinking water is set to -0.1 microg/l.

Microbial analysis of in situ biofilm formation in drinking water distribution systems: implications for monitoring and control of drinking water quality.

PubMed

Douterelo, Isabel; Jackson, M; Solomon, C; Boxall, J

2016-04-01

Biofilm formation in drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) is influenced by the source water, the supply infrastructure and the operation of the system. A holistic approach was used to advance knowledge on the development of mixed species biofilms in situ, by using biofilm sampling devices installed in chlorinated networks. Key physico-chemical parameters and conventional microbial indicators for drinking water quality were analysed. Biofilm coverage on pipes was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The microbial community structure, bacteria and fungi, of water and biofilms was assessed using pyrosequencing. Conventional wisdom leads to an expectation for less microbial diversity in groundwater supplied systems. However, the analysis of bulk water showed higher microbial diversity in groundwater site samples compared with the surface water site. Conversely, higher diversity and richness were detected in biofilms from the surface water site. The average biofilm coverage was similar among sites. Disinfection residual and other key variables were similar between the two sites, other than nitrates, alkalinity and the hydraulic conditions which were extremely low at the groundwater site. Thus, the unexpected result of an exceptionally low diversity with few dominant genera (Pseudomonas and Basidiobolus) in groundwater biofilm samples, despite the more diverse community in the bulk water, is attributed to the low-flow hydraulic conditions. This finding evidences that the local environmental conditions are shaping biofilm formation, composition and amount, and hence managing these is critical for the best operation of DWDS to safeguard water quality.

Fluxes of 13 selected pharmaceuticals in the water cycle of Stockholm, Sweden.

PubMed

Wahlberg, C; Björlenius, B; Paxéus, N

2011-01-01

Mass flows of 13 pharmaceutical active ingredients (APIS) found in drinking water were studied in the water cycle of Stockholm. Data were collected by analyzing samples of surface water, raw water and drinking water as well as influents, effluents and sludges from waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) in Stockholm area. A mass balance was performed, based on sold amounts of pharmaceuticals and the measured concentrations in water and sludge. The selected APls were all present in WWTP effluents and the removal rates for many of them were poor. Mass balance calculations showed that the three studied WWTPs in Stockholm release considerable amounts of the selected APIs into the Baltic Sea while the portions ending up in WWTP sludge were significantly lower. The levels of APIs found in drinking water are low at present, but may increase in the future unless the releases from WWTPs in the catchment of Lake Mälären are mitigated.

Impacts of climate change on surface water quality in relation to drinking water production.

PubMed

Delpla, I; Jung, A-V; Baures, E; Clement, M; Thomas, O

2009-11-01

Besides climate change impacts on water availability and hydrological risks, the consequences on water quality is just beginning to be studied. This review aims at proposing a synthesis of the most recent existing interdisciplinary literature on the topic. After a short presentation about the role of the main factors (warming and consequences of extreme events) explaining climate change effects on water quality, the focus will be on two main points. First, the impacts on water quality of resources (rivers and lakes) modifying parameters values (physico-chemical parameters, micropollutants and biological parameters) are considered. Then, the expected impacts on drinking water production and quality of supplied water are discussed. The main conclusion which can be drawn is that a degradation trend of drinking water quality in the context of climate change leads to an increase of at risk situations related to potential health impact.

Artificial sweetener sucralose in U.S. drinking water systems.

PubMed

Mawhinney, Douglas B; Young, Robert B; Vanderford, Brett J; Borch, Thomas; Snyder, Shane A

2011-10-15

The artificial sweetener sucralose has recently been shown to be a widespread of contaminant of wastewater, surface water, and groundwater. In order to understand its occurrence in drinking water systems, water samples from 19 United States (U.S.) drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) serving more than 28 million people were analyzed for sucralose using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Sucralose was found to be present in source water of 15 out of 19 DWTPs (47-2900 ng/L), finished water of 13 out of 17 DWTPs (49-2400 ng/L) and distribution system water of 8 out of the 12 DWTPs (48-2400 ng/L) tested. Sucralose was only found to be present in source waters with known wastewater influence and/or recreational usage, and displayed low removal (12% average) in the DWTPs where finished water was sampled. Further, in the subset of DWTPs with distribution system water sampled, the compound was found to persist regardless of the presence of residual chlorine or chloramines. In order to understand intra-DWTP consistency, sucralose was monitored at one drinking water treatment plant over an 11 month period from March 2010 through January 2011, and averaged 440 ng/L in the source water and 350 ng/L in the finished water. The results of this study confirm that sucralose will function well as an indicator compound for anthropogenic influence on source, finished drinking and distribution system (i.e., tap) water, as well as an indicator compound for the presence of other recalcitrant compounds in finished drinking water in the U.S.

Impact of catchment geophysical characteristics and climate on the regional variability of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in surface water.

PubMed

Cool, Geneviève; Lebel, Alexandre; Sadiq, Rehan; Rodriguez, Manuel J

2014-08-15

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a recognized indicator of natural organic matter (NOM) in surface waters. The aim of this paper is twofold: to evaluate the impact of geophysical characteristics, climate and ecological zones on DOC concentrations in surface waters and, to develop a statistical model to estimate the regional variability of these concentrations. In this study, multilevel statistical analysis was used to achieve three specific objectives: (1) evaluate the influence of climate and geophysical characteristics on DOC concentrations in surface waters; (2) compare the influence of geophysical characteristics and ecological zones on DOC concentrations in surface waters; and (3) develop a model to estimate the most accurate DOC concentrations in surface waters. The case study involved 115 catchments from surface waters in the Province of Quebec, Canada. Results showed that mean temperatures recorded 60 days prior to sampling, total precipitation 10 days prior to sampling and percentages of wetlands, coniferous forests and mixed forests have a significant positive influence on DOC concentrations in surface waters. The catchment mean slope had a significant negative influence on DOC concentrations in surface waters. Water type (lake or river) and deciduous forest variables were not significant. The ecological zones had a significant influence on DOC concentrations. However, geophysical characteristics (wetlands, forests and slope) estimated DOC concentrations more accurately. A model describing the variability of DOC concentrations was developed and can be used, in future research, for estimating DBPs in drinking water as well evaluating the impact of climate change on the quality of surface waters and drinking water. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Environmental monitoring at Mound: 1986 report

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Carfagno, D.G.; Farmer, B.M.

1987-05-11

The local environment around Mound was monitored for tritium and plutonium-238. The results are reported for 1986. Environmental media analyzed included air, water, vegetation, foodstuffs, and sediment. The average concentrations of plutonium-238 and tritium were within the DOE interim air and water Derived Concentration Guides (DCG) for these radionuclides. The average incremental concentrations of plutonium-238 and tritium oxide in air measured at all offsite locations during 1986 were 0.03% and 0.01%, respectively, of the DOE DCGs for uncontrolled areas. The average incremental concentration of plutonium-238 measured at all locations in the Great Miami River during 1986 was 0.0005% of themore » DOE DCG. The average incremental concentration of tritium measured at all locations in the Great Miami River during 1986 was 0.005% of the DOE DCG. The average incremental concentrations of plutonium-238 found during 1986 in surface and area drinking water were less than 0.00006% of the DOE DCG. The average incremental concentration of tritium in surface water was less than 0.005% of the DOE DCG. All tritium in drinking water data is compared to the US EPA Drinking Water Standard. The average concentrations in local private and municipal drinking water systems were less than 25% and 1.5%, respectively. Although no DOE DCG is available for foodstuffs, the average concentrations are a small fraction of the water DCG (0.04%). The concentrations of sediment samples obtained at offsite surface water sampling locations were extremely low and therefore represent no adverse impact to the environment. The dose equivalent estimates for the average air, water, and foodstuff concentrations indicate that the levels are within 1% of the DOE standard of 100 mrem. None of these exceptions, however, had an adverse impact on the water quality of the Great Miami River or caused the river to exceed Ohio Stream Standards. 20 refs., 5 figs., 31 tabs.« less

Water resources of the Prairie Island Indian Reservation, Minnesota, 1994-97

USGS Publications Warehouse

Cowdery, Timothy K.

1999-01-01

The only surface-water constituents exceeding U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards was coliform or fecal streptococci bacteria, which was exceeded in all samples. Thirteen percent of ground-water samples exceeded the nitrate maximum contaminant level (MCL), but this is probably higher than the percentage of the aquifer exceeding the nitrate MCL because most of the wells sampled were shallow. Surface-water recharge to and ground-water discharge from the surficial aquifer influence the water quality in both the aquifer and the surrounding surface water. However, surface water probably influences ground-water quality more because of the greater amount of surface water flowing through the study area.

Presence of the β-triketone herbicide tefuryltrione in drinking water sources and its degradation product in drinking waters.

PubMed

Kamata, Motoyuki; Asami, Mari; Matsui, Yoshihiko

2017-07-01

Triketone herbicides are becoming popular because of their herbicidal activity against sulfonylurea-resistant weeds. Among these herbicides, tefuryltrione (TFT) is the first registered herbicide for rice farming, and recently its distribution has grown dramatically. In this study, we developed analytical methods for TFT and its degradation product 2-chloro-4-methylsulfonyl-3-[(tetrahydrofuran-2-yl-methoxy) methyl] benzoic acid (CMTBA). TFT was found frequently in surface waters in rice production areas at concentrations as high as 1.9 μg/L. The maximum observed concentration was lower than but close to 2 μg/L, which is the Japanese reference concentration of ambient water quality for pesticides. However, TFT was not found in any drinking waters even though the source waters were purified by conventional coagulation and filtration processes; this was due to chlorination, which transforms TFT to CMTBA. The conversion rate of TFT to CMBA on chlorination was almost 100%, and CMTBA was stable in the presence of chlorine. Moreover, CMTBA was found in drinking waters sampled from household water taps at a similar concentration to that of TFT in the source water of the water purification plant. Although the acceptable daily intake and the reference concentration of CMTBA are unknown, the highest concentration in drinking water exceeded 0.1 μg/L, which is the maximum allowable concentration for any individual pesticide and its relevant metabolites in the European Union Drinking Directive. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessing the suitability of stream water for five different uses and its aquatic environment.

PubMed

Fulazzaky, Mohamad Ali

2013-01-01

Surface water is one of the essential resources for supporting sustainable development. The suitability of such water for a given use depends both on the available quantity and tolerable quality. Temporary status for a surface water quality has been identified extensively. Still the suitability of the water for different purposes needs to be verified. This study proposes a water quality evaluation system to assess the aptitude of the Selangor River water for aquatic biota, drinking water production, leisure and aquatic sport, irrigation use, livestock watering, and aquaculture use. Aptitude of the water has been classified in many parts of the river segment as unsuitable for aquatic biota, drinking water production, leisure and aquatic sport as well as aquaculture use. The water quality aptitude classes of the stream water for nine locations along the river are evaluated to contribute to decision support system. The suitability of the water for five different uses and its aquatic ecosystem are verified.

Biofilm growth on polyvinylchloride surface incubated in suboptimal microbial warm water and effect of sanitizers on biofilm removal post biofilm formation

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

An in vitro experiment was conducted to understand the nature of biofilm growth on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) surface when exposed to sub optimal quality microbial water (> 4 log10 cfu/ml) obtained from poultry drinking water source mimicking water in waterlines during the first week of poultry broodi...

Drinking water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness in Atlanta, 1993-2004.

PubMed

Tinker, Sarah C; Moe, Christine L; Klein, Mitchel; Flanders, W Dana; Uber, Jim; Amirtharajah, Appiah; Singer, Philip; Tolbert, Paige E

2010-01-01

The extent to which drinking water turbidity measurements indicate the risk of gastrointestinal illness is not well understood. Despite major advances in drinking water treatment and delivery, infectious disease can still be transmitted through drinking water in the United States, and it is important to have reliable indicators of microbial water quality to inform public health decisions. The objective of our study was to assess the relationship between gastrointestinal illness, quantified through emergency department visits, and drinking water quality, quantified as raw water and filtered water turbidity measured at the treatment plant. We examined the relationship between turbidity levels of raw and filtered surface water measured at eight major drinking water treatment plants in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia, and over 240,000 emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness during 1993-2004 among the population served by these plants. We fit Poisson time-series statistical regression models that included turbidity in a 21-day distributed lag and that controlled for meteorological factors and long-term time trends. For filtered water turbidity, the results were consistent with no association with emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. We observed a modest association between raw water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. Our results suggest that source water quality may contribute modestly to endemic gastrointestinal illness in the study area. The association between turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness was only observed when raw water turbidity was considered; filtered water turbidity may not serve as a reliable indicator of modest pathogen risk at all treatment plants.

1,4-Dioxane drinking water occurrence data from the third unregulated contaminant monitoring rule.

PubMed

Adamson, David T; Piña, Elizabeth A; Cartwright, Abigail E; Rauch, Sharon R; Hunter Anderson, R; Mohr, Thomas; Connor, John A

2017-10-15

This study examined data collected from U.S. public drinking water supplies in support of the recently-completed third round of the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3) to better understand the nature and occurrence of 1,4-dioxane and the basis for establishing drinking water standards. The purpose was to evaluate whether the occurrence data for this emerging but federally-unregulated contaminant fit with common conceptual models, including its persistence and the importance of groundwater contamination for potential exposure. 1,4-Dioxane was detected in samples from 21% of 4864 PWSs, and was in exceedance of the health-based reference concentration (0.35μg/L) at 6.9% of these systems. In both measures, it ranked second among the 28 UCMR3 contaminants. Although much of the focus on 1,4-dioxane has been its role as a groundwater contaminant, the detection frequency for 1,4-dioxane in surface water was only marginally lower than in groundwater (by a factor of 1.25; p<0.0001). However, groundwater concentrations were higher than those in surface water (p<0.0001) and contributed to a higher frequency of exceeding the reference concentration (by a factor of 1.8, p<0.0001), indicating that surface water sources tend to be more dilute. Sampling from large systems increased the likelihood that 1,4-dioxane was detected by a factor of 2.18 times relative to small systems (p<0.0001). 1,4-Dioxane detections in drinking water were highly associated with detections of other chlorinated compounds particularly 1,1-dichlorethane (odds ratio=47; p<0.0001), which is associated with the release of 1,4-dioxane as a chlorinated solvent stabilizer. Based on aggregated nationwide data, 1,4-dioxane showed evidence of a decreasing trend in concentration and detection frequency over time. These data suggest that the loading to drinking water supplies may be decreasing. However, in the interim, some water supply systems may need to consider improving their treatment capabilities in response to further regulatory review of this compound. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

[Inactivation of Mycobacteria mucogenicum in drinking water: chlorine resistance and mechanism analysis].

PubMed

Zheng, Qi; Chen, Chao; Zhang, Xiao-Jian; Lu, Pin-Pin; Liu, Yuan-Yuan; Chen, Yu-Qiao

2013-02-01

In recent years, chlorine-resistant bacteria were detected in drinking water distribution systems which threatened the drinking water safety. Our group detected one strain named Mycobacteria mucogenicum from the drinking water distribution system of a city in south China. This paper studied chlorine resistance and mechanism of Mycobacteria mucogenicum. Inactivation experiments of one strain Mycobacteria mucogenicum were conducted with free chlorine, monochloramind and chlorine dioxide. The CT values of 99.9% inactivation by free chlorine, monochloramine and chlorine dioxide were detected as (76.25 +/- 47.55)mg.min.L-1, (1396 +/-382)mg.min.L-1, (13.5 +/- 4.9) mg.min L-1. Using transmission electronmicroscopy (TEM) observed the inactivation process of Mycobacteria mucogenicum. The bacteria surface hydrophobic of Mycobacteria mucogenicum was 37.2%. Mycobacteria mucogenicum has a higher hydrophobicity than other bacteria which prevented the diffusion of chlorine into cells. Mycobacteria mucogenicum is more resistant to chorine than other bacteria.

Impact of water-vending kiosks and hygiene education on household drinking water quality in rural Ghana.

PubMed

Opryszko, Melissa C; Guo, Yayi; MacDonald, Luke; MacDonald, Laura; Kiihl, Samara; Schwab, Kellogg J

2013-04-01

Innovative solutions are essential to improving global access to potable water for nearly 1 billion people. This study presents an independent investigation of one alternative by examining for-profit water-vending kiosks, WaterHealth Centers (WHCs), in rural Ghana to determine their association with household drinking water quality. WHCs' design includes surface water treatment using filtration and ultraviolet light disinfection along with community-based hygiene education. Analyses of water samples for Escherichia coli and household surveys from 49 households across five villages collected one time per year for 3 years indicate that households using WHCs had improved water quality compared with households using untreated surface water (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.21). However, only 38% of households used WHCs by the third year, and 60% of those households had E. coli in their water. Recontamination during water transport and storage is an obstacle to maintaining WHC-vended water quality.

Impact of Water-Vending Kiosks and Hygiene Education on Household Drinking Water Quality in Rural Ghana

PubMed Central

Opryszko, Melissa C.; Guo, Yayi; MacDonald, Luke; MacDonald, Laura; Kiihl, Samara; Schwab, Kellogg J.

2013-01-01

Innovative solutions are essential to improving global access to potable water for nearly 1 billion people. This study presents an independent investigation of one alternative by examining for-profit water-vending kiosks, WaterHealth Centers (WHCs), in rural Ghana to determine their association with household drinking water quality. WHCs' design includes surface water treatment using filtration and ultraviolet light disinfection along with community-based hygiene education. Analyses of water samples for Escherichia coli and household surveys from 49 households across five villages collected one time per year for 3 years indicate that households using WHCs had improved water quality compared with households using untreated surface water (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.21). However, only 38% of households used WHCs by the third year, and 60% of those households had E. coli in their water. Recontamination during water transport and storage is an obstacle to maintaining WHC-vended water quality. PMID:23382168

Strontium concentrations in corrosion products from residential drinking water distribution systems.

PubMed

Gerke, Tammie L; Little, Brenda J; Luxton, Todd P; Scheckel, Kirk G; Maynard, J Barry

2013-05-21

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) will require some U.S. drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) to monitor nonradioactive strontium (Sr(2+)) in drinking water in 2013. Iron corrosion products from four DWDS were examined to assess the potential for Sr(2+) binding and release. Average Sr(2+) concentrations in the outermost layer of the corrosion products ranged from 3 to 54 mg kg(-1) and the Sr(2+) drinking water concentrations were all ≤0.3 mg L(-1). Micro-X-ray adsorption near edge structure spectroscopy and linear combination fitting determined that Sr(2+) was principally associated with CaCO3. Sr(2+) was also detected as a surface complex associated with α-FeOOH. Iron particulates deposited on a filter inside a home had an average Sr(2+) concentration of 40.3 mg kg(-1) and the associated drinking water at a tap was 210 μg L(-1). The data suggest that elevated Sr(2+) concentrations may be associated with iron corrosion products that, if disturbed, could increase Sr(2+) concentrations above the 0.3 μg L(-1) US EPA reporting threshold. Disassociation of very small particulates could result in drinking water Sr(2+) concentrations that exceed the US EPA health reference limit (4.20 mg kg(-1) body weight).

Improved water resource management for a highly complex environment using three-dimensional groundwater modelling

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Moeck, Christian; Affolter, Annette; Radny, Dirk; Dressmann, Horst; Auckenthaler, Adrian; Huggenberger, Peter; Schirmer, Mario

2018-02-01

A three-dimensional groundwater model was used to improve water resource management for a study area in north-west Switzerland, where drinking-water production is close to former landfills and industrial areas. To avoid drinking-water contamination, artificial groundwater recharge with surface water is used to create a hydraulic barrier between the contaminated sites and drinking-water extraction wells. The model was used for simulating existing and proposed water management strategies as a tool to ensure the utmost security for drinking water. A systematic evaluation of the flow direction between existing observation points using a developed three-point estimation method for a large number of scenarios was carried out. It is demonstrated that systematically applying the developed methodology helps to identify vulnerable locations which are sensitive to changing boundary conditions such as those arising from changes to artificial groundwater recharge rates. At these locations, additional investigations and protection are required. The presented integrated approach, using the groundwater flow direction between observation points, can be easily transferred to a variety of hydrological settings to systematically evaluate groundwater modelling scenarios.

40 CFR 142.80 - Review procedures.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

....80 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTATION Administrator's Review of State Decisions that... determine, in accordance with § 141.71 of this chapter, if public water systems using surface water sources...

40 CFR 142.80 - Review procedures.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

....80 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTATION Administrator's Review of State Decisions that... determine, in accordance with § 141.71 of this chapter, if public water systems using surface water sources...

40 CFR 142.80 - Review procedures.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

....80 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTATION Administrator's Review of State Decisions that... determine, in accordance with § 141.71 of this chapter, if public water systems using surface water sources...

40 CFR 142.80 - Review procedures.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

....80 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS IMPLEMENTATION Administrator's Review of State Decisions that... determine, in accordance with § 141.71 of this chapter, if public water systems using surface water sources...

[The hygienic situation of the central drinking water supply in the former East Germany--an evaluation of the annual reports on water hygiene from 1984 to 1989].

PubMed

Schlosser, F U; Schulze, E

1991-12-01

In the former GDR an annual report on the situation in the field of communal hygiene had to be elaborated and submitted to the minister of public health. One part of this was the report on the hygienic situation in water supply, worked out by the Reference Laboratory for Water Hygiene in Bad Elster. After the political changes in autumn 1989 it became possible to analyse these reports as a whole. In this paper the reports from 1984 to 1989 are interpreted. The results of the laboratory measurements and field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorates are shown in 17 graphics and compared to the bacteriological and chemical limits in drinking water standards. Special issue is drawn on the estimation of the number of inhabitants concerned by reduced drinking-water quality or any hazardous situations. The special problems of the different districts are compared in some graphics. The hygienic safety of the central drinking-water supply units is assessed basing on the results of the field controls by the State Sanitary Inspectorate. The Sanitation of the central drinking-water supply facilities in the new federal countries of the FRG is connected with the solution of a variety of technological problems, particularly the improvement of the water treatment techniques and the restoration of the pipe systems. The use of surface waters from extremely polluted rivers generates a high hygienic risk and requires the sanitation of the rivers. The high number of existing protection zones in the catchment areas for drinking-water is a valuable precondition to ensure the hygienic safety of the drinking-water supply in the new federal countries.

Effect of soft drinks on the release of calcium from enamel surfaces.

PubMed

Rirattanapong, Praphasri; Vongsavan, Kadkao; Surarit, Rudee

2013-09-01

Continuous consumption of soft drinks is the main cause of potential oral health problems, including dental caries and erosion. The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of three different types of soft drinks on the release of calcium from the enamel surface of teeth. Forty bovine teeth were selected for the experiment. They were divided into four groups (n=10/group): Group 1 (Coke), Group 2 (Pepsi), Group 3 (Sprite), and Group 4 (distilled water, the control). The pH of each beverage was measured using a pH meter. The release of calcium ions was measured using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer at baseline, 15, 30, and 60 minutes. The results were assessed by analysis of variance and then by the Tukey test (p< 0.05). Coke, with a pH of 2.39, was the most acidic among the soft drinks. Coke, Pepsi, and Sprite showed no significant mean differences in the calcium released, but there was a significant mean difference of these soft drinks with distilled water at 60 minutes. We concluded that prolonged exposure to soft drinks could lead to significant enamel loss.

Comparison of ubiquitous antibiotic-resistant Enterobacteriaceae populations isolated from wastewaters, surface waters and drinking waters.

PubMed

Figueira, Vânia; Serra, Elizabete A; Vaz-Moreira, Ivone; Brandão, Teresa R S; Manaia, Célia M

2012-03-01

This study aimed at assessing the role of ubiquitous (non-Escherichia coli) Enterobacteriaceae in the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance through the urban water cycle. Enterobacteriaceae isolated from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (111 isolates), urban water streams (33 isolates) and drinking water (123 isolates) were compared in terms of: (i) genera distribution, (ii) resistance to 12 antibiotics, and (iii) class 1 and class 2 integrons. The predominant bacterial genera were the same in the different types of water, although with a distinct pattern of species. The most prevalent resistance phenotypes were observed for amoxicillin, ticarcillin, cephalothin and sulphamethoxazole (24-59% in the three types of water). No resistance against ceftazidime or meropenem was observed. Resistance to cephalothin, amoxicillin and sulphamethoxazole was significantly more prevalent in drinking water, water streams and wastewater, respectively, than in the other types of water. It was possible to recognize antibiotic-resistance associations, namely for the pairs streptomycin-tetracycline (positive) and ticarcillin-cephalotin (negative). Class 1 and/or class 2 integrons with similar gene cassettes were detected in the three types of water. This study demonstrated that Enterobacteriaceae are important vehicles of antibiotic resistance, namely in drinking water.

Determining the Most Efficient and Cost-Effective Pumping Schemes for Treating Contaminated Aquifers

DTIC Science & Technology

1993-08-01

of both surface water and groundwater, while some base-operated water-supply systems receive water from off-site municipal sources. To the extent...well field for municipal water supply, or a surface-water supply reservoir that is recharged by groundwater flow. As with plume stabilization, flow...waters is not addressed. In addition, the public rarely condones this method if the contaminated well supplies municipal or private drinking water. Natural

Method 1200: Analytical Protocol for Non-Typhoidal Salmonella in Drinking Water and Surface Water

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Method 1200 is used for identification, confirmation and quantitation of non-typhoidal Salmonella in water samples, using selective and non-selective media followed by biochemical and serological confirmation.

Quality characterization and pollution source identification of surface water using multivariate statistical techniques, Nalagarh Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Herojeet, Rajkumar; Rishi, Madhuri S.; Lata, Renu; Dolma, Konchok

2017-09-01

Sirsa River flows through the central part of the Nalagarh valley, belongs to the rapid industrial belt of Baddi, Barotiwala and Nalagarh (BBN). The appraisal of surface water quality to ascertain its utility in such ecologically sensitive areas is need of the hour. The present study envisages the application of multivariate analysis, water utility class and conventional graphical representation to reveal the hidden factor responsible for deterioration of water quality and determine the hydrochemical facies and its evolution processes of water types in Nalagarh valley, India. The quality assessment is made by estimating pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, major ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3 -, Cl-, SO4 2-, NO3 - and PO4 3-), dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD) and total coliform (TC) to determine its suitability for drinking and domestic purposes. The parameters like pH, TDS, TH, Ca2+, HCO3 -, Cl-, SO4 2-, NO3 - are within the desirable limit as per Bureau of Indian Standards (Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification (Second Edition) IS:10500. Indian Standard Institute, New Delhi, pp 1-18, 2012). Mg2+, Na+ and K+ ions for pre monsoon and EC during pre and post monsoon at few sites and approx 40% samples of BOD and TC for both seasons exceeds the permissible limits indicate organic contamination from human activities. Water quality classification for designated use indicates that maximum surface water samples are not suitable for drinking water source without conventional treatment. The result of piper trillinear and Chadha's diagram classified majority of surface water samples for both seasons fall in the fields of Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3 - water type indicating temporary hardness. PCA and CA reveal that the surface water chemistry is influenced by natural factors such as weathering of minerals, ion exchange processes and anthropogenic factors. Thus, the present paper illustrates the importance of multivariate techniques for reliable quality characterization of surface water quality to develop effective pollution reduction strategies and maintain a fine balance between the industrialization and ecological integrity.

Seasonal Variation in Drinking and Domestic Water Sources and Quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

PubMed

Kumpel, Emily; Cock-Esteb, Alicea; Duret, Michel; de Waal, Dominick; Khush, Ranjiv

2017-02-08

We compared dry and rainy season water sources and their quality in the urban region of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Representative sampling indicated that municipal water supplies represent < 1% of the water sources. Residents rely on privately constructed and maintained boreholes that are supplemented by commercially packaged bottled and sachet drinking water. Contamination by thermotolerant coliforms increased from 21% of drinking water sources in the dry season to 42% of drinking water sources in the rainy season ( N = 356 and N = 397). The most significant increase was in sachet water, which showed the lowest frequencies of contamination in the dry season compared with other sources (15%, N = 186) but the highest frequencies during the rainy season (59%, N = 76). Only half as many respondents reported drinking sachet water in the rainy season as in the dry season. Respondents primarily used flush or pour-flush toilets connected to septic tanks (85%, N = 399). The remainder relied on pit latrines and hanging (pier) latrines that drained into surface waters. We found significant associations between fecal contamination in boreholes and the nearby presence of hanging latrines. Sanitary surveys of boreholes showed that more than half were well-constructed, and we did not identify associations between structural or site deficiencies and microbial water quality. The deterioration of drinking water quality during the rainy season is a serious public health risk for both untreated groundwater and commercially packaged water, highlighting a need to address gaps in monitoring and quality control. © The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Development of electrospun nanofiber composites for pointof-use water treatment

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Peter, Katherine T.

A range of chemical pollutants now contaminate drinking water sources and present a public health concern, including organic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides, and both metalloids and heavy metals, such as arsenic and lead. Metalloids and heavy metals have been detected in private drinking water wells, which do not fall under federal drinking water regulations, as well as in urban tap water, due to the introduction of contamination to the drinking water distribution system. Further, many so-called "emerging organic contaminants," which are present in drinking water sources at detectable levels but have unknown long-term health implications, do not fall under federal drinking water regulations. To protect the health of consumers, drinking water treatment at the point-of-use (POU) (i.e., the tap) is essential. Next-generation POU treatment technologies must require minimal energy inputs, be simple enough to permit broad application among different users, and be easily adaptable for removal of a wide range of pollutants. Nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and iron oxide nanoparticles, are ideal candidates for next-generation drinking water treatment, as they exhibit unique, high reactivity and necessitate small treatment units. However, concerns regarding water pressure requirements and nanomaterial release into the treated supply limit their application in traditional reactor designs. To bridge the gap between potential and practical application of nanomaterials, this study utilizes electrospinning to fabricate composite nanofiber filters that effectively deploy nanomaterials in drinking water treatment. In electrospinning, a high voltage draws a polymer precursor solution (which can contain nanomaterial additives, in the case of nanocomposites) from a needle to deposit a non-woven nanofiber filter on a collector surface. Using electrospinning, we develop an optimized, macroporous carbon nanotube-carbon nanofiber composite that utilizes the sorption capacity of embedded carbon nanotubes, and achieves a key balance between material strength and reactivity towards organic pollutants. Additionally, via single-pot syntheses, we develop two optimized polymer-iron oxide composites for removal of heavy metal contamination by inclusion of iron oxide nanoparticles and either cationic or anionic surfactants in the electrospinning precursor solution. In hybrid materials that contain a well-retained quaternary ammonium surfactant (tetrabutylammonium bromide) and iron oxide nanoparticles, ion exchange sites and iron oxide sites are selective for chromate and arsenate removal, respectively. We demonstrated that a sulfonate surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate, acted as a removable porogen and an agent for surface segregation of iron oxide nanoparticles, thus enhancing composite performance for removal of lead, copper, and cadmium. Notably, nanoparticles embedded in composites exhibited comparable activity to freely dispersed nanoparticles. Collectively, the composites developed in this work represent a substantial advance towards the overlap of effective nanomaterial immobilization and utilization of nanomaterial reactivity. Outcomes of this work advance current knowledge of nanocomposite fabrication, and contribute to the responsible and effective deployment of nanomaterials in POU drinking water treatment.

Detection of zinc oxide and cerium dioxide nanoparticles during drinking water treatment by rapid single particle ICP-MS methods.

PubMed

Donovan, Ariel R; Adams, Craig D; Ma, Yinfa; Stephan, Chady; Eichholz, Todd; Shi, Honglan

2016-07-01

Nanoparticles (NPs) entering water systems are an emerging concern as NPs are more frequently manufactured and used. Single particle inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS) methods were validated to detect Zn- and Ce-containing NPs in surface and drinking water using a short dwell time of 0.1 ms or lower, ensuring precision in single particle detection while eliminating the need for sample preparation. Using this technique, information regarding NP size, size distribution, particle concentration, and dissolved ion concentrations was obtained simultaneously. The fates of Zn- and Ce-NPs, including those found in river water and added engineered NPs, were evaluated by simulating a typical drinking water treatment process. Lime softening, alum coagulation, powdered activated carbon sorption, and disinfection by free chlorine were simulated sequentially using river water. Lime softening removed 38-53 % of Zn-containing and ZnO NPs and >99 % of Ce-containing and CeO2 NPs. Zn-containing and ZnO NP removal increased to 61-74 % and 77-79 % after alum coagulation and disinfection, respectively. Source and drinking water samples were collected from three large drinking water treatment facilities and analyzed for Zn- and Ce-containing NPs. Each facility had these types of NPs present. In all cases, particle concentrations were reduced by a minimum of 60 % and most were reduced by >95 % from source water to finished drinking water. This study concludes that uncoated ZnO and CeO2 NPs may be effectively removed by conventional drinking water treatments including lime softening and alum coagulation.

Fine-Scale Spatial Heterogeneity in the Distribution of Waterborne Protozoa in a Drinking Water Reservoir

PubMed Central

Burnet, Jean-Baptiste; Ogorzaly, Leslie; Penny, Christian; Cauchie, Henry-Michel

2015-01-01

Background: The occurrence of faecal pathogens in drinking water resources constitutes a threat to the supply of safe drinking water, even in industrialized nations. To efficiently assess and monitor the risk posed by these pathogens, sampling deserves careful design, based on preliminary knowledge on their distribution dynamics in water. For the protozoan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia, only little is known about their spatial distribution within drinking water supplies, especially at fine scale. Methods: Two-dimensional distribution maps were generated by sampling cross-sections at meter resolution in two different zones of a drinking water reservoir. Samples were analysed for protozoan pathogens as well as for E. coli, turbidity and physico-chemical parameters. Results: Parasites displayed heterogeneous distribution patterns, as reflected by significant (oo)cyst density gradients along reservoir depth. Spatial correlations between parasites and E. coli were observed near the reservoir inlet but were absent in the downstream lacustrine zone. Measurements of surface and subsurface flow velocities suggest a role of local hydrodynamics on these spatial patterns. Conclusion: This fine-scale spatial study emphasizes the importance of sampling design (site, depth and position on the reservoir) for the acquisition of representative parasite data and for optimization of microbial risk assessment and monitoring. Such spatial information should prove useful to the modelling of pathogen transport dynamics in drinking water supplies. PMID:26404350

Occurrence of viruses and protozoa in drinking water sources of Japan and their relationship to indicator microorganisms.

PubMed

Haramoto, Eiji; Kitajima, Masaaki; Kishida, Naohiro; Katayama, Hiroyuki; Asami, Mari; Akiba, Michihiro

2012-09-01

A nationwide survey of viruses, protozoa, and indicator microorganisms in drinking water sources of Japan was conducted. Among 64 surface water samples collected from 16 drinking water treatment plants, 51 (80 %) samples were positive for at least one of the 11 pathogen types tested, including noroviruses of genogroups I (positive rate, 13 %) and II (2 %), human sapoviruses (5 %), human adenoviruses of serotypes 40 and 41 (39 %), Cryptosporidium oocysts (41 %), and Giardia cysts (36 %). Total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and F-specific coliphages were detected in 63 (98 %), 33 (52 %), and 17 (27 %) samples, respectively, and E. coli was judged to be the most suitable indicator of pathogen contamination of drinking water sources. Genogroup-specific real-time PCR for F-specific coliphages revealed the presence of F-specific RNA coliphages of animal genogroup I and human genogroups II and III in 13 (41 %), 12 (39 %), and 1 (3 %), respectively, of 31 plaques isolated.

TOXINS FROM CYANOBACTERIA IN WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This project is part of a larger U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) effort, which includes the Office of Water, to investigate algal toxins in surface water supplies and drinking water. Toxins produced by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are among the most potent known ...

Assessment of microbial growth on the surface of materials in contact with water intended for human consumption using ATP method.

PubMed

Szczotko, Maciej; Krogulski, Adam

2010-01-01

Elaboration of an assessment method for plumbing materials contacting drinking water was the main purpose of this study. The investigation was conducted in 8 week cycles in dynamic conditions using a continuous flow reactor. Microbial growth was measured indirectly by a bioluminescence technique (ATP assay). Every week swabs from the surface of tested materials (polypropylene and different types of polyethylene), from the domestic market were collected and the level of bioluminescence was examined. The results obtained from the surface of tested materials were repeatable and clearly approximated those obtained from the surface of a negative control (stainless steel, low susceptibility for microbial growth). The level of bioluminescence (ATP) on the surface of positive control (paraffin, high susceptibility for microbial growth) was many times higher than that observed on other materials. The presented investigation was the main part of a validation process, which in short time will serve to initiate a complete assessment system for organic materials contacting drinking water.

Biodegradation of disinfection byproducts as a potential removal process during aquifer storage recovery

USGS Publications Warehouse

Landmeyer, J.E.; Bradley, P.M.; Thomas, J.M.

2000-01-01

The biodegradation potential of two drinking water disinfection byproducts was investigated using aquifer materials obtained from approximately 100 and 200 meters below land surface in an aerobic aquifer system undergoing aquifer storage recovery of treated surface water. No significant biodegradation of a model trihalomethane compound, chloroform, was observed in aquifer microcosms under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In contrast, between 16 and 27 percent mineralization of a radiolabeled model haloacetic acid compound, chloroacetic acid, was observed. These results indicate that although the potential for biodegradation of chloroacetic acid exists in deep aquifer systems, chloroform entrained within these aquifers or formed in situ will tend to persist. These results have important implications for water managers planning to meet anticipated lowered permissible levels of tri-halomethanes in drinking water.The biodegradation potential of two drinking water disinfection byproducts was investigated using aquifer materials obtained from approximately 100 and 200 meters below land surface in an aerobic aquifer system undergoing aquifer storage recovery of treated surface water. No significant biodegradation of a model trihalomethane compound, chloroform, was observed in aquifer microcosms under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In contrast, between 16 and 27 percent mineralization of a radiolabeled model haloacetic acid compound, chloroacetic acid, was observed. These results indicate that although the potential for biodegradation of chloroacetic acid exists in deep aquifer systems, chloroform entrained within these aquifers or formed in situ will tend to persist. These results have important implications for water managers planning to meet anticipated lowered permissible levels of trihalomethanes in drinking water.Aquifer-storage-recovery injection water often contains disinfection byproducts. Results are presented from a study in which two model disinfection byproducts, chloroform and chloroacetic acid, were used to examine biodegradation by indigenous microorganisms. The recharge system studied was near Las Vegas, NV, where the aquifers are recharged artificially during the winter months. Microcosms were constructed using aquifer material recovered from two layers. Results showed that no significant biodegradation of chloroform occurred under aerobic or anaerobic conditions, but chloroacetic acid was biodegraded under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Effect of PVC and iron materials on Mn(II) deposition in drinking water distribution systems.

PubMed

Cerrato, José M; Reyes, Lourdes P; Alvarado, Carmen N; Dietrich, Andrea M

2006-08-01

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and iron pipe materials differentially impacted manganese deposition within a drinking water distribution system that experiences black water problems because it receives soluble manganese from a surface water reservoir that undergoes biogeochemical cycling of manganese. The water quality study was conducted in a section of the distribution system of Tegucigalpa, Honduras and evaluated the influence of iron and PVC pipe materials on the concentrations of soluble and particulate iron and manganese, and determined the composition of scales formed on PVC and iron pipes. As expected, total Fe concentrations were highest in water from iron pipes. Water samples obtained from PVC pipes showed higher total Mn concentrations and more black color than that obtained from iron pipes. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that manganese was incorporated into the iron tubercles and thus not readily dislodged from the pipes by water flow. The PVC pipes contained a thin surface scale consisting of white and brown layers of different chemical composition; the brown layer was in contact with the water and contained 6% manganese by weight. Mn composed a greater percentage by weight of the PVC scale than the iron pipe scale; the PVC scale was easily dislodged by flowing water. This research demonstrates that interactions between water and the infrastructure used for its supply affect the quality of the final drinking water.

Enhancement of the natural organic matter removal from drinking water by nanofiltration.

PubMed

Matilainen, A; Liikanen, R; Nyström, M; Lindqvist, N; Tuhkanen, T

2004-03-01

Finnish surface waters are abundant in natural organic matter. Natural organic matter can be removed from drinking water in a water treatment process by coagulation and filtration. The standard treatment operations are not able to remove the smallest molar mass fraction of organic matter and the intermediate molar mass matter is only partly removed. The removal of residual natural organic matter from drinking water by nanofiltration was evalueted in this study. Three different nanofiltration membranes were compared in filtering six pre-treated surface waters. The total organic carbon content of the feed waters varied from 2.0 to 4.2 mg l(-1). Other water quality parameters measured were conductivity, alkalinity, hardness, UV-absorbance, SUVA, E2/E3 value and molecular size distribution by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography. The natural organic matter removal efficiencies of the membranes were good and varied between 100% and 49%, and between 85% and 47% according to molecular size distribution and total organic carbon measurements, respectively. Removal of different molecular size fractions varied from 100% to 56%, 100% to 54% and 88% to 19%, regarding high molar mass, intermediate molar mass and low molar mass organic matter, respectively. The Desal-5 DL membrane produced the highest natural organic matter removals.

40 CFR 141.13 - Maximum contaminant levels for turbidity.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... turbidity. 141.13 Section 141.13 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Maximum Contaminant Levels § 141.13... both community water systems and non-community water systems using surface water sources in whole or in...

40 CFR 141.13 - Maximum contaminant levels for turbidity.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... turbidity. 141.13 Section 141.13 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Maximum Contaminant Levels § 141.13... both community water systems and non-community water systems using surface water sources in whole or in...

40 CFR 141.13 - Maximum contaminant levels for turbidity.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... turbidity. 141.13 Section 141.13 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Maximum Contaminant Levels § 141.13... both community water systems and non-community water systems using surface water sources in whole or in...

40 CFR 141.13 - Maximum contaminant levels for turbidity.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... turbidity. 141.13 Section 141.13 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) WATER PROGRAMS (CONTINUED) NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Maximum Contaminant Levels § 141.13... both community water systems and non-community water systems using surface water sources in whole or in...

Transparent exopolymer particle removal in different drinking water production centers.

PubMed

Van Nevel, Sam; Hennebel, Tom; De Beuf, Kristof; Du Laing, Gijs; Verstraete, Willy; Boon, Nico

2012-07-01

Transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) have recently gained interest in relation to membrane fouling. These sticky, gel-like particles consist of acidic polysaccharides excreted by bacteria and algae. The concentrations, expressed as xanthan gum equivalents L⁻¹ (μg X(eq) L⁻¹), usually reach hundred up to thousands μg X(eq) L⁻¹ in natural waters. However, very few research was performed on the occurrence and fate of TEP in drinking water, this far. This study examined three different drinking water production centers, taking in effluent of a sewage treatment plant (STP), surface water and groundwater, respectively. Each treatment step was evaluated on TEP removal and on 13 other chemical and biological parameters. An assessment on TEP removal efficiency of a diverse range of water treatment methods and on correlations between TEP and other parameters was performed. Significant correlations between particulate TEP (>0.4 μm) and viable cell concentrations were found, as well as between colloidal TEP (0.05-0.4 μm) and total COD, TOC, total cell or viable cell concentrations. TEP concentrations were very dependent on the raw water source; no TEP was detected in groundwater but the STP effluent contained 1572 μg X(eq) L⁻¹ and the surface water 699 μg X(eq) L⁻¹. Over 94% of total TEP in both plants was colloidal TEP, a fraction neglected in nearly every other TEP study. The combination of coagulation and sand filtration was effective to decrease the TEP levels by 67%, while the combination of ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis provided a total TEP removal. Finally, in none of the installations TEP reached the final drinking water distribution system at significant concentrations. Overall, this study described the presence and removal of TEP in drinking water systems. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Determination of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and pesticides in surface and treated waters: method development and survey.

PubMed

Caldas, Sergiane Souza; Bolzan, Cátia Marian; Guilherme, Juliana Rocha; Silveira, Maria Angelis Kisner; Escarrone, Ana Laura Venquiaruti; Primel, Ednei Gilberto

2013-08-01

Water is fundamental to the existence of life since it is essential to a series of activities, such as agriculture, power generation, and public and industrial supplies. The residual water generated by these activities is released into the environment, reaches the water systems, and becomes a potential risk to nontarget organisms. This paper reports the development and validation of a quantitative method, based on solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, for the simultaneous analysis of 18 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and 33 pesticides in surface and drinking waters. The accuracy of the method was determined by calculating the recoveries, which ranged from 70 to 120 % for most pesticides and PPCPs, whereas limits of quantification ranged from 0.8 to 40 ng/L. After the validation step, the method was applied to drinking and surface waters. Pesticides and PPCPs were found in concentrations lower than 135.5 ng/L. The evaluation of different water sources with regard to contamination by pesticides and PPCPs has been quite poor in southern Brazil.

An SPR biosensor for the detection of microcystins in drinking water.

PubMed

Herranz, Sonia; Bocková, Markéta; Marazuela, María Dolores; Homola, Jiří; Moreno-Bondi, María Cruz

2010-11-01

A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor for the detection of microcystins (MCs) in drinking water has been developed. Several assay formats have been evaluated. The selected format is based on a competitive inhibition assay, in which microcystin-LR (MCLR) has been covalently immobilized onto the surface of an SPR chip functionalized with a self-assembled monolayer. The influence of several factors affecting sensor performance, such as the nature and concentration of the antibody, the composition of the carrier buffer, and the blocking and regeneration solutions, has been evaluated. The optimized SPR biosensor provides an IC(50) 0.67 ± 0.09 µg L(-1), a detection limit of 73 ± 8 ng L(-1), and a dynamic range from 0.2 to 2.0 µg L(-1) for MCLR. Cross-reactivity to other related MCs, such as microcystin-RR (88%) and microcystin-YR (94%), has also been measured. The SPR biosensor can perform four simultaneous determinations in 60 min, and each SPR chip can be reused for at least 40 assay-regeneration cycles without significant binding capacity loss. The biosensor has been successfully applied to the direct analysis of MCLR in drinking water samples, below the provisional guideline value of 1 µg L(-1) established by the World Health Organization for drinking water.

Probabilistic analysis of risks to US drinking water intakes from 1,4-dioxane in domestic wastewater treatment plant effluents.

PubMed

Simonich, Staci Massey; Sun, Ping; Casteel, Ken; Dyer, Scott; Wernery, Dave; Garber, Kevin; Carr, Gregory; Federle, Thomas

2013-10-01

The risks of 1,4-dioxane (dioxane) concentrations in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, receiving primarily domestic wastewater, to downstream drinking water intakes was estimated using distributions of measured dioxane concentrations in effluents from 40 WWTPs and surface water dilution factors of 1323 drinking water intakes across the United States. Effluent samples were spiked with a d8 -1,4-dioxane internal standard in the field immediately after sample collection. Dioxane was extracted with ENVI-CARB-Plus solid phase columns and analyzed by GC/MS/MS, with a limit of quantification of 0.30 μg/L. Measured dioxane concentrations in domestic wastewater effluents ranged from <0.30 to 3.30 μg/L, with a mean concentration of 1.11 ± 0.60 μg/L. Dilution of upstream inputs of effluent were estimated for US drinking water intakes using the iSTREEM model at mean flow conditions, assuming no in-stream loss of dioxane. Dilution factors ranged from 2.6 to 48 113, with a mean of 875. The distributions of dilution factors and dioxane concentration in effluent were then combined using Monte Carlo analysis to estimate dioxane concentrations at drinking water intakes. This analysis showed the probability was negligible (p = 0.0031) that dioxane inputs from upstream WWTPs could result in intake concentrations exceeding the USEPA drinking water advisory concentration of 0.35 μg/L, before any treatment of the water for drinking use. © 2013 SETAC.

Occurrence and fate of psychiatric pharmaceuticals in the urban water system of Shanghai, China.

PubMed

Wu, Minghong; Xiang, Jiajia; Que, Chenjing; Chen, Fenfen; Xu, Gang

2015-11-01

Psychiatric pharmaceuticals are the most prescribed active substances throughout the world and their presence in the environment raised concerns. The occurrence and fate of 15 selected psychiatric pharmaceuticals, including eight benzodiazepines, four antidepressants, one antiepileptic and two metabolites of benzodiazepines were investigated in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents and effluents, surface water, and final drinking water in Shanghai. Psychiatric pharmaceuticals were in WWTPs influents ranging from low ng L(-1) to 68.2 ng L(-1), dominated by carbamazepine, doxepin, diazepam and lorazepam. Target analytes were still detected in effluents from low ng L(-1) range to 47.3 ng L(-1), with carbamazepine, diazepam, and oxazepam as most prevalent. WWTPs were low effective (<50%) in removing most of them, excluding amitriptyline (mean 60%), doxepin (mean 70%), temazepam (mean 78%) and lorazepam (mean 93%). In addition, carbamazepine, diazepam, oxazepam and lorazepam were detected in low ng L(-1) to 75.5 ng L(-1) in the surface water of Huang Pu Rive. The pattern of contaminants in surface water is similar to the effluent wastewater, which suggested the main source of organic trace pollutants might be WWTPs. Furthermore, carbamazepine (0.8-2.5 ng L(-1)), diazepam (0.5-3.2 ng L(-1)) and alprazolam (2.3 ng L(-1)) were also detected in drinking water and the concentrations were below the health based precautionary value. The investigation was within the range of those results reported in other countries. Our results indicate ubiquity of the investigated compounds in the aquatic system. These pollutants may potentially reach drinking water via WWTP effluents and/or surface waters and require constant attention. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Safe drinking water and waterborne outbreaks.

PubMed

Moreira, N A; Bondelind, M

2017-02-01

The present work compiles a review on drinking waterborne outbreaks, with the perspective of production and distribution of microbiologically safe water, during 2000-2014. The outbreaks are categorised in raw water contamination, treatment deficiencies and distribution network failure. The main causes for contamination were: for groundwater, intrusion of animal faeces or wastewater due to heavy rain; in surface water, discharge of wastewater into the water source and increased turbidity and colour; at treatment plants, malfunctioning of the disinfection equipment; and for distribution systems, cross-connections, pipe breaks and wastewater intrusion into the network. Pathogens causing the largest number of affected consumers were Cryptosporidium, norovirus, Giardia, Campylobacter, and rotavirus. The largest number of different pathogens was found for the treatment works and the distribution network. The largest number of affected consumers with gastrointestinal illness was for contamination events from a surface water source, while the largest number of individual events occurred for the distribution network.

Impacts of Agriculture on Nitrates in Soil and Groundwater in the Southeastern Coastal Plain

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

Nitrogen (N) contamination of surface and groundwater is a health concern for both humans and animals. Excess N in surface water bodies may contribute to eutrophication. Elevated nitrate (NO3-N) concentrations in drinking water have caused infant death from the disease methemoglobinemia. Nitrates...

Hair and toenail arsenic concentrations of residents living in areas with high environmental arsenic concentrations.

PubMed Central

Hinwood, Andrea L; Sim, Malcolm R; Jolley, Damien; de Klerk, Nick; Bastone, Elisa B; Gerostamoulos, Jim; Drummer, Olaf H

2003-01-01

Surface soil and groundwater in Australia have been found to contain high concentrations of arsenic. The relative importance of long-term human exposure to these sources has not been established. Several studies have investigated long-term exposure to environmental arsenic concentrations using hair and toenails as the measure of exposure. Few have compared the difference in these measures of environmental sources of exposure. In this study we aimed to investigate risk factors for elevated hair and toenail arsenic concentrations in populations exposed to a range of environmental arsenic concentrations in both drinking water and soil as well as in a control population with low arsenic concentrations in both drinking water and soil. In this study, we recruited 153 participants from areas with elevated arsenic concentrations in drinking water and residential soil, as well as a control population with no anticipated arsenic exposures. The median drinking water arsenic concentrations in the exposed population were 43.8 micro g/L (range, 16.0-73 micro g/L) and median soil arsenic concentrations were 92.0 mg/kg (range, 9.1-9,900 mg/kg). In the control group, the median drinking water arsenic concentration was below the limit of detection, and the median soil arsenic concentration was 3.3 mg/kg. Participants were categorized based on household drinking water and residential soil arsenic concentrations. The geometric mean hair arsenic concentrations were 5.52 mg/kg for the drinking water exposure group and 3.31 mg/kg for the soil exposure group. The geometric mean toenail arsenic concentrations were 21.7 mg/kg for the drinking water exposure group and 32.1 mg/kg for the high-soil exposure group. Toenail arsenic concentrations were more strongly correlated with both drinking water and soil arsenic concentrations; however, there is a strong likelihood of significant external contamination. Measures of residential exposure were better predictors of hair and toenail arsenic concentrations than were local environmental concentrations. PMID:12573904

Evaluating nanoparticle breakthrough during drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Abbott Chalew, Talia E; Ajmani, Gaurav S; Huang, Haiou; Schwab, Kellogg J

2013-10-01

Use of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in consumer products is resulting in NPs in drinking water sources. Subsequent NP breakthrough into treated drinking water is a potential exposure route and human health threat. In this study we investigated the breakthrough of common NPs--silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO)--into finished drinking water following conventional and advanced treatment. NPs were spiked into five experimental waters: groundwater, surface water, synthetic freshwater, synthetic freshwater containing natural organic matter, and tertiary wastewater effluent. Bench-scale coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation simulated conventional treatment, and microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) simulated advanced treatment. We monitored breakthrough of NPs into treated water by turbidity removal and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Conventional treatment resulted in 2-20%, 3-8%, and 48-99% of Ag, TiO2, and ZnO NPs, respectively, or their dissolved ions remaining in finished water. Breakthrough following MF was 1-45% for Ag, 0-44% for TiO2, and 36-83% for ZnO. With UF, NP breakthrough was 0-2%, 0-4%, and 2-96% for Ag, TiO2, and ZnO, respectively. Variability was dependent on NP stability, with less breakthrough of aggregated NPs compared with stable NPs and dissolved NP ions. Although a majority of aggregated or stable NPs were removed by simulated conventional and advanced treatment, NP metals were detectable in finished water. As environmental NP concentrations increase, we need to consider NPs as emerging drinking water contaminants and determine appropriate drinking water treatment processes to fully remove NPs in order to reduce their potential harmful health outcomes.

ReachScan - an Exposure Assessment Model

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

ReachScan estimates surface water concentrations downstream from industrial sites to assess impacts on the aquatic environment and potential dose rates for humans exposed via ingestion of drinking water and fish.

DRINKING WATER TURBIDITY AND EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT VISITS FOR GASTROINTESTINAL ILLNESS IN ATLANTA, 1993 – 2004

PubMed Central

Tinker, Sarah C.; Moe, Christine L.; Klein, Mitchel; Flanders, W. Dana; Uber, Jim; Amirtharajah, Appiah; Singer, Philip; Tolbert, Paige E.

2013-01-01

Background The extent to which drinking water turbidity measurements indicate the risk of gastrointestinal illness is not well-understood. Despite major advances in drinking water treatment and delivery, infectious disease can still be transmitted through drinking water in the U.S., and it is important to have reliable indicators of microbial water quality to inform public health decisions. The objective of our study was to assess the relationship between gastrointestinal illness, quantified through emergency department visits, and drinking water quality, quantified as raw water and filtered water turbidity measured at the treatment plant. Methods We examined the relationship between turbidity levels of raw and filtered surface water measured at eight major drinking water treatment plants in the metropolitan area of Atlanta, Georgia, and over 240 000 emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness during 1993–2004 among the population served by these plants. We fit Poisson time-series statistical regression models that included turbidity in a 21-day distributed lag and that controlled for meteorological factors and long-term time trends. Results For filtered water turbidity, the results were consistent with no association with emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. We observed a modest association between raw water turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness. This association was not observed for all treatment plants in plant-specific analyses. Conclusions Our results suggest that source water quality may contribute modestly to endemic gastrointestinal illness in the study area. The association between turbidity and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness was only observed when raw water turbidity was considered; filtered water turbidity may not serve as a reliable indicator of modest pathogen risk at all treatment plants. PMID:18941478

Historical reconstruction of wastewater and land use impacts to groundwater used for public drinking water: exposure assessment using chemical data and GIS.

PubMed

Swartz, Christopher H; Rudel, Ruthann A; Kachajian, Jennifer R; Brody, Julia G

2003-09-01

Land use in geographic areas that replenish groundwater and surface water resources is increasingly recognized as an important factor affecting drinking water quality. Efforts to understand the implications for health, particularly outcomes with long latency or critical exposure windows, have been hampered by lack of historical exposure data for unregulated pollutants. This limitation has hindered studies of the possible links between breast cancer risk and drinking water impacted by endocrine disrupting compounds and mammary carcinogens, for example. This paper describes a methodology to assess potential historical exposure to a broad range of chemicals associated with wastewater and land use impacts to 132 groundwater wells and one surface water body supplying drinking water to 18 public distribution systems on Cape Cod, MA. We calculated annual measures of impact to each distribution system and used the measures as exposure estimates for the residential addresses of control women in the Cape Cod Breast Cancer and Environment Study (Cape Cod Study). Impact was assessed using (1) historical chemical measurements of nitrate at the water supply sources (performed as required by the Safe Water Drinking Act) and (2) a geographic information system analysis of land use within the zones of contribution (ZOCs) delineated for each well in a state-mandated wellhead protection program. The period for which these impact estimates were developed (1972-1995) was constrained by the availability of chemical measurements and land use data and consideration of time required for groundwater transport of contaminants to the water supply wells. Trends in these estimates for Cape Cod suggest increasing impact to drinking water quality for land use over the study period. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the effect on the distribution of controls' cumulative exposure estimates from (1) reducing the area of the ZOCs to reflect typical well operating conditions rather than extreme pumping conditions used for the regulatory ZOCs, (2) assuming residences received their drinking water entirely from the closest well or cluster of wells rather than a volume-weighted annual district-wide average, and (3) changing the travel time considered for contaminants to reach wells from land use sources. We found that the rank and distribution of controls' cumulative exposure estimates were affected most by the assumption concerning district mixing; in particular, assignment of exposure estimates based on impact values for the closest well(s) consistently produced a larger number of unexposed controls than when a district-wide average impact value was used. As expected, the results suggest that adequate characterization of water quality heterogeneity within water supplies is an important component of exposure assessment methodologies in health studies investigating impacted drinking water.

Water management for development of water quality in the Ruhr River basin.

PubMed

Klopp, R

2000-01-01

On the Ruhr, a small river running through hilly country and with a mean flow of 76 m3/s, 27 water works use the method of artificial groundwater recharge to produce 350 million m3 of drinking water annually. On the basis of a special act, the Ruhr River Association is responsible for water quality and water quantity management in the Ruhr basin. The present 94 municipal sewage treatment plants ensure that the raw water is sufficiently good to be turned into drinking water. In the Ruhr's lower reaches, where dry weather results in a 20% share of the entire water flow being treated wastewater, comparatively high concentration of substances of domestic or industrial origin are likely, including substances which municipal wastewater treatment measures cannot entirely remove. These substances include ammonium, coliform bacteria or pathogens, boron and organic trace substances. Although water treatment measures have greatly contributed to the considerable improvement of the Ruhr's water quality in the last few decades, it is desirable to continue to aim at a high standard of drinking water production technologies since the Ruhr is a surface water body influenced by anthropogenic factors. However, in the case of substances infiltrating into drinking water, legislation is required if a reduction of pollution appears to be necessary.

Monitoring algal blooms in drinking water reservoirs using the Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager

USGS Publications Warehouse

Keith, Darryl; Rover, Jennifer; Green, Jason; Zalewsky, Brian; Charpentier, Mike; Hursby, Glen; Bishop, Joseph

2018-01-01

In this study, we demonstrated that the Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) sensor is a powerful tool that can provide periodic and system-wide information on the condition of drinking water reservoirs. The OLI is a multispectral radiometer (30 m spatial resolution) that allows ecosystem observations at spatial and temporal scales that allow the environmental community and water managers another means to monitor changes in water quality not feasible with field-based monitoring. Using the provisional Land Surface Reflectance product and field-collected chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentrations from drinking water monitoring programs in North Carolina and Rhode Island, we compared five established approaches for estimating chl-aconcentrations using spectral data. We found that using the three band reflectance approach with a combination of OLI spectral bands 1, 3, and 5 produced the most promising results for accurately estimating chl-a concentrations in lakes (R2 value of 0.66; root mean square error value of 8.9 µg l−1). Using this model, we forecast the spatial and temporal variability of chl-a for Jordan Lake, a recreational and drinking water source in piedmont North Carolina and several small ponds that supply drinking water in southeastern Rhode Island.

Climate change influence on drinking water quality

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Kovacs, Melinda Haydee; Ristoiu, Dumitru; Voica, Cezara; Moldovan, Zaharie

2013-11-01

Although it are quite well known the possible effects of climate changes on surface waters availability and their hydrological risks, their consequences on drinking water quality is not well defined yet. Disinfection agents (as Cl2, O3, etc.) or multiple combinations of them for water treatment and disinfection purposes are applied by water treatment plants at worldwide level. Unfortunately, besides the benefits of these processes were also highlighted some undesirable effects such as formation of several disinfection by-products (DBPs) after reaction of disinfection agent with natural organic matter (NOM) from water body. DBPs formation in drinking water, suspected to posses adverse health effects to humans are strongly regulated in our days. Thus, throughout this study kinetics experiments both the main physicochemical factors that influencing the quality of drinking waters were evaluated as well how they act through possible warming or the consequences of extreme events. Increasing water temperatures with 1 - 5 °C above its normal value has showed that NOMs are presented in higher amount which led to the need for greater amount of disinfectant agent (5 - 15 %). Increasing the amount of disinfecting agent resulted in the formation of DBPs in significantly higher concentrations (between 5 - 30 %).

Detection of adenoviruses and rotaviruses in drinking water sources used in rural areas of Benin, West Africa.

PubMed

Verheyen, Jens; Timmen-Wego, Monika; Laudien, Rainer; Boussaad, Ibrahim; Sen, Sibel; Koc, Aynur; Uesbeck, Alexandra; Mazou, Farouk; Pfister, Herbert

2009-05-01

Diseases associated with viruses also found in environmental samples cause major health problems in developing countries. Little is known about the frequency and pattern of viral contamination of drinking water sources in these resource-poor settings. We established a method to analyze 10 liters of water from drinking water sources in a rural area of Benin for the presence of adenoviruses and rotaviruses. Overall, 541 samples from 287 drinking water sources were tested. A total of 12.9% of the sources were positive for adenoviruses and 2.1% of the sources were positive for rotaviruses at least once. Due to the temporary nature of viral contamination in drinking water sources, the probability of virus detection increased with the number of samples taken at one test site over time. No seasonal pattern for viral contaminations was found after samples obtained during the dry and wet seasons were compared. Overall, 3 of 15 surface water samples (20%) and 35 of 247 wells (14.2%) but also 2 of 25 pumps (8%) tested positive for adenoviruses or rotaviruses. The presence of latrines within a radius of 50 m in the vicinity of pumps or wells was identified as being a risk factor for virus detection. In summary, viral contamination was correlated with the presence of latrines in the vicinity of drinking water sources, indicating the importance of appropriate decision support systems in these socioeconomic prospering regions.

Towards spatially smart abatement of human pharmaceuticals in surface waters: Defining impact of sewage treatment plants on susceptible functions.

PubMed

Coppens, Lieke J C; van Gils, Jos A G; Ter Laak, Thomas L; Raterman, Bernard W; van Wezel, Annemarie P

2015-09-15

For human pharmaceuticals, sewage treatment plants (STPs) are a major point of entry to surface waters. The receiving waters provide vital functions. Modeling the impact of STPs on susceptible functions of the surface water system allows for a spatially smart implementation of abatement options at, or in the service area of, STPs. This study was performed on a nation-wide scale for the Netherlands. Point source emissions included were 345 Dutch STPs and nine rivers from neighboring countries. The Dutch surface waters were represented by 2511 surface water units. Modeling was performed for two extreme discharge conditions. Monitoring data of 7 locations along the rivers Rhine and Meuse fall mostly within the range of modeled concentrations. Half of the abstracted volumes of raw water for drinking water production, and a quarter of the Natura 2000 areas (European Union nature protection areas) hosted by the surface waters, are influenced by STPs at low discharge. The vast majority of the total impact of all Dutch STPs during both discharge conditions can be attributed to only 19% of the STPs with regard to the drinking water function, and to 39% of the STPs with regard to the Natura 2000 function. Attributing water treatment technologies to STPs as one of the possible measures to improve water quality and protect susceptible functions can be done in a spatially smart and cost-effective way, using consumption-based detailed hydrological and water quality modeling. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Occurrence of selected pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical compounds, and stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios, in a riverbank filtration study, Platte River, Nebraska, 2001 to 2003, Volume 1

USGS Publications Warehouse

Vogel, J.R.; Verstraeten, Ingrid M.; Coplen, T.B.; Furlong, E.T.; Meyer, M.T.; Barber, L.B.

2005-01-01

Although studied extensively in recent years in Europe, the occurrence of endocrine disrupters and other organic wastewater compounds in the environment in the United States is not well documented. To better understand the efficiency of riverbank filtration with respect to endocrine disrupting compounds and to evaluate the use of riverbank filtration as an effective means of drinking-water treatment, a study was conducted during 2001-2003 by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the City of Lincoln, at an established riverbank-filtration well field with horizontal collector wells and vertical wells. This study provides information that will be useful for (1) increased understanding of the processes and factors important in controlling the transport of endocrine disrupters, such as pesticides and pharmaceuticals during riverbank filtration, (2) better understanding of the physical and chemical processes that affect riverbank-filtration efficiency, and (3) managing the water resources of the eastern Platte River Basin. This report presents analytical methods and data collected during the study. Data are presented as generalized statistics and in figures showing temporal variations. Sites from which water-quality samples were collected for this study included wastewater sites (a cattle feedlot lagoon, a hog confinement lagoon, and wastewater-treatment plant effluent), surface-water sites (Platte River, Salt Creek, and Loup Power Canal), ground-water sites (one collector well and three vertical wells), and drinking-water sites (raw and finished). Field water-quality properties were measured in samples from these sites. Pharmaceutical compounds were detected often in the wastewater-treatment plant effluent. Surface and ground water showed low-level concentrations of pharmaceuticals. Finished drinking-water samples did not contain detectable concentrations of pharmaceuticals except for low levels of cotinine and caffeine. Antibiotics were found in some of the wastewater samples and twice in Salt Creek. Antibiotics were not detected in any samples from the Platte River or the well field. Surface-water samples were analyzed for total organic carbon and ground-water samples were analyzed for dissolved organic carbon. Samples from all sites were analyzed for major ions. Herbicides commonly detected in surface, ground, and drinking water included acetachlor, alachlor, atrazine, and metolachlor as well as degradates of these compounds. Most of the samples from wastewater sites were found to contain predominantly acetamide degradates. High concentrations of several organic wastewater indicator compounds were detected at the wastewater sites and in Salt Creek. Several organic wastewater indicator compounds were detected multiple times in samples from the Platte River. Bromoform, a by-product of disinfection in the treatment plant, was found in samples from the finished drinking water. Stable hydrogen isotope ratios show a range in seasonal variation of -73.6 per mill to -38.1 per mill relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) reference water and -69.2 per mill to -46.5 per mill for surface water and ground water, respectively. Oxygen isotope ratios for surface-water samples varied between -9.86 per mill and -5.05 per mill. Stable oxygen isotope ratios of ground waters varied between -9.62 per mill and -5.81 per mill.

Characterizing spatiotemporal variations of chromophoric dissolved organic matter in headwater catchment of a key drinking water source in China.

PubMed

Chen, Yihan; Yu, Kaifeng; Zhou, Yongqiang; Ren, Longfei; Kirumba, George; Zhang, Bo; He, Yiliang

2017-12-01

Natural surface drinking water sources with the increasing chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) have profound influences on the aquatic environment and drinking water safety. Here, this study investigated the spatiotemporal variations of CDOM in Fengshuba Reservoir and its catchments in China. Twenty-four surface water samples, 45 water samples (including surface water, middle water, and bottom water), and 15 pore water samples were collected from rivers, reservoir, and sediment of the reservoir, respectively. Then, three fluorescent components, namely two humic-like components (C1 and C2) and a tryptophan-like component (C3), were identified from the excitation-emission matrix coupled with parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC) for all samples. For spatial distributions, the levels of CDOM and two humic-like components in the reservoir were significantly lower than those in the upstream rivers (p < 0.01), indicating that the reservoir may act as a reactor to partly reduce the levels of exogenous input including CDOM and humic-like matters from the surrounding catchment. For temporal variations, the mean levels of CDOM and three fluorescent components did not significantly change in rivers, suggesting that perennial anthropic activity maybe an important factor impacting the concentration and composition of river CDOM but not the precipitation and runoff. However, these mean values of CDOM for the bulk waters of the reservoir changed markedly along with seasonal variations, indicating that the hydrological processes in the reservoir could control the quality and quantity of CDOM. The different correlations between the fluorescent components and primary water parameters in the river, reservoir, and pore water samples further suggest that the reservoir is an important factor regulating the migration and transformation of FDOM along with the variations of different environmental gradients.

BREATH MEASUREMENT AND MODELS TO ASSESS VOC DERMAL ABSORPTION IN WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Dermal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in water results from environmental contamination of surface, ground-, and drinking waters. This exposure occurs both in occupational and residential settings. Compartmental models incorporating body burden measurements have ...

Overview of environmental and hydrogeologic conditions at Saint Marys, Alaska

USGS Publications Warehouse

Nakanishi, Allan S.; Dorava, Joseph M.

1994-01-01

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) owns or operates airway support facilities near Saint Marys along the Yukon River in west-central Alaska. The FAA is evaluating the severity of environmental contamination and options for remediation of environmental contamination at their facilities. Saint Marys is on a flood plain near the continence of the Yukon and Andreafsky Rivers and has long cold winters and short summers. Residents obtain their drinking water from an infiltration gallery fed by a creek near the village. Surface spills and disposal of hazardous materials combined with potential flooding may affect the quality of the surface and ground water. Alternative drinking-water sources are available, but would likely cost more than existing supplies to develop.

Drinking water intake of grazing steers: the role of environmental factors controlling canopy wetness.

PubMed

Sun, L Z; Auerswald, K; Wenzel, R; Schnyder, H

2014-01-01

Cattle obtain water primarily from the moisture in their feed and from drinking water. On pasture, the moisture content of the diet is influenced by plant tissue water (internal water) and surface moisture (external water), which may include dew, guttation, and intercepted rain, that influence the drinking water requirement. This study investigated the relationship between daily drinking water intake (DWI, L/d) of steers on pasture (19 steers with mean initial BW of approximately 400 kg) and soil and weather factors that are known to affect plant water status (dry matter content) and surface moisture formation and persistence. Daily records of weather conditions and DWI were obtained during 2 grazing seasons with contrasting spring, summer, and autumn rainfall patterns. Plant available water in the soil (PAW, mm) was modeled from actual and potential evapotranspiration and the water-holding capacity of the soil. The DWI averaged over the herd varied among days from 0 to 29 L/d (grazing season mean 9.8 L/d). The DWI on both dry (<0.2 mm rainfall on the corresponding and previous days) and wet (>2 mm) days increased with increasing temperature (mean, maximum, and minimum), sunshine hours, and global radiation and decreasing relative humidity, and the slopes and coefficients of determination were generally greater for wet days. Wind reduced DWI on wet days but had no effect on dry days. The DWI was reduced by up to 4.4 L/d on wet days compared to dry days, but DWI did not correlate with rainfall amount. Increasing PAW decreased DWI by up to >10 L/d on both dry and wet days. These results are all consistent with environmental effects on the water status (dry matter content) of pasture vegetation and canopy surface moisture, the associated effects on grazing-related water intake, and the corresponding balancing changes of DWI. Using the observed relationships with environmental factors, we derived a new model predicting DWI for any soil moisture condition, for both wet and dry days, which included mean ambient temperature and relative humidity and explained virtually all variation of DWI that was not caused by the random scatter among individual animals.

Multi-Elements in Source Water (Drinking and Surface Water) within Five Cities from the Semi-Arid and Arid Region, NW China: Occurrence, Spatial Distribution and Risk Assessment

PubMed Central

Wu, Ting; Li, Xiaoping; Yang, Tao; Sun, Xuemeng; Cai, Yue; Ai, Yuwei; Zhao, Yanan; Liu, Dongying; Zhang, Xu; Li, Xiaoyun; Wang, Lijun; Yu, Hongtao

2017-01-01

The purpose of this study was to identify the concentration of multi-elements (MEs) in source water (surface and drinking water) and assess their quality for sustainability. A total of 161 water samples including 88 tap drinking waters (DW) and 73 surface waters (SW) were collected from five cities in Xi’an, Yan’an, Xining, Lanzhou, and Urumqi in northwestern China. Eighteen parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total organic carbon (TOC) total nitrogen (TN), chemical compositions of anions (F−, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, SO42−), cations (NH4+, K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+), and metals (lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu)) were analyzed in the first time at the five cities . The results showed that pH values and concentrations of Cl−, SO42−, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cd, Cr, Cu in DW were within the permissible limits of the Chinese Drinking Water Quality Criteria, whereas the concentrations of other ions (F−, NO3−, NH4+ and Pb) exceeded their permissible values. In terms of the SW, the concentrations of F−, Cl−, NO3−, SO42− were over the third range threshold i.e., water suitable for fishing and swimming of the Surface Water Quality Standards in China. The spatial distributions of most MEs in source water are similar, and there was no clear variation for all ions and metals. The metals in DW may be caused by water pipes, faucets and their fittings. The noncarcinogenic risk of metals in DW for local children are in decreasing order Cr > Cd > Pb > Cu. The carcinogenic risk from Cr exposure was at the acceptable level according to threshold of USEPA. Although the comprehensive index of potential ecological assessment of Cr, Cd, Pb and Cu in SW ranked at low risk level and was in the order of Huang River in Xining > Peaceful Canal in Urumqi > Yan River in Yan’an > Yellow River in Lanzhou, their adverse effects to ecology and human health at a low concentration in local semi-arid and arid areas should not be ignored in the long run. PMID:28974043

Multi-Elements in Source Water (Drinking and Surface Water) within Five Cities from the Semi-Arid and Arid Region, NW China: Occurrence, Spatial Distribution and Risk Assessment.

PubMed

Wu, Ting; Li, Xiaoping; Yang, Tao; Sun, Xuemeng; Mielke, Howard W; Cai, Yue; Ai, Yuwei; Zhao, Yanan; Liu, Dongying; Zhang, Xu; Li, Xiaoyun; Wang, Lijun; Yu, Hongtao

2017-10-02

The purpose of this study was to identify the concentration of multi-elements (MEs) in source water (surface and drinking water) and assess their quality for sustainability. A total of 161 water samples including 88 tap drinking waters (DW) and 73 surface waters (SW) were collected from five cities in Xi'an, Yan'an, Xining, Lanzhou, and Urumqi in northwestern China. Eighteen parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total organic carbon (TOC) total nitrogen (TN), chemical compositions of anions (F - , Cl - , NO₃ - ,HCO₃ - , SO₄ 2- ), cations (NH₄⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, Ca 2+ ,Mg 2+ ), and metals (lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu)) were analyzed in the first time at the five cities . The results showed that pH values and concentrations of Cl - , SO₄ 2- , Na⁺, K⁺, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ and Cd, Cr, Cu in DW were within the permissible limits of the Chinese Drinking Water Quality Criteria, whereas the concentrations of other ions (F - , NO₃ - , NH₄⁺ and Pb) exceeded their permissible values. In terms of the SW, the concentrations of F - , Cl - , NO₃ - , SO₄ 2- were over the third range threshold i.e., water suitable for fishing and swimming of the Surface Water Quality Standards in China. The spatial distributions of most MEs in source water are similar, and there was no clear variation for all ions and metals. The metals in DW may be caused by water pipes, faucets and their fittings. The noncarcinogenic risk of metals in DW for local children are in decreasing order Cr > Cd > Pb > Cu. The carcinogenic risk from Cr exposure was at the acceptable level according to threshold of USEPA. Although the comprehensive index of potential ecological assessment of Cr, Cd, Pb and Cu in SW ranked at low risk level and was in the order of Huang River in Xining > Peaceful Canal in Urumqi > Yan River in Yan'an > Yellow River in Lanzhou, their adverse effects to ecology and human health at a low concentration in local semi-arid and arid areas should not be ignored in the long run.

Assessment of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing for ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This assessment provides a review and synthesis of available scientific literature and data to assess the potential for hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas to impact the quality or quantity of drinking water resources, and identifies factors affecting the frequency or severity of any potential impacts. The scope of this assessment is defined by the hydraulic fracturing water cycle which includes five main activities: Water acquisition – the withdrawal of ground or surface water needed for hydraulic fracturing fluids;Chemical mixing – the mixing of water, chemicals, and proppant on the well pad to create the hydraulic fracturing fluid;Well injection – the injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids into the well to fracture the geologic formation; Flowback and Produced water – the return of injected fluid and water produced from the formation to the surface, and subsequent transport for reuse, treatment, or disposal; andWastewater treatment and waste disposal – the reuse, treatment and release, or disposal of wastewater generated at the well pad, including produced water. This report can be used by federal, tribal, state, and local officials; industry; and the public to better understand and address vulnerabilities of drinking water resources to hydraulic fracturing activities. To assess the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources, if any, and to identify the driving factors that may affect the severity and frequency of s

Oxidation of Cr(III)-Fe(III) Mixed-phase Hydroxides by Chlorine: Implications on the Control of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water.

PubMed

Chebeir, Michelle; Liu, Haizhou

2018-05-17

The occurrence of chromium (Cr) as an inorganic contaminant in drinking water is widely reported. One source of Cr is its accumulation in iron-containing corrosion scales of drinking water distribution systems as Cr(III)-Fe(III) hydroxide, i.e., FexCr(1-x)(OH)3(s), where x represents the Fe(III) molar content and typically varies between 0.25 and 0.75. This study investigated the kinetics of inadvertent hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) formation via the oxidation of FexCr(1-x)(OH)3(s) by chlorine as a residual disinfectant in drinking water, and examined the impacts of Fe(III) content and drinking water chemical parameters including pH, bromide and bicarbonate on the rate of Cr(VI) formation. Data showed that an increase in Fe(III) molar content resulted in a significant decrease in the stoichiometric Cr(VI) yield and the rate of Cr(VI) formation, mainly due to chlorine decay induced by Fe(III) surface sites. An increase in bicarbonate enhanced the rate of Cr(VI) formation, likely due to the formation of Fe(III)-carbonato surface complexes that slowed down the scavenging reaction with chlorine. The presence of bromide significantly accelerated the oxidation of FexCr(1-x)(OH)3(s) by chlorine, resulting from the catalytic effect of bromide acting as an electron shuttle. A higher solution pH between 6 and 8.5 slowed down the oxidation of Cr(III) by chlorine. These findings suggested that the oxidative conversion of chromium-containing iron corrosion products in drinking water distribution systems can lead to the occurrence of Cr(VI) at the tap, and the abundance of iron, and a careful control of pH, bicarbonate and bromide levels can assist the control of Cr(VI) formation.

Influence of hydraulic regimes on bacterial community structure and composition in an experimental drinking water distribution system.

PubMed

Douterelo, I; Sharpe, R L; Boxall, J B

2013-02-01

Microbial biofilms formed on the inner-pipe surfaces of drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) can alter drinking water quality, particularly if they are mechanically detached from the pipe wall to the bulk water, such as due to changes in hydraulic conditions. Results are presented here from applying 454 pyrosequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene to investigate the influence of different hydrological regimes on bacterial community structure and to study the potential mobilisation of material from the pipe walls to the network using a full scale, temperature-controlled experimental pipeline facility accurately representative of live DWDS. Analysis of pyrosequencing and water physico-chemical data showed that habitat type (water vs. biofilm) and hydraulic conditions influenced bacterial community structure and composition in our experimental DWDS. Bacterial community composition clearly differed between biofilms and bulk water samples. Gammaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria were the most abundant phyla in biofilms while Alphaproteobacteria was predominant in bulk water samples. This suggests that bacteria inhabiting biofilms, predominantly species belonging to genera Pseudomonas, Zooglea and Janthinobacterium, have an enhanced ability to express extracellular polymeric substances to adhere to surfaces and to favour co-aggregation between cells than those found in the bulk water. Highest species richness and diversity were detected in 28 days old biofilms with this being accentuated at highly varied flow conditions. Flushing altered the pipe-wall bacterial community structure but did not completely remove bacteria from the pipe walls, particularly under highly varied flow conditions, suggesting that under these conditions more compact biofilms were generated. This research brings new knowledge regarding the influence of different hydraulic regimes on the composition and structure of bacterial communities within DWDS and the implication that this might have on drinking water quality. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Bacteria associated with granular activated carbon particles in drinking water.

PubMed Central

Camper, A K; LeChevallier, M W; Broadaway, S C; McFeters, G A

1986-01-01

A sampling protocol was developed to examine particles released from granular activated carbon filter beds. A gauze filter/Swinnex procedure was used to collect carbon fines from 201 granular activated carbon-treated drinking water samples over 12 months. Application of a homogenization procedure (developed previously) indicated that 41.4% of the water samples had heterotrophic plate count bacteria attached to carbon particles. With the enumeration procedures described, heterotrophic plate count bacteria were recovered at an average rate of 8.6 times higher than by conventional analyses. Over 17% of the samples contained carbon particles colonized with coliform bacteria as enumerated with modified most-probable-number and membrane filter techniques. In some instances coliform recoveries were 122 to 1,194 times higher than by standard procedures. Nearly 28% of the coliforms attached to these particles in drinking water exhibited the fecal biotype. Scanning electron micrographs of carbon fines from treated drinking water showed microcolonies of bacteria on particle surfaces. These data indicate that bacteria attached to carbon fines may be an important mechanism by which microorganisms penetrate treatment barriers and enter potable water supplies. PMID:3767356

Kinetics and mechanism for degradation of dichlorvos by permanganate in drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Liu, Chao; Qiang, Zhimin; Adams, Craig; Tian, Fang; Zhang, Tao

2009-08-01

The degradation kinetics and mechanism of dichlorvos by permanganate during drinking water treatment were investigated. The reaction of dichlorvos with permanganate was of second-order overall with negligible pH dependence and an activation energy of 29.5 kJ x mol(-1). At pH 7.0 and 25 degrees C, the rate constant was 25.2+/-0.4M(-1)s(-1). Dichlorvos was first degraded to trimethyl phosphate (TMP) and dimethyl phosphate (DMP) simultaneously which approximately accounted for <5% and >or=95% with respect to phosphorus mass, respectively. Further oxidation of DMP generated a final byproduct, monomethyl phosphate (MMP). MMP was for the first time identified as a major byproduct in chemical oxidation of dichlorvos. The kinetic model based on degradation mechanism and determined reaction rate constants allowed us to predict the evolution of dichlorvos and its byproduct concentrations during permanganate pre-oxidation process at water treatment plants. These results suggest that even though the dichlorvos concentration in surface water complies with the surface water quality standards of China (50 microg L(-1)), its concentration after conventional water treatment will most probably exceed the drinking water quality standards (1 microg L(-1)). Moreover, luminescent bacteria test shows that the acute toxicity of dichlorvos solution evidently increased after permanganate oxidation.

Nationwide reconnaissance of contaminants of emerging ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

When chemical or microbial contaminants are assessed for potential effect or possible regulation in ambient and drinking waters, a critical first step is determining if the contaminants occur and if they are at concentrations that may cause human or ecological health concerns. To this end, source and treated drinking water samples from 29 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) were analyzed as part of a two-phase study to determine whether chemical and microbial constituents, many of which are considered contaminants of emerging concern, were detectable in the waters. Of the 84 chemicals monitored in the 9 Phase I DWTPs, 27 were detected at least once in the source water, and 21 were detected at least once in treated drinking water. In Phase II, which was a broader and more comprehensive assessment, 247 chemical and microbial analytes were measured in 25 DWTPs, with 148 detected at least once in the source water, and 121 detected at least once in the treated drinking water. The frequency of detection was often related to the analyte's contaminant class, as pharmaceuticals and anthropogenic waste indicators tended to be infrequently detected and more easily removed during treatment, while per and polyfluoroalkyl substances and inorganic constituents were both more frequently detected and, overall, more resistant to treatment. The data collected as part of this project will be used to help inform evaluation of unregulated contaminants in surface water, groundwate

Decontamination of biological agents from drinking water infrastructure: a literature review and summary.

PubMed

Szabo, Jeff; Minamyer, Scott

2014-11-01

This report summarizes the current state of knowledge on the persistence of biological agents on drinking water infrastructure (such as pipes) along with information on decontamination should persistence occur. Decontamination options for drinking water infrastructure have been explored for some biological agents, but data gaps remain. Data on bacterial spore persistence on common water infrastructure materials such as iron and cement-mortar lined iron show that spores can be persistent for weeks after contamination. Decontamination data show that common disinfectants such as free chlorine have limited effectiveness. Decontamination results with germinant and alternate disinfectants such as chlorine dioxide are more promising. Persistence and decontamination data were collected on vegetative bacteria, such as coliforms, Legionella and Salmonella. Vegetative bacteria are less persistent than spores and more susceptible to disinfection, but the surfaces and water quality conditions in many studies were only marginally related to drinking water systems. However, results of real-world case studies on accidental contamination of water systems with E. coli and Salmonella contamination show that flushing and chlorination can help return a water system to service. Some viral persistence data were found, but decontamination data were lacking. Future research suggestions focus on expanding the available biological persistence data to other common infrastructure materials. Further exploration of non-traditional drinking water disinfectants is recommended for future studies. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Fluoride: A naturally-occurring health hazard in drinking-water resources of Northern Thailand.

PubMed

Chuah, C Joon; Lye, Han Rui; Ziegler, Alan D; Wood, Spencer H; Kongpun, Chatpat; Rajchagool, Sunsanee

2016-03-01

In Northern Thailand, incidences of fluorosis resulting from the consumption of high-fluoride drinking-water have been documented. In this study, we mapped the high-fluoride endemic areas and described the relevant transport processes of fluoride in enriched waters in the provinces of Chiang Mai and Lamphun. Over one thousand surface and sub-surface water samples including a total of 995 collected from shallow (depth: ≤ 30 m) and deep (> 30 m) wells were analysed from two unconnected high-fluoride endemic areas. At the Chiang Mai site, 31% of the shallow wells contained hazardous levels (≥ 1.5 mg/L) of fluoride, compared with the 18% observed in the deep wells. However, at the Lamphun site, more deep wells (35%) contained water with at least 1.5mg/L fluoride compared with the shallow wells (7%). At the Chiang Mai site, the high-fluoride waters originate from a nearby geothermal field. Fluoride-rich geothermal waters are distributed across the area following natural hydrological pathways of surface and sub-surface water flow. At the Lamphun site, a well-defined, curvilinear high-fluoride anomalous zone, resembling that of the nearby conspicuous Mae Tha Fault, was identified. This similarity provides evidence of the existence of an unmapped, blind fault as well as its likely association to a geogenic source (biotite-granite) of fluoride related to the faulted zone. Excessive abstraction of ground water resources may also have affected the distribution and concentration of fluoride at both sites. The distribution of these high-fluoride waters is influenced by a myriad of complex natural and anthropogenic processes which thus created a challenge for the management of water resources for safe consumption in affected areas. The notion of clean and safe drinking water can be found in deeper aquifers is not necessarily true. Groundwater at any depth should always be tested before the construction of wells. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Characterization of dissolved organic matter for prediction of trihalomethane formation potential in surface and sub-surface waters.

PubMed

Awad, John; van Leeuwen, John; Chow, Christopher; Drikas, Mary; Smernik, Ronald J; Chittleborough, David J; Bestland, Erick

2016-05-05

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters used for drinking purposes can vary markedly in character dependent on their sources within catchments. The character of DOM further influences the formation of disinfection by products when precursor DOM present in drinking water reacts with chlorine during disinfection. Here we report the development of models that describe the formation potential of trihalomethanes (THMFP) dependent on the character of DOM in waters from discrete catchments with specific land-use and soil textures. DOM was characterized based on UV absorbance at 254 nm, apparent molecular weight and relative abundances of protein-like and humic-like compounds. DOM character and Br concentration (up to 0.5 mg/L) were used as variables in models (R(2)>0.93) of THMFP, which ranged from 19 to 649 μg/L. Chloroform concentration (12-594 μg/L) and relative abundance (27-99%) were first modeled (R(2)>0.85) and from these, the abundances of bromodichloromethane and chlorodibromomethane estimated using power and exponential functions, respectively (R(2)>0.98). From these, the abundance of bromoform is calculated. The proposed model may be used in risk assessment of catchment factors on formation of trihalomethanes in drinking water, in context of treatment efficiency for removal of organic matter. Crown Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Regional assessment of groundwater quality for drinking purpose.

PubMed

Jang, Cheng-Shin

2012-05-01

Owing to limited surface water during a long-term drought, this work attempted to locate clean and safe groundwater in the Choushui River alluvial fan of Taiwan based on drinking-water quality standards. Because aquifers contained several pollutants, multivariate indicator kriging (MVIK) was adopted to integrate the multiple pollutants in groundwater based on drinking- and raw-water quality standards and to explore spatial uncertainty. According to probabilities estimated by MVIK, safe zones were determined under four treatment conditions--no treatment; ammonium-N and iron removal; manganese and arsenic removal; and ammonium-N, iron, manganese, and arsenic removal. The analyzed results reveal that groundwater in the study area is not appropriate for drinking use without any treatments because of high ammonium-N, iron, manganese, and/or arsenic concentrations. After ammonium-N, iron, manganese, and arsenic removed, about 81.9-94.9% of total areas can extract safe groundwater for drinking. The proximal-fan, central mid-fan, southern mid-fan, and northern regions are the excellent locations to pump safe groundwater for drinking after treatment. Deep aquifers of exceeding 200 m depth have wider regions to obtain excellent groundwater than shallow aquifers do.

Identification and management of microbial contaminations in a surface drinking water source.

PubMed

Aström, J; Pettersson, T J R; Stenström, T A

2007-01-01

Microbial contamination of surface waters constitutes a health risk for drinking water consumers which may be lowered by closing the raw water intake. We have evaluated microbial discharge events reported in the river Göta älv, which is used for raw water supply to the city of Göteborg. Elevated levels of faecal indicator bacteria were observed during periods of closed raw water intake. High bacteria levels were, however, also occasionally detected during periods of open intake, probably as a result of microbial discharge far upstream in the river which may be difficult to predict and manage by closing the intake. Accumulated upstream precipitations, resulting in surface runoff and wastewater contaminations in the catchment, correlated positively with the levels of total coliforms, E. coli, intestinal enterococci and sulfite-reducing clostridia. Levels of faecal indicator organisms were negatively correlated to the water temperature due to enhanced survival at lower temperatures. Wastewater discharges from a municipality located just upstream of the water intake resulted in elevated E. coli concentrations downstream at the raw water intake for Göteborg. To improve the prediction of microbial contaminations within the river Göta älv, monitoring data on turbidity and upstream precipitation are of particular importance.

Sensory quality of drinking water produced by reverse osmosis membrane filtration followed by remineralisation.

PubMed

Vingerhoeds, Monique H; Nijenhuis-de Vries, Mariska A; Ruepert, Nienke; van der Laan, Harmen; Bredie, Wender L P; Kremer, Stefanie

2016-05-01

Membrane filtration of ground, surface, or sea water by reverse osmosis results in permeate, which is almost free from minerals. Minerals may be added afterwards, not only to comply with (legal) standards and to enhance chemical stability, but also to improve the taste of drinking water made from permeate. Both the nature and the concentrations of added minerals affect the taste of the water and in turn its acceptance by consumers. The aim of this study was to examine differences in taste between various remineralised drinking waters. Samples selected varied in mineral composition, i.e. tap water, permeate, and permeate with added minerals (40 or 120 mg Ca/L, added as CaCO3, and 4 or 24 mg Mg/L added as MgCl2), as well as commercially available bottled drinking waters, to span a relevant product space in which the remineralised samples could be compared. All samples were analysed with respect to their physical-chemical properties. Sensory profiling was done by descriptive analysis using a trained panel. Significant attributes included taste intensity, the tastes bitter, sweet, salt, metal, fresh and dry mouthfeel, bitter and metal aftertaste, and rough afterfeel. Total dissolved solids (TDS) was a major determinant of the taste perception of water. In general, lowering mineral content in drinking water in the range examined (from <5 to 440 mg/L) shifted the sensory perception of water from fresh towards bitter, dry, and rough sensations. In addition, perceived freshness of the waters correlated positively with calcium concentration. The greatest fresh taste was found for water with a TDS between 190 and 350 mg/L. Remineralisation of water after reverse osmosis can improve drinking quality significantly. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

US EPA'S SUPERSITES PROGRAM

EPA Science Inventory

Dermal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in water results from environmental contamination of surface, ground-, and drinking waters. This exposure occurs both in occupational and residential settings. Compartmental models incorporating body burden measurements have ...

Chemical and microbial characteristics of municipal drinking water supply systems in the Canadian Arctic.

PubMed

Daley, Kiley; Truelstrup Hansen, Lisbeth; Jamieson, Rob C; Hayward, Jenny L; Piorkowski, Greg S; Krkosek, Wendy; Gagnon, Graham A; Castleden, Heather; MacNeil, Kristen; Poltarowicz, Joanna; Corriveau, Emmalina; Jackson, Amy; Lywood, Justine; Huang, Yannan

2017-06-13

Drinking water in the vast Arctic Canadian territory of Nunavut is sourced from surface water lakes or rivers and transferred to man-made or natural reservoirs. The raw water is at a minimum treated by chlorination and distributed to customers either by trucks delivering to a water storage tank inside buildings or through a piped distribution system. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical and microbial drinking water quality from source to tap in three hamlets (Coral Harbour, Pond Inlet and Pangnirtung-each has a population of <2000) on trucked service, and in Iqaluit (population ~6700), which uses a combination of trucked and piped water conveyance. Generally, the source and drinking water was of satisfactory microbial quality, containing Escherichia coli levels of <1 MPN/100 mL with a few exceptions, and selected pathogenic bacteria and parasites were below detection limits using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Tap water in households receiving trucked water contained less than the recommended 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine, while piped drinking water in Iqaluit complied with Health Canada guidelines for residual chlorine (i.e. >0.2 mg/L free chlorine). Some buildings in the four communities contained manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and/or lead (Pb) concentrations above Health Canada guideline values for the aesthetic (Mn, Cu and Fe) and health (Pb) objectives. Corrosion of components of the drinking water distribution system (household storage tanks, premise plumbing) could be contributing to Pb, Cu and Fe levels, as the source water in three of the four communities had low alkalinity. The results point to the need for robust disinfection, which may include secondary disinfection or point-of-use disinfection, to prevent microbial risks in drinking water tanks in buildings and ultimately at the tap.

Monitoring bacterial contamination of piped water supply in rural coastal Bangladesh.

PubMed

Ahsan, Md Sabbir; Akber, Md Ali; Islam, Md Atikul; Kabir, Md Pervez; Hoque, Md Ikramul

2017-10-31

Safe drinking water is scarce in southwest coastal Bangladesh because of unavailability of fresh water. Given the high salinity of both groundwater and surface water in this area, harvested rainwater and rain-fed pond water became the main sources of drinking water. Both the government and non-government organizations have recently introduced pipe water supply in the rural coastal areas to ensure safe drinking water. We assessed the bacteriological quality of water at different points along the piped water distribution system (i.e., the source, treatment plant, household taps, street hydrants, and household storage containers) of Mongla municipality under Mongla Upazila in Bagerhat district. Water samples were collected at 2-month interval from May 2014 to March 2015. Median E. coli and total coliform counts at source, treatment plant, household taps, street hydrants, and household storage containers were respectively 225, 4, 7, 7, and 15 cfu/100 ml and 42,000, 545, 5000, 6150, and 18,800 cfu/100 ml. Concentrations of both of the indicator bacteria reduced after treatment, although it did not satisfy the WHO drinking water standards. However, re-contamination in distribution systems and household storage containers indicate improper maintenance of distribution system and lack of personal hygiene.

Occurrence and distribution of psychoactive compounds and their metabolites in the urban water cycle of Berlin (Germany).

PubMed

Hass, Ulrike; Duennbier, Uwe; Massmann, Gudrun

2012-11-15

The occurrence and distribution of six psychoactive compounds (primidone, phenobarbital, oxazepam, diazepam, meprobamate, and pyrithyldione) and a metabolite of primidone (phenylethylmalonamide) were investigated in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, surface water, groundwater of a bank filtration site, raw and final drinking water, and in groundwater affected by former sewage irrigation. Primidone and its metabolite phenylethylmalonamide were found to be ubiquitous in environmental water samples in Berlin. Maximum concentrations of 0.87 and 0.42 μg/L, respectively, were encountered in WWTP effluents. Both compounds are apparently not removed when passaging through the different compartments of the water cycle and concentrations are only reduced by dilution. Phenobarbital was present at nearly every stage of the Berlin water cycle with the exception of raw and final drinking water. The highest concentrations of phenobarbital (up to 0.96 μg/L) were measured in groundwater influenced by former sewage irrigation. Oxazepam was only present in WWTP effluents and surface waters (up to 0.18 μg/L), while diazepam was not detected in any matrix. Due to their withdrawal from the German market years ago, the pharmaceuticals meprobamate and pyrithyldione were only found in sewage farm groundwater (up to 0.50 and 0.04 μg/L, respectively) and, in case of meprobamate, also in decade old bank filtrate (0.03 μg/L). Our results indicate a high persistence of some of the investigated compounds in the aquatic system. As a consequence, these pollutants may potentially reach drinking water resources via bank filtration if present in WWTP effluents and/or surface waters in partly closed water cycles such as Berlin's. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Analysis of the sensitivity of in vitro bioassays for androgenic, progestagenic, glucocorticoid, thyroid and estrogenic activity: Suitability for drinking and environmental waters.

PubMed

Leusch, Frederic D L; Neale, Peta A; Hebert, Armelle; Scheurer, Marco; Schriks, Merijn C M

2017-02-01

The presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals in the aquatic environment poses a risk for ecosystem health. Consequently there is a need for sensitive tools, such as in vitro bioassays, to monitor endocrine activity in environmental waters. The aim of the current study was to assess whether current in vitro bioassays are suitable to detect endocrine activity in a range of water types. The reviewed assays included androgenic (n=11), progestagenic (n=6), glucocorticoid (n=5), thyroid (n=5) and estrogenic (n=8) activity in both agonist and antagonist mode. Existing in vitro bioassay data were re-evaluated to determine assay sensitivity, with the calculated method detection limit compared with measured hormonal activity in treated wastewater, surface water and drinking water to quantify whether the studied assays were sufficiently sensitive for environmental samples. With typical sample enrichment, current in vitro bioassays are sufficiently sensitive to detect androgenic activity in treated wastewater and surface water, with anti-androgenic activity able to be detected in most environmental waters. Similarly, with sufficient enrichment, the studied mammalian assays are able to detect estrogenic activity even in drinking water samples. Fewer studies have focused on progestagenic and glucocorticoid activity, but some of the reviewed bioassays are suitable for detecting activity in treated wastewater and surface water. Even less is known about (anti)thyroid activity, but the available data suggests that the more sensitive reviewed bioassays are still unlikely to detect this type of activity in environmental waters. The findings of this review can help provide guidance on in vitro bioassay selection and required sample enrichment for optimised detection of endocrine activity in environmental waters. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Overview of environmental and hydrogeologic conditions at Dillingham, Alaska

USGS Publications Warehouse

Palcsak, Betty B.; Dorava, Joseph M.

1994-01-01

The remote city of Dillingham is at the northern end of Bristol Bay in southwestern Alaska. The hydrology of the area is strongly affected by the mild maritime climate and local geologic conditions. Dillingham residents obtain drinking water from both deep and shallow aquifers composed of gravels and sands and separated by layers of clay underlying the community. Alternative sources of drinking water are limited to the development of new wells because surface-water sources are of inadequate quantity or quality or are located at too great a distance from the population. The Federal Aviation Administration owns or operates airway support facilities in Dillingham and wishes to consider the severity of contamination and the current environmental setting when they evaluate options for compliance with environmental regulations at their facilities. This report describes the climate. vegetation, geology, soils, ground-water and surface-water hydrology, and flood potential of the areas surrounding the Federal Aviation Administration facilities near Dillingham.

Requiring Pollutant Discharge Permits for Pesticide Applications that Deposit Residues in Surface Waters

PubMed Central

Centner, Terence; Eberhart, Nicholas

2014-01-01

Agricultural producers and public health authorities apply pesticides to control pests that damage crops and carry diseases. Due to the toxic nature of most pesticides, they are regulated by governments. Regulatory provisions require pesticides to be registered and restrictions operate to safeguard human health and the environment. Yet pesticides used near surface waters pose dangers to non-target species and drinking water supplies leading some governments to regulate discharges of pesticides under pollution discharge permits. The dual registration and discharge permitting provisions are burdensome. In the United States, agricultural interest groups are advancing new legislation that would exempt pesticide residues from water permitting requirements. An analysis of the dangers posed by pesticide residues in drinking water leads to a conclusion that both pesticide registration and pollutant discharge permitting provisions are needed to protect human health and aquatic species. PMID:24814945

Real-time continuous nitrate monitoring in Illinois in 2013

USGS Publications Warehouse

Warner, Kelly L.; Terrio, Paul J.; Straub, Timothy D.; Roseboom, Donald; Johnson, Gary P.

2013-01-01

Many sources contribute to the nitrogen found in surface water in Illinois. Illinois is located in the most productive agricultural area in the country, and nitrogen fertilizer is commonly used to maximize corn production in this area. Additionally, septic/wastewater systems, industrial emissions, and lawn fertilizer are common sources of nitrogen in urban areas of Illinois. In agricultural areas, the use of fertilizer has increased grain production to meet the needs of a growing population, but also has resulted in increases in nitrogen concentrations in many streams and aquifers (Dubrovsky and others, 2010). The urban sources can increase nitrogen concentrations, too. The Federal limit for nitrate nitrogen in water that is safe to drink is 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) (http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/nitrate.cfm, accessed on May 24, 2013). In addition to the concern with nitrate nitrogen in drinking water, nitrogen, along with phosphorus, is an aquatic concern because it feeds the intensive growth of algae that are responsible for the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico. The largest nitrogen flux to the waters feeding the Gulf of Mexico is from Illinois (Alexander and others, 2008). Most studies of nitrogen in surface water and groundwater include samples for nitrate nitrogen collected weekly or monthly, but nitrate concentrations can change rapidly and these discrete samples may not capture rapid changes in nitrate concentrations that can affect human and aquatic health. Continuous monitoring for nitrate could inform scientists and water-resource managers of these changes and provide information on the transport of nitrate in surface water and groundwater.

Environmental mycobacteriosis and drinking water: what are the connections?

EPA Science Inventory

Background: During the last 20 years, incidence rates of pulmonary environmental mycobacteriosis appear to be increasing in the US and other developed countries. Environmental mycobacteria have been detected in multiple media: soil, ground and surface waters, water aerosols and t...

Cryptosporidiosis

MedlinePlus

Cryptosporidiosis (crypto) is an illness caused by a parasite. The parasite lives in soil, food, and water. It may also be on surfaces that have been contaminated with feces (poop). You can become infected by swallowing the parasite, if it is in your food, drinking water, or water ...

THE TREATMENT OF CONTAMINATED WATER AT REMEDIAL WOOD PRESERVING SITES

EPA Science Inventory

Contaminated groundwater and surface water have posed a great challenge in restoring wood preserving sites to beneficial use. Often contaminated groundwater plumes extend far beyond the legal property limits, adversely impacting drinking water supplies and crop lands. To contain,...

Human Health Effects Associated with Exposure to Toxic Cyanobacteria

EPA Science Inventory

Reports of toxic cyanobacteria blooms are increasing worldwide. Warming and eutrophic surface water systems support the development of blooms. We examine the evidence for adverse human health effects associated with exposure to toxic blooms in drinking water, recreational water a...

Pharmaceuticals and Hormones in the Environment

EPA Science Inventory

Some of the earliest initial reports from Europe and the United States demonstrated that a variety of pharmaceuticals and hormones could be found in surface waters, source waters, drinking water, and influents and effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). It is unknown...

40 CFR 302.3 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... water, drinking water supply, land surface or subsurface strata, or ambient air within the United States... from a nuclear incident, as those terms are defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, if such release...

40 CFR 302.3 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR

2011-07-01

... water, drinking water supply, land surface or subsurface strata, or ambient air within the United States... from a nuclear incident, as those terms are defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, if such release...

40 CFR 302.3 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... water, drinking water supply, land surface or subsurface strata, or ambient air within the United States... from a nuclear incident, as those terms are defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, if such release...

40 CFR 302.3 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... water, drinking water supply, land surface or subsurface strata, or ambient air within the United States... from a nuclear incident, as those terms are defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, if such release...

40 CFR 302.3 - Definitions.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... water, drinking water supply, land surface or subsurface strata, or ambient air within the United States... from a nuclear incident, as those terms are defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, if such release...

Detection of heavy metal ions in drinking water using a high-resolution differential surface plasmon resonance sensor.

PubMed

Forzani, Erica S; Zhang, Haiqian; Chen, Wilfred; Tao, Nongjian

2005-03-01

We have built a high-resolution differential surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor for heavy metal ion detection. The sensor surface is divided into a reference and sensing areas, and the difference in the SPR angles from the two areas is detected with a quadrant cell photodetector as a differential signal. In the presence of metal ions, the differential signal changes due to specific binding of the metal ions onto the sensing area coated with properly selected peptides, which provides an accurate real-time measurement and quantification of the metal ions. Selective detection of Cu2+ and Ni2+ in the ppt-ppb range was achieved by coating the sensing surface with peptides NH2-Gly-Gly-His-COOH and NH2-(His)6-COOH. Cu2+ in drinking water was tested using this sensor.

The Arsenic Contamination of Drinking and Groundwaters in Bangladesh: Featuring Biogeochemical Aspects and Implications on Public Health.

PubMed

Raessler, Michael

2018-07-01

Arsenic is a widespread contaminant of drinking and groundwaters in the world. Even if these contaminations have a geogenic origin, they often are exacerbated by anthropogenic activities. This is particularly true for the Bengal delta. Millions of people in Bangladesh are consuming drinking water with arsenic concentrations ≥ 50 µg/L. Their drinking water supply is based on groundwaters extracted by pumping wells, which were part of a well-drilling program by the United Nations. The intention was to provide the people with groundwater instead of surface water due to its critical hygienic conditions. Unfortunately, many wells extract the groundwater at depths where arsenic concentrations are highest. Arsenic is being dissolved from the aquifer by biogeochemical processes that are fueled by the presence of high amounts of organics in the Bengal delta sediments. This problem was not encountered at the time due to a lack of chemical analyses of the waters.

Rapid transport from the surface to wells in fractured rock: a unique infiltration tracer experiment.

PubMed

Levison, Jana K; Novakowski, Kent S

2012-04-01

A unique infiltration tracer experiment was performed whereby a fluorescent dye was applied to the land surface in an agricultural field, near Perth, Ontario, Canada, to simulate the transport of solutes to two pumped monitoring wells drilled into the granitic gneiss aquifer. This experiment, interpreted using the discrete-fracture capability of the numerical model HydroGeoSphere, showed that solute transport from the surface through thin soil (less than 2m) to wells in fractured bedrock can be extremely rapid (on the order of hours). Also, it was demonstrated that maximum concentrations of contaminants originating from the ground surface will not necessarily be the highest in the shallow aquifer horizon. These are important considerations for both private and government-owned drinking water systems that draw water from shallow fractured bedrock aquifers. This research illustrates the extreme importance of protecting drinking water at the source. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Using probabilistic modeling to evaluate human exposure to organotin in drinking water transported by polyvinyl chloride pipe.

PubMed

Fristachi, Anthony; Xu, Ying; Rice, Glenn; Impellitteri, Christopher A; Carlson-Lynch, Heather; Little, John C

2009-11-01

The leaching of organotin (OT) heat stabilizers from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes used in residential drinking water systems may affect the quality of drinking water. These OTs, principally mono- and di-substituted species of butyltins and methyltins, are a potential health concern because they belong to a broad class of compounds that may be immune, nervous, and reproductive system toxicants. In this article, we develop probability distributions of U.S. population exposures to mixtures of OTs encountered in drinking water transported by PVC pipes. We employed a family of mathematical models to estimate OT leaching rates from PVC pipe as a function of both surface area and time. We then integrated the distribution of estimated leaching rates into an exposure model that estimated the probability distribution of OT concentrations in tap waters and the resulting potential human OT exposures via tap water consumption. Our study results suggest that human OT exposures through tap water consumption are likely to be considerably lower than the World Health Organization (WHO) "safe" long-term concentration in drinking water (150 microg/L) for dibutyltin (DBT)--the most toxic of the OT considered in this article. The 90th percentile average daily dose (ADD) estimate of 0.034 +/- 2.92 x 10(-4)microg/kg day is approximately 120 times lower than the WHO-based ADD for DBT (4.2 microg/kg day).

Management of a toxic cyanobacterium bloom (Planktothrix rubescens) affecting an Italian drinking water basin: a case study.

PubMed

Bogialli, Sara; Nigro di Gregorio, Federica; Lucentini, Luca; Ferretti, Emanuele; Ottaviani, Massimo; Ungaro, Nicola; Abis, Pier Paolo; Cannarozzi de Grazia, Matteo

2013-01-02

An extraordinary bloom of Planktothrix rubescens, which can produce microcystins (MCs), was observed in early 2009 in the Occhito basin, used even as a source of drinking water in Southern Italy. Several activities, coordinated by a task force, were implemented to assess and manage the risk associated to drinking water contaminated by cyanobacteria. Main actions were: evaluation of analytical protocols for screening and confirmatory purpose, monitoring the drinking water supply chain, training of operators, a dedicated web site for risk communication. ELISA assay was considered suitable for health authorities as screening method for MCs and to optimize frequency of sampling according to alert levels, and as internal control for the water supplier. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method able to quantify 9 MCs was optimized with the aim of supporting health authorities in a comprehensive risk evaluation based on the relative toxicity of different congeners. Short, medium, and long-term corrective actions were implemented to mitigate the health risk. Preoxidation with chlorine dioxide followed by flocculation and settling have been shown to be effective in removing MCs in the water treatment plant. Over two years, despite the high levels of cyanobacteria (up to 160 × 10(6) cells/L) and MCs (28.4 μg/L) initially reached in surface waters, the drinking water distribution was never limited.

Water-Quality Data for Pharmaceuticals and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in Ground Water and in Untreated Drinking Water Sources in the United States, 2000-01

USGS Publications Warehouse

Barnes, Kimberlee K.; Kolpin, Dana W.; Focazio, Michael J.; Furlong, Edward T.; Meyer, Michael T.; Zaugg, Steven D.; Haack, Sheridan K.; Barber, Larry B.; Thurman, E. Michael

2008-01-01

The five most frequently detected compounds in samples collected from ambient ground-water sites are N,N-diethyltoluamide (35 percent, insect repellant), bisphenol A (30 percent, plasticizer), tri(2-chloroethy) phosphate (30 percent, fire retardant), sulfamethoxazole (23 percent, veterinary and human antibiotic), and 4-octylphenol monoethoxylate (19 percent, detergent metabolite). The five most frequently detected organic wastewater contaminants in samples of untreated drinking water from surface-water sources are cholesterol (59 percent, natural sterol), metolachlor (53 percent, herbicide), cotinine (51 percent, nicotine metabolite), β-sitosterol (37 percent, natural plant sterol), and 1,7-dimethylxanthine (27 percent, caffeine metabolite). The five most frequently detected organic wastewater contaminants in samples of untreated drinking water from ground-water sources are tetrachloroethylene (24 percent, solvent), carbamazepine (20 percent, pharmaceutical), bisphenol A (20 percent, plasticizer), 1,7-dimethylxanthine (16 percent, caffeine metabolite), and tri(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (12 percent, fire retardant).

Halogens in oil and gas production-associated wastewater.

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Harkness, J.; Warner, N. R.; Dwyer, G. S.; Mitch, W.; Vengosh, A.

2014-12-01

Elevated chloride and bromide in oil and gas wastewaters that are released to the environment are one of the major environmental risks in areas impacted by shale gas development [Olmstead et al.,2013]. In addition to direct contamination of streams, the potential for formation of highly toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water in utilities located downstream from disposal sites poses a serious risk to human health. Here we report on the occurrence of iodide in oil and gas wastewater. We conducted systematic measurements of chloride, bromide, and iodide in (1) produced waters from conventional oil and gas wells from the Appalachian Basin; (2) hydraulic fracturing flowback fluids from unconventional Marcellus and Fayetteville shale gas, (3) effluents from a shale gas spill site in West Virginia; (4) effluents of oil and gas wastewater disposed to surface water from three brine treatment facilities in western Pennsylvania; and (5) surface waters downstream from the brine treatment facilities. Iodide concentration was measured by isotope dilution-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, which allowed for a more accurate measurement of iodide in a salt-rich matrix. Iodide in both conventional and unconventional oil and gas produced and flowback waters varied from 1 mg/L to 55 mg/L, with no systematic enrichment in hydraulic fracturing fluids. The similarity in iodide content between the unconventional Marcellus flowback waters and the conventional Appalachian produced waters clearly indicate that the hydraulic fracturing process does not induce additional iodide and the iodide content is related to natural variations in the host formations. Our data show that effluents from the brine treatment facilities have elevated iodide (mean = 20.9±1 mg/L) compared to local surface waters (0.03± 0.1 mg/L). These results indicate that iodide, in addition to chloride and bromide in wastewater from oil and gas production, poses an additional risk to downstream surface water quality and drinking water utilities given the potential of formation of iodate-DBPs in drinking water. Olmstead, S.M. et al. (2013). Shale gas development impacts on surface water quality in Pennsylvania, PNAS, 110, 4962-4967.

Sources, pathways, and relative risks of contaminants in surface water and groundwater: a perspective prepared for the Walkerton inquiry.

PubMed

Ritter, Len; Solomon, Keith; Sibley, Paul; Hall, Ken; Keen, Patricia; Mattu, Gevan; Linton, Beth

2002-01-11

On a global scale, pathogenic contamination of drinking water poses the most significant health risk to humans, and there have been countless numbers of disease outbreaks and poisonings throughout history resulting from exposure to untreated or poorly treated drinking water. However, significant risks to human health may also result from exposure to nonpathogenic, toxic contaminants that are often globally ubiquitous in waters from which drinking water is derived. With this latter point in mind, the objective of this commission paper is to discuss the primary sources of toxic contaminants in surface waters and groundwater, the pathways through which they move in aquatic environments, factors that affect their concentration and structure along the many transport flow paths, and the relative risks that these contaminants pose to human and environmental health. In assessing the relative risk of toxic contaminants in drinking water to humans, we have organized our discussion to follow the classical risk assessment paradigm, with emphasis placed on risk characterization. In doing so, we have focused predominantly on toxic contaminants that have had a demonstrated or potential effect on human health via exposure through drinking water. In the risk assessment process, understanding the sources and pathways for contaminants in the environment is a crucial step in addressing (and reducing) uncertainty associated with estimating the likelihood of exposure to contaminants in drinking water. More importantly, understanding the sources and pathways of contaminants strengthens our ability to quantify effects through accurate measurement and testing, or to predict the likelihood of effects based on empirical models. Understanding the sources, fate, and concentrations of chemicals in water, in conjunction with assessment of effects, not only forms the basis of risk characterization, but also provides critical information required to render decisions regarding regulatory initiatives, remediation, monitoring, and management. Our discussion is divided into two primary themes. First we discuss the major sources of contaminants from anthropogenic activities to aquatic surface and groundwater and the pathways along which these contaminants move to become incorporated into drinking water supplies. Second, we assess the health significance of the contaminants reported and identify uncertainties associated with exposures and potential effects. Loading of contaminants to surface waters, groundwater, sediments, and drinking water occurs via two primary routes: (1) point-source pollution and (2) non-point-source pollution. Point-source pollution originates from discrete sources whose inputs into aquatic systems can often be defined in a spatially explicit manner. Examples of point-source pollution include industrial effluents (pulp and paper mills, steel plants, food processing plants), municipal sewage treatment plants and combined sewage-storm-water overflows, resource extraction (mining), and land disposal sites (landfill sites, industrial impoundments). Non-point-source pollution, in contrast, originates from poorly defined, diffuse sources that typically occur over broad geographical scales. Examples of non-point-source pollution include agricultural runoff (pesticides, pathogens, and fertilizers), storm-water and urban runoff, and atmospheric deposition (wet and dry deposition of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs] and mercury). Within each source, we identify the most important contaminants that have either been demonstrated to pose significant risks to human health and/or aquatic ecosystem integrity, or which are suspected of posing such risks. Examples include nutrients, metals, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), chlorination by-products, and pharmaceuticals. Due to the significant number of toxic contaminants in the environment, we have necessarily restricted our discussion to those chemicals that pose risks to human health via exposure through drinking water. A comprehensive and judicious consideration of the full range of contaminants that occur in surface waters, sediments, and drinking water would be a large undertaking and clearly beyond the scope of this article. However, where available, we have provided references to relevant literature to assist the reader in undertaking a detailed investigation of their own. The information collected on specific chemicals within major contaminant classes was used to determine their relative risk using the hazard quotient (HQ) approach. Hazard quotients are the most widely used method of assessing risk in which the exposure concentration of a stressor, either measured or estimated, is compared to an effect concentration (e.g., no-observed-effect concentration or NOEC). A key goal of this assessment was to develop a perspective on the relative risks associated with toxic contaminants that occur in drinking water. Data used in this assessment were collected from literature sources and from the Drinking Water Surveillance Program (DWSP) of Ontario. For many common contaminants, there was insufficient environmental exposure (concentration) information in Ontario drinking water and groundwater. Hence, our assessment was limited to specific compounds within major contaminant classes including metals, disinfection by-products, pesticides, and nitrates. For each contaminant, the HQ was estimated by expressing the maximum concentration recorded in drinking water as a function of the water quality guideline for that compound. There are limitations to using the hazard quotient approach of risk characterization. For example, HQs frequently make use of worst-case data and are thus designed to be protective of almost all possible situations that may occur. However, reduction of the probability of a type II error (false negative) through the use of very conservative application factors and assumptions can lead to the implementation of expensive measures of mitigation for stressors that may pose little threat to humans or the environment. It is important to realize that our goal was not to conduct a comprehensive, in-depth assessment of risk for each chemical; more comprehensive assessments of managing risks associated with drinking water are addressed in a separate issue paper by Krewski et al. (2001a). Rather, our goal was to provide the reader with an indication of the relative risk of major contaminant classes as a basis for understanding the risks associated with the myriad forms of toxic pollutants in aquatic systems and drinking water. For most compounds, the estimated HQs were < 1. This indicates that there is little risk associated with exposure from drinking water to the compounds tested. There were some exceptions. For example, nitrates were found to commonly yield HQ values well above 1 in- many rural areas. Further, lead, total trihalomethanes, and trichloroacetic acid yielded HQs > 1 in some treated distribution waters (water distributed to households). These latter compounds were further assessed using a probabilistic approach; these assessments indicated that the maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) or interim MACs for the respective compounds were exceeded <5% of the time. In other words, the probability of finding these compounds in drinking water at levels that pose risk to humans through ingestion of drinking water is low. Our review has been carried out in accordance with the conventional principles of risk assessment. Application of the risk assessment paradigm requires rigorous data on both exposure and toxicity in order to adequately characterize potential risks of contaminants to human health and ecological integrity. Weakness rendered by poor data, or lack of data, in either the exposure or effects stages of the risk assessment process significantly reduces the confidence that can be placed in the overall risk assessment. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

MICROBIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF DRINKING WATER SYSTEMS RECEIVING GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER AS THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Earlier descriptions of water distribution systems (WDS) microbial communities have relied on culturing techniques. These techniques are known to be highly selective in nature, but more importantly, they tend to grossly underestimate the microbial diversity of most environments. ...

WATER SECURITY MONITORING USING SURFACE-ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY - PHASE II

EPA Science Inventory

Clean drinking water is a critical component of the United States infrastructure and is therefore a potential target for terrorists. In addition to physical attacks to the water network, like dams, pumping stations and pipelines, there must be vigilance to prevent the water i...

Real-time estimation of TP load in a Mississippi Delta Stream using a dynamic data driven application system

Treesearch

Ying Ouyang; Theodor D. Leininger; Jeff Hatten

2013-01-01

Elevated phosphorus (P) in surface waters can cause eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and can impair water for drinking, industry, agriculture, and recreation. Currently, no effort has been devoted to estimating real-time variation and load of total P (TP) in surface waters due to the lack of suitable and/or cost-effective wireless sensors. However, when considering...

Chemical Analyses of Ground Water in the Carson Desert near Stillwater, Churchill County, Nevada, 2005

USGS Publications Warehouse

Fosbury, DeEtta; Walker, Mark; Stillings, Lisa L.

2008-01-01

This report presents the chemical analyses of ground-water samples collected in 2005 from domestic wells located in the Stillwater area of the Carson Desert (fig. 1). These data were evaluated for evidence of mixing with nearby geothermal waters (Fosbury, 2007). That study used several methods to identify mixing zones of ground and geothermal waters using trace elements, chemical equilibria, water temperature, geothermometer estimates, and statistical techniques. In some regions, geothermal sources influence the chemical quality of ground water used for drinking water supplies. Typical geothermal contaminants include arsenic, mercury, antimony, selenium, thallium, boron, lithium, and fluoride (Webster and Nordstrom, 2003). The Environmental Protection Agency has established primary drinking water standards for these, with the exception of boron and lithium. Concentrations of some trace metals in geothermal water may exceed drinking water standards by several orders of magnitude. Geothermal influences on water quality are likely to be localized, depending on directions of ground water flow, the relative volumes of geothermal sources and ground water originating from other sources, and depth below the surface from which water is withdrawn. It is important to understand the areal extent of shallow mixing of geothermal water because it may have adverse chemical and aesthetic effects on domestic drinking water. It would be useful to understand the areal extent of these effects.

Bounding Analysis of Drinking Water Health Risks from a Spill of Hydraulic Fracturing Flowback Water.

PubMed

Rish, William R; Pfau, Edward J

2018-04-01

A bounding risk assessment is presented that evaluates possible human health risk from a hypothetical scenario involving a 10,000-gallon release of flowback water from horizontal fracturing of Marcellus Shale. The water is assumed to be spilled on the ground, infiltrates into groundwater that is a source of drinking water, and an adult and child located downgradient drink the groundwater. Key uncertainties in estimating risk are given explicit quantitative treatment using Monte Carlo analysis. Chemicals that contribute significantly to estimated health risks are identified, as are key uncertainties and variables to which risk estimates are sensitive. The results show that hypothetical exposure via drinking water impacted by chemicals in Marcellus Shale flowback water, assumed to be spilled onto the ground surface, results in predicted bounds between 10 -10 and 10 -6 (for both adult and child receptors) for excess lifetime cancer risk. Cumulative hazard indices (HI CUMULATIVE ) resulting from these hypothetical exposures have predicted bounds (5th to 95th percentile) between 0.02 and 35 for assumed adult receptors and 0.1 and 146 for assumed child receptors. Predicted health risks are dominated by noncancer endpoints related to ingestion of barium and lithium in impacted groundwater. Hazard indices above unity are largely related to exposure to lithium. Salinity taste thresholds are likely to be exceeded before drinking water exposures result in adverse health effects. The findings provide focus for policy discussions concerning flowback water risk management. They also indicate ways to improve the ability to estimate health risks from drinking water impacted by a flowback water spill (i.e., reducing uncertainty). © 2017 Society for Risk Analysis.

Nano-silver in drinking water and drinking water sources: stability and influences on disinfection by-product formation.

PubMed

Tugulea, A-M; Bérubé, D; Giddings, M; Lemieux, F; Hnatiw, J; Priem, J; Avramescu, M-L

2014-10-01

Nano-silver is increasingly used in consumer products from washing machines and refrigerators to devices marketed for the disinfection of drinking water or recreational water. The nano-silver in these products may be released, ending up in surface water bodies which may be used as drinking water sources. Little information is available about the stability of the nano-silver in sources of drinking water, its fate during drinking water disinfection processes, and its interaction with disinfection agents and disinfection by-products (DBPs). This study aims to investigate the stability of nano-silver in drinking water sources and in the finished drinking water when chlorine and chloramines are used for disinfection and to observe changes in the composition of DBPs formed when nano-silver is present in the source water. A dispersion of nano-silver particles (10 nm; PVP-coated) was used to spike untreated Ottawa River water, treated Ottawa River water, organic-free water, and a groundwater at concentrations of 5 mg/L. The diluted dispersions were kept under stirred and non-stirred conditions for up to 9 months and analyzed weekly using UV absorption to assess the stability of the nano-silver particles. In a separate experiment, Ottawa River water containing nano-silver particles (at 0.1 and 1 mg/L concentration, respectively) was disinfected by adding sodium hypochlorite (a chlorinating agent) in sufficient amounts to maintain a free chlorine residual of approximately 0.4 mg/L after 24 h. The disinfected drinking water was then quenched with ascorbic acid and analyzed for 34 neutral DBPs (trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles, haloacetaldehydes, 1,1 dichloro-2-propanone, 1,1,1 trichloro-2-propanone, chloropicrin, and cyanogen chloride). The results were compared to the profile of DBPs obtained under the same conditions in the absence of nano-silver and in the presence of an equivalent concentration of Ag(+) ions (as AgNO3). The stability of the nano-silver dispersions in untreated Ottawa River water, with a dissolved organic carbon concentration of 6 mg/L, was significantly higher than the stability of the nano-silver dispersions in distilled, organic-free water. Nano-silver particles suspended in the groundwater agglomerated and were quickly and quantitatively removed from the solution. Our data confirm previous observations that natural dissolved organic matter stabilizes nano-silver particles, while the high-ionic strength of groundwater appears to favor their agglomeration and precipitation. As expected, nano-silver was not stable in Ottawa River water through the chlorination process, but survived for many days when added to the Ottawa River water after treatment with chlorine or chloramines. Stirring appeared to have minimal effect on nano-silver stability in untreated and treated Ottawa River water. The profile of DBPs formed in the presence of nAg differed significantly from the profile of DBPs formed in the absence of nAg only at the 1 mg/L nAg concentration. The differences observed consisted mainly in reduced formation of some brominated DBPs and a small increase in the formation of cyanogen chloride. The reduced formation of brominated congeners may be explained by the decrease in available bromide due to the presence of Ag(+) ions. It should be noted that a concentration of 1 mg/L is significantly higher than nAg concentrations that would be expected to be present in surface waters, but these results could be significant for the disinfection of some wastewaters with comparably high nano-silver concentrations.

Management of toxic cyanobacteria for drinking water production of Ain Zada Dam.

PubMed

Saoudi, Amel; Brient, Luc; Boucetta, Sabrine; Ouzrout, Rachid; Bormans, Myriam; Bensouilah, Mourad

2017-07-01

Blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in Algerian reservoirs represent a potential health problem, mainly from drinking water that supplies the local population of Ain Zada (Bordj Bou Arreridj). The objective of this study is to monitor, detect, and identify the existence of cyanobacteria and microcystins during blooming times. Samples were taken in 2013 from eight stations. The results show that three potentially toxic cyanobacterial genera with the species Planktothrix agardhii were dominant. Cyanobacterial biomass, phycocyanin (PC) concentrations, and microcystin (MC) concentrations were high in the surface layer and at 14 m depth; these values were also high in the treated water. On 11 May 2013, MC concentrations were 6.3 μg/L in MC-LR equivalent in the drinking water. This study shows for the first time the presence of cyanotoxins in raw and treated waters, highlighting that regular monitoring of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins must be undertaken to avoid potential health problems.

Application of solar disinfection for treatment of contaminated public water supply in a developing country: field observations.

PubMed

Mustafa, Atif; Scholz, Miklas; Khan, Sadia; Ghaffar, Abdul

2013-03-01

A sustainable and low-cost point-of-use household drinking water solar disinfection (SODIS) technology was successfully applied to treat microbiologically contaminated water. Field experiments were conducted to determine the efficiency of SODIS and evaluate the potential benefits and limitations of SODIS under local climatic conditions in Karachi, Pakistan. In order to enhance the efficiency of SODIS, the application of physical interventions were also investigated. Twenty per cent of the total samples met drinking water guidelines under strong sunlight weather conditions, showing that SODIS is effective for complete disinfection under specific conditions. Physical interventions, including black-backed and reflecting rear surfaces in the batch reactors, enhanced SODIS performance. Microbial regrowth was also investigated and found to be more controlled in reactors with reflective and black-backed surfaces. The transfer of plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) released from the bottle material polyethylene terephthalate (PET) under SODIS conditions was also investigated. The maximum DEHP concentration in SODIS-treated water was 0.38 μg/L less than the value of 0.71 μg/L reported in a previous study and well below the WHO drinking-quality guideline value. Thus SODIS-treated water can successfully be used by the people living in squatter settlements of mega-cities, such as Karachi, with some limitations.

Evaluating Nanoparticle Breakthrough during Drinking Water Treatment

PubMed Central

Chalew, Talia E. Abbott; Ajmani, Gaurav S.; Huang, Haiou

2013-01-01

Background: Use of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in consumer products is resulting in NPs in drinking water sources. Subsequent NP breakthrough into treated drinking water is a potential exposure route and human health threat. Objectives: In this study we investigated the breakthrough of common NPs—silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO)—into finished drinking water following conventional and advanced treatment. Methods: NPs were spiked into five experimental waters: groundwater, surface water, synthetic freshwater, synthetic freshwater containing natural organic matter, and tertiary wastewater effluent. Bench-scale coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation simulated conventional treatment, and microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) simulated advanced treatment. We monitored breakthrough of NPs into treated water by turbidity removal and inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results: Conventional treatment resulted in 2–20%, 3–8%, and 48–99% of Ag, TiO2, and ZnO NPs, respectively, or their dissolved ions remaining in finished water. Breakthrough following MF was 1–45% for Ag, 0–44% for TiO2, and 36–83% for ZnO. With UF, NP breakthrough was 0–2%, 0–4%, and 2–96% for Ag, TiO2, and ZnO, respectively. Variability was dependent on NP stability, with less breakthrough of aggregated NPs compared with stable NPs and dissolved NP ions. Conclusions: Although a majority of aggregated or stable NPs were removed by simulated conventional and advanced treatment, NP metals were detectable in finished water. As environmental NP concentrations increase, we need to consider NPs as emerging drinking water contaminants and determine appropriate drinking water treatment processes to fully remove NPs in order to reduce their potential harmful health outcomes. Citation: Abbott Chalew TE, Ajmani GS, Huang H, Schwab KJ. 2013. Evaluating nanoparticle breakthrough during drinking water treatment. Environ Health Perspect 121:1161–1166; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306574 PMID:23933526

Effect of turbidity on chlorination efficiency and bacterial persistence in drinking water.

PubMed Central

LeChevallier, M W; Evans, T M; Seidler, R J

1981-01-01

To define interrelationships between elevated turbidities and the efficiency of chlorination in drinking water, experiments were performed to measure bacterial survival, chlorine demand, and interference with microbiological determinations. Experiments were conducted on the surface water supplies for communities which practice chlorination as the only treatment. Therefore, the conclusions of this study apply only to such systems. Results indicated that disinfection efficiency (log10 of the decrease in coliform numbers) was negatively correlated with turbidity and was influenced by season, chlorine demand of the samples, and the initial coliform level. Total organic carbon was found to be associated with turbidity and was shown to interfere with maintenance of a free chlorine residual by creating a chlorine demand. Interference with coliform detection in turbid waters could be demonstrated by the recovery of typical coliforms from apparently negative filters. The incidence of coliform masking in the membrane filter technique was found to increase as the turbidity of the chlorinated samples increased. the magnitude of coliform masking in the membrane filter technique increased from less than 1 coliform per 100 ml in water samples of less than 5 nephelometric turbidity units to greater than 1 coliform per 100 ml in water samples of greater than 5 nephelometric turbidity units. Statistical models were developed to predict the impact of turbidity on drinking water quality. The results justify maximum contaminant levels for turbidity in water entering a distribution system as stated in the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Images PMID:7259162

Occurrence of neonicotinoid insecticides in finished drinking water and fate during drinking water treatment

USGS Publications Warehouse

Klarich, Kathryn L.; Pflug, Nicholas C.; DeWald, Eden M.; Hladik, Michelle L.; Kolpin, Dana W.; Cwiertny, David M.; LeFevre, Gergory H.

2017-01-01

Neonicotinoid insecticides are widespread in surface waters across the agriculturally-intensive Midwestern US. We report for the first time the presence of three neonicotinoids in finished drinking water and demonstrate their general persistence during conventional water treatment. Periodic tap water grab samples were collected at the University of Iowa over seven weeks in 2016 (May-July) after maize/soy planting. Clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam were ubiquitously detected in finished water samples and ranged from 0.24-57.3 ng/L. Samples collected along the University of Iowa treatment train indicate no apparent removal of clothianidin and imidacloprid, with modest thiamethoxam removal (~50%). In contrast, the concentrations of all neonicotinoids were substantially lower in the Iowa City treatment facility finished water using granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration. Batch experiments investigated potential losses. Thiamethoxam losses are due to base-catalyzed hydrolysis at high pH conditions during lime softening. GAC rapidly and nearly completely removed all three neonicotinoids. Clothianidin is susceptible to reaction with free chlorine and may undergo at least partial transformation during chlorination. Our work provides new insights into the persistence of neonicotinoids and their potential for transformation during water treatment and distribution, while also identifying GAC as an effective management tool to lower neonicotinoid concentrations in finished drinking water.

Removal of estrogens and estrogenicity through drinking water treatment.

PubMed

Schenck, Kathleen; Rosenblum, Laura; Wiese, Thomas E; Wymer, Larry; Dugan, Nicholas; Williams, Daniel; Mash, Heath; Merriman, Betty; Speth, Thomas

2012-03-01

Estrogenic compounds have been shown to be present in surface waters, leading to concerns over their possible presence in finished drinking waters. In this work, two in vitro human cell line bioassays for estrogenicity were used to evaluate the removal of estrogens through conventional drinking water treatment using a natural water. Bench-scale studies utilizing chlorine, alum coagulation, ferric chloride coagulation, and powdered activated carbon (PAC) were conducted using Ohio River water spiked with three estrogens, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethynylestradiol, and estriol. Treatment of the estrogens with chlorine, either alone or with coagulant, resulted in approximately 98% reductions in the concentrations of the parent estrogens, accompanied by formation of by-products. The MVLN reporter gene and MCF-7 cell proliferation assays were used to characterize the estrogenic activity of the water before and after treatment. The observed estrogenic activities of the chlorinated samples showed that estrogenicity of the water was reduced commensurate with removal of the parent estrogen. Therefore, the estrogen chlorination by-products did not contribute appreciably to the estrogenic activity of the water. Coagulation alone did not result in significant removals of the estrogens. However, addition of PAC, at a typical drinking water plant dose, resulted in removals ranging from approximately 20 to 80%.

Removal of Strontium from Drinking Water by Conventional ...

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

The United States Environmental Protection Agency Contaminant Candidate List 3 lists strontium as a contaminant for potential regulatory consideration in drinking water. There is very little data available on strontium removal from drinking water. As a result, there is an immediate need to perform treatment studies. The objective of this work is to evaluate the effectiveness of conventional and lime-soda ash softening treatments to remove strontium from surface and ground waters. Conventional drinking water treatment with aluminum and iron coagulants were able to achieve 12% and 5.9% strontium removal at best, while lime softening removed as much as 78% from natural strontium-containing ground water. Systematic fundamental experiments showed that strontium removal during the lime-soda ash softening was related to pH, calcium concentration and dissolved inorganic carbon concentration. Final strontium concentration was also directly associated with initial strontium concentration. Precipitated solids showed well-formed crystals or agglomerates of mixed solids, two polymorphs of calcium carbonate (vaterite and calcite), and strontianite, depending on initial water quality conditions. X-ray diffraction analysis suggested that strontium likely replaced calcium inside the crystal lattice and was likely mainly responsible for removal during lime softening. To inform the public.

The association between campylobacteriosis, agriculture and drinking water: a case-case study in a region of British Columbia, Canada, 2005-2009.

PubMed

Galanis, E; Mak, S; Otterstatter, M; Taylor, M; Zubel, M; Takaro, T K; Kuo, M; Michel, P

2014-10-01

We studied the association between drinking water, agriculture and sporadic human campylobacteriosis in one region of British Columbia (BC), Canada. We compared 2992 cases of campylobacteriosis to 4816 cases of other reportable enteric diseases in 2005-2009 using multivariate regression. Cases were geocoded and assigned drinking water source, rural/urban environment and socioeconomic status (SES) according to the location of their residence using geographical information systems analysis methods. The odds of campylobacteriosis compared to enteric disease controls were higher for individuals serviced by private wells than municipal surface water systems (odds ratio 1·4, 95% confidence interval 1·1-1·8). In rural settings, the odds of campylobacteriosis were higher in November (P = 0·014). The odds of campylobacteriosis were higher in individuals aged ⩾15 years, especially in those with higher SES. In this region of BC, campylobacteriosis risk, compared to other enteric diseases, seems to be mediated by vulnerable drinking water sources and rural factors. Consideration should be given to further support well-water users and to further study the microbiological impact of agriculture on water.

Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change on Drinking Water Treatment

EPA Science Inventory

Climate change may affect both surface water and ground water quality. Increases (or decreases) in precipitation and related changes in flow can result in problematic turbidity levels, increased levels of organic matter, high levels of bacteria, virus and parasites and increased...

EXPLORATORY OCCURRENCE STUDY OF NEWLY EMERGING PATHOGENS IN POTABLE WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Recent attention has focused on the potential transmission via drinking water of two bacterial pathogens, Aeromonas and Helicobacter pylori, both of which are included in the current Contaminant Candidate List. Aeromonas bacteria occur naturally in surface waters and have been i...

RAPID CONCENTRATION OF VIRUSES FROM WATER - PHASE I

EPA Science Inventory

In the United States, several high profile outbreaks of waterborne illness during the past 15 years have highlighted the need for solutions to drinking water contamination.  Several recent studies suggest that approximately 20 percent of the surface and ground source waters...

Reduction of precursors of chlorination by-products in drinking water using fluidized-bed biofilm reactor at low temperature.

PubMed

Xie, Shu-Guang; Wen, Dong-Hui; Shi, Dong-Wen; Tang, Xiao-Yan

2006-10-01

To investigate the reduction of chlorination by-products (CBPs) precursors using the fluidized-bed biofilm reactor (FBBR). Reduction of total organic carbon (TOC), ultraviolet absorbance (UV254), trihalomethane (THM) formation potential (THMFP), haloacetic acid (HAA) formation potential (HAAFP), and ammonia in FBBR were evaluated in detail. Results The reduction of TOC or UV254 was low, on average 12.6% and 4.7%, respectively, while the reduction of THMFP and HAAFP was significant. The reduction of ammonia was 30%-40% even below 3 degrees C, however, it could quickly rise to over 50% above 3degrees C. Conclusions The FBBR effectively reduces CBPs and ammonia in drinking water even at low temperature and seems to be a very promising and competitive drinking water reactor for polluted surface source waters, especially in China.

Overview of Chemicals of Emerging Concern

EPA Science Inventory

Contaminants of emerging concern or environmental emerging contaminants, are chemicals, products and materials that are detected with increasing frequency in all environmental media including surface, ground water and drinking water. Examples of these contaminants include pharmac...

OCCURRENCE OF ENTERIC VIRUSES IN SURFACE WATERS

EPA Science Inventory

Human enteric viruses cause a number of diseases when individuals are exposed to contaminated drinking & recreational waters. Vaccination against poliovirus has virtually eliminated poliomyelitis from the planet. Other members of enterovirus group cause numerous diseases. Hepatit...

Label-Free LSPR Detection of Trace Lead(II) Ions in Drinking Water by Synthetic Poly(mPD-co-ASA) Nanoparticles on Gold Nanoislands.

PubMed

Qiu, Guangyu; Ng, Siu Pang; Liang, Xiongyi; Ding, Ning; Chen, Xiangfeng; Wu, Chi-Man Lawrence

2017-02-07

Using self-assembly gold nanoislands (SAM-AuNIs) functionalized by poly(m-phenylenediamine-co-aniline-2-sulfonic acid) (poly(mPD-co-ASA)) copolymer nanoparticles as specific receptors, a highly sensitive localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) optochemical sensor is demonstrated for detection of trace lead cation (Pb(II)) in drinking water. The copolymer receptor is optimized in three aspects: (1) mole ratio of mPD:ASA monomers, (2) size of copolymer nanoparticles, and (3) surface density of the copolymer. It is shown that the 95:5 (mPD:ASA mole ratio) copolymer with size less than 100 nm exhibits the best Pb(II)-sensing performance, and the 200 times diluted standard copolymer solution contributes to the most effective functionalization protocol. The resulting poly(mPD-co-ASA)-functionalized LSPR sensor attains the detection limit to 0.011 ppb toward Pb(II) in drinking water, and the linear dynamic range covers 0.011 to 5000 ppb (i.e., 6 orders of magnitude). In addition, the sensing system exhibits robust selectivity to Pb(II) in the presence of other metallic cations as well as common anions. The proposed functional copolymer functionalized on AuNIs is found to provide excellent Pb(II)-sensing performance using simple LSPR instrumentation for rapid drinking-water inspection.

Influence of seasonal and inter-annual hydro-meteorological variability on surface water fecal coliform concentration under varying land-use composition.

PubMed

St Laurent, Jacques; Mazumder, Asit

2014-01-01

Quantifying the influence of hydro-meteorological variability on surface source water fecal contamination is critical to the maintenance of safe drinking water. Historically, this has not been possible due to the scarcity of data on fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). We examined the relationship between hydro-meteorological variability and the most commonly measured FIB, fecal coliform (FC), concentration for 43 surface water sites within the hydro-climatologically complex region of British Columbia. The strength of relationship was highly variable among sites, but tended to be stronger in catchments with nival (snowmelt-dominated) hydro-meteorological regimes and greater land-use impacts. We observed positive relationships between inter-annual FC concentration and hydro-meteorological variability for around 50% of the 19 sites examined. These sites are likely to experience increased fecal contamination due to the projected intensification of the hydrological cycle. Seasonal FC concentration variability appeared to be driven by snowmelt and rainfall-induced runoff for around 30% of the 43 sites examined. Earlier snowmelt in nival catchments may advance the timing of peak contamination, and the projected decrease in annual snow-to-precipitation ratio is likely to increase fecal contamination levels during summer, fall, and winter among these sites. Safeguarding drinking water quality in the face of such impacts will require increased monitoring of FIB and waterborne pathogens, especially during periods of high hydro-meteorological variability. This data can then be used to develop predictive models, inform source water protection measures, and improve drinking water treatment. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Performance of conventional multi-barrier drinking water treatment plants for the removal of four artificial sweeteners.

PubMed

Scheurer, Marco; Storck, Florian R; Brauch, Heinz-J; Lange, Frank T

2010-06-01

Due to incomplete removal of artificial sweeteners in wastewater treatment plants some of these compounds end up in receiving surface waters, which are used for drinking water production. The sum of removal efficiency of single treatment steps in multi-barrier treatment systems affects the concentrations of these compounds in the provided drinking water. This is the first systematic study revealing the effectiveness of single treatment steps in laboratory experiments and in waterworks. Six full-scale waterworks using surface water influenced raw water were sampled up to ten times to study the fate of acesulfame, saccharin, cyclamate and sucralose. For the most important treatment technologies the results were confirmed by laboratory batch experiments. Saccharin and cyclamate proved to play a minor role for drinking water treatment plants as they were eliminated by nearly 100% in all waterworks with biologically active treatment units like river bank filtration (RBF) or artificial groundwater recharge. Acesulfame and sucralose were not biodegraded during RBF and their suitability as wastewater tracers under aerobic conditions was confirmed. Sucralose proved to be persistent against ozone and its transformation was < 20% in lab and field investigations. Remaining traces were completely removed by subsequent granular activated carbon (GAC) filters. Acesulfame readily reacts with ozone (pseudo first-order rate constant k = 1.3 x 10(-3) s(-1) at 1 mg L(-1) ozone concentration). However, the applied ozone concentrations and contact times under typical waterworks conditions only led to an incomplete removal (18-60%) in the ozonation step. Acesulfame was efficiently removed by subsequent GAC filters with a low throughput of less than 30 m(3) kg(-1), but removal strongly depended on the GAC preload. Thus, acesulfame was detected up to 0.76 microg L(-1) in finished water. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessment of potential climate change impacts on peatland dissolved organic carbon release and drinking water treatment from laboratory experiments.

PubMed

Tang, R; Clark, J M; Bond, T; Graham, N; Hughes, D; Freeman, C

2013-02-01

Catchments draining peat soils provide the majority of drinking water in the UK. Over the past decades, concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) have increased in surface waters. Residual DOC can cause harmful carcinogenic disinfection by-products to form during water treatment processes. Increased frequency and severity of droughts combined with and increased temperatures expected as the climate changes, have potentials to change water quality. We used a novel approach to investigate links between climate change, DOC release and subsequent effects on drinking water treatment. We designed a climate manipulation experiment to simulate projected climate changes and monitored releases from peat soil and litter, then simulated coagulation used in water treatment. We showed that the 'drought' simulation was the dominant factor altering DOC release and affected the ability to remove DOC. Our results imply that future short-term drought events could have a greater impact than increased temperature on DOC treatability. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assessment of groundwater quality in the Al- Burayhi and Hedran sub-basin, Taiz, Yemen - A GIS approach

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Naser, Ramzy; El Bakkali, Mohammed; Darwesh, Nabil; El Kharrim, Khadija; Belghyti, Driss

2018-05-01

In many parts of the world, groundwater sources are the single most important supply for the production of drinking water, particularly in areas with limited or polluted surface water sources. Fresh water has become a scarce commodity due to over exploitation and pollution of water. Many countries and international organizations, including Wolrd Health Organization, are seeking to promote people's access to safe drinking water. The situation in Yemen is no exception. Although we rely on groundwater significantly in our lives and our survival, we do not manage it in a way that ensures its sustainability and maintenance of pollution. The objective of this study is to determine the suitability of the groundwater in Al Burayhi and Hedran sub-basin (one of the sub-basins of the Upper Valley Rasyan) as a source of drinking water in the shade of the expected deterioration due to natural processes (water interaction with rocks, semi-dry climate) and human activities.

Numerical modeling of chemical spills and assessment of their environmental impacts

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

Chemical spills in surface water bodies often occur in modern societies, which cause significant impacts on water quality, eco-environment and drinking water safety. In this paper, chemical spill contamination in water resources was studied using a depth-integrated computational model, CCHE2D, for p...

How Can Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Facilities Build Resilience to Climate and Weather Induced Water Supply Variability?

EPA Science Inventory

Abstract: Water supplies are vulnerable to a host of climate- and weather-related stressors such as droughts, intense storms/flooding, snowpack depletion, sea level changes, and consequences from fires, landslides, and excessive heat or cold. Surface water resources (lakes, reser...

SURVEY OF BOTTLED WATERS FOR PERCHLORATE BY ELECTROSPRAY IONIZATION MASS SPECTROMETRY (ESI-MS) AND ION CHROMATOGRAPHY (IC)

EPA Science Inventory

Perchlorate has been identified in ground and surface waters around the US, including some that serve as supplies for drinking water. Because perchlorate salts are used as solid oxidants in rockets and ordnance, water contamination may occur near military or aerospace installatio...

Laboratory study on the adsorption of Mn(2+) on suspended and deposited amorphous Al(OH)(3) in drinking water distribution systems.

PubMed

Wang, Wendong; Zhang, Xiaoni; Wang, Hongping; Wang, Xiaochang; Zhou, Lichuan; Liu, Rui; Liang, Yuting

2012-09-01

Manganese (II) is commonly present in drinking water. This paper mainly focuses on the adsorption of manganese on suspended and deposited amorphous Al(OH)(3) solids. The effects of water flow rate and water quality parameters, including solution pH and the concentrations of Mn(2+), humic acid, and co-existing cations on adsorption were investigated. It was found that chemical adsorption mainly took place in drinking water with pHs above 7.5; suspended Al(OH)(3) showed strong adsorption capacity for Mn(2+). When the total Mn(2+) input was 3 mg/L, 1.0 g solid could accumulate approximately 24.0 mg of Mn(2+) at 15 °C. In drinking water with pHs below 7.5, because of H(+) inhibition, active reaction sites on amorphous Al(OH)(3) surface were much less. The adsorption of Mn(2+) on Al(OH)(3) changed gradually from chemical coordination to physical adsorption. In drinking water with high concentrations of Ca(2+), Mg(2+), Fe(3+), and HA, the removal of Mn(2+) was enhanced due to the effects of co-precipitation and adsorption. In solution with 1.0 mg/L HA, the residual concentration of Mn(2+) was below 0.005 mg/L, much lower than the limit value required by the Chinese Standard for Drinking Water Quality. Unlike suspended Al(OH)(3), deposited Al(OH)(3) had a much lower adsorption capacity of 0.85 mg/g, and the variation in flow rate and major water quality parameters had little effect on it. Improved managements of water age, pipe flushing and mechanical cleaning were suggested to control residual Mn(2+). Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Waters in Croatia between practice and needs: public health challenge.

PubMed

Vitale, Ksenija; Marijanović Rajcić, Marija; Senta, Ankica

2002-08-01

To describe waters monitoring in Croatia and legislation status for their evaluation, and to present health-relevant data and long-term analysis of the Drava river water, which is used in drinking water production. Survey of databanks of various Croatian institutions related to waters, and physical and chemical analysis of 13 surface water pollutants, applying HRN ISO laboratory methods. Since 1992 until 2000, water systems had 10% of contaminated samples, whereas local community and private water sources had 30% of such samples. Since 1981, 84 waterborne epidemics have been registered, affecting 7,581 people with predominantly gastrointestinal problems. The Drava river monitoring revealed that lead, cadmium, and mercury concentrations have constantly exceeded, whereas nickel and copper remained within allowed values for the Drava river to be classified into the second category of surface waters. Both nitrates and nitrites have been increasing with time, nitrates exceeding and nitrites remaining within guideline values. Total phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations also increased with time, still being below allowed maximum values. Chemical oxygen demand has been decreasing. Alkalinity has been satisfactory. Salt burden has been increasing. Both drinking water quality assessment and surface water monitoring in Croatia use less parameters then recommended by World Health Organization or signed conventions. The quality of Drava water has been improving, but still does not fully conform to the second category of surface water. More parameters should be used in its monitoring, as recommended by EU conventions and laws.

Reuse of spent granular activated carbon for organic micro-pollutant removal from treated wastewater.

PubMed

Hu, Jingyi; Shang, Ran; Heijman, Bas; Rietveld, Luuk

2015-09-01

Spent granular activated carbons (sGACs) for drinking water treatments were reused via pulverizing as low-cost adsorbents for micro-pollutant adsorption from a secondary treated wastewater effluent. The changes of physicochemical characteristics of the spent carbons in relation to the fresh carbons were determined and were correlated to the molecular properties of the respective GAC influents (i.e. a surface water and a groundwater). Pore size distribution analysis showed that the carbon pore volume decreased over a wider size range due to preloading by surface water, which contains a broader molecular weight distribution of organic matter in contrast to the groundwater. However, there was still considerable capacity available on the pulverized sGACs for atrazine adsorption in demineralized water and secondary effluent, and this was particularly the case for the groundwater spent GAC. However, as compared to the fresh counterparts, the decreased surface area and the induced surface acidic groups on the pulverized sGACs contributed both to the lower uptake and the more impeded adsorption kinetic of atrazine in the demineralized water. Nonetheless, the pulverized sGACs, especially the one preloaded by surface water, was less susceptible to adsorption competition in the secondary effluent, due to its negatively charged surface which can repulse the accessibility of the co-present organic matter. This suggests the reusability of the drinking water spent GACs for micro-pollutant adsorption in the treated wastewater. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Innovative reuse of drinking water sludge in geo-environmental applications.

PubMed

Caniani, D; Masi, S; Mancini, I M; Trulli, E

2013-06-01

In recent years, the replacement of natural raw materials with new alternative materials, which acquire an economic, energetic and environmental value, has gained increasing importance. The considerable consumption of water has favoured the increase in the number of drinking water treatment plants and, consequently, the production of drinking water sludge. This paper proposes a protocol of analyses capable of evaluating chemical characteristics of drinking water sludge from surface water treatment plants. Thereby we are able to assess their possible beneficial use for geo-environmental applications, such as the construction of barrier layers for landfill and for the formation of "bio-soils", when mixed with the stabilized organic fraction of municipal solid waste. This paper reports the results of a study aimed at evaluating the quality and environmental aspects of reconstructed soils ("bio-soil"), which are used in much greater quantities than the usual standard, for "massive" applications in environmental actions such as the final cover of landfills. The granulometric, chemical and physical analyses of the sludge and the leaching test on the stabilized organic fraction showed the suitability of the proposed materials for reuse. The study proved that the reuse of drinking water sludge for the construction of barrier layers and the formation of "bio-soils" reduces the consumption of natural materials, the demand for landfill volumes, and offers numerous technological advantages. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Heterotrophic monitoring at a drinking water treatment plant by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry after different drinking water treatments.

PubMed

Sala-Comorera, Laura; Blanch, Anicet R; Vilaró, Carles; Galofré, Belén; García-Aljaro, Cristina

2017-10-01

The aim of this work was to assess the suitability of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for routine heterotrophic monitoring in a drinking water treatment plant. Water samples were collected from raw surface water and after different treatments during two campaigns over a 1-year period. Heterotrophic bacteria were studied and isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF MS. Moreover, the diversity index and the coefficient of population similarity were also calculated using biochemical fingerprinting of the populations studied. MALDI-TOF MS enabled us to characterize and detect changes in the bacterial community composition throughout the water treatment plant. Raw water showed a large and diverse population which was slightly modified after initial treatment steps (sand filtration and ultrafiltration). Reverse osmosis had a significant impact on the microbial diversity, while the final chlorination step produced a shift in the composition of the bacterial community. Although MALDI-TOF MS could not identify all the isolates since the available MALDI-TOF MS database does not cover all the bacterial diversity in water, this technique could be used to monitor bacterial changes in drinking water treatment plants by creating a specific protein profile database for tracking purposes.

[Countermeasures for strict water quality management of drinking water sources: some thoughts and suggestions on implementing strict water resources management].

PubMed

Fu, Guo-Wei

2013-08-01

Suggestions on Carrying Out Strict Management Regulations of Water Resources were promulgated by the State Council in January, 2012. This is an important issue which has drawn public attention. I strongly support the principle and spirit of the regulations, as well as the request that governments above the county level bear the overall management responsibility. However, as to the technical route of and countermeasures for achieving strict management, several problems exist in reality. Relevant opinions and suggestions are given in this paper (the paper focuses exclusively on drinking water sources which are most in need of strict protection and management). Main opinions are as follows. (1) The sources of drinking water meeting the Class II standard in Surface Water Environment Quality Standards (GB 3838-2002) may not necessarily be unpolluted; (2) A necessary condition for protecting drinking water sources is that the effluents of enterprises' workshops discharged into the conservation zone should meet the regulation on the permitted maximum concentration of priority-I pollutants defined in the Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996); (3) There is a strong doubt about whether Class II standard in GB 3838-2002 for priority I pollutants reflects environmental background values in water.

Quality of groundwater and surface water, Wood River Valley, south-central Idaho, July and August 2012

USGS Publications Warehouse

Hopkins, Candice B.; Bartolino, James R.

2013-01-01

Residents and resource managers of the Wood River Valley of south-central Idaho are concerned about the effects that population growth might have on the quality of groundwater and surface water. As part of a multi-phase assessment of the groundwater resources in the study area, the U.S. Geological Survey evaluated the quality of water at 45 groundwater and 5 surface-water sites throughout the Wood River Valley during July and August 2012. Water samples were analyzed for field parameters (temperature, pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, and alkalinity), major ions, boron, iron, manganese, nutrients, and Escherichia coli (E.coli) and total coliform bacteria. This study was conducted to determine baseline water quality throughout the Wood River Valley, with special emphasis on nutrient concentrations. Water quality in most samples collected did not exceed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards for drinking water. E. coli bacteria, used as indicators of water quality, were detected in all five surface-water samples and in two groundwater samples collected. Some analytes have aesthetic-based recommended drinking water standards; one groundwater sample exceeded recommended iron concentrations. Nitrate plus nitrite concentrations varied, but tended to be higher near population centers and in agricultural areas than in tributaries and less populated areas. These higher nitrate plus nitrite concentrations were not correlated with boron concentrations or the presence of bacteria, common indicators of sources of nutrients to water. None of the samples collected exceeded drinking-water standards for nitrate or nitrite. The concentration of total dissolved solids varied considerably in the waters sampled; however a calcium-magnesium-bicarbonate water type was dominant (43 out of 50 samples) in both the groundwater and surface water. Three constituents that may be influenced by anthropogenic activity (chloride, boron, and nitrate plus nitrite) deviate from this pattern and show a wide distribution of concentrations in the unconfined aquifer, indicating possible anthropogenic influence. Time-series plots of historical water-quality data indicated that nitrate does not seem to be increasing or decreasing in groundwater over time; however, time-series plots of chloride concentrations indicate that chloride may be increasing in some wells. The small amount of temporal variability in nitrate concentrations indicates a lack of major temporal changes to groundwater inputs.

The concentrations of arsenic and other toxic elements in Bangladesh's drinking water.

PubMed

Frisbie, Seth H; Ortega, Richard; Maynard, Donald M; Sarkar, Bibudhendra

2002-11-01

For drinking water, the people of Bangladesh used to rely on surface water, which was often contaminated with bacteria causing diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and other life-threatening diseases. To reduce the incidences of these diseases, millions of tubewells were installed in Bangladesh since independence in 1971. This recent transition from surface water to groundwater has significantly reduced deaths from waterborne pathogens; however, new evidence suggests disease and death from arsenic (As) and other toxic elements in groundwater are affecting large areas of Bangladesh. In this evaluation, the areal and vertical distribution of As and 29 other inorganic chemicals in groundwater were determined throughout Bangladesh. This study of 30 analytes per sample and 112 samples suggests that the most significant health risk from drinking Bangladesh's tubewell water is chronic As poisoning. The As concentration ranged from < 0.0007 to 0.64 mg/L, with 48% of samples above the 0.01 mg/L World Health Organization drinking water guideline. Furthermore, this study reveals unsafe levels of manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr). Our survey also suggests that groundwater with unsafe levels of As, Mn, Pb, Ni, and Cr may extend beyond Bangladesh's border into the four adjacent and densely populated states in India. In addition to the health risks from individual toxins, possible multimetal synergistic and inhibitory effects are discussed. Antimony was detected in 98% of the samples from this study and magnifies the toxic effects of As. In contrast, Se and Zn were below our detection limits in large parts of Bangladesh and prevent the toxic effects of As.

Tracing gadolinium-based contrast agents from surface water to drinking water by means of speciation analysis.

PubMed

Birka, Marvin; Wehe, Christoph A; Hachmöller, Oliver; Sperling, Michael; Karst, Uwe

2016-04-01

In recent decades, a significant amount of anthropogenic gadolinium has been released into the environment as a result of the broad application of contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Since this anthropogenic gadolinium anomaly has also been detected in drinking water, it has become necessary to investigate the possible effect of drinking water purification on these highly polar microcontaminats. Therefore, a novel highly sensitive method for speciation analysis of gadolinium is presented. For that purpose, the hyphenation of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was employed. In order to enhance the detection power, sample introduction was carried out by ultrasonic nebulization. In combination with a novel HILIC method using a diol-based stationary phase, it was possible to achieve superior limits of detection for frequently applied gadolinium-based contrast agents below 20pmol/L. With this method, the contrast agents Gd-DTPA, Gd-DOTA and Gd-BT-DO3A were determined in concentrations up to 159pmol/L in samples from several waterworks in a densely populated region of Germany alongside the river Ruhr as well as from a waterworks near a catchment lake. Thereby, the direct impact of anthropogenic gadolinium species being present in the surface water on the amount of anthropogenic gadolinium in drinking water was shown. There was no evidence for the degradation of contrast agents, the release of Gd(3+) or the presence of further Gd species. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The erosive potential of soft drinks on enamel surface substrate: an in vitro scanning electron microscopy investigation.

PubMed

Owens, Barry M; Kitchens, Michael

2007-11-01

Using scanning electron and light microscopy, this study qualitatively evaluated the erosive potential of carbonated cola beverages as well as sports and high-energy drinks on enamel surface substrate. Beverages used in this study included: Coca Cola Classic, Diet Coke, Gatorade sports drink, Red Bull high-energy drink, and tap water (control). Extracted human permanent molars free of hypocalcification and/or caries were used in this study. The coronal portion of each tooth was removed and sectioned longitudinally from the buccal to the lingual surface. The crown sections were embedded in acrylic resin, leaving the enamel surfaces exposed. Following finishing and polishing of all surfaces, one side was covered with red nail varnish while the remaining side was exposed to individual beverage immersion for 14 days, 24 hours per day, at 37 degrees C. The specimens were evaluated for enamel surface changes using scanning electron and light microscopy. Enamel specimens exhibited visual surface changes following immersion in the test beverages with Red Bull and Gatorade revealing the most striking surface morphological changes. Specimens subjected to Coca Cola Classic and Diet Coke immersion also displayed irregular post-treatment surface morphology. As verified by microscopic evaluation, all test beverages displayed enamel dissolution in the following order: Red Bull>Gatorade>Coca-Cola Classic>Diet Coke.

CHANGES IN BACTERIAL COMPOSITION OF BIOFILM IN A METROPOLITAN DRINKING WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

EPA Science Inventory

This study examined the development of bacterial biofilms within a metropolitan distribution system. The distribution system is fed with different source water (i.e., groundwater, GW and surface water, SW) and undergoes different treatment processes in separate facilities. The b...

Removal of Estrogens and Estrogenicity through Drinking Water Treatment

EPA Science Inventory

Estrogenic compounds have been shown to be present in surface waters, leading to concerns over their possible presence in finished drining waters. In this work, two in vitro human cell line bioassays for estrogenicity were used to evaluate the removal of estrogens through conven...

THE ACCUMULATION AND RELEASE OF CONTAMINANTS FROM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM SOLIDS

EPA Science Inventory

The recently promulgated Arsenic Rule will require that many new drinking water systems treat their water to remove arsenic. Iron based treatment technologies including iron removal and iron coagulation are effective at reducing arsenic in water because iron surfaces have a stron...

PERFORMANCE OF RETENTION PONDS AND CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR ATTENUATING BACTERIAL STRESSORS

EPA Science Inventory

Microbial contamination from fecal origins in stormwater runoff poses a risk to human health through the consumption of drinking water and recreational and bathing contact with surface waters. Indicator bacteria serve as the regulatory meter by which water quality is measured and...

HEALTH RISK ISSUES RELATED TO MTBE IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Despite the attention given to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) as a contaminant in ground water and surface water, the implications of such contamination for human health have not been clearly established to date. Limitations in the databases for both exposure and health effe...

BACTERIAL SOURCE TRACKING

EPA Science Inventory

Fecal contamination of surface waters used for recreation, drinking water and aquaculture are a continuous environmental problem and pose significant human health risks. An alarming amount of the United States rivers/streams (39%), lakes (45%), and estuaries (51%) are not safe f...

INVESTIGATION OF TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS FROM THE CHLORINATION OF ESTROGENIC AND ANDROGENIC COMPOUNDS

EPA Science Inventory

Drinking water sources are increasingly impacted by upstream anthropogenic activities, including wastewater discharge, concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and landfill leachate. Androgenic and estrogenic activities have been detected in surface waters downstream from ...

Optimization of the preparation conditions of ceramic products using drinking water treatment sludges.

PubMed

Zamora, R M Ramirez; Ayala, F Espesel; Garcia, L Chavez; Moreno, A Duran; Schouwenaars, R

2008-11-01

The aim of this work is to optimize, via Response Surface Methodology, the values of the main process parameters for the production of ceramic products using sludges obtained from drinking water treatment in order to valorise them. In the first experimental stage, sludges were collected from a drinking water treatment plant for characterization. In the second stage, trials were carried out to elaborate thin cross-section specimens and fired bricks following an orthogonal central composite design of experiments with three factors (sludge composition, grain size and firing temperature) and five levels. The optimization parameters (Y(1)=shrinking by firing (%), Y(2)=water absorption (%), Y(3)=density (g/cm(3)) and Y(4)=compressive strength (kg/cm(2))) were determined according to standardized analytical methods. Two distinct physicochemical processes were active during firing at different conditions in the experimental design, preventing the determination of a full response surface, which would allow direct optimization of production parameters. Nevertheless, the temperature range for the production of classical red brick was closely delimitated by the results; above this temperature, a lightweight ceramic with surprisingly high strength was produced, opening possibilities for the valorisation of a product with considerably higher added value than what was originally envisioned.

Environmental overview and hydrogeologic conditions at Aniak, Alaska

USGS Publications Warehouse

Dorava, J.M.

1994-01-01

The remote Native village of Aniak, on the flood plain of the Kuskokwim River in southwestern Alaska, has long cold winters and short summers that affect both the hydrology of the area and the lifestyle of the residents. Aniak obtains its drinking water from a shallow aquifer in the thick alluvium underlying the village. Surface spills and disposal of hazardous materials combined with annual flooding of the Kuskokwim River may affect the quality of the ground water. Alternative drinking water sources are available but at significantly greater cost than existing supplies. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) owns or operates airport support facilities in Aniak. The subsistence lifestyle of the villagers and the quality of the current environment must be taken into consideration when the FAA evaluates options for remediation of environmental contamination at these facilities. This report describes the ground- and surface-water hydrology, geology, climate, vegetation, soils, and flood potential of the areas surrounding the FAA sites.

Groundwater Contributions to Intermittent Streamflow in a Headwater Catchment: How do Geoclimatic Controls Influence Downstream Water Quality?

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Smull, E. M.; Gooseff, M. N.; Singha, K.

2014-12-01

Hydrologic connectivity of headwater catchments affects surface water yield and quality of downstream drinking water supplies. Lower Gordon Gulch, a 2.75 km2 catchment, is part of the Boulder Creek watershed - the primary drinking water supply for the city of Boulder, Colorado. We hypothesize that the geologic and climatic environment within the catchment controls the magnitude, timing, and duration of hydrologic connection between the landscape and the stream, and thus the distribution of major ions to the surface water. Specifically, bedrock patterns, vegetation type and density, and snowpack dynamics influence how precipitation inputs move from the hillslopes to the catchment outlet. Preliminary results suggest that north-facing hillslopes with steeper slopes, deeper weathering of bedrock, denser vegetation stands, and a seasonal snowpack, provide consistently greater groundwater inputs to the stream compared to the south-facing hillslopes. We believe that this is in part due to subsurface bedrock patterns forcing a dominate cross-valley gradient. Through an extensive observation network of hillslope wells, periodic stream water balance measurements, and synoptic chemistry samples, we plan to continue our assessment of the spatio-temporal connectivity dynamics throughout the seasonal dry down (late summer through winter), during which streamflow can be intermittent. Results will help to guide landuse practices of upland catchments with respect to their role in Boulder's drinking water supply.

Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assessment in lake drinking water produced in a treatment plant.

PubMed

Buschini, Annamaria; Carboni, Pamela; Frigerio, Silvia; Furlini, Mariangela; Marabini, Laura; Monarca, Silvano; Poli, Paola; Radice, Sonia; Rossi, Carlo

2004-09-01

Chemical analyses and short-term mutagenicity bioassays have revealed the presence of genotoxic disinfection by-products in drinking water. In this study, the influence of the different steps of surface water treatment on drinking water mutagen content was evaluated. Four different samples were collected at a full-scale treatment plant: raw lake water (A), water after pre-disinfection with chlorine dioxide and coagulation (B), water after pre-disinfection, coagulation and granular activated carbon filtration (C) and tap water after post-disinfection with chlorine dioxide just before its distribution (D). Water samples, concentrated by solid phase adsorption on silica C18 columns, were tested in human leukocytes and HepG2 hepatoma cells using the comet assay and in HepG2 cells in the micronuclei test. A significant increase in DNA migration was observed in both cell types after 1 h treatment with filtered and tap water, and, to a lesser extent, chlorine dioxide pre-disinfected water. Similar findings were observed for the induction of "ghost" cells. Overloading of the carbon filter, with a consequent peak release, might explain the high genotoxicity found in water samples C and D. Cell toxicity and DNA damage increases were also detected in metabolically competent HepG2 cells treated with a lower concentration of tap water extract for a longer exposure time (24 h). None of the water extracts significantly increased micronuclei frequencies. Our monitoring approach appears to be able to detect contamination related to the different treatment stages before drinking water consumption and the results suggest the importance of improving the technologies for drinking water treatment to prevent human exposure to potential genotoxic compounds.

Projected impact of climate change and chemical emissions on the water quality of the European rivers Rhine and Meuse: A drinking water perspective.

PubMed

Sjerps, Rosa M A; Ter Laak, Thomas L; Zwolsman, Gertjan J J G

2017-12-01

Low river discharges of the rivers Rhine and Meuse are expected to occur more often and more prolonged in a changing climate. During these dry periods the dilution of point sources such as sewage effluents is reduced leading to a decline in chemical water quality. This study projects chemical water quality of the rivers Rhine and Meuse in the year 2050, based on projections of chemical emissions and two climate scenarios: moderate and fast climate change. It focuses on specific compounds known to be relevant to drinking water production, i.e. four pharmaceuticals, a herbicide and its metabolite and an artificial sweetener. Hydrological variability, climate change, and increased emission show a significant influence on the water quality in the Rhine and Meuse. The combined effect of changing future emissions of these compounds and reduced dilution due to climate change has leaded to increasing (peak) concentrations in the river water by a factor of two to four. Current water treatment efficiencies in the Netherlands are not sufficient to reduce these projected concentrations in drinking water produced from surface water below precautionary water target values. If future emissions are not sufficiently reduced or treatment efficiencies are not improved, these compounds will increasingly be found in drinking water, albeit at levels which pose no threat to human health. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in Drinking Water Samples in the North of Portugal

PubMed Central

Moreira, Maria João; Soares, Sónia; de Lurdes Delgado, Maria; Figueiredo, João; Silva, Elisabete; Castro, António; Cosa, José Manuel Correida Da

2010-01-01

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are 2 protozoan parasites responsible for waterborne diseases outbreaks worldwide. In order to assess the prevalence of these protozoans in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal and the risk of human infection, we have established a long term program aiming at pinpointing the sources of surface water, drinking water, and environmental contamination, working with the water-supply industry. Total 43 sources of drinking water samples were selected, and a total of 167 samples were analyzed using the Method 1623. Sensitivity assays regarding the genetic characterization by PCR and sequencing of the genes, 18S SSU rRNA, for Cryptosporidium spp. and β,-giardin for G. duodenalis were set in the laboratory. According to the defined criteria, molecular analysis was performed over 4 samples. Environmental stages of the protozoa were detected in 25.7% (43 out of 167) of the water samples, 8.4% (14 out of 167) with cysts of Giardia, 10.2% (17 out of 167) with oocysts of Cryptosporidium and 7.2% (12 out of 167) for both species. The mean concentrations were 0.1-12.7 oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. per 10 L and 0.1-108.3 cysts of Giardia duodenalis per 10 L. Our results suggest that the efficiency in drinking water plants must be ameliorated in their efficiency in reducing the levels of contamination. We suggest the implementation of systematic monitoring programs for both protozoa. To authors' knowledge, this is the first report evaluating the concentration of environmental stages of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal. PMID:20333284

Hydrogeology and water quality in the Graces Quarters area of Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland

USGS Publications Warehouse

Tenbus, Frederick J.; Blomquist, Joel D.

1995-01-01

Graces Quarters was used for open-air testing of chemical-warfare agents from the late 1940's until 1971. Testing and disposal activities have resulted in the contamination of ground water and surface water. The hydrogeology and water quality were examined at three test areas, four disposal sites, a bunker, and a service area on Graces Quarters. Methods of investigation included surface and borehole geophysics, water-quality sampling, water- level measurement, and hydrologic testing. The hydrogeologic framework is complex and consists of a discontinuous surficial aquifer, one or more upper confining units, and a confined aquifer system. Directions of ground-water flow vary spatially and temporally, and results of site investigations show that ground-water flow is controlled by the geology of the area. The ground water and surface water at Graces Quarters generally are unmineralized; the ground water is mildly acidic (median pH is 5.38) and poorly buffered. Inorganic constituents in excess of certain Federal drinking-water regulations and ambient water-quality criteria were detected at some sites, but they probably were present naturally. Volatile and semivolatile organic com- pounds were detected in the ground water and surface water at seven of the nine sites that were investi- gated. Concentrations of organic compounds at two of the nine sites exceeded Federal drinking-water regulations. Volatile compounds in concentrations as high as 6,000 m/L (micrograms per liter) were detected in the ground water at the site known as the primary test area. Concentrations of volatile compounds detected in the other areas ranged from 0.57 to 17 m/L.

Surface Water in Hawaii

USGS Publications Warehouse

Oki, Delwyn S.

2003-01-01

Surface water in Hawaii is a valued resource as well as a potential threat to human lives and property. The surface-water resources of Hawaii are of significant economic, ecologic, cultural, and aesthetic importance. Streams supply more than 50 percent of the irrigation water in Hawaii, and although streams supply only a few percent of the drinking water statewide, surface water is the main source of drinking water in some places. Streams also are a source of hydroelectric power, provide important riparian and instream habitats for many unique native species, support traditional and customary Hawaiian gathering rights and the practice of taro cultivation, and possess valued aesthetic qualities. Streams affect the physical, chemical, and aesthetic quality of receiving waters, such as estuaries, bays, and nearshore waters, which are critical to the tourism-based economy of the islands. Streams in Hawaii pose a danger because of their flashy nature; a stream's stage, or water level, can rise several feet in less than an hour during periods of intense rainfall. Streams in Hawaii are flashy because rainfall is intense, drainage basins are small, basins and streams are steep, and channel storage is limited. Streamflow generated during periods of heavy rainfall has led to loss of property and human lives in Hawaii. Most Hawaiian streams originate in the mountainous interiors of the islands and terminate at the coast. Streams are significant sculptors of the Hawaiian landscape because of the erosive power of the water they convey. In geologically young areas, such as much of the southern part of the island of Hawaii, well-defined stream channels have not developed because the permeability of the surface rocks generally is so high that rainfall infiltrates before flowing for significant distances on the surface. In geologically older areas that have received significant rainfall, streams and mass wasting have carved out large valleys.

Spatio-temporal evaluation of Yamchi Dam basin water quality using Canadian water quality index.

PubMed

Farzadkia, Mahdi; Djahed, Babak; Shahsavani, Esmaeel; Poureshg, Yousef

2015-04-01

In recent years, the growth of population and increase of the industries around the tributaries of Yamchi Dam basin have led to deterioration of dam water quality. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of the Yamchi Dam basin water, which is used for drinking and irrigation consumptions using Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI) model, and to determine the main water pollution sources of this basin. Initially, nine sampling stations were selected in the sensitive locations of the mentioned basin's tributaries, and 12 physico-chemical parameters and 2 biological parameters were measured. The CWQI for drinking consumptions was under 40 at all the stations indicating a poor water quality for drinking consumptions. On the other hand, the CWQI was 62-100 for irrigation at different stations; thus, the water had an excellent to fair quality for irrigation consumptions. Almost in all the stations, the quality of irrigation and drinking water in cold season was better. Besides, for drinking use, total coliform and fecal coliform had the highest frequency of failure, and total coliform had the maximum deviation from the specified objective. For irrigation use, total suspended solids had the highest frequency of failure and deviation from the objective in most of the stations. The pisciculture center, aquaculture center, and the Nir City wastewater discharge were determined as the main pollution sources of the Yamchi Dam basin. Therefore, to improve the water quality in this important surface water resource, urban and industrial wastewater treatment prior to disposal and more stringent environmental legislations are recommended.

Surface hardness evaluation of different composite resin materials: influence of sports and energy drinks immersion after a short-term period

PubMed Central

ERDEMİR, Ugur; YİLDİZ, Esra; EREN, Meltem Mert; OZEL, Sevda

2013-01-01

Objectives: This study evaluated the effect of sports and energy drinks on the surface hardness of different composite resin restorative materials over a 1-month period. Material and Methods: A total of 168 specimens: Compoglass F, Filtek Z250, Filtek Supreme, and Premise were prepared using a customized cylindrical metal mould and they were divided into six groups (N=42; n=7 per group). For the control groups, the specimens were stored in distilled water for 24 hours at 37º C and the water was renewed daily. For the experimental groups, the specimens were immersed in 5 mL of one of the following test solutions: Powerade, Gatorade, X-IR, Burn, and Red Bull, for two minutes daily for up to a 1-month test period and all the solutions were refreshed daily. Surface hardness was measured using a Vickers hardness measuring instrument at baseline, after 1-week and 1-month. Data were statistically analyzed using Multivariate repeated measure ANOVA and Bonferroni's multiple comparison tests (α=0.05). Results: Multivariate repeated measures ANOVA revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the hardness of the restorative materials in different immersion times (p<0.001) in different solutions (p<0.001). The effect of different solutions on the surface hardness values of the restorative materials was tested using Bonferroni's multiple comparison tests, and it was observed that specimens stored in distilled water demonstrated statistically significant lower mean surface hardness reductions when compared to the specimens immersed in sports and energy drinks after a 1-month evaluation period (p<0.001). The compomer was the most affected by an acidic environment, whereas the composite resin materials were the least affected materials. Conclusions: The effect of sports and energy drinks on the surface hardness of a restorative material depends on the duration of exposure time, and the composition of the material. PMID:23739850

Effect of pH and Pressure on Uranium Removal from Drinking Water Using NF/RO Membranes.

PubMed

Schulte-Herbrüggen, Helfrid M A; Semião, Andrea J C; Chaurand, Perrine; Graham, Margaret C

2016-06-07

Groundwater is becoming an increasingly important drinking water source. However, the use of groundwater for potable purposes can lead to chronic human exposure to geogenic contaminants, for example, uranium. Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) processes are used for drinking water purification, and it is important to understand how contaminants interact with membranes since accumulation of contaminants to the membrane surface can lead to fouling, performance decline and possible breakthrough of contaminants. During the current study laboratory experiments were conducted using NF (TFC-SR2) and RO (BW30) membranes to establish the behavior of uranium across pH (3-10) and pressure (5-15 bar) ranges. The results showed that important determinants of uranium-membrane sorption interactions were (i) the uranium speciation (uranium species valence and size in relation to membrane surface charge and pore size) and (ii) concentration polarization, depending on the pH values. The results show that it is important to monitor sorption of uranium to membranes, which is controlled by pH and concentration polarization, and, if necessary, adjust those parameters controlling uranium sorption.

Formation of biofilms in drinking water distribution networks, a case study in two cities in Finland and Latvia.

PubMed

Lehtola, Markku J; Juhna, Tālis; Miettinen, Ilkka T; Vartiainen, Terttu; Martikainen, Pertti J

2004-12-01

The formation of biofilms in drinking water distribution networks is a significant technical, aesthetic and hygienic problem. In this study, the effects of assimilable organic carbon, microbially available phosphorus (MAP), residual chlorine, temperature and corrosion products on the formation of biofilms were studied in two full-scale water supply systems in Finland and Latvia. Biofilm collectors consisting of polyvinyl chloride pipes were installed in several waterworks and distribution networks, which were supplied with chemically precipitated surface waters and groundwater from different sources. During a 1-year study, the biofilm density was measured by heterotrophic plate counts on R2A-agar, acridine orange direct counting and ATP-analyses. A moderate level of residual chlorine decreased biofilm density, whereas an increase of MAP in water and accumulated cast iron corrosion products significantly increased biofilm density. This work confirms, in a full-scale distribution system in Finland and Latvia, our earlier in vitro finding that biofilm formation is affected by the availability of phosphorus in drinking water.

Effects of Sachet Water Consumption on Exposure to Microbe-Contaminated Drinking Water: Household Survey Evidence from Ghana

PubMed Central

Wright, Jim; Dzodzomenyo, Mawuli; Wardrop, Nicola A.; Johnston, Richard; Hill, Allan; Aryeetey, Genevieve; Adanu, Richard

2016-01-01

There remain few nationally representative studies of drinking water quality at the point of consumption in developing countries. This study aimed to examine factors associated with E. coli contamination in Ghana. It drew on a nationally representative household survey, the 2012−2013 Living Standards Survey 6, which incorporated a novel water quality module. E. coli contamination in 3096 point-of-consumption samples was examined using multinomial regression. Surface water use was the strongest risk factor for high E. coli contamination (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 32.3, p < 0.001), whilst packaged (sachet or bottled) water use had the greatest protective effect (RRR = 0.06, p < 0.001), compared to water piped to premises. E. coli contamination followed plausible patterns with digit preference (tendency to report values ending in zero) in bacteria counts. The analysis suggests packaged drinking water use provides some protection against point-of-consumption E. coli contamination and may therefore benefit public health. It also suggests viable water quality data can be collected alongside household surveys, but field protocols require further revision. PMID:27005650

Effects of Sachet Water Consumption on Exposure to Microbe-Contaminated Drinking Water: Household Survey Evidence from Ghana.

PubMed

Wright, Jim; Dzodzomenyo, Mawuli; Wardrop, Nicola A; Johnston, Richard; Hill, Allan; Aryeetey, Genevieve; Adanu, Richard

2016-03-09

There remain few nationally representative studies of drinking water quality at the point of consumption in developing countries. This study aimed to examine factors associated with E. coli contamination in Ghana. It drew on a nationally representative household survey, the 2012-2013 Living Standards Survey 6, which incorporated a novel water quality module. E. coli contamination in 3096 point-of-consumption samples was examined using multinomial regression. Surface water use was the strongest risk factor for high E. coli contamination (relative risk ratio (RRR) = 32.3, p < 0.001), whilst packaged (sachet or bottled) water use had the greatest protective effect (RRR = 0.06, p < 0.001), compared to water piped to premises. E. coli contamination followed plausible patterns with digit preference (tendency to report values ending in zero) in bacteria counts. The analysis suggests packaged drinking water use provides some protection against point-of-consumption E. coli contamination and may therefore benefit public health. It also suggests viable water quality data can be collected alongside household surveys, but field protocols require further revision.

Comparing activated alumina with indigenous laterite and bauxite as potential sorbents for removing fluoride from drinking water in Ghana

USGS Publications Warehouse

Craig, Laura; Stillings, Lisa; Decker, David L.; Thomas, James M.

2015-01-01

Fluoride is considered beneficial to teeth and bones when consumed in low concentrations, but at elevated concentrations it can cause dental and skeletal fluorosis. Most fluoride-related health problems occur in poor, rural communities of the developing world where groundwater fluoride concentrations are high and the primary sources of drinking water are from community hand-pump borehole drilled wells. One solution to drinking high fluoride water is to attach a simple de-fluoridation filter to the hand-pump; and indigenous materials have been recommended as low-cost sorbents for use in these filters. In an effort to develop an effective, inexpensive, and low-maintenance de-fluoridation filter for a high fluoride region in rural northern Ghana, this study conducted batch fluoride adsorption experiments and potentiometric titrations to investigate the effectiveness of indigenous laterite and bauxite as sorbents for fluoride removal. It also determined the physical and chemical properties of each sorbent. Their properties and the experimental results, including fluoride adsorption capacity, were then compared to those of activated alumina, which has been identified as a good sorbent for removing fluoride from drinking water. The results indicate that, of the three sorbents, bauxite has the highest fluoride adsorption capacity per unit area, but is limited by a low specific surface area. When considering fluoride adsorption per unit weight, activated alumina has the highest fluoride adsorption capacity because of its high specific surface area. Activated alumina also adsorbs fluoride well in a wider pH range than bauxite, and particularly laterite. The differences in adsorption capacity are largely due to surface area, pore size, and mineralogy of the sorbent.

SERS as an analytical tool in environmental science: The detection of sulfamethoxazole in the nanomolar range by applying a microfluidic cartridge setup.

PubMed

Patze, Sophie; Huebner, Uwe; Liebold, Falk; Weber, Karina; Cialla-May, Dana; Popp, Juergen

2017-01-01

Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is a commonly applied antibiotic for treating urinary tract infections; however, allergic reactions and skin eczema are known side effects that are observed for all sulfonamides. Today, this molecule is present in drinking and surface water sources. The allowed concentration in tap water is 2·10 -7  mol L -1 . SMX could unintentionally be ingested by healthy people when drinking contaminated tap water, representing unnecessary drug intake. To assess the quality of tap water, fast, specific and sensitive detection methods are required, in which consequence measures for improving the purification of water might be initiated in the short term. Herein, the quantitative detection of SMX down to environmentally and physiologically relevant concentrations in the nanomolar range by employing surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and a microfluidic cartridge system is presented. By applying surface-water samples as matrices, the detection of SMX down to 2.2·10 -9  mol L -1 is achieved, which illustrates the great potential of our proposed method in environmental science. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

WET DEMONSTRATION WORKSHOP ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM, MICROSPORIDIA, AND GIARDIA IN DRINKING WATER

EPA Science Inventory

This method is for determination of the identity and concentration of Cryptosporidium (CAS Registry number 137259-50-8) and Giardia (CAS Registry number 137259-49-5) in untreated surface water and in other waters by filtration, immunomagnetic separation (IMS), and immunofluoresce...

SENSITIVITY OF DIFFERENT AEROMONAS SPECIES TO COPPER AND SILVER

EPA Science Inventory

Aeromonas bacteria are common flora in surface and ground waters and are considered to be human pathogens. They can also be found in municipally treated drinking water, likely as a component of biofilms, as found in distribution system pipes and point of use water filters. It ...

WATER SECURITY MONITORING USING SURFACE-ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY - PHASE I

EPA Science Inventory

Clean drinking water is a critical component of the United States infrastructure and is therefore a potential target for terrorists. In addition to physical attacks to the water network including dams, pumping stations and pipelines, there must be vigilance to prevent the wate...

Health Risk Assessment of Cyanobacterial (Blue-green Algal) Toxins in Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Falconer, Ian R.; Humpage, Andrew R.

2005-01-01

Cyanobacterial toxins have caused human poisoning in the Americas, Europe and Australia. There is accumulating evidence that they are present in treated drinking water supplies when cyanobacterial blooms occur in source waters. With increased population pressure and depleted groundwater reserves, surface water is becoming more used as a raw water source, both from rivers and lakes/reservoirs. Additional nutrients in water which arise from sewage discharge, agricultural run-off or storm water result in overabundance of cyanobacteria, described as a ‘water bloom’. The majority of cyanobacterial water-blooms are of toxic species, producing a diversity of toxins. The most important toxins presenting a risk to the human population are the neurotoxic alkaloids (anatoxins and paralytic shellfish poisons), the cyclic peptide hepatotoxins (microcystins) and the cytotoxic alkaloids (cylindrospermopsins). At the present time the only cyanobacteral toxin family that have been internationally assessed for health risk by the WHO are the microcystins, which cause acute liver injury and are active tumour promoters. Based on sub-chronic studies in rodents and pigs, a provisional Guideline Level for drinking water of 1μg/L of microcystin-LR has been determined. This has been adopted in legislation in countries in Europe, South America and Australasia. This may be revised in the light of future teratogenicity, reproductive toxicity and carcinogenicity studies. The other cyanobacterial toxin which has been proposed for detailed health risk assessment is cylindrospermopsin, a cytotoxic compound which has marked genotoxicity, probable mutagenicity, and is a potential carcinogen. This toxin has caused human poisoning from drinking water, and occurs in water supplies in the USA, Europe, Asia, Australia and South America. An initial health risk assessment is presented with a proposed drinking water Guideline Level of 1μg/L. There is a need for both increased monitoring data for toxins in drinking water and epidemiological studies on adverse health effects in exposed populations to clarify the extent of the health risk. PMID:16705800

Characterization of the Cell Surface Properties of Drinking Water Pathogens by Microbial Adhesion to Hydrocarbon and Electrophoretic Mobility Measurements

EPA Science Inventory

The surface characteristics of microbial cells directly influence their mobility and behavior within aqueous environments. The cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) and electrophoretic mobility (EPM) of microbial cells impact a number of interactions and processes including aggregati...

Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl sulfonates and carboxylates in German drinking water sources compared to other countries.

PubMed

Lange, F T; Wenz, M; Schmidt, C K; Brauch, H-J

2007-01-01

Different homologues of C4 to C8 perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFASs) were detected in German surface waters, bank filtrates, artificially recharged groundwaters, and drinking waters. If no point sources are located nearby, the typically measured levels are in the low ng/L range. In the presence of point sources, such as a fluorochemical production site, a leaching agricultural fertilizer contaminated with PFCAs and PFASs, or drained PFC containing fire-fighting foams, much higher concentrations in the microg/L range occur. This situation is similar in Germany and other countries.

Assessing the infection risk of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in public drinking water delivered by surface water systems in Sao Paulo State, Brazil.

PubMed

Sato, Maria Ines Z; Galvani, Ana Tereza; Padula, Jose Antonio; Nardocci, Adelaide Cassia; Lauretto, Marcelo de Souza; Razzolini, Maria Tereza Pepe; Hachich, Elayse Maria

2013-01-01

A survey of Giardia and Cryptosporidium was conducted in surface water used as drinking water sources by public water systems in four densely urbanized regions of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment, based on protozoa concentrations, was performed to estimate the probability of protozoa infection associated with drinking water ingestion. A total of 206 source water samples were analyzed over a 24 month period using the USEPA Method 1623. The risk of infection was estimated using an exponential dose response model, children and adults exposure and a gamma distribution for (oo)cyst concentrations with three scenarios for treating censored data. Giardia was detected in 102 of the samples, and 19 of them were also positive for Cryptosporidium, with maximum concentrations of 97.0 cysts/L and 6.0 oocysts/L, respectively. Risk distributions were similar for the three scenarios. In the four regions, the estimated risk of Giardia infection per year, for adults and children, ranged from 0.29% to 2.47% and from 0.08% to 0.70%, respectively. Cryptosporidium risk infection varied from 0.15% to 0.29% for adults and from 0.04% to 0.08% for children. In both cases, the calculated risk surpassed the risk of infection of 10(-4) (1:10,000) defined as tolerable by USEPA for a yearly exposure. The probability of Giardia infection was very close to the rates of acute diarrheic disease for adults (1% to 3%) but lower for children (2% to 7%). The daily consumption of drinking water was an important contributing factor for these differences. The Microbiological Risk Assessment carried out in this study provides an indication of infection risks by Giardia and Cryptosporidium in the population served by these source waters. Strategies for source water protection and performance targets for the water treatment should be established to achieve the required level of public health risk. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy as a tool investigating arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) sorption by an aluminum-based drinking-water treatment residual.

PubMed

Makris, Konstantinos C; Sarkar, Dibyendu; Parsons, Jason G; Datta, Rupali; Gardea-Torresdey, Jorge L

2009-11-15

Historic applications of arsenical pesticides to agricultural land have resulted in accumulation of residual arsenic (As) in such soils. In situ immobilization represents a cost-effective and least ecological disrupting treatment technology for soil As. Earlier work in our laboratory showed that drinking-water treatment residuals (WTRs), a low-cost, waste by-product of the drinking-water treatment process exhibit a high affinity for As. Wet chemical experiments (sorption kinetics and desorption) were coupled with X-ray absorption spectroscopy measurements to elucidate the bonding strength and type of As(V) and As(III) sorption by an aluminum-based WTR. A fast (1h), followed by a slower sorption stage resulted in As(V) and As(III) sorption capacities of 96% and 77%, respectively. Arsenic desorption with a 5mM oxalate from the WTR was minimal, being always <4%. X-ray absorption spectroscopy data showed inner-sphere complexation between As and surface hydroxyls. Reaction time (up to 48h) had no effect on the initial As oxidation state for sorbed As(V) and As(III). A combination of inner-sphere bonding types occurred between As and Al on the WTR surface because mixed surface geometries and interatomic distances were observed.

Gee-Wow! Adventures in Water Education. Second Edition.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Ward, Tara, Ed.

In February of 1990, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources identified 2,662 sites of soil and groundwater contamination in the state of Michigan alone. Half of all United States residents and one quarter of the Canadian population used ground water as their primary source of drinking water. Groundwater and surface water are integrally…

Tribal water utility management

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Not Available

1993-03-01

Contents: primacy program (what is primacy, advantages and disadvantages, treatment as a state, grant applications and funding); safe drinking water act (sampling requirements, coliform standard, public notification, surface water treatment rule impacts, uic and wellhead protection programs, lead/copper rule); water utility management (how is the utility program evaluated, who's responsible, what is the board and tribal council role).

76 FR 63296 - Notice of Tentative Approval and Opportunity for Public Comment and Public Hearing for Public...

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2011-10-12

... Public Comment and Public Hearing for Public Water System Supervision Program Revision for Maryland... approved Public Water System Supervision Program. Maryland has adopted drinking water regulations for the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2), the Lead and Copper Rule Short Term Revisions...

MICROBIAL SOURCE TRACKING - 2005

EPA Science Inventory

Fecal contamination of surface waters used for recreation, drinking water and aquaculture are a continuous environmental problem and pose significant human health risks. An alarming amount of the United States rivers/streams (39%), lakes (45%), and estuaries (51%) are not safe f...

MICROBIAL SOURCE TRACKING GUIDE

EPA Science Inventory

Fecal contamination of surface waters used for recreation, drinking water and aquaculture are a continuous environmental problem and pose significant human health risks. An alarming amount of the United States rivers/streams (39%), lakes (45%), and estuaries (51%) are not safe f...

BACTERIAL SOURCE TRACKING

EPA Science Inventory

Fecal contamination of surface waters used for recreation, drinking water and aquaculture are a continuous environmental problem and pose significant human health risks. An alarming amount of the US rivers/streams (39%) lakes (45%), and estuaries (51%) are not safe for fishing an...

MICROBIAL SOURCE TRACKING - 101

EPA Science Inventory

Fecal contamination of surface waters used for recreation, drinking water and aquaculture are a continuous environmental problem and pose significant human health risks. Today, a large portion of the United States rivers/streams (39%), lakes (45%), and estuaries (51%) are not saf...

Monitoring the prevalence of nitrosamines in South African waters and their removal using cyclodextrin polyurethanes

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Mhlongo, Sthembile H.; Mamba, Bhekie B.; Krause, Rui W.

The prevalence of nitrosamines, especially N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), was monitored in three South African water supplies. NDMA a disinfection by-product (DBP) and potent carcinogen, has recently been detected in many drinking water supplies internationally. Besides direct industrial or human-derived contamination, nitrosodimethylamine can be formed through a chemical reaction between monochloroamine and an organic based compound such as dimethylamine which is frequently detected in surface water. It has been suggested that chloramination of surface waters with a high concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) could result in elevated NDMA formation. Growing evidence suggests that NDMA occurs more frequently and at higher concentrations in drinking water systems that practise chloramination compared to systems that use chlorination. In gauging the extent of water contamination by nitrosamines in water distribution systems, especially NDMA, water samples collected from three different water treatment plants that practise chemical drinking water disinfection were qualitatively analysed for the presence of nitrosamines. Solid phase microextraction (SPME) was employed in the extraction of nitrosamines from the water samples and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), was used in the analysis of the water samples. Trace amounts of NDMA were detected at one of the water treatment plants and in the distribution network. The application of water-insoluble cyclodextrin (CD) polymers in the removal of nitrosamines and potential amine precursors from the water samples was tested. Quantitative removal of NDMA (based on peak area) from the water samples was achieved which suggests that in the water treatment train the use of these nanosponges can be applied in the mitigation of trace contaminants such as NDMA.

Removal of Inorganic, Microbial, and Particulate Contaminants from a Fresh Surface Water: Village Marine Tec. Expeditionary Unit Water Purifier, Generation 1

EPA Science Inventory

The Village Marine Tec. Generation 1 Expeditionary Unit Water Purifier (EUWP) is a mobile skid-mounted system employing ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO) to produce drinking water from a variety of different water quality sources. The UF components were evaluated to t...

Nephrotoxic contaminants in drinking water and urine, and chronic kidney disease in rural Sri Lanka.

PubMed

Rango, Tewodros; Jeuland, Marc; Manthrithilake, Herath; McCornick, Peter

2015-06-15

Chronic kidney disease of unknown ("u") cause (CKDu) is a growing public health concern in Sri Lanka. Prior research has hypothesized a link with drinking water quality, but rigorous studies are lacking. This study assesses the relationship between nephrotoxic elements (namely arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and uranium (U)) in drinking water, and urine samples collected from individuals with and/or without CKDu in endemic areas, and from individuals without CKDu in nonendemic areas. All water samples - from a variety of source types (i.e. shallow and deep wells, springs, piped and surface water) - contained extremely low concentrations of nephrotoxic elements, and all were well below drinking water guideline values. Concentrations in individual urine samples were higher than, and uncorrelated with, those measured in drinking water, suggesting potential exposure from other sources. Mean urinary concentrations of these elements for individuals with clinically diagnosed CKDu were consistently lower than individuals without CKDu both in endemic and nonendemic areas. This likely stems from the inability of the kidney to excrete these toxic elements via urine in CKDu patients. Urinary concentrations of individuals were also found to be within the range of reference values measured in urine of healthy unexposed individuals from international biomonitoring studies, though these reference levels may not be safe for the Sri Lankan population. The results suggest that CKDu cannot be clearly linked with the presence of these contaminants in drinking water. There remains a need to investigate potential interactions of low doses of these elements (particularly Cd and As) with other risk factors that appear linked to CKDu, prior to developing public health strategies to address this illness. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Towards global Guinea worm eradication in 2015: the experience of South Sudan.

PubMed

Awofeso, Niyi

2013-08-01

For centuries, the Guinea worm parasite (Dracunculus medinensis) has caused disabling misery, infecting people who drink stagnant water contaminated with the worm's larvae. In 2012, there were 542 cases of Guinea worm reported globally, of which 521 (96.1%) were reported in South Sudan. Protracted civil wars, an inadequate workforce, neglect of potable water provision programs, suboptimal Guinea worm surveillance and case containment, and fragmented health systems account for many of the structural and operational factors encumbering South Sudan's Guinea worm eradication efforts. This article reviews the impacts of six established Guinea worm control strategies in South Sudan: (1) surveillance to determine actual caseload distribution and trends in response to control measures; (2) educating community members from whom worms are emerging to avoid immersing affected parts in sources of drinking water; (3) filtering potentially contaminated drinking water using cloth filters or filtered drinking straws; (4) treating potentially contaminated surface water with the copepod larvicide temephos (Abate); (5) providing safe drinking water from boreholes or hand-dug wells; and (6) containment of transmission through voluntary isolation of each patient to prevent contamination of drinking water sources, provision of first aid, and manual extraction of the worm. Surveillance, community education, potable water provision, and case containment remain weak facets of the program. Abate pesticide is not a viable option for Guinea worm control in South Sudan. In light of current case detection and containment trends, as well as capacity building efforts for Guinea worm eradication, South Sudan is more likely to eradicate Guinea worm by 2020, rather than by 2015. The author highlights areas in which substantial improvements are required in South Sudan's Guinea worm eradication program, and suggests improvement strategies. Copyright © 2013 International Society for Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Determination of perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) in drinking water from the Netherlands and Greece.

PubMed

Zafeiraki, Effrosyni; Costopoulou, Danae; Vassiliadou, Irene; Leondiadis, Leondios; Dassenakis, Emmanouil; Traag, Wim; Hoogenboom, Ron L A P; van Leeuwen, Stefan P J

2015-01-01

In the present study 11 perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) were analysed in drinking tap water samples from the Netherlands (n = 37) and from Greece (n = 43) by applying LC-MS/MS and isotope dilution. PFASs concentrations above the limit of quantification, LOQ (0.6 ng/l) were detected in 20.9% of the samples from Greece. Total PFAS concentrations ranged between 8) were only rarely detected. In the drinking water samples from the eastern part of the Netherlands, where drinking water is sourced from groundwater reservoirs, no PFASs were detected. This demonstrates that exposure to PFASs through drinking water in the Netherlands is dependent on the source. Additionally, five samples of bottled water from each country were analysed in the current study, with all of them originating from ground wells. In these samples, all PFASs were below the LOQ.

Preliminary post-tsunami water quality survey in Phang-Nga province, southern Thailand.

PubMed

Tharnpoophasiam, Prapin; Suthisarnsuntorn, Usanee; Worakhunpiset, Suwalee; Charoenjai, Prasasana; Tunyong, Witawat; Phrom-In, Suvannee; Chattanadee, Siriporn

2006-01-01

This preliminary water quality survey was performed eight weeks after the tsunami hit Phang-Nga Province on 26 December 2004. Water samples collected from the affected area, 10 km parallel to the seaside, were compared with water samples from the control area approximately 4 km from the seaside, which the tsunami waves could not reach. These samples included 18 surface-water samples, 37 well-water samples, and 8 drinking-water samples, which were examined for microbiology and physical-chemical properties. The microbiological examinations focused on enteric bacteria, which were isolated by culture method, while physical-chemical properties comprised on-site testing for pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS) by portable electrochemical meter (Sens Ion 156). The results of the microbiological examinations showed that water samples in the affected areas were more contaminated with enteric bacteria than the control area: 45.4% of surface-water samples in the affected area, and 40.0% in the control; 19.0% of well-water samples in the affected area, and 7.7% in the control. All eight drinking-water samples were clear of enteric bacteria. Tests for physical-chemical properties showed that the salinity, pH, conductivity, and TDS of surface-water samples from the affected area were significantly higher than the control. The salinity, conductivity, and TDS of the well-water samples from the affected areas were also significantly greater than those from the control area. The surface and well water in the tsunami-affected area have been changed greatly and need improvement.

Biofilm growth in response to various concentrations of biodegradable material in drinking water.

PubMed

Schaule, Gabriela; Moschnitschka, Dania; Schulte, Simone; Tamachkiarow, Adriana; Flemming, Hans-Curt

2007-01-01

Biological stability is one of the most important aspects of safe drinking water. It depends crucially on the availability of biodegradable organic carbon (BDOC). Measurement of BDOC is time-consuming and only performed if an increase is suspected. In this study, a fibre optical sensor (FOS) was used to detect changes in BDOC, detected as an increase in biofilm growth. The FOS consists of a sending and a receiving optical fibre, the latter connected to a detector. When material is deposited at the tip of the fibre, an increase of backscattered light is detected. In a system fed with drinking water, the signal was correlated to biofilm growth which was confirmed by independent surface colonisation determination. When 1 and 3mgL(-1) of BDOC respectively was added, the increment of the FOS signal over a period of 1 week could be distinguished. Interference by planktonic components and humic substances could be excluded. The biofilm on the FOS could be used as a means to detect changes in BDOC in drinking water and the signal has an early warning capacity.

Comparing the microbial risks associated with household drinking water supplies used in peri-urban communities of Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

PubMed

Thomas, K; McBean, E; Shantz, A; Murphy, H M

2015-03-01

Most Cambodians lack access to a safe source of drinking water. Piped distribution systems are typically limited to major urban centers in Cambodia, and the remaining population relies on a variety of surface, rain, and groundwater sources. This study examines the household water supplies available to Phnom Penh's resettled peri-urban residents through a case-study approach of two communities. A quantitative microbial risk assessment is performed to assess the level of diarrheal disease risk faced by community members due to microbial contamination of drinking water. Risk levels found in this study exceed those associated with households consuming piped water. Filtered and boiled rain and tank water stored in a kettle, bucket/cooler, bucket with spigot or a 500 mL bottle were found to provide risk levels within one order-of-magnitude to the piped water available in Phnom Penh. Two primary concerns identified are the negation of the risk reductions gained by boiling due to prevailing poor storage practices and the use of highly contaminated source water.

[Analysis on the exposure level and geographic distribution trend of toxicological indicators in rural drinking water, Shandong Province, in 2015].

PubMed

Shi, F; Lyu, S P; Kong, F L; Yang, X T; Zhou, J Y

2017-09-06

Objective: To analyze the exposure level and the geographical distribution trend of toxicological indicators of rural drinking water in Shandong Province. Methods: The drawing method was used to randomly select no less than 60% villages and towns from 137 counties (cities, districts) of 17 cities in Shandong Province in 2015, and then 1-3 rural centralized water supply units were selected according to the circumstance of rural centralized water supply units in each village and town. In total, 735 villages and towns, 1 473 rural centralized water supply units were selected, and 1 473 water samples were collected. The water treatment process, water supply population and other circumstances of the rural centralized water supply units were investigated, the water quality was monitored, the content of toxicological indicators of drinking water in different areas was compared, and the trend surface isogram of excessive toxicological indicators was drawn. Results: The qualified rate of toxicological indicators in 1 473 water samples was 83.64% ( n =1 232). The main toxicological indicators that affected the qualified rate of toxicological indicators of drinking water in rural areas in Shandong Province were nitrate and fluoride. The excessive rate of fluoride was 5.70% ( n =84) and the exposed population was 1 736 709 (4.22%). The excessive rate of nitrate (as nitrogen) was 12.29% ( n =181) and the exposed population was 1 393 612 (3.39%). The P (5)0 content of fluoride in the eastern, middle and western regions was 0.24, 0.29 and 0.59 mg/L, respective;which was higher in the western region than in the east and the middle regions ( P< 0.05). There was no significant difference between the eastern and the middle regions ( P> 0.05). The P (50) content of nitrate (as nitrogen) in the eastern, middle and western regions was 8.00, 7.48, and 2.00 mg/L, which was higher in the eastern and middle regions than in the west region ( P< 0.05), there was no significant difference between the eastern and the middle regions ( P> 0.05). The trend surface isogram of nitrate and fluoride content showed that the content of nitrate (as nitrogen) in rural drinking water in the eastern region was significantly higher than that in the western region, especially there was a high peak area in the northeastern region, and this high content distribution extended diagonally to the central region, while the other regions were in a relatively low range. The content of fluoride in rural drinking water in the western region was significantly higher than that in the eastern region, and there were high peaks in the southwest and northwest regions, and the other regions were in a relatively low range. Conclusion: The high exposed toxicological indicators in rural drinking water in Shandong Province were nitrate (as nitrogen) and fluoride, and their distribution showed obvious geographical distribution trend.

Odor Events in Surface and Treated Water: The Case of 1,3-Dioxane Related Compounds.

PubMed

Quintana, Jordi; Vegué, Lídia; Martín-Alonso, Jordi; Paraira, Miquel; Boleda, M Rosa; Ventura, Francesc

2016-01-05

A study has been carried out to identify the origin of the odorous compounds at trace levels detected in surface waters and in Barcelona's tap water (NE Spain) which caused consumer complaints. The malodorous compounds were 2,5,5-trimethyl-1,3-dioxane (TMD) and 2-ethyl-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (2EDD) which impart a distinctive sickening or olive-oil odor to drinking water at low ng/L levels. Flavor profile analysis (FPA) or threshold odor number (TON) were used for organoleptic purposes. Levels up to 749 ng/L for TMD and 658 ng/L for 2EDD were measured at the entrance of the drinking water treatment plant. Three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) using industrial byproducts coming from resin manufacturing plants to promote codigestion were found to be the origin of the event. Corrective measures were applied, including the prohibition to use these byproducts for codigestion in the WWTPs involved. A similar event was already recorded in the same area 20 years ago.

Link Climate Effects to Surface Water Quality and Drinking Water Plant Adaptation - A Update on Hydroclimatic Province and WTP-ccam Model

EPA Science Inventory

Key points in this presentation are: (1) How and why hydroclimatic province can help precipitation projection for water program engineering and management, (2) Implications of initial research results and planned further monitoring / research activities, (3) Five adaptation t...

Influence of Land Use and Watershed Characteristics on Protozoa Contamination in a Potential Drinking Water Resources Reservoir

EPA Science Inventory

Relative changes in the microbial quality of Lake Texoma, on the border of Texas and Oklahoma, were investigated by monitoring protozoan pathogens, fecal indicators, and factors influencing the intensity of the microbiological contamination of surface water reservoirs. The waters...

Design and construction of phosphorus removal structures for improving water quality

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

Phosphorus (P) input to surface waters is considered the most limiting nutrient with regard to eutrophication. The result has been a negative impact on recreation, ecosystem diversity, drinking water treatment, and the associated economics of each. Depending on region, over 50% of P inputs to surfa...

Integrated Data Fusion and Mining Techniques for Monitoring Total Organic Carbon Concentrations in a Lake

EPA Science Inventory

Total organic carbon (TOC) in surface waters, markedly of seasonal variations, is a known precursor of disinfection byproducts such as Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM) in drinking water treatment. Real-time knowledge of TOC distribution in source water can help treatment operation to...

The effect of interactions between a bacterial strain isolated from drinking water and a pathogen surrogate on biofilms formation diverged under static vs flow conditions.

PubMed

Dai, D; Raskin, L; Xi, C

2017-12-01

Interactions with water bacteria affect the incorporation of pathogens into biofilms and thus pathogen control in drinking water systems. This study was to examine the impact of static vs flow conditions on interactions between a pathogen and a water bacterium on pathogen biofilm formation under laboratory settings. A pathogen surrogate Escherichia coli and a drinking water isolate Stenotrophomonas maltophilia was selected for this study. Biofilm growth was examined under two distinct conditions, in flow cells with continuous medium supply vs in static microtitre plates with batch culture. E. coli biofilm was greatly stimulated (c. 2-1000 times faster) with the presence of S. maltophilia in flow cells, but surprisingly inhibited (c. 65-95% less biomass) in microtitre plates. These divergent effects were explained through various aspects including surface attachment, cellular growth, extracellular signals and autoaggregation. Interactions with the same water bacterium resulted in different effects on E. coli biofilm formation when culture conditions changed from static to flow. This study highlights the complexity of species interactions on biofilm formation and suggests that environmental conditions such as the flow regime can be taken into consideration for the management of microbial contamination in drinking water systems. © 2017 The Society for Applied Microbiology.

Surface-Water to Groundwater Transport of Pharmaceuticals in a Wastewater-Impacted Stream in the U.S.

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Bradley, P. M.; Barber, L. B.; Duris, J. W.; Foreman, W. T.; Furlong, E. T.; Hubbard, L. E.; Hutchinson, K. J.; Keefe, S. H.; Kolpin, D. W.

2014-12-01

Wastewater pharmaceutical contamination of shallow groundwater is a substantial concern in effluent-dominated streams, due to aqueous mobility and designed bioactivity of pharmaceuticals and due to effluent-driven hydraulic gradients. Improved understanding of the environmental fate and transport of wastewater-derived pharmaceuticals is essential for effective protection of vital aquatic ecosystem services, environmental health, and drinking-water supplies. Substantial longitudinal (downstream) transport of pharmaceutical contaminants has been documented in effluent-impacted streams. The comparative lack of information on vertical and lateral transport (infiltration) of wastewater contaminants from surface-water to hyporheic and shallow groundwater compartments is a critical scientific data gap, given the potential for contamination of groundwater supplies in effluent-impacted systems. Growing dependencies on bank filtration and artificial recharge applications for release of wastewater to the environment and for pretreatment of poor-quality surface-water for drinking water emphasize the critical need to better understand the exchange of wastewater contaminants, like pharmaceuticals, between surface-water and groundwater compartments. The potential transport of effluent-derived pharmaceutical contaminants from surface-water to hyporheic-water and shallow groundwater compartments was examined in a wastewater-treatment-facility (WWTF) impacted stream in Ankeny, Iowa under effluent-dominated (71-99% of downstream flow) conditions. Strong hydraulic gradients and hydrologic connectivity were evident between surface-water and shallow-groundwater compartments in the vicinity of the WWTF outfall. Carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, and immunologically-related compounds were detected in groundwater 10-20 meters from the stream bank. Direct aqueous-injection HPLC-MS/MS revealed high percentage detections of pharmaceuticals (110 total analytes) in surface-water and groundwater samples. The results demonstrate the importance of effluent discharge as a driver of local hydrologic conditions in an effluent-impacted stream and thus as a fundamental control on surface-water to groundwater transport of effluent-derived pharmaceutical contaminants.

Arsenic exposure in drinking water: an unrecognized health threat in Peru.

PubMed

George, Christine Marie; Sima, Laura; Arias, M Helena Jahuira; Mihalic, Jana; Cabrera, Lilia Z; Danz, David; Checkley, William; Gilman, Robert H

2014-08-01

To assess the extent of arsenic contamination of groundwater and surface water in Peru and, to evaluate the accuracy of the Arsenic Econo-Quick(™) (EQ) kit for measuring water arsenic concentrations in the field. Water samples were collected from 151 water sources in 12 districts of Peru, and arsenic concentrations were measured in the laboratory using inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The EQ field kit was validated by comparing a subset of 139 water samples analysed by laboratory measurements and the EQ kit. In 86% (96/111) of the groundwater samples, arsenic exceeded the 10 µg/l arsenic concentration guideline given by the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water. In 56% (62/111) of the samples, it exceeded the Bangladeshi threshold of 50 µg/l; the mean concentration being 54.5 µg/l (range: 0.1-93.1). In the Juliaca and Caracoto districts, in 96% (27/28) of groundwater samples arsenic was above the WHO guideline; and in water samples collected from the section of the Rímac river running through Lima, all had arsenic concentrations exceeding the WHO limit. When validated against laboratory values, the EQ kit correctly identified arsenic contamination relative to the guideline in 95% (106/111) of groundwater and in 68% (19/28) of surface water samples. In several districts of Peru, drinking water shows widespread arsenic contamination, exceeding the WHO arsenic guideline. This poses a public health threat requiring further investigation and action. For groundwater samples, the EQ kit performed well relative to the WHO arsenic limit and therefore could provide a vital tool for water arsenic surveillance.

Radio-Ecological Conditions of Groundwater in the Area of Uranium Mining and Milling Facility - 13525

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Titov, A.V.; Semenova, M.P.; Seregin, V.A.

2013-07-01

Manmade chemical and radioactive contamination of groundwater is one of damaging effects of the uranium mining and milling facilities. Groundwater contamination is of special importance for the area of Priargun Production Mining and Chemical Association, JSC 'PPMCA', because groundwater is the only source of drinking water. The paper describes natural conditions of the site, provides information on changes of near-surface area since the beginning of the company, illustrates the main trends of contaminators migration and assesses manmade impact on the quality and mode of near-surface and ground waters. The paper also provides the results of chemical and radioactive measurements inmore » groundwater at various distances from the sources of manmade contamination to the drinking water supply areas. We show that development of deposits, mine water discharge, leakages from tailing dams and cinder storage facility changed general hydro-chemical balance of the area, contributed to new (overlaid) aureoles and flows of scattering paragenetic uranium elements, which are much smaller in comparison with natural ones. However, increasing flow of groundwater stream at the mouth of Sukhoi Urulyungui due to technological water infiltration, mixing of natural water with filtration streams from industrial reservoirs and sites, containing elevated (relative to natural background) levels of sulfate-, hydro-carbonate and carbonate- ions, led to the development and moving of the uranium contamination aureole from the undeveloped field 'Polevoye' to the water inlet area. The aureole front crossed the southern border of water inlet of drinking purpose. The qualitative composition of groundwater, especially in the southern part of water inlet, steadily changes for the worse. The current Russian intervention levels of gross alpha activity and of some natural radionuclides including {sup 222}Rn are in excess in drinking water; regulations for fluorine and manganese concentrations are also in excess. Possible ways to improve the situation are considered. (authors)« less

A national reconnaissance for pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States--II) untreated drinking water sources.

PubMed

Focazio, Michael J; Kolpin, Dana W; Barnes, Kimberlee K; Furlong, Edward T; Meyer, Michael T; Zaugg, Steven D; Barber, Larry B; Thurman, Michael E

2008-09-01

Numerous studies have shown that a variety of manufactured and natural organic compounds such as pharmaceuticals, steroids, surfactants, flame retardants, fragrances, plasticizers and other chemicals often associated with wastewaters have been detected in the vicinity of municipal wastewater discharges and livestock agricultural facilities. To provide new data and insights about the environmental presence of some of these chemicals in untreated sources of drinking water in the United States targeted sites were sampled and analyzed for 100 analytes with sub-parts per billion detection capabilities. The sites included 25 ground- and 49 surface-water sources of drinking water serving populations ranging from one family to over 8 million people. Sixty-three of the 100 targeted chemicals were detected in at least one water sample. Interestingly, in spite of the low detection levels 60% of the 36 pharmaceuticals (including prescription drugs and antibiotics) analyzed were not detected in any water sample. The five most frequently detected chemicals targeted in surface water were: cholesterol (59%, natural sterol), metolachlor (53%, herbicide), cotinine (51%, nicotine metabolite), beta-sitosterol (37%, natural plant sterol), and 1,7-dimethylxanthine (27%, caffeine metabolite); and in ground water: tetrachloroethylene (24%, solvent), carbamazepine (20%, pharmaceutical), bisphenol-A (20%, plasticizer), 1,7-dimethylxanthine (16%, caffeine metabolite), and tri (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (12%, fire retardant). A median of 4 compounds were detected per site indicating that the targeted chemicals generally occur in mixtures (commonly near detection levels) in the environment and likely originate from a variety of animal and human uses and waste sources. These data will help prioritize and determine the need, if any, for future occurrence, fate and transport, and health-effects research for subsets of these chemicals and their degradates most likely to be found in water resources used for drinking water in the United States.

Swallowing in patients with Parkinson's disease: a surface electromyography study.

PubMed

Ws Coriolano, Maria das Graças; R Belo, Luciana; Carneiro, Danielle; G Asano, Amdore; Al Oliveira, Paulo José; da Silva, Douglas Monteiro; G Lins, Otávio

2012-12-01

Our goal was to study deglutition of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients and normal controls (NC) using surface electromyography (sEMG). The study included 15 patients with idiopathic PD and 15 age-matched normal controls. Surface electromyography was collected over the suprahyoid muscle group. Conditions were the following: swallow at once 10 and 20 ml of water and 5 and 10 ml of yogurt of firm consistency, and freely drink 100 ml of water. During swallowing, durations of sEMG were significantly longer in PD patients than in normal controls but no significant differences of amplitudes were found. Eighty percent of the PD patients and 20 % of the NC needed more than one swallow to consume 20 ml of water, while 70 % of the PD patients and none of the NC needed more than one swallow to consume 5 ml of yogurt. PD patients took significantly more time and needed significantly more swallows to drink 100 ml of water than normal controls. We conclude that sEMG might be a simple and useful tool to study and monitor deglutition in PD patients.

Vulnerability of drinking-water wells in La Crosse, Wisconsin, to enteric-virus contamination from surface water contributions.

PubMed

Borchardt, Mark A; Haas, Nathaniel L; Hunt, Randall J

2004-10-01

Human enteric viruses can contaminate municipal drinking-water wells, but few studies have examined the routes by which viruses enter these wells. In the present study, the objective was to monitor the municipal wells of La Crosse, Wisconsin, for enteric viruses and determine whether the amount of Mississippi River water infiltrating the wells was related to the frequency of virus detection. From March 2001 to February 2002, one river water site and four wells predicted by hydrogeological modeling to have variable degrees of surface water contributions were sampled monthly for enteric viruses, microbial indicators of sanitary quality, and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes. (18)O/(16)O and (2)H/(1)H ratios were used to determine the level of surface water contributions. All samples were collected prior to chlorination at the wellhead. By reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), 24 of 48 municipal well water samples (50%) were positive for enteric viruses, including enteroviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and noroviruses. Of 12 river water samples, 10 (83%) were virus positive by RT-PCR. Viable enteroviruses were not detected by cell culture in the well samples, although three well samples were positive for culturable HAV. Enteroviruses detected in the wells by RT-PCR were identified as several serotypes of echoviruses and group A and group B coxsackieviruses. None of the well water samples was positive for indicators of sanitary quality, namely male-specific and somatic coliphages, total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and fecal enterococci. Contrary to expectations, viruses were found in all wells regardless of the level of surface water contributions. This result suggests that there were other unidentified sources, in addition to surface water, responsible for the contamination.

Vulnerability of Drinking-Water Wells in La Crosse, Wisconsin, to Enteric-Virus Contamination from Surface Water Contributions

PubMed Central

Borchardt, Mark A.; Haas, Nathaniel L.; Hunt, Randall J.

2004-01-01

Human enteric viruses can contaminate municipal drinking-water wells, but few studies have examined the routes by which viruses enter these wells. In the present study, the objective was to monitor the municipal wells of La Crosse, Wisconsin, for enteric viruses and determine whether the amount of Mississippi River water infiltrating the wells was related to the frequency of virus detection. From March 2001 to February 2002, one river water site and four wells predicted by hydrogeological modeling to have variable degrees of surface water contributions were sampled monthly for enteric viruses, microbial indicators of sanitary quality, and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes. 18O/16O and 2H/1H ratios were used to determine the level of surface water contributions. All samples were collected prior to chlorination at the wellhead. By reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), 24 of 48 municipal well water samples (50%) were positive for enteric viruses, including enteroviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and noroviruses. Of 12 river water samples, 10 (83%) were virus positive by RT-PCR. Viable enteroviruses were not detected by cell culture in the well samples, although three well samples were positive for culturable HAV. Enteroviruses detected in the wells by RT-PCR were identified as several serotypes of echoviruses and group A and group B coxsackieviruses. None of the well water samples was positive for indicators of sanitary quality, namely male-specific and somatic coliphages, total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and fecal enterococci. Contrary to expectations, viruses were found in all wells regardless of the level of surface water contributions. This result suggests that there were other unidentified sources, in addition to surface water, responsible for the contamination. PMID:15466536

Vulnerability of drinking-water wells in La Crosse, Wisconsin, to enteric-virus contamination from surface water contributions

USGS Publications Warehouse

Borchardt, M. A.; Haas, N.L.; Hunt, R.J.

2004-01-01

Human enteric viruses can contaminate municipal drinking-water wells, but few studies have examined the routes by which viruses enter these wells. In the present study, the objective was to monitor the municipal wells of La Crosse, Wisconsin, for enteric viruses and determine whether the amount of Mississippi River water infiltrating the wells was related to the frequency of virus detection. From March 2001 to February 2002, one river water site and four wells predicted by hydrogeological modeling to have variable degrees of surface water contributions were sampled monthly for enteric viruses, microbial indicators of sanitary quality, and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes. 18O/ 16O and 2H/1H ratios were used to determine the level of surface water contributions. All samples were collected prior to chlorination at the wellhead. By reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), 24 of 48 municipal well water samples (50%) were positive for enteric viruses, including enteroviruses, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and noroviruses. Of 12 river water samples, 10 (83%) were virus positive by RT-PCR. Viable enteroviruses were not detected by cell culture in the well samples, although three well samples were positive for culturable HAV. Enteroviruses detected in the wells by RT-PCR were identified as several serotypes of echoviruses and group A and group B coxsackieviruses. None of the well water samples was positive for indicators of sanitary quality, namely male-specific and somatic coliphages, total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and fecal enterococci. Contrary to expectations, viruses were found in all wells regardless of the level of surface water contributions. This result suggests that there were other unidentified sources, in addition to surface water, responsible for the contamination.

Socio-economic effect on socially-deprived communities of developing drinking water quality problems in arid and semi-arid area of central Rajasthan

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Husain, I.; Husain, J.; Arif, M.

2014-09-01

Rajasthan is well known for its Great Thar desert. Central Rajasthan has an arid to semi-arid environment. The area faces either scarcity of water or poor quality of drinking water. In some areas water is transported 2 km or more, which uses time, energy and money. Rich people have their own sources, which is restricted for use by others. Such conditions are affecting socially-deprived communities, both socially and economically. Groundwater is a major source of drinking water due to the unavailability of surface water. There is a lack of groundwater quality knowledge in the community and the data available is hard to understand by consumers. The CCME Water Quality Index is a tool to simplify the water quality report by rating the water on quality standards. It provides meaningful summaries of overall water quality and trends, which is accessible to non-technical lay people. In the present study the objective is to examine the groundwater quality of six districts (Ajmer, Bhilwara, Pali, Rajasamand, Nagaur and Jodhpur), centrally located in Rajasthan, with arid and semi-arid conditions. CCME WQI is also evaluated to produce quality data in a form to be understood by the community. A total of 4369 groundwater sources in 1680 villages from six districts (76 546 km2) were collected and examined. Results are outlined in the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS: 10500, 2012) and 2952 sources are unsafe for drinking. According to CCME WQI groundwater of 93 villages is poor, 343 villages are marginal, and 369 villages are fair in quality. Toxicological studies of unsafe drinking water and their remedial measures are also discussed. A tentative correlation between prevailing water-borne diseases and quality parameter has also been shown

Quality of water on the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation, northeastern Kansas, February 1999 through February 2001

USGS Publications Warehouse

Trombley, T.J.

2001-01-01

Water-quality samples were collected from 20 surface-water sites and 7 ground-water sites across the Prairie Band Potawatomi Reservation in northeastern Kansas as part of a water-quality study begun in 1996. Water quality is a very important consideration for the tribe. Three creeks draining the reservation, Soldier, Little Soldier, and South Cedar Creeks, are important tribal resources used for maintaining subsistence fishing and hunting needs for tribal members. Samples were collected twice during June 1999 and June 2000 at all 20 surface-water sites after herbicide application, and nine quarterly samples were collected at 5 of the 20 sampling sites from February 1999 through February 2001. Samples were collected once at six wells and twice at one well from September through December 2000. Surface-water-quality constituents analyzed included nutrients, pesticides, and bacteria. In addition to nutrients, pesticides, and bacteria, ground-water constituents analyzed included major dissolved ions, arsenic, boron, and dissolved iron and manganese. The median nitrite plus nitrate concentration was 0.376 mg/L (milligram per liter) for 81 surface-water samples, and the maximum concentration was 4.18 mg/L as nitrogen, which is less than one-half the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for drinking water of 10 mg/L as nitrogen. Fifty-one of the 81 surface-water-quality samples exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's recommended goal for total phosphorus of 0.10 mg/L for the protection of aquatic life. Triazine concentrations in 26 surface-water-quality samples collected during May and June 1999 and 2000 exceeded 3.0 ?g/L (micrograms per liter), the Maximum Contaminant Level established for drinking water by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Triazine herbicide concentrations tended to be highest during late spring runoff after herbicide application. High concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria in surface water are a concern on the reservation with fecal coliform concentrations ranging from 4 to greater than 31,000 colonies per 100 milliliters of water with a median concentration of 570 colonies per 100 milliliters. More than one-half of the surface-water-quality samples exceeded the Kansas Department of Health and Environment contact recreation criteria of 200 and 2,000 colonies per 100 milliliters of water and were collected mostly during the spring and summer. Two wells had sodium concentrations of about 10 times the U.S. Environmental Protection Agengy health advisory level (HAL) of 20 mg/L; concentrations ranged from 241 to 336 mg/L. In water from two wells, sulfate concentrations exceeded 800 mg/L, more than three times the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) for drinking water of 250 mg/L. All but two of the eight ground-water-quality samples had dissolved-solids concentrations exceeding the SMCL of 500 mg/L. The highest concentration of 2,010 mg/L was more than four times the SMCL. Dissolved boron concentrations exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 600-?g/L HAL in water from two of the seven wells sampled. Because the HAL is for a lifetime of exposure, the anticipated health risk due to dissolved boron is low. Dissolved iron concentrations in ground-water samples exceeded the 300-?g/L SMCL for treated drinking water in three of the seven wells sampled. Dissolved manganese concentrations in water from the same three wells also exceeded the established SMCL of 50 ?g/L. Dissolved pesticides were not detected in any of the well samples; however, there were degradation products of the herbicides alachlor and metolachlor in several samples. Insecticides were not detected in any ground-water-quality samples. Low concentrations of E. coli and fecal coliform bacteria were detected in water from two wells, and E. coli was detected in water from one well. Much higher concentrations of E. coli, fecal coliform, and fecal strepto

75 FR 40745 - Cyazofamid; Pesticide Tolerances

Federal Register 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014

2010-07-14

... Model/Exposure Analysis Modeling System (PRZM/EXAMS) model for surface water and the Screening... listed in this unit could also be affected. The North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS... there is reliable information.'' This includes exposure through drinking water and in residential...