Acanthamoeba keratitis: the role of domestic tap water contamination in the United Kingdom.

PubMed

Kilvington, Simon; Gray, Trevor; Dart, John; Morlet, Nigel; Beeching, John R; Frazer, David G; Matheson, Melville

2004-01-01

The incidence of acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) in the UK is some 15 times that in the United States and seven times that in Holland. To investigate reasons for this higher frequency, a study of the role of domestic tap water as a potential source of AK was undertaken. Tap outlets from the homes of 27 patients with culture-proven AK were sampled and cultured for free-living amoebae (FLA). For all Acanthamoeba isolates, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) and cytochrome oxidase (cox 1/2) sequence typing was performed to determine the similarity between corneal and tap water isolates. FLA, including Acanthamoeba, were isolated from 24 (89%) of 27 homes, and the presence within the homes varied significantly with tap water temperature and location: 19 (76%) of 25 bathroom sink cold taps sampled compared with 6 (24%) of 25 hot and 9 (47%) of 19 kitchen cold taps compared with 3 (16%) of 19 of hot kitchen taps. Acanthamoeba were isolated from 8 (30%) of 27 homes (five bathroom sink cold taps, one cloakroom cold tap, one bath, and one bedroom sink mixer [hot/cold] taps). In six cases, identical Acanthamoeba mtDNA profiles were found for the clinical and home tap water isolates. In keeping with UK plumbing practice, 24 of 27 homes had internal roof water storage tanks to supply domestic taps, but the mains fed the kitchen cold tap. Water storage tanks promote colonization of domestic water with FLA, including Acanthamoeba, and hence increase the risk of AK. This accounts for the significantly greater incidence of AK in the UK and supports advice to avoid using tap water in contact lens care routines.

Mineral water or tap water? An endless debate.

PubMed

De Giglio, O; Quaranta, A; Lovero, G; Caggiano, G; Montagna, M T

2015-01-01

The consumption of mineral water has been increasing because of the frequent and unjustified reports of the water supply contamination. However some authors have shown that bottled waters are not always better than tap water. Mineral waters are more palatable for organoleptic characteristic because, being pure at source, they do not undergo disinfection treatments and are sometimes enriched with CO2. In fact, they are characterized by their microbial facies subject to changes during the production cycle which can contribute to their contamination. It is necessary to provide people with the tools necessary to operate a critical choice of the type of water to be consumed not exclusively for their organoleptic characteristics or marketing strategies.

Tap water isotope ratios reflect urban water system structure and dynamics across a semiarid metropolitan area

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jameel, Yusuf; Brewer, Simon; Good, Stephen P.; Tipple, Brett J.; Ehleringer, James R.; Bowen, Gabriel J.

2016-08-01

Water extraction for anthropogenic use has become a major flux in the hydrological cycle. With increasing demand for water and challenges supplying it in the face of climate change, there is a pressing need to better understand connections between human populations, climate, water extraction, water use, and its impacts. To understand these connections, we collected and analyzed stable isotopic ratios of more than 800 urban tap water samples in a series of semiannual water surveys (spring and fall, 2013-2015) across the Salt Lake Valley (SLV) of northern Utah. Consistent with previous work, we found that mean tap water had a lower 2H and 18O concentration than local precipitation, highlighting the importance of nearby montane winter precipitation as source water for the region. However, we observed strong and structured spatiotemporal variation in tap water isotopic compositions across the region which we attribute to complex distribution systems, varying water management practices and multiple sources used across the valley. Water from different sources was not used uniformly throughout the area and we identified significant correlation between water source and demographic parameters including population and income. Isotopic mass balance indicated significant interannual and intra-annual variability in water losses within the distribution network due to evaporation from surface water resources supplying the SLV. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of isotopes as an indicator of water management strategies and climate impacts within regional urban water systems, with potential utility for monitoring, regulation, forensic, and a range of water resource research.

Water use and time analysis in ablution from taps

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Zaied, Roubi A.

2017-09-01

There is a lack of water resources and an extreme use of potable water in our Arab region. Ablution from taps was studied since it is a repeated daily activity that consumes more water. Five different tap types are investigated for water consumption fashions including traditional mixing tap and automatic tap. Analyzing 100 experimental observations revealed that 22.7-28.8 % of ablution water is used for washing of feet and the largest water waste occurs during washing of face portions. Moreover, 30-47 % amount of water consumed in ablution from taps is wasted which can be saved if tap releases water only at moments of need. The push-type tap is being spread recently especially in airports. If it is intended for use in ablution facilities, batch duration and volume must be tuned. When each batch is 0.25 L of water and lasts for 3 s, 3 L are sufficient for one complete ablution in average which means considerable saving. A cost-benefit model is proposed for using different tap types and an economic feasibility study is performed on a case study. This analysis can help us to design better ablution systems.

[Volatile organic compounds of the tap water in the Watarase, Tone and Edo River system].

PubMed

Ohmichi, Kimihide; Ohmichi, Masayoshi; Machida, Kazuhiko

2004-01-01

The chlorination of river water in purification plants is known to produce carcinogens such as trihalomethanes (THMs). We studied the river system of the Watarase, Tone, and Edo Rivers in regard to the formation of THMs. This river system starts from the base of the Ashio copper mine and ends at Tokyo Bay. Along the rivers, there are 14 local municipalities in Gunma, Saitama, Ibaragi and Chiba Prefectures, as well as Tokyo. This area is the center of the Kanto plain and includes the main sources of water pollution from human activities. We also analyzed various chemicals in river water and tap water to clarify the status of the water environment, and we outline the problems of the water environment in the research area (Fig. 1). Water samples were taken from 18 river sites and 42 water faucets at public facilities in 14 local municipalities. We analyzed samples for volatile organic compounds such as THMs, by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and evaluations of chemical oxygen demand (COD) were made with reference to Japanese drinking water quality standards. Concentrations of THMs in the downstream tap water samples were higher than those in the samples from the upperstream. This tendency was similar to the COD of the river water samples, but no correlation between the concentration of THMs in tap water and the COD in tap water sources was found. In tap water of local government C, trichloroethylene was detected. The current findings suggest that the present water filtration plant procedures are not sufficient to remove some hazardous chemicals from the source water. Moreover, it was confirmed that the water filtration produced THMs. Also, trichloroethylene was detected from the water environment in the research area, suggesting that pollution of the water environment continues.

Microbiological tap water profile of a medium-sized building and effect of water stagnation.

PubMed

Lipphaus, Patrick; Hammes, Frederik; Kötzsch, Stefan; Green, James; Gillespie, Simon; Nocker, Andreas

2014-01-01

Whereas microbiological quality of drinking water in water distribution systems is routinely monitored for reasons of legal compliance, microbial numbers in tap water are grossly understudied. Motivated by gross differences in water from private households, we applied in this study flow cytometry as a rapid analytical method to quantify microbial concentrations in water sampled at diverse taps in a medium size research building receiving chlorinated water. Taps differed considerably in frequency of usage and were located in laboratories, bathrooms, and a coffee kitchen. Substantial differences were observed between taps with concentrations (per mL) in the range from 6.29 x 10(3) to 7.74 x 10(5) for total cells and from 1.66 x 10(3) to 4.31 x 10(5) for intact cells. The percentage of intact cells varied between 7% and 96%. Water from taps with very infrequent use showed the highest bacterial numbers and the highest proportions of intact cells. Stagnation tended to increase microbial numbers in water from those taps which were otherwise frequently used. Microbial numbers in other taps that were rarely opened were not affected by stagnation as their water is probably mostly stagnant. For cold water taps, microbial numbers and the percentage of intact cells tended to decline with flushing with the greatest decline for taps used least frequently whereas microbial concentrations in water from hot water taps tended to be somewhat more stable. We conclude that microbiological water quality is mainly determined by building-specific parameters. Tap water profiling can provide valuable insight into plumbing system hygiene and maintenance.

Investigation of formaldehyde pollution of tap water and rain water using a novel visual colorimetry.

PubMed

Murai, K; Okano, M; Kuramitz, H; Hata, N; Kawakami, T; Taguchi, S

2008-01-01

The pollution of tap water and rain water with formaldehyde in Toyama Pref., Japan was investigated by means of a simple, rapid and cost-effective visual colorimetry developed by us. The levels of formaldehyde in three tap waters from different sources of dams on mountainside and a well-water pumped in urban area in Toyama Pref. were lower than 0.01 mg L(-1) that was the detection limit of the colorimetry. On the other hand, rain waters were seriously polluted with formaldehyde. Rain waters were sampled from three different sites (urban area, top of hill and industrial area) in Toyama Pref. from autumn to winter in 2006. The levels of formaldehyde in the rain waters ranged from 0.07 to 0.30 mg L(-1). The analytical results by the visual colorimetry were in good agreement with those obtained by GC-MS method. It was confirmed that the colorimetry is excellent for practical use for the determination of formaldehyde. It must be concerned about the pollution of rainwater with formaldehyde, when rain water is applied for tap water and miscellaneous purpose. Copyright IWA Publishing 2008.

Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt

PubMed Central

2018-01-01

Plastic pollution has been well documented in natural environments, including the open waters and sediments within lakes and rivers, the open ocean and even the air, but less attention has been paid to synthetic polymers in human consumables. Since multiple toxicity studies indicate risks to human health when plastic particles are ingested, more needs to be known about the presence and abundance of anthropogenic particles in human foods and beverages. This study investigates the presence of anthropogenic particles in 159 samples of globally sourced tap water, 12 brands of Laurentian Great Lakes beer, and 12 brands of commercial sea salt. Of the tap water samples analyzed, 81% were found to contain anthropogenic particles. The majority of these particles were fibers (98.3%) between 0.1–5 mm in length. The range was 0 to 61 particles/L, with an overall mean of 5.45 particles/L. Anthropogenic debris was found in each brand of beer and salt. Of the extracted particles, over 99% were fibers. After adjusting for particles found in lab blanks for both salt and beer, the average number of particles found in beer was 4.05 particles/L with a range of 0 to 14.3 particles/L and the average number of particles found in each brand of salt was 212 particles/kg with a range of 46.7 to 806 particles/kg. Based on consumer guidelines, our results indicate the average person ingests over 5,800 particles of synthetic debris from these three sources annually, with the largest contribution coming from tap water (88%). PMID:29641556

Monitoring of Emerging and Legacy Contaminants in Groundwater and Tap Water of the Karst Region in Northern Puerto Rico for Assessment of Sources and Fate and Transport Processes

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Padilla, I. Y.; Cotto, I.; Torres, P. M.

2014-12-01

The karst aquifer region of northern Puerto Rico is the area with the highest groundwater extraction in the island. Urban and industrial development has led to extensive contamination of the groundwater in the region. Of particular concern, is the presence of emerging and legacy organic contaminants, such as phthalates and chlorinated organic compounds (CVOCs), because there high risk for exposure and adverse health impact. Variable sources and the heterogeneous and dynamic conditions of karst groundwater systems, limits the ability to properly assess and manage the water quality of these precious water resources. This work develops a monitoring and water analysis scheme to assess spatial-temporal exposure of hazardous contaminants trough karst water in northern Puerto Rico. Groundwater and tap water are sampled in the region and analyzed for phthalates, CVOCs, and common ions. Detections and concentrations of phthalates and CVOCs are determined by using modified EPA methods, which rely on liquid-liquid extractions and gas chromatography techniques. The modified methods have reduced the volume of samples and solvent waste, decreased the time of analysis, increased analysis outcomes, and lower potential for hazardous exposure. Results show intermittent presence of di-ethyl, di-butyl and di (2-ethyl hexyl) phthalates in 36% of the groundwater and 53% of tap water samples, with detected concentrations ranging between 0.1-88.7 μg/L. These results indicate that karst groundwater can serve as a route of exposure for phthalates, but there are additional disperse sources in the water system. CVOCs are detected in groundwater at much higher frequencies (50%) than phthalates, and include trichloromethane (TCM), carbon tetrachloride (CT), trichloroethylene (TCE), and tetrachloroethylene (TCE). CVOCs, except for TCM, are found at lower frequencies on tap water (5.8%) than groundwater (27%). TCM is detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in tap water (56.8%) than

Bottled Water Mania: Americas Misguided Infatuation with Bottled Water over Tap Water

DTIC Science & Technology

2010-05-01

AU/ACSC/BROWN, S/AY10 AIR COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE AIR UNIVERSITY Bottled Water Mania: America’s Misguided...Infatuation with Bottled Water over Tap Water by Seiho P. Brown, LCDR, U.S. Navy A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty In...iii Abstract The purpose of this paper is to analyze the tendency for American people to drink bottled water over tap water even though it costs

Biofilm formation in an experimental water distribution system: the contamination of non-touch sensor taps and the implication for healthcare.

PubMed

Moore, Ginny; Stevenson, David; Thompson, Katy-Anne; Parks, Simon; Ngabo, Didier; Bennett, Allan M; Walker, Jimmy T

2015-01-01

Hospital tap water is a recognised source of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. U.K. guidance documents recommend measures to control/minimise the risk of P. aeruginosa in augmented care units but these are based on limited scientific evidence. An experimental water distribution system was designed to investigate colonisation of hospital tap components. P. aeruginosa was injected into 27 individual tap 'assemblies'. Taps were subsequently flushed twice daily and contamination levels monitored over two years. Tap assemblies were systematically dismantled and assessed microbiologically and the effect of removing potentially contaminated components was determined. P. aeruginosa was repeatedly recovered from the tap water at levels above the augmented care alert level. The organism was recovered from all dismantled solenoid valves with colonisation of the ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) diaphragm confirmed by microscopy. Removing the solenoid valves reduced P. aeruginosa counts in the water to below detectable levels. This effect was immediate and sustained, implicating the solenoid diaphragm as the primary contamination source.

Sources of drinking water in a pediatric population.

PubMed

Jadav, Urvi G; Acharya, Bhavini S; Velasquez, Gisela M; Vance, Bradley J; Tate, Robert H; Quock, Ryan L

2014-01-01

The purpose of this study was to determine the primary sources of water used for consumption and cooking by the patients of a university-based pediatric dental practice. A simple, prewritten questionnaire-consisting of seven questions and available in English and Spanish-was conducted verbally with the caregivers of 123 pediatric patients during a designated timeframe. Analysis of responses included descriptive statistics and a chi-square test for a single proportion. Nonfiltered tap water accounted for the primary drinking water source in only 10 percent of the respondents. Firty-two percent of the respondents selected bottled water as the primary source of drinking water, and 24 percent selected vended water stations as a primary drinking water source. Nonfiltered tap water was much more likely to be utilized in cooking (58 percent). The majority of the patients in this study's pediatric dental practice do not consume fluoridated tap water. With the vast majority of the patients primarily consuming bottled or vended water, these patients are likely missing out on the caries-protective effects of water fluoridation.

Bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water versus municipal tap water in Dharan municipality, Nepal.

PubMed

Pant, Narayan Dutt; Poudyal, Nimesh; Bhattacharya, Shyamal Kumar

2016-06-07

Water-related diseases are of great concern in developing countries like Nepal. Every year, there are countless morbidity and mortality due to the consumption of unsafe drinking water. Recently, there have been increased uses of bottled drinking water in an assumption that the bottled water is safer than the tap water and its use will help to protect from water-related diseases. So, the main objective of this study was to analyze the bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water and that of municipal tap water. A total of 100 samples (76 tap water and 24 bottled water) were analyzed for bacteriological quality and pH. The methods used were spread plate method for total plate count (TPC) and membrane filter method for total coliform count (TCC), fecal coliform count (FCC), and fecal streptococcal count (FSC). pH meter was used for measuring pH. One hundred percent of the tap water samples and 87.5 % of the bottled water samples were found to be contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria. Of the tap water samples, 55.3 % were positive for total coliforms, compared with 25 % of the bottled water. No bottled water samples were positive for fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, in contrast to 21.1 % and 14.5 % of the tap water samples being contaminated with fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, respectively. One hundred percent of the tap water samples and 54.2 % of the bottled water samples had pH in the acceptable range. All of the municipal tap water samples and most of the bottled drinking water samples distributed in Dharan municipality were found to be contaminated with one or more than one type of indicator organisms. On the basis of our findings, we may conclude that comparatively, the bottled drinking water may have been safer (than tap water) to drink.

Quantifying tap-to-household water quality deterioration in urban communities in Vellore, India: The impact of spatial assumptions.

PubMed

Alarcon Falconi, Tania M; Kulinkina, Alexandra V; Mohan, Venkata Raghava; Francis, Mark R; Kattula, Deepthi; Sarkar, Rajiv; Ward, Honorine; Kang, Gagandeep; Balraj, Vinohar; Naumova, Elena N

2017-01-01

Municipal water sources in India have been found to be highly contaminated, with further water quality deterioration occurring during household storage. Quantifying water quality deterioration requires knowledge about the exact source tap and length of water storage at the household, which is not usually known. This study presents a methodology to link source and household stored water, and explores the effects of spatial assumptions on the association between tap-to-household water quality deterioration and enteric infections in two semi-urban slums of Vellore, India. To determine a possible water source for each household sample, we paired household and tap samples collected on the same day using three spatial approaches implemented in GIS: minimum Euclidean distance; minimum network distance; and inverse network-distance weighted average. Logistic and Poisson regression models were used to determine associations between water quality deterioration and household-level characteristics, and between diarrheal cases and water quality deterioration. On average, 60% of households had higher fecal coliform concentrations in household samples than at source taps. Only the weighted average approach detected a higher risk of water quality deterioration for households that do not purify water and that have animals in the home (RR=1.50 [1.03, 2.18], p=0.033); and showed that households with water quality deterioration were more likely to report diarrheal cases (OR=3.08 [1.21, 8.18], p=0.02). Studies to assess contamination between source and household are rare due to methodological challenges and high costs associated with collecting paired samples. Our study demonstrated it is possible to derive useful spatial links between samples post hoc; and that the pairing approach affects the conclusions related to associations between enteric infections and water quality deterioration. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

From Source Water to Tap Water to Spa and Swimming Pool Water: Effects of Disinfectanta and Precursors and Implications for Exposure and Toxicity

EPA Science Inventory

Introduction The current study investigated the effect of different disinfection treatments on the disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed in finished drinking water vs. tap water vs. swimming pool water vs. spa waters. To this end, samples across the complete water pathway (untr...

Tap water isotopes reveal the San Francisco Bay Area's plumbing and responses to a major drought

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Tipple, B. J.; Jameel, M. Y.; Chau, T. H.; Mancuso, C. J.; Bowen, G. J.; Dufour, A.; Chesson, L. A.; Ehleringer, J. R.

2016-12-01

Water availability and sustainability in the Western United States is a major flashpoint among expanding communities, growing industries, and productive agricultural lands. This issue came to a head in 2015 in the State of California, when the State mandated a 25% reduction in urban water use following a multi-year drought that significantly depleted water resources. The demands for and challenges in supplying water are only expected to intensify as climate perturbations, such as the 2012-2015 California Drought, become more common. As a consequence, there is an increased need to understand linkages between population centers, water transport and usage, and the impacts of climate change on water resources and infrastructure. To better understand these relationships within a megalopolis in the Western United States, we collected and analyzed 723 tap waters from the San Francisco Bay Area during seven collection campaigns across 21 months during 2013-2015. San Francisco Bay Area was selected as it has well-known water management strategies and its water resources were dramatically affected by the 2012-2105 drought. Consistent with known water management strategies and previous reports of tap water isotope values, we found large spatiotemporal variations in the δ2H and δ18O values of tap waters, indicative of complex water transport systems and municipality-scale management decisions. We observed δ2H and δ18O values of tap water consistent with waters originating from snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada Mountains, local precipitation, ground water, and partially evaporated reservoir sources. A cluster analysis of measured tap water data grouped waters from 43 static sampling sites that were associated with specific water utility providers within the San Francisco Bay Area and known management practices. Water management responses to the drought, such as source switching, bringing in new sources, and conservation, could be observed within the isotope data from each of

Water quality monitoring records for estimating tap water arsenic and nitrate: a validation study.

PubMed

Searles Nielsen, Susan; Kuehn, Carrie M; Mueller, Beth A

2010-01-28

Tap water may be an important source of exposure to arsenic and nitrate. Obtaining and analyzing samples in the context of large studies of health effects can be expensive. As an alternative, studies might estimate contaminant levels in individual homes by using publicly available water quality monitoring records, either alone or in combination with geographic information systems (GIS). We examined the validity of records-based methods in Washington State, where arsenic and nitrate contamination is prevalent but generally observed at modest levels. Laboratory analysis of samples from 107 homes (median 0.6 microg/L arsenic, median 0.4 mg/L nitrate as nitrogen) served as our "gold standard." Using Spearman's rho we compared these measures to estimates obtained using only the homes' street addresses and recent and/or historical measures from publicly monitored water sources within specified distances (radii) ranging from one half mile to 10 miles. Agreement improved as distance decreased, but the proportion of homes for which we could estimate summary measures also decreased. When including all homes, agreement was 0.05-0.24 for arsenic (8 miles), and 0.31-0.33 for nitrate (6 miles). Focusing on the closest source yielded little improvement. Agreement was greatest among homes with private wells. For homes on a water system, agreement improved considerably if we included only sources serving the relevant system (rho = 0.29 for arsenic, rho = 0.60 for nitrate). Historical water quality databases show some promise for categorizing epidemiologic study participants in terms of relative tap water nitrate levels. Nonetheless, such records-based methods must be used with caution, and their use for arsenic may be limited.

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in the Pra and Kakum River basins and associated tap water in Ghana.

PubMed

Essumang, David K; Eshun, Albert; Hogarh, Jonathan N; Bentum, John K; Adjei, Joseph K; Negishi, Junya; Nakamichi, Shihori; Habibullah-Al-Mamun, Md; Masunaga, Shigeki

2017-02-01

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are persistent environmental pollutants that have been detected in various media including human serum. Due to concerns regarding their bioaccumulation and possible negative health effects, an understanding of routes of human exposure is necessary. PFAAs are recalcitrant in many water treatment processes, making drinking water a potential source of human exposure. This study presents the first report on contamination from PFAAs in river and drinking water in Ghana. The targeted PFAAs were perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) with C 4-14 carbon chain and perfluoroalkane sulphonic acids (PFSAs) with C 6, 8, 10 . Five PFAA congeners - PFOA, PFOS, PFHxA, PFDA and PFPeA - were commonly detected in river and tap water. The mean concentrations of ∑PFAAs in the Kakum and Pra Rivers were 281 and 398ng/L, while tap water (supplied from the treatment of water from those rivers) contained concentrations of 197 and 200ng/L, respectively. PFOA and PFOS constituted about 99% of the ∑PFAAs. The risk quotient (RQ) attributed to drinking of tap water was estimated at 1.01 and 1.74 for PFOA and PFOS, respectively. For a country that has not produced these compounds, the RQs were unexpectedly high, raising concerns particularly about contamination from such emerging pollutants in local water sources. The study revealed limitations of local tap water treatment in getting rid of these emerging pollutants. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Water quality risks of 'improved' water sources: evidence from Cambodia.

PubMed

Shaheed, A; Orgill, J; Ratana, C; Montgomery, M A; Jeuland, M A; Brown, J

2014-02-01

The objective of this study was to investigate the quality of on-plot piped water and rainwater at the point of consumption in an area with rapidly expanding coverage of 'improved' water sources. Cross-sectional study of 914 peri-urban households in Kandal Province, Cambodia, between July-August 2011. We collected data from all households on water management, drinking water quality and factors potentially related to post-collection water contamination. Drinking water samples were taken directly from a subsample of household taps (n = 143), stored tap water (n = 124), other stored water (n = 92) and treated stored water (n = 79) for basic water quality analysis for Escherichia coli and other parameters. Household drinking water management was complex, with different sources used at any given time and across seasons. Rainwater was the most commonly used drinking water source. Households mixed different water sources in storage containers, including 'improved' with 'unimproved' sources. Piped water from taps deteriorated during storage (P < 0.0005), from 520 cfu/100 ml (coefficient of variation, CV: 5.7) E. coli to 1100 cfu/100 ml (CV: 3.4). Stored non-piped water (primarily rainwater) had a mean E. coli count of 1500 cfu/100 ml (CV: 4.1), not significantly different from stored piped water (P = 0.20). Microbial contamination of stored water was significantly associated with observed storage and handling practices, including dipping hands or receptacles in water (P < 0.005), and having an uncovered storage container (P = 0.052). The microbial quality of 'improved' water sources in our study area was not maintained at the point of consumption, possibly due to a combination of mixing water sources at the household level, unsafe storage and handling practices, and inadequately treated piped-to-plot water. These results have implications for refining international targets for safe drinking water access as well as the assumptions underlying global burden of disease

Preference for tap, bottled, and recycled water: Relations to PTC taste sensitivity and personality.

PubMed

Harmon, Daniel; Gauvain, Mary; Z Reisz; Arthur, Isaac; Story, S Drew

2018-02-01

This study investigated people's preferences for different water sources and factors that predict such preferences using a blind taste test. Water preferences of 143 participants for one name-brand bottled water, one groundwater-sourced tap water, and one indirect potable reuse (IDR) water were assessed. For predictors of water preference, we measured each participant's PTC taste sensitivity and assessed two personality traits (Neuroticism, Openness to Experience). We also explored participants' descriptions of each water source. Results indicate a preference for water treated with Reverse Osmosis (RO) (bottled and IDR water) over groundwater-sourced water, which had higher pH levels and lower concentrations of Ca and HCO 3 - . PTC taste sensitivity did not predict preferences, while Openness to Experience and Neuroticism predicted preference for IDR water. Positive relations between Openness to Experience and preferences for bottled and IDR water were moderated by gender and were stronger among females. Participants described water primarily by its taste and texture. Findings suggest that (1) tap water treated by RO is equally preferable to some bottled water, (2) personality traits may affect water preferences, and (3) prior findings of gender differences in preferences for bottled water may reflect personality characteristics. Efforts to increase acceptance for sustainable water alternatives, such as IDR, may be more successful by assuring consumers about taste and addressing personality traits that encourage or inhibit use. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Consumer Perception and Preference of Drinking Water Sources

PubMed Central

Sajjadi, Seyed Ali; Alipour, Vali; Matlabi, Mohammad; Biglari, Hamed

2016-01-01

Introduction Understanding consumer perception of drinking water can contribute to improvements in water management and consumer satisfaction. The aim of this study was to assess the consumer perception of tap water quality and other drinking water sources in Gonabad as a small semiarid city. Methods This study was performed in autumn and winter 2013. For collection data a researcher-made a questionnaire consisting of nine questions, based on demographic information prepared. Questions were asked for participants to provide information regarding household drinking water usage and patterns, opinion about tap water safety, taste and reasons for purchasing bottled water. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 16 was applied in this study. Results Results showed that demographic variables had a significant relationship with consumer satisfaction (p < 0.05). Office employees, women and poor families had the most satisfaction from tap water quality. Peoples’ preferences for tap water, commercial softener, domestic softener, ghanat (a type of underground cistern) and bottled water were 27.8, 19, 27.8, 40.4 and 3.5% respectively. Dissatisfaction from production of foam, unsuitable taste, unacceptable appearance and other problems in tap water was 11.1, 95.6, 27.8 and 0.4% respectively. Consumer reasons for using domestic water softeners are: suitable taste (80%), easy availability (71%), economical (56%) and low health side effects (34%). Conclusion According to these results it was clear that each consumer group, based on self-condition, prefers using a specific drinking water source. PMID:28070256

Consumer Perception and Preference of Drinking Water Sources.

PubMed

Sajjadi, Seyed Ali; Alipour, Vali; Matlabi, Mohammad; Biglari, Hamed

2016-11-01

Understanding consumer perception of drinking water can contribute to improvements in water management and consumer satisfaction. The aim of this study was to assess the consumer perception of tap water quality and other drinking water sources in Gonabad as a small semiarid city. This study was performed in autumn and winter 2013. For collection data a researcher-made a questionnaire consisting of nine questions, based on demographic information prepared. Questions were asked for participants to provide information regarding household drinking water usage and patterns, opinion about tap water safety, taste and reasons for purchasing bottled water. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 16 was applied in this study. Results showed that demographic variables had a significant relationship with consumer satisfaction (p < 0.05). Office employees, women and poor families had the most satisfaction from tap water quality. Peoples' preferences for tap water, commercial softener, domestic softener, ghanat (a type of underground cistern) and bottled water were 27.8, 19, 27.8, 40.4 and 3.5% respectively. Dissatisfaction from production of foam, unsuitable taste, unacceptable appearance and other problems in tap water was 11.1, 95.6, 27.8 and 0.4% respectively. Consumer reasons for using domestic water softeners are: suitable taste (80%), easy availability (71%), economical (56%) and low health side effects (34%). According to these results it was clear that each consumer group, based on self-condition, prefers using a specific drinking water source.

Quality comparison of tap water vs. bottled water in the industrial city of Yanbu (Saudi Arabia).

PubMed

Ahmad, Maqbool; Bajahlan, Ahmad S

2009-12-01

This study was conducted to compare the quality of bottled water with potabilized desalinated tap water. Fourteen brands of local and imported bottled water samples were collected from the local market and analyzed for physicochemical parameters in the Royal Commission Environmental Laboratory. Results were compared with 5-year continuous monitoring data of tap water from different locations in Madinat Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah (MYAS) including storage tanks of desalination plant. Results show that there was no significant difference in the quality of tap water and bottled water. Bacteriological test was never found positive in the 5-year data in tap water. Similarly, physicochemical analysis shows the persistent quality of tap water. Based on hardness analysis, bottled and tap water are categorized as soft water. Trihalomethanes (THMs) study also indicates that traces of disinfection by products (DBPs) are present in both tap and bottled water and are much less than the World Health Organization and Environmental Protection Agency maximum permissible limits. It is also important to note that the tap water distribution network in MAYS is a high-pressure recirculation network and there is no chance to grow bacteria in stagnant water in pipe lines or houses. Recently, the Royal Commission has replaced the whole drinking water network, which was made of asbestos-cemented pipes with glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) pipes, to avoid any asbestos contaminations. Based on these results, it is concluded that drinking water distributed in the city is of very good and persistent quality, comparable with bottled water. Continuous monitoring also guarantees the safe drinking water to the community. Hence, it is the responsibility of the Royal Commission to encourage the peoples in the city to drink tap water as it is as good as bottled water even better than some of the brands and is monitored regularly. It is also much cheaper compared to bottled water and is available round the clock

Bottled, filtered, and tap water use in Latino and non-Latino children.

PubMed

Hobson, Wendy L; Knochel, Miguel L; Byington, Carrie L; Young, Paul C; Hoff, Charles J; Buchi, Karen F

2007-05-01

To describe bottled, filtered, and tap water consumption and fluoride use among pediatric patients; to analyze differences between ethnic and socioeconomic groups; and to describe the frequency of physician-parent discussions regarding water consumption. Convenience sample survey. An urban public health clinic. Parents attending a public health clinic. The primary outcome measure was the prevalence of tap, filtered, and bottled water use. The secondary outcome measures were supplemental fluoride use and the percentage of patients reporting discussions of water consumption with their physician. A total of 216 parents (80.5% Latino and 19.5% non-Latino) completed the survey. Of the parents, 30.1% never drank tap water and 41.2% never gave it to their children. Latino parents were less likely than non-Latino parents to drink tap water (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% confidence interval, 0.10-0.67) and less likely to give tap water to their children (odds ratio, 0.32; 95% confidence interval, 0.15-0.70). More Latinos believed that tap water would make them sick (odds ratio, 5.63; 95% confidence interval, 2.17-14.54). Approximately 40% of children who never drank tap water were not receiving fluoride supplements. Of the lowest-income families (water to their children. Of the parents surveyed, 82.5% reported that their child's physician had never discussed the type of water they should use. Many Latino families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it causes illness. Unnecessary use of bottled and filtered water is costly and may result in adverse dental health outcomes. Physicians should provide guidance to families regarding the safety, low cost, and dental health benefits of drinking tap water.

Risk perceptions of arsenic in tap water and consumption of bottled water

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jakus, Paul M.; Shaw, W. Douglass; Nguyen, To N.; Walker, Mark

2009-05-01

The demand for bottled water has increased rapidly over the past decade, but bottled water is extremely costly compared to tap water. The convenience of bottled water surely matters to consumers, but are others factors at work? This manuscript examines whether purchases of bottled water are associated with the perceived risk of tap water. All of the past studies on bottled water consumption have used simple scale measures of perceived risk that do not correspond to risk measures used by risk analysts. We elicit a probability-based measure of risk and find that as perceived risks rise, expenditures for bottled water rise.

Disparity in disinfection byproducts concentration between hot and cold tap water.

PubMed

Liu, Boning; Reckhow, David A

2015-03-01

The quality of water entering a distribution system may differ substantially from the quality at the point of exposure to the consumer. This study investigated temporal variations in the levels of regulated and non-regulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in cold and hot tap water in a home on a medium-sized municipal water system. In addition, samples were collected directly from the water plant with some being held in accordance with a simulated distribution system (SDS) test protocol. The location for this work was a system in western Massachusetts, USA that uses free chlorine as a final disinfectant. Very little short term variability of DBPs at the point of entry (POE) was observed. The concentration of DBPs in the time-variable SDS test was similar to concentrations in the cold water tap. For most DBPs, the concentrations continued to increase as the cold water tap sample was held for the time-variable SDS incubation period. However, the impact of heating on DBP levels was compound specific. For example, the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and chloropicrin (CP) were substantially higher in the hot water tap than in the cold water time-variable SDS samples. In contrast, the concentration of trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) was lower in the heated hot tap water, but about equal to that observed in the cold tap water. The situation was more pronounced for dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), bromodichloroacetic acid (BDCAA), bromochloroacetic acid (BCAA) and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (TCP), which all showed lower concentrations in the hot water then in either of the cold water samples (instantaneous or time-variable SDS). The latter was viewed as a clear indication of thermally-induced decomposition. The ratio of unknown total organic halide (UTOX) to TOX was substantially lower in the hot tap water as the THM to TOX ratio became correspondingly larger. The results of this study show that DBP exposure in the home is not well represented by

Perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and association with intake of plain water and sugar-sweetened beverages.

PubMed

Onufrak, Stephen J; Park, Sohyun; Sharkey, Joseph R; Merlo, Caitlin; Dean, Wesley R; Sherry, Bettylou

2014-03-01

Little is known regarding youth perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and how these relate to water and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake. We used national 2010 YouthStyles data to assess perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and associations with water and SSB intake. Nearly 1 in 5 participants disagreed their tap water was safe and nearly 2 in 5 disagreed school water fountains were clean and safe. Perceived tap water risk was more prevalent among non-Hispanic (NH) Blacks (26.4%) and Hispanics (28.3%) compared with NH Whites (14.7%, p < .001) and more prevalent among lower-income youth. Negative water fountain perceptions were more common among high school-aged youth. Perceived tap water risk was not associated with SSB intake (odds ratio [OR] = 1.0, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.6, 1.5) or water intake (OR = 1.4, 95% CI: 0.9, 2.1). Negative water fountain perceptions were associated with SSB intake only among Hispanics (race/ethnicity interaction p < .001; OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 1.3, 6.6) but were not associated with water intake. Negative perceptions of tap water and water fountains among youth are common and should be considered in efforts to provide water in schools. Published 2014. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Sociodemographic Characteristics and Beverage Intake of Children Who Drink Tap Water

PubMed Central

Patel, Anisha I.; Shapiro, Daniel J.; Wang, Y. Claire; Cabana, Michael D.

2015-01-01

Background Tap water provides a calorie-free, no-cost, environmentally friendly beverage option, yet only some youth drink it. Purpose To examine sociodemographic characteristics, weight status, and beverage intake of those aged 1–19 years who drink tap water. Methods National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (2005–2010) were used to examine factors associated with tap water consumption. A comparison was made of beverage intake among tap water consumers and nonconsumers, by age, race/ethnicity, and income. Results Tap water consumption was more prevalent among school-aged children (OR=1.85, 95% CI=1.47, 2.33, for those aged 6–11 years; OR=1.85, 95% CI=1.32, 2.59, for those aged 12–19 years) as compared to those aged 1–2 years. Tap water intake was less prevalent among girls/women (OR=0.76, 95% CI=0.64, 0.89); Mexican Americans (OR=0.32, 95% CI=0.23, 0.45); non-Hispanic blacks (OR=0.48, 95% CI=0.34, 0.67); and others (OR=0.50, 95% CI=0.36, 0.68) as compared to whites; Spanish speakers (OR=0.72, 95% CI=0.55, 0.95); and among referents with a lower than Grade-9 education (OR=0.52, 95% CI=0.31, 0.88); Grade 9–11 education (OR=0.50, 95% CI=0.32, 0.77); and high school/General Educational Development test completion (OR=0.50, 95% CI=0.33, 0.76), as compared to college graduates. Tap water consumers drank more fluid (52.5 vs 48.0 ounces, p<0.01); more plain water (20.1 vs 15.2 ounces, p<0.01); and less juice (3.6 vs 5.2 ounces, p<0.01) than nonconsumers. Conclusions One in six children/adolescents does not drink tap water, and this finding is more pronounced among minorities. Sociodemographic disparities in tap water consumption may contribute to disparities in health outcomes. Improvements in drinking water infrastructure and culturally relevant promotion may help to address these issues. PMID:23790991

Analysis of UV filters in tap water and other clean waters in Spain.

PubMed

Díaz-Cruz, M Silvia; Gago-Ferrero, Pablo; Llorca, Marta; Barceló, Damià

2012-03-01

The present paper describes the development of a method for the simultaneous determination of five hormonally active UV filters namely benzophenone-3 (BP3), 3-(4-methylbenzylidene) camphor (4MBC), 2-ethylhexyl 4-(dimethylamino) benzoate (OD-PABA), 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) and octocrylene (OC) by means of solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-electron impact ionization-mass spectrometry. Under optimized conditions, this methodology achieved low method limits of detection (needed for clean waters, especially drinking water analysis), between 0.02 and 8.42 ng/L, and quantitative recovery rates higher than 73% in all cases. Inter- and intraday precision for all compounds were lower than 7% and 11%, respectively. The optimized methodology was applied to perform the first survey of UV absorbing compounds in tap water from the metropolitan area and the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain). In addition, other types of clean water matrices (mineral bottled water, well water and tap water treated with an ion-exchange resin) were investigated as well. Results evidenced that all the UV filters investigated were detected in the water samples analyzed. The compounds most frequently found were EHMC and OC. Maximum concentrations reached in tap water were 290 (BP3), 35 (4MBC), 110 (OD-PABA), 260 (EHMC), and 170 ng/L (OC). This study constitutes the first evidence of the presence of UV filter residues in tap water in Europe.

The mineral content of tap water in United States households

USDA-ARS?s Scientific Manuscript database

The composition of tap water contributes to dietary intake of minerals. The USDA’s Nutrient Data Laboratory (NDL) conducted a study of the mineral content of residential tap water, to generate current data for the USDA National Nutrient Database. Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper...

Perceptions of Tap Water and School Water Fountains among Youth and Association with Intake of Plain Water and Sugar-Sweetened Beverages

PubMed Central

Onufrak, Stephen J; Park, Sohyun; Sharkey, Joseph R; Merlo, Caitlin; Dean, Wesley R.; Sherry, Bettylou

2015-01-01

BACKGROUND Little is known regarding youth perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and how these relate to water and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake. METHODS We used national 2010 YouthStyles data to assess perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and associations with water and SSB intake. RESULTS Nearly 1 in 5 participants disagreed their tap water was safe and nearly 2 in 5 disagreed school water fountains were clean and safe. Perceived tap water risk was more prevalent among non-Hispanic (NH) blacks (26.4%) and Hispanics (28.3%) compared to NH whites (14.7%, p < .001) and more prevalent among lower income youth. Negative water fountain perceptions were more common among high school age youth. Perceived tap water risk was not associated with SSB intake (odds ratio (OR) = 1.0, 95% CI: 0.6, 1.5) or water intake (OR = 1.4, 95% CI: 0.9, 2.1). Negative water fountain perceptions were associated with SSB intake only among Hispanics (race/ethnicity interaction p < .001; OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 1.3, 6.6) but were not associated with water intake. CONCLUSION Negative perceptions of tap water and water fountains among youth are common and should be considered in efforts to provide water in schools. PMID:24443781

Spatio-temporal variation in the tap water isotope ratios of Salt Lake City: a novel indicator of urban water system structure and dynamics.

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Jameel, M. Y.; Bowen, G. J.

2015-12-01

Public water supply systems are the life-blood of urban areas. How we use urban water systems affects more than human health and well-being. Our water use can alter a city's energy balance, including how much solar energy is absorbed as heat or reflected back into space. The severity of these effects, and the need to better understand connections between climate, water extraction, water use, and water use impacts, is strongest in areas of climatic aridity and substantial land-use change, such as the rapidly urbanizing areas of Utah. We have gathered and analyzed stable water isotope data from a series of semi-annual hydrological surveys (spring and fall, 2013 and 2014) in urban tap water sampled across the Salt Lake Valley. Our study has led to four major findings thus far: 1) Clear and substantial variation in tap water isotopic composition in space and time that can be linked to different water sources and management practices within the urban area, 2) There is a strong correlation between the range of observed isotope values and the population of water districts, reflecting use of water from multiple local and non-local sources in districts with high water demand, 3) Water isotopes reflect significant and variable loss of water due to evaporation of surface water resources and 4) Overall, tap water contains lower concentrations of the heavy H and O isotopes than does precipitation within the basin, reflecting the connection between city water supplies and mountain water sources. Our results highlight the utility of isotopic data as an indicator of heterogeneities within urban water systems, management practices and their variation across a major metropolitan area, and effects of climate variability on urban water supplies

Influence of tap water quality and household water use activities on indoor air and internal dose levels of trihalomethanes.

PubMed

Nuckols, John R; Ashley, David L; Lyu, Christopher; Gordon, Sydney M; Hinckley, Alison F; Singer, Philip

2005-07-01

Individual exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in tap water can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure. Studies indicate that activities associated with inhaled or dermal exposure routes result in a greater increase in blood THM concentration than does ingestion. We measured blood and exhaled air concentrations of THM as biomarkers of exposure to participants conducting 14 common household water use activities, including ingestion of hot and cold tap water beverages, showering, clothes washing, hand washing, bathing, dish washing, and indirect shower exposure. We conducted our study at a single residence in each of two water utility service areas, one with relatively high and the other low total THM in the residence tap water. To maintain a consistent exposure environment for seven participants, we controlled water use activities, exposure time, air exchange, water flow and temperature, and nonstudy THM sources to the indoor air. We collected reference samples for water supply and air (pre-water use activity), as well as tap water and ambient air samples. We collected blood samples before and after each activity and exhaled breath samples at baseline and post-activity. All hot water use activities yielded a 2-fold increase in blood or breath THM concentrations for at least one individual. The greatest observed increase in blood and exhaled breath THM concentration in any participant was due to showering (direct and indirect), bathing, and hand dishwashing. Average increase in blood THM concentration ranged from 57 to 358 pg/mL due to these activities. More research is needed to determine whether acute and frequent exposures to THM at these concentrations have public health implications. Further research is also needed in designing epidemiologic studies that minimize data collection burden yet maximize accuracy in classification of dermal and inhalation THM exposure during hot water use activities.

Influence of Tap Water Quality and Household Water Use Activities on Indoor Air and Internal Dose Levels of Trihalomethanes

PubMed Central

Nuckols, John R.; Ashley, David L.; Lyu, Christopher; Gordon, Sydney M.; Hinckley, Alison F.; Singer, Philip

2005-01-01

Individual exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in tap water can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure. Studies indicate that activities associated with inhaled or dermal exposure routes result in a greater increase in blood THM concentration than does ingestion. We measured blood and exhaled air concentrations of THM as biomarkers of exposure to participants conducting 14 common household water use activities, including ingestion of hot and cold tap water beverages, showering, clothes washing, hand washing, bathing, dish washing, and indirect shower exposure. We conducted our study at a single residence in each of two water utility service areas, one with relatively high and the other low total THM in the residence tap water. To maintain a consistent exposure environment for seven participants, we controlled water use activities, exposure time, air exchange, water flow and temperature, and nonstudy THM sources to the indoor air. We collected reference samples for water supply and air (pre–water use activity), as well as tap water and ambient air samples. We collected blood samples before and after each activity and exhaled breath samples at baseline and postactivity. All hot water use activities yielded a 2-fold increase in blood or breath THM concentrations for at least one individual. The greatest observed increase in blood and exhaled breath THM concentration in any participant was due to showering (direct and indirect), bathing, and hand dishwashing. Average increase in blood THM concentration ranged from 57 to 358 pg/mL due to these activities. More research is needed to determine whether acute and frequent exposures to THM at these concentrations have public health implications. Further research is also needed in designing epidemiologic studies that minimize data collection burden yet maximize accuracy in classification of dermal and inhalation THM exposure during hot water use activities. PMID:16002374

Observation of Isotope Ratios (δ2H, δ18O, 87Sr/86Sr) of Tap Water in Urban Environments

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Mancuso, C. J.; Tipple, B. J.; Ehleringer, J. R.

2014-12-01

Urban environments are centers for rapidly growing populations. In order to meet the culinary water needs of these areas, municipal water departments use water from multiple locations and/or sources, often piped differentially to different locations within a municipality. This practice creates isotopically distinct locations within an urban area and therefore provides insight to urban water management practices. In our study we selected urban locations in the Salt Lake Valley, UT (SLV) and San Francisco Bay Area, CA (SFB) where we hypothesized geographically distinct water isotopic ratio differences existed. Within the SLV, municipal waters come from the same mountainous region, but are derived from different geologically distinct watersheds. In contrast, SFB waters are derived from regionally distinct water sources. We hypothesized that the isotope ratios of tap waters would differ based upon known municipal sources. To test this, tap water samples were collected throughout the urban regions in SLV and SFB and analyzed for δ2H, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios. Seasonal collections were also made to assess if isotope ratios differed throughout the year. Within SLV and SFB, different regions were characterized by distinct paired δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr values. These different realms also agreed with known differences in municipal water supplies within the general geographic region. Waters from different cities within Marin County showed isotopic differences, consistent with water derived from different local reservoirs. Seasonal variation was observed in paired δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr values of tap water for some locations within SLV and SFB, indicating management decisions to shift from one water source to another depending on demand and available resources. Our study revealed that the δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr values of tap waters in an urban region can exhibit significant differences despite close spatial proximity if districts differ in their use of local versus

The Relationship of Perceptions of Tap Water Safety with Intake of Sugar Sweetened Beverages and Plain Water among U.S. Adults

PubMed Central

Onufrak, Stephen J; Park, Sohyun; Sharkey, Joseph R; Sherry, Bettylou

2015-01-01

Objective Research is limited on whether mistrust of tap water discourages plain water intake and leads to greater intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB). The objective of this study is to examine demographic differences in perceptions of tap water safety and determine if these perceptions are associated with intake of SSB and plain water Design The study examined perceptions of tap water safety and their cross-sectional association with intake of SSB and plain water. Racial/ethnic differences in the associations of tap water perceptions with SSB and plain water intake were also examined. Setting Nationally weighted data from 2010 HealthStyles Survey (n=4184) Subjects United States adults ≥18 years Results Overall, 13.0% of participants disagreed that their local tap water was safe to drink and 26.4% of participants agreed that bottled water was safer than tap water. Both mistrust of tap water safety and favoring bottled water differed by region, age, race/ethnicity, income, and education. The associations of tap water mistrust on intake of SSB and plain water were modified by race/ethnicity (p<0.05). Non-white racial/ethnic groups who disagreed that their local tap water was safe to drink were more likely to report low intake of plain water. The odds of consuming ≥1 SSB/day among Hispanics who mistrusted their local tap water was twice that of Hispanics who did not (OR = 2.0; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.3). Conclusions Public health efforts to promote healthy beverages should recognize the potential impact of tap water perceptions on water and SSB intake among minority populations. PMID:23098620

Perceptions of Tap Water and School Water Fountains and Association with Intake of Plain Water and Sugar-Sweetened Beverages

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Onufrak, Stephen J.; Park, Sohyun; Sharkey, Joseph R.; Merlo, Caitlin; Dean, Wesley R.; Sherry, Bettylou

2014-01-01

Background: Little is known regarding youth perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and how these relate to water and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake. Methods: We used national 2010 YouthStyles data to assess perceptions of tap water and school water fountains and associations with water and SSB intake. Results: Nearly 1 in 5…

40 CFR 141.88 - Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in source water.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-07-01

... the basis of tap samples collected in accordance with § 141.86 shall collect lead and copper source... value or be considered one-half the PQL. (b) Monitoring frequency after system exceeds tap water action level. Any system which exceeds the lead or copper action level at the tap shall collect one source...

Demographic factors associated with perceptions about water safety and tap water consumption among adults in Santa Clara County, California, 2011.

PubMed

van Erp, Brianna; Webber, Whitney L; Stoddard, Pamela; Shah, Roshni; Martin, Lori; Broderick, Bonnie; Induni, Marta

2014-06-12

The objective of this study was to examine differences in tap water consumption and perceptions of bottle versus tap water safety for Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites, as well as associations with other demographic characteristics. Data are from the Santa Clara County, California, Dietary Practices Survey (2011; N = 306). We used logistic regression to examine associations between demographic characteristics and 1) perceptions that bottled water is safer than tap and 2) primarily consuming tap water. Hispanics were less likely than non-Hispanic whites to primarily drink tap water (OR = 0.33; 95% CI, 0.11-0.99), although there was no significant difference in perceptions that bottled water is safer between these groups (OR = 0.50; 95% CI, 0.11-2.27). Hispanics may be an important population for interventions promoting tap water consumption.

Major inorganic elements in tap water samples in Peninsular Malaysia.

PubMed

Azrina, A; Khoo, H E; Idris, M A; Amin, I; Razman, M R

2011-08-01

Quality drinking water should be free from harmful levels of impurities such as heavy metals and other inorganic elements. Samples of tap water collected from 24 locations in Peninsular Malaysia were determined for inorganic element content. Minerals and heavy metals were analysed by spectroscopy methods, while non-metal elements were analysed using test kits. Minerals and heavy metals determined were sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium and lead while the non-metal elements were fluoride, chloride, nitrate and sulphate. Most of the inorganic elements found in the samples were below the maximum permitted levels recommended by inter-national drinking water standard limits, except for iron and manganese. Iron concentration of tap water from one of the locations was higher than the standard limit. In general, tap water from different parts of Peninsular Malaysia had low concentrations of heavy metals and inorganic elements.

The occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in tap water - a review

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Siedlecka, Agata

2018-02-01

The study presents a review of the occurrence of genetic determinants of antibiotic resistance in tap water. The aim of this study was also to compare the applied methods for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) investigations in tap water. As the concentration of ARGs in treated, drinking water is expected to be very low and may cause problems in a standard isolation procedure, the special emphasis is placed on the applied procedures of DNA extraction and their efficiency. The study presents the first attempts to obtain DNA directly from tap water. Further efforts must be put to determine the final amount of obtained DNA and the presence of chosen ARGs among the molecules.

Pharmaceuticals in Tap Water: Human Health Risk Assessment and Proposed Monitoring Framework in China

PubMed Central

Leung, Ho Wing; Jin, Ling; Wei, Si; Tsui, Mirabelle Mei Po; Zhou, Bingsheng; Jiao, Liping; Cheung, Pak Chuen; Chun, Yiu Kan

2013-01-01

Background: Pharmaceuticals are known to contaminate tap water worldwide, but the relevant human health risks have not been assessed in China. Objectives: We monitored 32 pharmaceuticals in Chinese tap water and evaluated the life-long human health risks of exposure in order to provide information for future prioritization and risk management. Methods: We analyzed samples (n = 113) from 13 cities and compared detected concentrations with existing or newly-derived safety levels for assessing risk quotients (RQs) at different life stages, excluding the prenatal stage. Results: We detected 17 pharmaceuticals in 89% of samples, with most detectable concentrations (92%) at < 50 ng/L. Caffeine (median–maximum, nanograms per liter: 24.4–564), metronidazole (1.8–19.3), salicylic acid (16.6–41.2), clofibric acid (1.2–3.3), carbamazepine (1.3–6.7), and dimetridazole (6.9–14.7) were found in ≥ 20% of samples. Cities within the Yangtze River region and Guangzhou were regarded as contamination hot spots because of elevated levels and frequent positive detections. Of the 17 pharmaceuticals detected, 13 showed very low risk levels, but 4 (i.e., dimetridazole, thiamphenicol, sulfamethazine, and clarithromycin) were found to have at least one life-stage RQ ≥ 0.01, especially for the infant and child life stages, and should be considered of high priority for management. We propose an indicator-based monitoring framework for providing information for source identification, water treatment effectiveness, and water safety management in China. Conclusion: Chinese tap water is an additional route of human exposure to pharmaceuticals, particularly for dimetridazole, although the risk to human health is low based on current toxicity data. Pharmaceutical detection and application of the proposed monitoring framework can be used for water source protection and risk management in China and elsewhere. PMID:23665928

Pharmaceuticals in tap water: human health risk assessment and proposed monitoring framework in China.

PubMed

Leung, Ho Wing; Jin, Ling; Wei, Si; Tsui, Mirabelle Mei Po; Zhou, Bingsheng; Jiao, Liping; Cheung, Pak Chuen; Chun, Yiu Kan; Murphy, Margaret Burkhardt; Lam, Paul Kwan Sing

2013-07-01

Pharmaceuticals are known to contaminate tap water worldwide, but the relevant human health risks have not been assessed in China. We monitored 32 pharmaceuticals in Chinese tap water and evaluated the life-long human health risks of exposure in order to provide information for future prioritization and risk management. We analyzed samples (n = 113) from 13 cities and compared detected concentrations with existing or newly-derived safety levels for assessing risk quotients (RQs) at different life stages, excluding the prenatal stage. We detected 17 pharmaceuticals in 89% of samples, with most detectable concentrations (92%) at < 50 ng/L. Caffeine (median-maximum, nanograms per liter: 24.4-564), metronidazole (1.8-19.3), salicylic acid (16.6-41.2), clofibric acid (1.2-3.3), carbamazepine (1.3-6.7), and dimetridazole (6.9-14.7) were found in ≥ 20% of samples. Cities within the Yangtze River region and Guangzhou were regarded as contamination hot spots because of elevated levels and frequent positive detections. Of the 17 pharmaceuticals detected, 13 showed very low risk levels, but 4 (i.e., dimetridazole, thiamphenicol, sulfamethazine, and clarithromycin) were found to have at least one life-stage RQ ≥ 0.01, especially for the infant and child life stages, and should be considered of high priority for management. We propose an indicator-based monitoring framework for providing information for source identification, water treatment effectiveness, and water safety management in China. Chinese tap water is an additional route of human exposure to pharmaceuticals, particularly for dimetridazole, although the risk to human health is low based on current toxicity data. Pharmaceutical detection and application of the proposed monitoring framework can be used for water source protection and risk management in China and elsewhere.

An evaluation of microbial and chemical contamination sources related to the deterioration of tap water quality in the household water supply system.

PubMed

Lee, Yoonjin

2013-09-06

The predominant microorganisms in samples taken from shower heads in residences in the Korean city "N" were Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Sphingomonas paucimobilis, Acidovorax temperans, and Microbacterium lacticum. Legionella was not detected in this case. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) vinylacetate, NN-DMA, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, epichlorohydrin, and styrene were measured in five types of plastic pipes: PVC, PB, PP, PE, and cPVC. The rate of multiplication of the heterotrophic plate count (HPC) attached on the copper pipe in contact with hot tap water was higher than the rate for the copper pipe in contact with cold tap water. Biofilm accumulation on stainless steel pipes with added acetate (3 mg/L) was 2.56 times higher than the non-supplemented condition. Therefore, the growth of HPC in the pipe system was affected by the type and availability of nutrients and depended on variables such as heating during the hot water supply.

Lithium levels in tap water and psychotic experiences in a general population of adolescents.

PubMed

Shimodera, Shinji; Koike, Shinsuke; Ando, Shuntaro; Yamasaki, Syudo; Fujito, Ryosuke; Endo, Kaori; Iijima, Yudai; Yamamoto, Yu; Morita, Masaya; Sawada, Ken; Ohara, Nobuki; Okazaki, Yuji; Nishida, Atsushi

2018-06-09

Recently, several epidemiologic studies have reported that lithium in drinking water may be associated with lower rates of suicide mortality, lower incidence of dementia, and lower levels of adolescents' depression and aggression at the population level. However, to our knowledge, no study has investigated lithium level in tap water in relation to psychotic experiences in a general population of adolescents. This is the first study to investigate this using a large dataset. Information on psychotic experiences, distress associated with these experiences, and depressive symptoms were collected in 24 public junior high schools in Kochi Prefecture in Japan. Samples were collected from sources that supplied drinking water to schools, and lithium levels were measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The association of lithium levels with psychotic experiences, considering distress as a degree of severity, was examined using an ordinal logistic regression model with schools and depressive symptoms as random effects. In total, 3040 students responded to the self-reporting questionnaire (response rate: 91.8%). Lithium levels in tap water were inversely associated with psychotic experiences (p = 0.021). We concluded that lithium level in tap water was inversely associated with psychotic experiences among a general population of adolescents and may have a preventive effect for such experiences and distress. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Risk characterization of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) in tap water.

PubMed

Stern, B R; Tardiff, R G

1997-12-01

Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) can enter surface water and groundwater through wet atmospheric deposition or as a result of fuel leaks and spills. About 30% of the U.S. population lives in areas where MTBE is in regular use. Ninety-five percent of this population is unlikely to be exposed to MTBE in tap water at concentrations exceeding 2 ppb, and most will be exposed to concentrations that are much lower and may be zero. About 5% of this population may be exposed to higher levels of MTBE in tap water, resulting from fuel tank leaks and spills into surface or groundwater used for potable water supplies. This paper describes the concentration ranges found and anticipated in surface and groundwater, and estimates the distribution of doses experienced by humans using water containing MTBE to drink, prepare food, and shower/bathe. The toxic properties (including potency) of MTBE when ingested, inhaled, and in contact with the skin are summarized. Using a range of human toxic potency values derived from animal studies, margins of exposure (MOE) associated with alternative chronic exposure scenarios are estimated to range from 1700 to 140,000. Maximum concentrations of MTBE in tap water anticipated not to cause adverse health effects are determined to range from 700 to 14,000 ppb. The results of this analysis demonstrate that no health risks are likely to be associated with chronic and subchronic human exposures to MTBE in tap water. Although some individuals may be exposed to very high concentrations of MTBE in tap water immediately following a localized spill, these exposures are likely to be brief in duration due to large-scale dilution and rapid volatilization of MTBE, the institution of emergency response and remediation measures to minimize human exposures, and the low taste and odor thresholds of MTBE which ensure that its presence in tap water is readily detected at concentrations well below the threshold for human injury.

Predicting consumer preferences for mineral composition of bottled and tap water.

PubMed

Platikanov, Stefan; Hernández, Alejandra; González, Susana; Luis Cortina, Jose; Tauler, Roma; Devesa, Ricard

2017-01-01

The overall liking for taste of water was correlated with the mineral composition of selected bottled and tap waters. Sixty-nine untrained volunteers assessed and rated twenty-five different commercial bottled and tap waters from. Water samples were physicochemical characterised by analysing conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) and major anions and cations: HCO 3 - , SO 4 2- , Cl - , NO 3 - , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , and K + . Residual chlorine levels were also analysed in the tap water samples. Globally, volunteers preferred waters rich in calcium bicarbonate and sulfate, rather than in sodium chloride. This study also demonstrated that it was possible to accurately predict the overall liking by a Partial Least Squares regression using either all measured physicochemical parameters or a reduced number of them. These results were in agreement with previously published results using trained panellists. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

An Evaluation of Microbial and Chemical Contamination Sources Related to the Deterioration of Tap Water Quality in the Household Water Supply System

PubMed Central

Lee, Yoonjin

2013-01-01

The predominant microorganisms in samples taken from shower heads in residences in the Korean city “N” were Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Sphingomonas paucimobilis, Acidovorax temperans, and Microbacterium lacticum. Legionella was not detected in this case. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) vinylacetate, NN-DMA, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, epichlorohydrin, and styrene were measured in five types of plastic pipes: PVC, PB, PP, PE, and cPVC. The rate of multiplication of the heterotrophic plate count (HPC) attached on the copper pipe in contact with hot tap water was higher than the rate for the copper pipe in contact with cold tap water. Biofilm accumulation on stainless steel pipes with added acetate (3 mg/L) was 2.56 times higher than the non-supplemented condition. Therefore, the growth of HPC in the pipe system was affected by the type and availability of nutrients and depended on variables such as heating during the hot water supply. PMID:24018837

Quality control of bottled and vended water in California: A review and comparison to tap water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Darby, J.L.; Allen, L.

1994-04-01

Current regulations and compliance for quality control of bottled and vended water in California are compared with that of the tap water industry in this research. Over 35% of the bottled water sold in the US is consumed in California where a third of the residents use such water as a primary source of drinking water. California is one of several states that regulates bottled water more rigorously than the federal government. In California, water quality standards for the two industries are comparable except that many of the organic standards for bottled water are applicable only to the source water,more » a concern due to potential organic contamination during processing. Reporting requirements, significantly less stringent for bottled water, allow considerable latitude in assessing risks and make assessment of compliance difficult. Based on available statistics, compliance for the two industries is comparable; the majority of violations posed no health risks. For both industries, small systems comprised the majority of violations whereas large systems had excellent compliance rates.« less

Quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in tap water in Ireland.

PubMed

Cummins, E; Kennedy, R; Cormican, M

2010-01-15

Cryptosporidium species are protozoan parasites associated with gastro-intestinal illness. Following a number of high profile outbreaks worldwide, it has emerged as a parasite of major public health concern. A quantitative Monte Carlo simulation model was developed to evaluate the annual risk of infection from Cryptosporidium in tap water in Ireland. The assessment considers the potential initial contamination levels in raw water, oocyst removal and decontamination events following various process stages, including coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. A number of scenarios were analysed to represent potential risks from public water supplies, group water schemes and private wells. Where surface water is used additional physical and chemical water treatment is important in terms of reducing the risk to consumers. The simulated annual risk of illness for immunocompetent individuals was below 1 x 10(-4) per year (as set by the US EPA) except under extreme contamination events. The risk for immunocompromised individuals was 2-3 orders of magnitude greater for the scenarios analysed. The model indicates a reduced risk of infection from tap water that has undergone microfiltration, as this treatment is more robust in the event of high contamination loads. The sensitivity analysis highlighted the importance of watershed protection and the importance of adequate coagulation/flocculation in conventional treatment. The frequency of failure of the treatment process is the most important parameter influencing human risk in conventional treatment. The model developed in this study may be useful for local authorities, government agencies and other stakeholders to evaluate the likely risk of infection given some basic input data on source water and treatment processes used. Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Role of water source in the growth of kale

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Coates, M.

2017-12-01

Over the course of 2 months we watered Kale with tap water, water from turtle bayou, rain water, water from university lake, and deionized water. We found little difference between height and number of seedlings with different water treatments even though nutrient levels were different between these water sources.

Factors associated with drinking and being satisfied with tap water in Indigenous communities in Saskatchewan, Canada

PubMed Central

Bharadwaj, Lalita; Waldner, Cheryl L.

2018-01-01

ABSTRACT Previous studies have described concerns regarding tap water in Indigenous communities, yet there is little information on participants who report drinking their tap water and being satisfied with its quality. This study undertaken with members of 8 Indigenous communities in Saskatchewan, Canada, and identified factors associated with both the decision to drink tap water at home and being satisfied with its quality. We examined the importance of factors such as individual attributes, experiences, attitudes, household and community-based variables. Less than one-quarter of participants (23.4%) drank tap water and were satisfied with its quality. Individuals who did not boil tap water (odds ratio [OR] = 5.76, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.68–19.8), those who did not experience tap water odour (OR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.26–4.50) and participants living in communities away from urban centres (OR = 2.74, 95% CI = 1.63–4.51) were more likely to drink and be satisfied with their tap water. Concerns about the environment had the most impact on community members aged 55+ years. Those not reporting concerns about environmental problems affecting water (OR = 11.4, 95% CI = 3.10–42.2) were much more likely to drink and be satisfied with their tap water. Programmes to improve water quality, reduce the need for boil water advisories and increase community confidence in the environment could improve tap water satisfaction and consumption. PMID:29697009

Influence of Household Water Filters on Bacteria Growth and Trace Metals in Tap Water of Doha, Qatar.

PubMed

Nriagu, Jerome; Xi, Chuanwu; Siddique, Azhar; Vincent, Annette; Shomar, Basem

2018-05-29

Deteriorating water quality from aging infrastructure, growing threat of pollution from industrialization and urbanization, and increasing awareness about waterborne diseases are among the factors driving the surge in worldwide use of point-of-entry (POE) and point-of-use (POU) filters. Any adverse influence of such consumer point-of-use systems on quality of water at the tap remains poorly understood, however. We determined the chemical and microbiological changes in municipal water from the point of entry into the household plumbing system until it leaves from the tap in houses equipped with filters. We show that POE/POU devices can induce significant deterioration of the quality of tap water by functioning as traps and reservoirs for sludge, scale, rust, algae or slime deposits which promote microbial growth and biofilm formation in the household water distribution system. With changes in water pressure and physical or chemical disturbance of the plumbing system, the microorganisms and contaminants may be flushed into the tap water. Such changes in quality of household water carry a potential health risk which calls for some introspection in widespread deployment of POE/POU filters in water distribution systems.

[Case study of red water phenomenon in drinking water distribution systems caused by water source switch].

PubMed

Wang, Yang; Zhang, Xiao-jian; Chen, Chao; Pan, An-jun; Xu, Yang; Liao, Ping-an; Zhang, Su-xia; Gu, Jun-nong

2009-12-01

Red water phenomenon occurred in some communities of a city in China after water source switch in recent days. The origin of this red water problem and mechanism of iron release were investigated in the study. Water quality of local and new water sources was tested and tap water quality in suffered area had been monitored for 3 months since red water occurred. Interior corrosion scales on the pipe which was obtained from the suffered area were analyzed by XRD, SEM, and EDS. Corrosion rates of cast iron under the conditions of two source water were obtained by Annular Reactor. The influence of different source water on iron release was studied by pipe section reactor to simulate the distribution systems. The results indicated that large increase of sulfate concentration by water source shift was regarded as the cause of red water problem. The Larson ratio increased from about 0.4 to 1.7-1.9 and the red water problem happened in the taps of some urban communities just several days after the new water source was applied. The mechanism of iron release was concluded that the stable shell of scales in the pipes had been corrupted by this kind of high-sulfate-concentration source water and it was hard to recover soon spontaneously. The effect of sulfate on iron release of the old cast iron was more significant than its effect on enhancing iron corrosion. The rate of iron release increased with increasing Larson ratio, and the correlation of them was nonlinear on the old cast-iron. The problem remained quite a long time even if the water source re-shifted into the blended one with only small ratio of the new source and the Larson ratio reduced to about 0.6.

Isolation and identification of methylobacterium species from the tap water in hospitals in Japan and their antibiotic susceptibility.

PubMed

Furuhata, Katsunori; Kato, Yuko; Goto, Keiichi; Hara, Motonobu; Yoshida, Shin-ichi; Fukuyama, Masafumi

2006-01-01

Contamination of tap water by Methylobacterium species has become a serious concern in hospitals. This study was planned to examine the distribution of Methylobacterium species inhabiting tap water used in Japanese hospitals and antibiotic sensitivity of the isolates in 2004. Species identification of 58 isolates was performed based on the homology of a partial sequence of 16S rDNA. The dominant Methylobacterium species in hospital water were M. aquaticum and M. fujisawaense. To examine the biochemical properties of these isolates, a carbon source utilization was tested using an API50CH kit. The phenotypic character varied widely, and was not necessarily consistent with the results of phylogenic analysis based on the partial 16S rDNA sequence, suggesting that the biochemical properties are not suitable for identification of Methylobacterium species. The isolates were also subjected to antibiotic sensitivity tests. They were resistant to 8 antibiotics, but highly sensitive to imipenem (MIC90 = 1 microg/ml) and tetracycline (MIC90 = 8 microg/ml). These findings concerning the isolates revealed the presence of Methylobacterium species with resistance to multiple antibiotics in hospital tap water.

A level change in mutagenicity of Japanese tap water over the past 12 yr.

PubMed

Takanashi, Hirokazu; Kishida, Misako; Nakajima, Tsunenori; Ohki, Akira; Akiba, Michihiro

2011-05-01

A relative comparison study of mutagenicity in Japanese tap water was conducted for 1993 and 2005 surveys. It intended to assess the effects of advanced water treatment installations to water works, improvement of raw water quality and improvement of residual HOCl concentration controlling. Sampling points (taps) were the same in both surveys. The results of 245 samples obtained by the Ames Salmonella mutagenicity test (Ames test) were analyzed. The Ames tests were conducted by using Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains with and without exogenous activation (S9). With the exception of TA100-S9, the other conditions needed no discussion as a factor in the mutagenicity level change. The average mutagenicity in 1993 and 2005 under the conditions of TA100-S9 were 2600 and 1100 net revertantL(-1), respectively. This indicated that the mutagenicity level of Japanese tap water decreased during the 12-yr period. Particularly a remarkable decrease in mutagenicity was observed in the water works where the advanced water treatments were installed during the 12-yr period. The advanced water treatments were effective in decreasing the mutagenicity of tap water. Mutagenicity also decreased in the water works with conventional water treatments; the improvement of residual HOCl concentration controlling was also considered to be effective in decreasing the mutagenicity of tap water. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Indoor Heating Drives Water Bacterial Growth and Community Metabolic Profile Changes in Building Tap Pipes during the Winter Season

PubMed Central

Zhang, Hai-Han; Chen, Sheng-Nan; Huang, Ting-Lin; Shang, Pan-Lu; Yang, Xiao; Ma, Wei-Xing

2015-01-01

The growth of the bacterial community harbored in indoor drinking water taps is regulated by external environmental factors, such as indoor temperature. However, the effect of indoor heating on bacterial regrowth associated with indoor drinking water taps is poorly understood. In the present work, flow cytometry and community-level sole-carbon-source utilization techniques were combined to explore the effects of indoor heating on water bacterial cell concentrations and community carbon metabolic profiles in building tap pipes during the winter season. The results showed that the temperature of water stagnated overnight (“before”) in the indoor water pipes was 15–17 °C, and the water temperature decreased to 4–6 °C after flushing for 10 min (“flushed”). The highest bacterial cell number was observed in water stagnated overnight, and was 5–11 times higher than that of flushed water. Meanwhile, a significantly higher bacterial community metabolic activity (AWCD590nm) was also found in overnight stagnation water samples. The significant “flushed” and “taps” values indicated that the AWCD590nm, and bacterial cell number varied among the taps within the flushed group (p < 0.01). Heatmap fingerprints and principle component analyses (PCA) revealed a significant discrimination bacterial community functional metabolic profiles in the water stagnated overnight and flushed water. Serine, threonine, glucose-phosphate, ketobutyric acid, phenylethylamine, glycerol, putrescine were significantly used by “before” water samples. The results suggested that water stagnated at higher temperature should be treated before drinking because of bacterial regrowth. The data from this work provides useful information on reasonable utilization of drinking water after stagnation in indoor pipes during indoor heating periods. PMID:26516885

Microprocessor controlled anodic stripping voltameter for trace metals analysis in tap water

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Clem, R.G.; Park, F.W.; Kirsten, F.A.

1981-04-01

The construction and use of a portable, microprocessor controlled anodic stripping voltameter for on-site simultaneous metal analysis of copper, lead and cadmium in tap water is discussed. The instrumental system is comprised of a programmable controller which permits keying in analytical parameters such as sparge time and plating time; a rotating cell for efficient oxygen removal and amalgam formation; and, a magnetic tape which can be used for data storage. Analysis time can be as short as 10 to 15 minutes. The stripping analysis is based on a pre-measurement step during which the metals from a water sample are concentratedmore » into a thin mercury film by deposition from an acetate solution of pH 4.5. The concentrated metals are then electrochemically dissolved from the film by application of a linearly increasing anodic potential. Typical peak-shaped curves are obtained. The heights of these curves are related to the concentration of metals in the water by calibration data. Results of tap water analysis showed 3 +- 1 ..mu..g/L lead, 22 +- 0.3 ..mu..g/L copper, and less than 0.2 ..mu..g/L cadmium for a Berkeley, California tap water, and 1 to 1000 ..mu..g/L Cu, 1 to 2 ..mu..g/L Pb for ten samples of Seattle, Washington tap water. Recommendations are given for a next generation instrument system.« less

Relationship between the incidence infection stones and the magnesium-calcium ratio of tap water.

PubMed

Kohri, K; Ishikawa, Y; Iguchi, M; Kurita, T; Okada, Y; Yoshida, O

1993-01-01

In a previous study we showed that the magnesium-calcium ratio of tap water is negatively correlated with the incidence of calcium-containing urinary stones. In this study we examined the relationship between the incidence of struvite stones, water hardness and the regional geological features on the basis of our previous study and an epidemiological study of urolithiasis performed in Japan. The magnesium-calcium ratio of tap water was found to correlate positively with the incidence of struvite stones. The tap water magnesium-calcium ratio was high in regions of basalt and sedimentary rock and was low in granite and limestone areas. The incidence of struvite stones in the regions of basalt and sedimentary rock was higher than that in the granite and limestone areas. Thus, this study suggested that the incidence of struvite stones is related to the magnesium-calcium ratio of tap water and to the regional geology, as is the case for calcium-containing stones.

Chemical quality of tap water in Madrid: multicase control cancer study in Spain (MCC-Spain).

PubMed

Fernández-Navarro, Pablo; Villanueva, Cristina M; García-Pérez, Javier; Boldo, Elena; Goñi-Irigoyen, Fernando; Ulibarrena, Enrique; Rantakokko, Panu; García-Esquinas, Esther; Pérez-Gómez, Beatriz; Pollán, Marina; Aragonés, Nuria

2017-02-01

Chronic consumption of water, which contains contaminants, may give rise to adverse health effects. The Madrid region, covered by the population-based multicase-control (MCC-Spain) study, includes two drinking water supply areas. The different sources of the water, coupled together with the possible differences in water management, mean that there may be differences in drinking water quality. In the context of the MCC study, our aims were to describe contaminant concentrations in tap water drawn from various sampling points distributed around the region, assess these concentrations by reference to guideline values and study possible differences between the two supply areas. Tap water samples were collected from 34 sampling points in 7 towns in the Madrid region (19-29 April 2010), and 23 contaminants (metals, nitrates, disinfection by-product and Mutagen X levels) were quantified. We undertook a descriptive analysis of the contaminant concentrations in the water and compared them between the two water supply areas (Wilcoxon test). We created maps representing the distribution of the concentrations observed at water sampling points and assessed the correlations (Spearman's coefficient) between the different parameters measured. The concentrations of the contaminants were below guideline values. There were differences between the two supply areas in concentration of nitrates (p value = 0.0051) and certain disinfection by-products. While there were positive correlations (rho >0.70) among some disinfection by-products, no correlations were found in metals or nitrates. The differences in nitrate levels could be linked to differences in farming/industrial activities in the catchment areas and in disinfection by-products might be related to the existence of different treatment systems or bromine content in source waters.

Immunoaffinity column as clean-up tool for determination of trace amounts of microcystins in tap water.

PubMed

Tsutsumi, T; Nagata, S; Hasegawa, A; Ueno, Y

2000-07-01

Trace amounts of microcystins (MCs) in drinking water should be monitored because of their potential hazard for human health as an environmental tumor promoter. We describe here a new clean-up tool with immunoaffinity column (IAC) for determination of trace amounts of MCs (from pg to microg/litre) in tap water. The water samples were concentrated with IAC clean-up and MCs levels were determined by HPLC with UV detection or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In the combination with HPLC analysis, mean recovery of microcystin-LR (MCLR),-RR and-YR spiked to tap water were 91.8%, 77.3% and 86.4%, respectively, in the range 2.5-100 microg/litre. The chromatogram of MCs-spiked tap water sample cleaned up with IAC showed effective elimination of the impurities compared to that with octadecyl silanized cartridge, which had been cleaned up with a conventional method. Also, in the combination with highly sensitive ELISA, mean recovery of MCLR spiked to tap water was 80% in the range 0.1-1000 ng/litre. The combined methods developed here can detect pg to microg/litre of MCs in tap water. The overall results indicated that IAC will be suitable as a clean-up tool for trace amounts of MCs in tap water.

Legionella species diversity and dynamics from surface reservoir to tap water: from cold adaptation to thermophily

PubMed Central

Lesnik, René; Brettar, Ingrid; Höfle, Manfred G

2016-01-01

Water samples of the Drinking Water Supply System (DWSS) of the city of Braunschweig were analysed for its Legionella species composition using genus-specific PCR amplicons and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) fingerprint analyses based on 16S rRNA genes. These analyses comprised the whole supply chain including raw water, treatment process and large-scale storage, and a seasonal study of finished drinking water sampled monthly from cold and hot tap water. Treatment of raw water had a major impact on Legionella species by reducing their diversity and abundances. The Legionella species composition of the tap water was highly distinct from that of both source waters. In cold water, 8–14 different phylotypes of Legionella (PTLs) were observed per sample with relative abundances ranging from >1% to 53%. In hot water, L. pneumophila was present during all seasons at high relative abundances (8–40%) accompanied by 5–14 other PTLs of which 6 PTLs were in common with cold water. This thermophilic Legionella community, including L. pneumophila, was able to grow in the hot water above 50 °C. Such thermophilic Legionella populations are of general relevance for drinking water management and public health, but also for the ecology and evolution of the genus Legionella. PMID:26528838

Legionella species diversity and dynamics from surface reservoir to tap water: from cold adaptation to thermophily.

PubMed

Lesnik, René; Brettar, Ingrid; Höfle, Manfred G

2016-05-01

Water samples of the Drinking Water Supply System (DWSS) of the city of Braunschweig were analysed for its Legionella species composition using genus-specific PCR amplicons and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) fingerprint analyses based on 16S rRNA genes. These analyses comprised the whole supply chain including raw water, treatment process and large-scale storage, and a seasonal study of finished drinking water sampled monthly from cold and hot tap water. Treatment of raw water had a major impact on Legionella species by reducing their diversity and abundances. The Legionella species composition of the tap water was highly distinct from that of both source waters. In cold water, 8-14 different phylotypes of Legionella (PTLs) were observed per sample with relative abundances ranging from >1% to 53%. In hot water, L. pneumophila was present during all seasons at high relative abundances (8-40%) accompanied by 5-14 other PTLs of which 6 PTLs were in common with cold water. This thermophilic Legionella community, including L. pneumophila, was able to grow in the hot water above 50 °C. Such thermophilic Legionella populations are of general relevance for drinking water management and public health, but also for the ecology and evolution of the genus Legionella.

Concentration of poliovirus from tap water using positively charged microporous filters.

PubMed Central

Sobsey, M D; Jones, B L

1979-01-01

Microporous filters that are more electropositive than the negatively charged filters currently used for virus concentrations from water by filter adsorption-elution methods were evaluated for poliovirus recovery from tap water. Zeta Plus filters composed of diatomaceous earth-cellulose-"charge-modified" resin mixtures and having a net positive charge of up to pH 5 to 6 efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water at ambient pH levels 7.0 to 7.5 without added multivalent cation salts. The adsorbed virus were eluted with glycine-NaOH, pH 9.5 to 11.5. Electropositive asbestos-cellulose filters efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water without added multivalent cation salts between pH 3.5 and 9.0, and the absorbed viruses could be eluted with 3% beef extract, pH 9, but not with pH 9.5 to 11.5 glycine-NaOH. Under water quality conditions in which poliovirus recoveries from large volumes of water were less than 5% with conventional negatively charged filters and standard methods, recoveries with Zeta Plus filters averaged 64 and 22.5% for one- and two-stage concentration procedures, respectively. Electropositive filters appear to offer distinct advantages over conventional negatively charged filters for concentrating enteric viruses from water, and their behavior tends to confirm the importance of electrostatic forces in virus recovery from water by microporous filter adsorption-elution methods. PMID:36844

Levels of major and trace elements, including rare earth elements, and ²³⁸U in Croatian tap waters.

PubMed

Fiket, Željka; Rožmarić, Martina; Krmpotić, Matea; Benedik, Ljudmila

2015-05-01

Concentrations of 46 elements, including major, trace, and rare earth elements, and (238)U in Croatian tap waters were investigated. Selected sampling locations include tap waters from various hydrogeological regions, i.e., different types of aquifers, providing insight into the range of concentrations of studied elements and (238)U activity concentrations in Croatian tap waters. Obtained concentrations were compared with the Croatian maximum contaminant levels for trace elements in water intended for human consumption, as well as WHO and EPA drinking water standards. Concentrations in all analyzed tap waters were found in accordance with Croatian regulations, except tap water from Šibenik in which manganese in concentration above maximum permissible concentration (MPC) was measured. Furthermore, in tap water from Osijek, levels of arsenic exceeded the WHO guidelines and EPA regulations. In general, investigated tap waters were found to vary considerably in concentrations of studied elements, including (238)U activity concentrations. Causes of variability were further explored using statistical methods. Composition of studied tap waters was found to be predominately influenced by hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifer, at regional and local level, the existing redox conditions, and the household plumbing system. Rare earth element data, including abundances and fractionation patterns, complemented the characterization and facilitated the interpretation of factors affecting the composition of the analyzed tap waters.

Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of tap water reveal structure of the San Francisco Bay Area's water system and adjustments during a major drought.

PubMed

Tipple, Brett J; Jameel, Yusuf; Chau, Thuan H; Mancuso, Christy J; Bowen, Gabriel J; Dufour, Alexis; Chesson, Lesley A; Ehleringer, James R

2017-08-01

Water availability and sustainability in the Western United States is a major flashpoint among expanding communities, growing industries, and productive agricultural lands. This issue came to a head in 2015 in the State of California, when the State mandated a 25% reduction in urban water use following a multi-year drought that significantly depleted water resources. Water demands and challenges in supplying water are only expected to intensify as climate perturbations, such as the 2012-2015 California Drought, become more common. As a consequence, there is an increased need to understand linkages between urban centers, water transport and usage, and the impacts of climate change on water resources. To assess if stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios could increase the understanding of these relationships within a megalopolis in the Western United States, we collected and analyzed 723 tap waters across the San Francisco Bay Area during seven collection campaigns spanning 21 months during 2013-2015. The San Francisco Bay Area was selected as it has well-characterized water management strategies and the 2012-2105 California Drought dramatically affected its water resources. Consistent with known water management strategies and previously collected isotope data, we found large spatiotemporal variations in the δ 2 H and δ 18 O values of tap waters within the Bay Area. This is indicative of complex water transport systems and varying municipality-scale management decisions. We observed δ 2 H and δ 18 O values of tap water consistent with waters originating from snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada Mountains, local precipitation, ground water, and partially evaporated reservoir sources. A cluster analysis of the isotope data collected in this study grouped waters from 43 static sampling sites that were associated with specific water utility providers within the San Francisco Bay Area and known management practices. Various management responses to the drought, such as

Identifying (subsurface) anthropogenic heat sources that influence temperature in the drinking water distribution system

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Agudelo-Vera, Claudia M.; Blokker, Mirjam; de Kater, Henk; Lafort, Rob

2017-09-01

The water temperature in the drinking water distribution system and at customers' taps approaches the surrounding soil temperature at a depth of 1 m. Water temperature is an important determinant of water quality. In the Netherlands drinking water is distributed without additional residual disinfectant and the temperature of drinking water at customers' taps is not allowed to exceed 25 °C. In recent decades, the urban (sub)surface has been getting more occupied by various types of infrastructures, and some of these can be heat sources. Only recently have the anthropogenic sources and their influence on the underground been studied on coarse spatial scales. Little is known about the urban shallow underground heat profile on small spatial scales, of the order of 10 m × 10 m. Routine water quality samples at the tap in urban areas have shown up locations - so-called hotspots - in the city, with relatively high soil temperatures - up to 7 °C warmer - compared to the soil temperatures in the surrounding rural areas. Yet the sources and the locations of these hotspots have not been identified. It is expected that with climate change during a warm summer the soil temperature in the hotspots can be above 25 °C. The objective of this paper is to find a method to identify heat sources and urban characteristics that locally influence the soil temperature. The proposed method combines mapping of urban anthropogenic heat sources, retrospective modelling of the soil temperature, analysis of water temperature measurements at the tap, and extensive soil temperature measurements. This approach provided insight into the typical range of the variation of the urban soil temperature, and it is a first step to identifying areas with potential underground heat stress towards thermal underground management in cities.

Bacterial community of iron tubercles from a drinking water distribution system and its occurrence in stagnant tap water.

PubMed

Chen, Lu; Jia, Rui-Bao; Li, Li

2013-07-01

Bacteria in drinking water distribution systems can cause deterioration of the water quality, and the microbial quality of tap water is closely related to consumer health. In the present study, the potential effects of bacteria attached to cast iron pipes on tap water in a distribution system were investigated. Comparison of the bacterial community composition of pipe tubercles with that of stagnant tap water samples based on a denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that the communities were related. Specifically, the main bacterial members were identical to each other. The bacterial community was found to be dominated by Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria, which included Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, Lactococcus, Brevundimonas, Rheinheimera, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, and Herbaspirillum. Heterotrophic bacteria proliferation was observed during the period of stagnation, followed by a decrease of assimilable organic carbon and a slight increase of microbially available phosphorus. These findings indicated that the regrowth of bacteria might be boosted by the release of nutrients such as phosphorus from the pipe walls, as well as the decline of residual chlorine during stagnation. Inorganic contaminants at low levels, including Al, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu, and Ni, were detected in tubercles and were concentrated in particulates from tap water following the release of iron during stagnation.

Residential tap water contamination following the Freedom Industries chemical spill: perceptions, water quality, and health impacts.

PubMed

Whelton, Andrew J; McMillan, LaKia; Connell, Matt; Kelley, Keven M; Gill, Jeff P; White, Kevin D; Gupta, Rahul; Dey, Rajarshi; Novy, Caroline

2015-01-20

During January 2014, an industrial solvent contaminated West Virginia’s Elk River and 15% of the state population’s tap water. A rapid in-home survey and water testing was conducted 2 weeks following the spill to understand resident perceptions, tap water chemical levels, and premise plumbing flushing effectiveness. Water odors were detected in all 10 homes sampled before and after premise plumbing flushing. Survey and medical data indicated flushing caused adverse health impacts. Bench-scale experiments and physiochemical property predictions showed flushing promoted chemical volatilization, and contaminants did not appreciably sorb into cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe. Flushing reduced tap water 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (4-MCHM) concentrations within some but not all homes. 4-MCHM was detected at unflushed (<10 to 420 μg/L) and flushed plumbing systems (<10 to 96 μg/L) and sometimes concentrations differed among faucets within each home. All waters contained less 4-MCHM than the 1000 μg/L Centers for Disease Control drinking water limit, but one home exceeded the 120 μg/L drinking water limit established by independent toxicologists. Nearly all households refused to resume water use activities after flushing because of water safety concerns. Science based flushing protocols should be developed to expedite recovery, minimize health impacts, and reduce concentrations in homes when future events occur.

Prevalence of Giardia lamblia in Different Water Sources of District Nowshehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan.

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

khan, Shaukat Ali; Ayaz, Sultan; Khan, Sanaullah; Anees, Muhammad; Khan, Amir Muhammad; Khan, Imran

2012-12-01

Giardia lamblia is a cosmopolitan parasite that occurs worldwide and generally effects gastrointestinal tract. Water played a media for transmission of Giardia to different hosts. A total of 300 water samples were examined from different water sources, i.e. tap, open well, bore well and drain waters and DNA was extracted by trizol method through prescribed protocol. DNA was amplified through PCR. The overall prevalence of G. lamblia was 27.66% (83/300). Among these 2.5% (1/40) in bore well water, 29% (29/100) open well, 18.83% (11/60) tap water and 42% (42/100) drain water. It is concluded from the study that Giardia is frequently found in all water sources and is the main cause of ill health.

Stereotypes for lever-tap operation.

PubMed

Chan, Alan H S; Tsang, Steve N H; Hoffmann, Errol R

2016-04-15

Lever-operated taps have become more popular and are commonly used in operating theatres, food preparation areas and where users have poor strength; however, there is very little data available for user expectations on tap operation. Thus, an experiment on dual lever-operated water tap (faucets) was conducted with the aim of for providing information for improved design. This study aims to compare different lever-tap designs and their stereotypes adopted by the end-user to operate them also to verify the stereotypes for increasing or decreasing the water flow. 240 participants were requested to rotate the lever tap to indicate direction for increasing and decreasing water flow with simulated hardware, using actual taps placed at the top of a simulated washbasin. Nine initial positions of the lever were used for increasing and decreasing flows, ranging from the ends of both levers facing outward from the bowl center to the ends of both levers facing inward. All levers operated in the horizontal plane. Strong stereotypes (greater than 80%) for several initial lever orientations were found for increasing water flow, especially when the initial lever end positions were facing outwards. However, for different initial positions at which participants were told that the water was flowing and the flow was to be decreased, no strong stereotypes existed. The stereotypes for increasing water flow of dual-lever taps were strong, whereas those for decreasing water flow were weak and hence the stereotype reversibility was also weak. In terms of user expectations, lever taps do not show any great advantage over cross-taps in terms of operator expectations for increasing and decreasing water flow.

Evaluation of disinfective potential of reactivated free chlorine in pooled tap water by electrolysis.

PubMed

Nakajima, Norihito; Nakano, Takashi; Harada, Fumiue; Taniguchi, Hiromasa; Yokoyama, Isao; Hirose, Jun; Daikoku, Eriko; Sano, Kouichi

2004-05-01

Tap water is one of the causative factors of hospital infections. We examined the disinfective potential of electrolysis and mechanism of disinfection, and clarified the disinfective effect of electrolysis on tap water contaminated with bacteria, and discussed its clinical applications. Tap waters artificially contaminated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Legionella pneumophila, and Staphylococcus aureus could be sterilized by electrolysis at 20-30 mA for 5 min. A high-density suspension (10(6) CFU/ml) of a spore forming bacterium, Bacillus subtilis was not completely sterilized by electrolysis at 50 mA up to 30 min, but a low-density suspension (10(5) CFU/ml) was totally sterilized by electrolysis at 50 mA for 5 min. Electrolyzed P. aeruginosa changed morphologically, that is, there was bleb formation on the cell wall and irregular aggregation of cytoplasmic small granules. Moreover, cytoplasmic enzyme, nitrate reductase, was inactivated by the electrolysis. On the other hand, genomic DNA of the electrolyzed bacteria was not degenerated, therefore, their DNA polymerase activity was not completely inactivated. Consequently, the major agent in electrolysis for bactericidal action was considered to be free chlorine, and the possible bactericidal mechanism was by destruction of bacterial membranes, followed by the aggregation of peripheral cytoplasmic proteins. Electrolysis of tap water for both disinfecting contaminating bacteria and increasing the disinfectant capacity was considered effective with some limitations, particularly against high-density contamination by spore-forming bacteria. In clinical settings, electrolysis of tap water is considered effective to disinfect water for hand washing in operation theatres, and bathing water for immunocompromised hosts.

Detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae in tap water and bottled drinking water in Isfahan, Iran.

PubMed

Momtaz, Hassan; Dehkordi, Farhad Safarpoor; Rahimi, Ebrahim; Asgarifar, Amin

2013-06-07

The quality of drinking water has an important role in human infection and disease. This study was aimed at comparing polymerase chain reaction and culture in detecting Escherichia coli, Salmonella species and Vibrio cholera in tape water and bottled drinking water in various seasons in Isfahan province, Iran. A total of 448 water samples from tap water and bottled mineral water were taken over 6 months, from July 2010 to December 2010, and after filtration, samples were examined by culture and polymerase chain reaction methods for detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae. The culture method showed that 34 (7.58%), 4 (0.89%) and 3 (0.66%) of all 448 water samples were positive for Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholera, respectively. The uidA gene from Escherichia coli, IpaB gene from Salmonella species, and epsM gene from Vibrio cholera were detected in 38 (26.38%), 5 (3.47%), and 3 (2.08%) of 144 tap-water samples, respectively. Escherichia coli was detected in 8 (2.63%) of 304 samples of bottled drinking water from 5 companies. The water of southern part of Isfahan and company 5 had the highest prevalence of bacteria. The Escherichia coli water contamination was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the hot seasons (July-August) than cold (November-December) seasons and in company 5 than other companies. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) for the prevalence of bacteria between the tap waters of southern part and tap waters of central part of Isfahan. This study showed that the polymerase chain reaction assays can be an extremely accurate, fast, safe, sensitive and specific approach to monitor drinking water quality from purification facilities and bottled water companies. Also, our study confirmed the presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae as water-borne pathogens in tap water and bottled drinking water of Isfahan, Iran. The present study showed the important public health

Detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae in tap water and bottled drinking water in Isfahan, Iran

PubMed Central

2013-01-01

Background The quality of drinking water has an important role in human infection and disease. This study was aimed at comparing polymerase chain reaction and culture in detecting Escherichia coli, Salmonella species and Vibrio cholera in tape water and bottled drinking water in various seasons in Isfahan province, Iran. Methods A total of 448 water samples from tap water and bottled mineral water were taken over 6 months, from July 2010 to December 2010, and after filtration, samples were examined by culture and polymerase chain reaction methods for detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae. Results The culture method showed that 34 (7.58%), 4 (0.89%) and 3 (0.66%) of all 448 water samples were positive for Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholera, respectively. The uidA gene from Escherichia coli, IpaB gene from Salmonella species, and epsM gene from Vibrio cholera were detected in 38 (26.38%), 5 (3.47%), and 3 (2.08%) of 144 tap-water samples, respectively. Escherichia coli was detected in 8 (2.63%) of 304 samples of bottled drinking water from 5 companies. The water of southern part of Isfahan and company 5 had the highest prevalence of bacteria. The Escherichia coli water contamination was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the hot seasons (July-August) than cold (November-December) seasons and in company 5 than other companies. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) for the prevalence of bacteria between the tap waters of southern part and tap waters of central part of Isfahan. Conclusions This study showed that the polymerase chain reaction assays can be an extremely accurate, fast, safe, sensitive and specific approach to monitor drinking water quality from purification facilities and bottled water companies. Also, our study confirmed the presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae as water-borne pathogens in tap water and bottled drinking water of Isfahan, Iran. The

The First Association of a Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis Death with Culturable Naegleria fowleri in Tap Water from a U.S. Treated Public Drinking Water System

PubMed Central

Cope, Jennifer R.; Ratard, Raoult C.; Hill, Vincent R.; Sokol, Theresa; Causey, Jonathan Jake; Yoder, Jonathan S.; Mirani, Gayatri; Mull, Bonnie; Mukerjee, Kimberly A.; Narayanan, Jothikumar; Doucet, Meggie; Qvarnstrom, Yvonne; Poole, Charla N.; Akingbola, Olugbenga A.; Ritter, Jana; Xiong, Zhenggang; da Silva, Alexandre; Roellig, Dawn; Van Dyke, Russell; Stern, Harlan; Xiao, Lihua; Beach, Michael J.

2015-01-01

Background Naegleria fowleri is a climate-sensitive, thermophilic ameba found in warm, freshwater lakes and rivers. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is almost universally fatal, occurs when N. fowleri–containing water enters the nose, typically during swimming, and N. fowleri migrates to the brain via the olfactory nerve. In August 2013, a 4-year-old child died of meningoencephalitis of unknown etiology in a Louisiana hospital. Methods Clinical and environmental testing and a case investigation were initiated to determine the cause of death and to identify potential exposures. Results Based on testing of CSF and brain specimens, the child was diagnosed with PAM. His only reported water exposure was tap water; in particular, tap water that was used to supply water to a lawn water slide on which the child had played extensively prior to becoming ill. Water samples were collected from both the home and the water distribution system that supplied the home and tested; N. fowleri were identified in water samples from both the home and the water distribution system. Conclusions This case is the first reported PAM death associated with culturable N. fowleri in tap water from a U.S. treated drinking water system. This case occurred in the context of an expanding geographic range for PAM beyond southern tier states with recent case reports from Minnesota, Kansas, and Indiana. This case also highlights the role of adequate disinfection throughout drinking water distribution systems and the importance of maintaining vigilance when operating drinking water systems using source waters with elevated temperatures. PMID:25595746

The Danger of Using Tap Water with Contact Lenses

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Acanthamoeba is a microbe that is very common in tap water. It has two forms: the trophozoite and the cyst. These trophozoites and cysts can stick to the surface of your contact lenses and then infect your eye.

Simultaneous determination and assessment of 4-nonylphenol, bisphenol A and triclosan in tap water, bottled water and baby bottles.

PubMed

Li, Xu; Ying, Guang-Guo; Su, Hao-Chang; Yang, Xiao-Bing; Wang, Li

2010-08-01

This study investigated the levels of 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), bisphenol A (BPA) and triclosan (TCS) in bottled water and tap water in Guangzhou and release of these chemicals from baby bottles using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with negative chemical ionization. Results show that 4-NP was present in all the bottled water while 17 out of 21 contained BPA and 18 out of 21 contained TCS. Their concentrations in bottled water ranged from 108 to 298 ng/L, 17.6 to 324 ng/L and 0.6 to 9.7 ng/L, respectively. Five of the tap water samples from six drinking water plants were found to contain 4-NP and BPA both in June and December, while TCS was detected in the same five plants only in June. The highest concentrations in tap water for 4-NP, BPA and TCS were 1987, 317 and 14.5ng/L, respectively. Daily intakes of 4-NP, BPA and TCS of adults by drinking 2L of tap water were estimated to be 1410, 148 and 10 ng/day, respectively. BPA was found to be released within 24h from four brands of baby bottles at room temperature (24 degrees C), 40 degrees C and 100 degrees C. Increased temperature led to higher release of BPA from the baby bottles. Estimated daily intakes of 4-NP, BPA and TCS for infants were 705, 1340 and 5 ng/day, respectively, by drinking 1L of tap water from a baby bottle at 40 degrees C. This study showed that the exposure to the three compounds from drinking water is unlikely to pose a health risk. Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Root distribution of Nitraria sibirica with seasonally varying water sources in a desert habitat.

PubMed

Zhou, Hai; Zhao, Wenzhi; Zheng, Xinjun; Li, Shoujuan

2015-07-01

In water-limited environments, the water sources used by desert shrubs are critical to understanding hydrological processes. Here we studied the oxygen stable isotope ratios (δ (18)O) of stem water of Nitraria sibirica as well as those of precipitation, groundwater and soil water from different layers to identify the possible water sources for the shrub. The results showed that the shrub used a mixture of soil water, recent precipitation and groundwater, with shallow lateral roots and deeply penetrating tap (sinker) roots, in different seasons. During the wet period (in spring), a large proportion of stem water in N. sibirica was from snow melt and recent precipitation, but use of these sources declined sharply with the decreasing summer rain at the site. At the height of summer, N. sibirica mainly utilized deep soil water from its tap roots, not only supporting the growth of shoots but also keeping the shallow lateral roots well-hydrated. This flexibility allowed the plants to maintain normal metabolic processes during prolonged periods when little precipitation occurs and upper soil layers become extremely dry. With the increase in precipitation that occurs as winter approaches, the percentage of water in the stem base of a plant derived from the tap roots (deep soil water or ground water) decreased again. These results suggested that the shrub's root distribution and morphology were the most important determinants of its ability to utilize different water sources, and that its adjustment to water availability was significant for acclimation to the desert habitat.

Contribution of tap water to chlorate and perchlorate intake: a market basket study.

PubMed

Asami, Mari; Yoshida, Nobue; Kosaka, Koji; Ohno, Koichi; Matsui, Yoshihiko

2013-10-01

The contributions of water to total levels of chlorate and perchlorate intake were determined using food and water samples from a market basket study from 10 locations in Japan between 2008 and 2009. Foods were categorized into 13 groups and analyzed along with tap water. The average total chlorate intake was 333 (min. 193-max. 486) μg/day for samples cooked with tap water. The contribution of tap water to total chlorate intake was as high as 47%-58%, although total chlorate intake was less than 32% of the tolerable daily intake, 1500 μg/day for body weight of 50 kg. For perchlorate, daily intake from water was 0.7 (0.1-4.4) μg/day, which is not high compared to the average total intake of 14 (2.5-84) μg/day, while the reference dose (RfD) is 35 μg/day and the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) is 500 μg/day for body weight of 50 kg. The highest intake of perchlorate was 84 μg/day, where concentrations in foods were high, but not in water. The contribution of water to total perchlorate intake ranged from 0.5% to 22%, while the ratio of highest daily intake to RfD was 240% and that to PMTDI was 17%. Eight baby formulas were also tested--total chlorate and perchlorate intakes were 147 (42-332) μg/day and 1.11 (0.05-4.5) μg/day, respectively, for an ingestion volume of 1 L/day if prepared with tap water. Copyright © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Occurrence and potential causes of androgenic activities in source and drinking water in China.

PubMed

Hu, Xinxin; Shi, Wei; Wei, Si; Zhang, Xiaowei; Feng, Jianfang; Hu, Guanjiu; Chen, Sulan; Giesy, John P; Yu, Hongxia

2013-09-17

The increased incidences of disorders of male reproductive tract as well as testicular and prostate cancers have been attributed to androgenic pollutants in the environment. Drinking water is one pathway of exposure through which humans can be exposed. In this study, both potencies of androgen receptor (AR) agonists and antagonists were determined in organic extracts of raw source water as well as finished water from waterworks, tap water, boiled water, and poured boiled water in eastern China. Ten of 13 samples of source water exhibited detectable AR antagonistic potencies with AR antagonist equivalents (Ant-AR-EQs) ranging from <15.3 (detection limit) to 140 μg flutamide/L. However, no AR agonistic activity was detected in any source water. All finished water from waterworks, tap water, boiled water, and poured boiled water exhibited neither AR agonistic nor antagonistic activity. Although potential risks are posed by source water, water treatment processes effectively removed AR antagonists. Boiling and pouring of water further removed these pollutants. Phthalate esters (PAEs) including diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) were identified as major contributors to AR antagonistic potencies in source waters. Metabolites of PAEs exhibited no AR antagonistic activity and did not increase potencies of PAEs when they coexist.

The first association of a primary amebic meningoencephalitis death with culturable Naegleria fowleri in tap water from a US treated public drinking water system.

PubMed

Cope, Jennifer R; Ratard, Raoult C; Hill, Vincent R; Sokol, Theresa; Causey, Jonathan Jake; Yoder, Jonathan S; Mirani, Gayatri; Mull, Bonnie; Mukerjee, Kimberly A; Narayanan, Jothikumar; Doucet, Meggie; Qvarnstrom, Yvonne; Poole, Charla N; Akingbola, Olugbenga A; Ritter, Jana M; Xiong, Zhenggang; da Silva, Alexandre J; Roellig, Dawn; Van Dyke, Russell B; Stern, Harlan; Xiao, Lihua; Beach, Michael J

2015-04-15

Naegleria fowleri is a climate-sensitive, thermophilic ameba found in warm, freshwater lakes and rivers. Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is almost universally fatal, occurs when N. fowleri-containing water enters the nose, typically during swimming, and migrates to the brain via the olfactory nerve. In August 2013, a 4-year-old boy died of meningoencephalitis of unknown etiology in a Louisiana hospital. Clinical and environmental testing and a case investigation were initiated to determine the cause of death and to identify potential exposures. Based on testing of cerebrospinal fluid and brain specimens, the child was diagnosed with PAM. His only reported water exposure was tap water; in particular, tap water that was used to supply water to a lawn water slide on which the child had played extensively prior to becoming ill. Water samples were collected from both the home and the water distribution system that supplied the home and tested; N. fowleri was identified in water samples from both the home and the water distribution system. This case is the first reported PAM death associated with culturable N. fowleri in tap water from a US treated drinking water system. This case occurred in the context of an expanding geographic range for PAM beyond southern states, with recent case reports from Minnesota, Kansas, and Indiana. This case also highlights the role of adequate disinfection throughout drinking water distribution systems and the importance of maintaining vigilance when operating drinking water systems using source waters with elevated temperatures. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2015. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the US.

Evaluation of on-line concentration coupled to liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the quantification of neonicotinoids and fipronil in surface water and tap water.

PubMed

Montiel-León, Juan Manuel; Duy, Sung Vo; Munoz, Gabriel; Amyot, Marc; Sauvé, Sébastien

2018-04-01

A study was initiated to investigate a fast and reliable method for the determination of selected systemic insecticides in water matrixes and to evaluate potential sources of bias in their analysis. Acetamiprid, clothianidin, desnitro-imidacloprid, dinotefuran, fipronil, imidacloprid, nitenpyram, thiacloprid, and thiamethoxam were amenable to analysis via on-line sample enrichment hyphenated to ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The selection of on-line solid-phase extraction parameters was dictated by a multicriterion desirability approach. A 2-mL on-line injection volume with a 1500 μL min -1 loading flow rate met the objectives sought in terms of chromatographic requirements, extraction efficiency, sensitivity, and precision. A total analysis time of 8 min per sample was obtained with method limits of detection in the range of 0.1-5 ng L -1 for the scope of targeted analytes. Automation at the sample concentration step yielded intraday and interday precisions in the range of 1-23 and 2-26%, respectively. Factors that could affect the whole method accuracy were further evaluated in matrix-specific experiments. The impact of the initial filtration step on analyte recovery was evaluated in ultra-pure water, tap water, and surface water. Out of the nine membranes tested, glass fiber filters and polyester filters appeared as the most appropriate materials. Sample storage stability was also investigated across the three matrix types; the targeted analytes displayed suitable stability during 28 days at either 4 °C or - 20 °C, with little deviations (± 10%) with respect to the initial T 0 concentration. Method applicability was demonstrated in a range of tap water and surface water samples from the province of Québec, Canada. Results from the present survey indicated a predominance of thiamethoxam (< 0.5-10 and 3-61 ng L -1 in tap water and river water, respectively), clothianidin (< 0.5-6 and 2-88 ng L -1 in

TRIHALOMETHANE LEVELS IN HOME TAP WATER AND SEMEN QUALITY

EPA Science Inventory

Trihalomethane Levels in Home Tap Water and Semen Quality
Laura Fenster, 1 Kirsten Waller, 2 Gayle Windham, 1 Tanya Henneman, 2 Meredith Anderson, 2 Pauline Mendola, 3 James W. Overstreet, 4 Shanna H. Swan5

1California Department of Health Services, Division of Environm...

The efficiency of the heat pump water heater, during DHW tapping cycle

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Gużda, Arkadiusz; Szmolke, Norbert

2017-10-01

This paper discusses one of the most effective systems for domestic hot water (DHW) production based on air-source heat pump with an integrated tank. The operating principle of the heat pump is described in detail. Moreover, there is an account of experimental set-up and results of the measurements. In the experimental part, measurements were conducted with the aim of determining the energy parameters and measures of the economic efficiency related to the presented solution. The measurements that were conducted are based on the tapping cycle that is similar to the recommended one in EN-16147 standard. The efficiency of the air source heat pump during the duration of the experiment was 2.43. In the end of paper, authors conducted a simplified ecological analysis in order to determine the influence of operation of air-source heat pump with integrated tank on the environment. Moreover the compression with the different source of energy (gas boiler with closed combustion chamber and boiler fired by the coal) was conducted. The heat pump is the ecological friendly source of the energy.

[Study on chlorinated disinfection byproducts and the relevant health risk in tap water of J City].

PubMed

Li, Xiao-ling; Liu, Rui; Lan, Ya-qiong; Yu, Su-lin; Wen, Xiao-gang; Chen, Liu-jun; Zhang, Yong-ming

2013-09-01

J City lies in the downstream of Taihu Lake and its water source was micro-polluted by the well-developed industry and agriculture inside the city and in the upper stream. Tap water of J City is characterized as high concentrations of organics and ammonia nitrogen, and chlorinated disinfection byproducts (CDBPs), which has drawn many public concerns for the health risk. Tap water was sampled in May, August, October of 2012 and January of 2013. Four trihalomethanes (THMs) and five haloacetic acids (HAAs) were determined with the gas chromatography. Results revealed that THMs accounted for 88.1% of the sum of THMs and HAAs, with higher concentrations in May, August and January (39.34, 50.37 and 28.02 microg x L(-1), respectively) while obviously lower in October (19.19 microg x L(-1)), which were significantly higher than that of HAAs (2.58-4.02 microg x L(-1)). After boiled for three minutes, THMs were removed over 92.3% but HAAs were largely increased. The health risk of CDBPs was then calculated based on the health risk assessment model recommended by the USEPA. The health risk caused by carcinogenic CDBPs was within a range of 3.1 x 10(-6) - 7. 3 x 10(-6) in the tap water, all over the recommended level of 1 x 10(-6), but after boiled, the value significantly decreased to 7.9 x 10(-7), which is below the recommended level. The health risk caused by non-carcinogenic CDBPs absolutely increased from 2.1 x 10(-11) to 3.4 x 10(-9) after boiled, which is below the reference value of 10(-5).

Fecal indicators and zoonotic pathogens in household drinking water taps fed from rainwater tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia.

PubMed

Ahmed, W; Hodgers, L; Sidhu, J P S; Toze, S

2012-01-01

In this study, the microbiological quality of household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks was assessed by monitoring the numbers of Escherichia coli bacteria and enterococci from 24 households in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was also used for the quantitative detection of zoonotic pathogens in water samples from rainwater tanks and connected household taps. The numbers of zoonotic pathogens were also estimated in fecal samples from possums and various species of birds by using qPCR, as possums and birds are considered to be the potential sources of fecal contamination in roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW). Among the 24 households, 63% of rainwater tank and 58% of connected household tap water (CHTW) samples contained E. coli and exceeded Australian drinking water guidelines of <1 CFU E. coli per 100 ml water. Similarly, 92% of rainwater tanks and 83% of CHTW samples also contained enterococci. In all, 21%, 4%, and 13% of rainwater tank samples contained Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Giardia lamblia, respectively. Similarly, 21% of rainwater tank and 13% of CHTW samples contained Campylobacter spp. and G. lamblia, respectively. The number of E. coli (P = 0.78), Enterococcus (P = 0.64), Campylobacter (P = 0.44), and G. lamblia (P = 0.50) cells in rainwater tanks did not differ significantly from the numbers observed in the CHTW samples. Among the 40 possum fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Cryptosporidium parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 60%, 13%, and 30% of samples, respectively. Among the 38 bird fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., C. parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 24%, 11%, 5%, and 13% of the samples, respectively. Household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks tested in the study appeared to be highly variable. Regular cleaning of roofs and gutters, along with pruning of overhanging tree branches, might also prove effective in reducing animal fecal

Fecal Indicators and Zoonotic Pathogens in Household Drinking Water Taps Fed from Rainwater Tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia

PubMed Central

Hodgers, L.; Sidhu, J. P. S.; Toze, S.

2012-01-01

In this study, the microbiological quality of household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks was assessed by monitoring the numbers of Escherichia coli bacteria and enterococci from 24 households in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was also used for the quantitative detection of zoonotic pathogens in water samples from rainwater tanks and connected household taps. The numbers of zoonotic pathogens were also estimated in fecal samples from possums and various species of birds by using qPCR, as possums and birds are considered to be the potential sources of fecal contamination in roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW). Among the 24 households, 63% of rainwater tank and 58% of connected household tap water (CHTW) samples contained E. coli and exceeded Australian drinking water guidelines of <1 CFU E. coli per 100 ml water. Similarly, 92% of rainwater tanks and 83% of CHTW samples also contained enterococci. In all, 21%, 4%, and 13% of rainwater tank samples contained Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Giardia lamblia, respectively. Similarly, 21% of rainwater tank and 13% of CHTW samples contained Campylobacter spp. and G. lamblia, respectively. The number of E. coli (P = 0.78), Enterococcus (P = 0.64), Campylobacter (P = 0.44), and G. lamblia (P = 0.50) cells in rainwater tanks did not differ significantly from the numbers observed in the CHTW samples. Among the 40 possum fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Cryptosporidium parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 60%, 13%, and 30% of samples, respectively. Among the 38 bird fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., C. parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 24%, 11%, 5%, and 13% of the samples, respectively. Household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks tested in the study appeared to be highly variable. Regular cleaning of roofs and gutters, along with pruning of overhanging tree branches, might also prove effective in reducing animal fecal

Determination of uranium in tap water by ICP-MS.

PubMed

El Himri, M; Pastor, A; de la Guardia, M

2000-05-01

A fast and accurate procedure has been developed for the determination of uranium at microg L(-1) level in tap and mineral water. The method is based on the direct introduction of samples, without any chemical pre-treatment, into an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). Uranium was determined at the mass number 238 using Rh as internal standard. The method provides a limit of detection of 2 ng L(-1) and a good repeatability with relative standard deviation values (RSD) about 3% for five independent analyses of samples containing 73 microg L(-1) of uranium. Recovery percentage values found for the determination of uranium in spiked natural samples varied between 91% and 106%. Results obtained are comparable with those found by radiochemical methods for natural samples and of the same order for the certified content of a reference material, thus indicating the accuracy of the ICP-MS procedure without the need of using isotope dilution. A series of mineral and tap waters from different parts of Spain and Morocco were analysed.

9. Tower building. Hot water tap floor shown. Mixing vat ...

Library of Congress Historic Buildings Survey, Historic Engineering Record, Historic Landscapes Survey

9. Tower building. Hot water tap floor shown. Mixing vat at center level. Juices mix and flow and left lower level. Copper kettles are down below view level. Looking toward front of building. - Tivoli-Union Brewery, 1320-1348 Tenth Street, Denver, Denver County, CO

Comparing grey water versus tap water and coal ash versus perlite on growth of two plant species on green roofs.

PubMed

Agra, Har'el; Solodar, Ariel; Bawab, Omar; Levy, Shay; Kadas, Gyongyver J; Blaustein, Leon; Greenbaum, Noam

2018-08-15

Green roofs provide important ecosystem services in urban areas. In Mediterranean and other semi-arid climate regions, most perennial plants on green roofs need to be irrigated during the dry season. However, the use of freshwater in such regions is scarce. Therefore, the possibility of using grey water should be examined. Coal ash, produced primarily from the burning of coal in power plants, constitutes an environmental contaminant that should be disposed. One option is to use ash as a growing substrate for plants. Here, we compare the effects of irrigating with grey- versus tap-water and using ash versus perlite as growing substrates in green roofs. The study was conducted in northern Israel in a Mediterranean climate. The design was full factorial with three factors: water-type (grey or tap-water)×substrate-type (coal ash vs perlite)×plant species (Phyla nodiflora, Convolvulus mauritanicus or no-plant). The development of plants and the quality of drainage water along the season, as well as quality of the used substrates were monitored. Both plant species developed well under all the experimental conditions with no effect of water type or substrate type. Under all treatments, both plant species enhanced electrical conductivity (EC) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the drainage water. In the summer, EC and COD reached levels that are unacceptable in water and are intended to be reused for irrigation. We conclude that irrigating with grey water and using coal ash as a growth substrate can both be implemented in green roofs. The drainage from tap water as well as from grey water can be further used for irrigating the roof, but for that, COD and EC levels must be lowered by adding a sufficient amount of tap water before reusing. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Tap versus bottled water consumption: The influence of social norms, affect and image on consumer choice.

PubMed

Etale, Anita; Jobin, Marilou; Siegrist, Michael

2018-02-01

What drives consumers to choose bottled water instead of tap water where the latter is safe, accessible, costs far less, and in spite of its environmental impacts? This research investigates the influence of hitherto unexplored psychological drivers in an attempt to generate a more holistic understanding of the phenomenon, and strategies for designing more effective consumption reduction campaigns. Using data from an internet survey of Swiss and German respondents (N = 849) we investigated the role of, social norms, affect and image on water consumption. Results suggest that these psychological factors play a role in water consumption choice. Convenience was the only contextual predictor - the inconvenience of transporting bottled water has a negative effect on its consumption, and a positive effect on tap water consumption. Although concern about the effect of bottled water on the environment was not a significant predictor of tap water consumption, we found that for some people, a link exists between environmental concern and consumption choice. Ways through which consumers may be more effectively influenced towards environmentally-friendly consumption are discussed. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Widespread molecular detection of Legionella pneumophila Serogroup 1 in cold water taps across the United States.

PubMed

Donohue, Maura J; O'Connell, Katharine; Vesper, Stephen J; Mistry, Jatin H; King, Dawn; Kostich, Mitch; Pfaller, Stacy

2014-03-18

In the United States, 6,868 cases of legionellosis were reported to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in 2009-2010. Of these reports, it is estimated that 84% are caused by the microorganism Legionella pneumophila Serogroup (Sg) 1. Legionella spp. have been isolated and recovered from a variety of natural freshwater environments. Human exposure to L. pneumophila Sg1 may occur from aerosolization and subsequent inhalation of household and facility water. In this study, two primer/probe sets (one able to detect L. pneumophila and the other L. pneumophila Sg1) were determined to be highly sensitive and selective for their respective targets. Over 272 water samples, collected in 2009 and 2010 from 68 public and private water taps across the United States, were analyzed using the two qPCR assays to evaluate the incidence of L. pneumophila Sg1. Nearly half of the taps showed the presence of L. pneumophila Sg1 in one sampling event, and 16% of taps were positive in more than one sampling event. This study is the first United States survey to document the occurrence and colonization of L. pneumophila Sg1 in cold water delivered from point of use taps.

Drinking water: a major source of lead exposure in Karachi, Pakistan.

PubMed

Ul-Haq, N; Arain, M A; Badar, N; Rasheed, M; Haque, Z

2011-11-01

Excess lead in drinking water is a neglected source of lead toxicity in Pakistan. A cross-sectional survey in 2007/08 was made of water samples from drinking water sources in Karachi, a large industrial city. This study aimed to compare lead levels between untreated ground water and treated surface (tap) water in 18 different districts. Of 216 ground and surface water samples collected, 86% had lead levels higher than the World Health Organization maximum acceptable concentration of l0 ppb. Mean lead concentration in ground water [146 (SD 119) ppb] was significantly higher than in surface water [77.1 (SD 54) ppb]. None of the 18 districts had a mean lead level of ground or surface water below the WHO cut-off and ground water sources in 9 districts had a severe level of contamination (>150 ppb). Urgent action is needed to eliminate sources of contamination.

On-tap passive enrichment, a new way to investigate off-flavor episodes in drinking water.

PubMed

Tondelier, Christophe; Thouvenot, Thomas; Genin, Arnaud; Benanou, David

2009-04-03

Because taste and odor events in drinking water are often fleeting and unpredictable phenomena, an innovative enrichment sampler has been developed to trap off-flavor compounds directly at the consumer's tap. The ARISTOT (Advanced Relevant Investigation Sampler for Taste & Odor at Tap) consists of a tap adapter in which seven polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) coated stir bars are placed, allowing the stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) of organic compounds during each tap opening. In order to study the efficiency of ARISTOT, a private network pilot unit has been constructed in our laboratory, equipped with four faucets in parallel, solenoid valves for an automation of the system and a mixing chamber to spike drinking water with odorous compounds in order to have homogenously smelling water at each tap. After enrichment, the stir bars are taken out, in-line thermo-desorbed and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer. The results showed the high sensitivity of ARISTOT, which was able to quickly monitor odorous compounds at the sub ng/L level. A "multishot" method was developed to analyze chemicals concentrated on the seven stir bars in only one chromatographic run, thereby increasing the sensitivity of the system. Higher enrichment factors were obtained under low water flow rates or by using longer stir bars and/or stir bars with a higher PDMS film thickness. No significant loss of extracted compounds was reported for flow rates between 2 and 4L/min. This allowed us to spike the stir bars with an internal standard prior to sampling in order to monitor the analytical variations. It was also observed that hot water increases the loss of enriched solutes but the quantification can be corrected by internal standard addition.

Poor tap water quality experiences and poor sleep quality during the Flint, Michigan Municipal Water Crisis.

PubMed

Kruger, Daniel J; Kodjebacheva, Gergana D; Cupal, Suzanne

2017-08-01

After inadequate official response to community concerns over water quality following changes in Flint's municipal water supply, this study sought evidence for a relationship between water quality and community mental health. The Speak to Your Health Community Survey is a community-based participatory component of the health surveillance system in Genesee County, Michigan. This cross-sectional survey recruits participants from every residential Census Tract of the county and strives for demographic representativeness. Respondents (n=834) rated their tap water quality (taste, smell, appearance) as poor (36%), fair (18%), good (20%), very good (17%), and excellent (10%). They rated their sleep quality as poor (12%), fair (28%), good (39%), very good (18%), and excellent (4%), and had an average (SD) sleep length of 408(90) minutes. Controlling for age, sex, years of education, and whether respondents were African American and Hispanic/Latino/a, lower perceived tap water quality was associated with lower sleep quality and shorter sleep length. Results indicate that adverse health conditions related to the water crisis extend beyond lead poisoning in children and include deterioration of sleep conditions among adult residents. Copyright © 2017 National Sleep Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

[One-time effects of drinking mineral water and tap water enriched with silver nanoparticles on the biochemical markers of liver condition and metabolic parameters in healthy rats].

PubMed

Efimenko, N V; Frolkov, V K; Kozlova, V V; Kaisinova, A S; Chalaya, E N

2017-12-05

 The objective of the present research was to study the influence of tap water enriched with silver nanoparticles (NP) as well as that of «Krasnoarmeysky» and «Essentuki №17» mineral waters after their single administration through the oral gavage to the rats on the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids, the biochemical markers of the liver condition, and the endocrine profile in the healthy animals.  The laboratory animals (130 male Wistar rats) were allocated to thirteen groups comprised of 10 rats each as follows: 1st group (n=10) intact animals, 2nd group (5 minutes after the administration of silver NP (n=10), 3rd group (15 minutes after the of silver NP), 4th group (60 minutes after the administration of silver NP), 5th group (n=10) (5 minutes after the introduction of the «Krasnoarmeysky» mineral water), 6th group (n=10) (15 min after the introduction of the «Krasnoarmeysky» mineral water), 7th group (n=10), (60 minutes after the introduction of the «Krasnoarmeysky» mineral water) 8th group (n=10) (5 minutes after the introduction of the «Essentuki № 17» mineral water), 9th group (n=10) (15 min after the introduction of the «Essentuki № 7» mineral water) , 10th group (n=10) (60 minutes after the introduction of the «Essentuki №17» mineral water), 11th group (n=10) (5 minutes after administration of tap water (control),12th group (n=10) (15 minutes after administration of tap water (control), and 13th (n=10) group 60 minutes after administration of tap water (control).  The study has demonstrated that the tap water enriched with silver nanoparticles similar to the mineral waters caused stress reactions that are inferior to those induced by «Essentuki №17» mineral water in terms of the magnitude; however, the effect provoked by the tap water was of longer duration. Moreover, the tap water enriched with silver nanoparticles stimulates prooxidant reactions, and inhibit the activity of antioxidant protection. Silver nanoparticles

Investigation of radon level in air and tap water of workplaces at Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology, Thailand

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Sola, P.; Youngchuay, U.; Kongsri, S.; Kongtana, A.

2017-06-01

Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT) has continuously monitored radiation exposure and radionuclide in workplaces specifically radon gas to estimate effective dose for workers. Radon exposure is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the world. In this study, radon in air and tap water at building no. 3, 7, 8, 9 and 18 on Ongkharak site of TINT have been measured for 5 years from 2012 to 2016. Radon level in air and tap water were investigated on 83 stations (workplaces) and 54 samples, respectively. Radon concentrations in air and tap water were measured by using the pulsed ionization chamber (ATMOS 12 DPX). Indoor radon concentrations in air were in the range of 12-138 Bq.m-3 with an average value of 30.13±17.05 Bq.m-3. Radon concentrations in tap water were in the range of 0.10 to 2.89 Bq.l-1 with an average value of 0.51±0.55 Bq.l-1. The results of radon concentrations at TINT were below the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) safety limit of 148 Bq.m-3 and 150 Bq.l-1, for, air and tap water, respectively. The average effective dose for TINT’s workers due to indoor radon exposure was approximately 0.20±0.11 mSv.y-1. The value is 100 times less than the annual dose limit for limit occupational radiation worker defined by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). As a result, the TINT’s workplaces are radiologically safe from radon content in air and tap water.

Occurrence and Distribution of Organophosphate Flame Retardants/Plasticizers in Surface Waters, Tap Water, and Rainwater: Implications for Human Exposure.

PubMed

Kim, Un-Jung; Kannan, Kurunthachalam

2018-04-27

The occurrence and profiles of 14 triester organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and plasticizers were investigated in surface water, tap water, rainwater, and seawater collected from New York State. In total, 150 samples collected from rivers ( n = 35), lakes ( n = 39), tap water ( n = 58), precipitation/rainwater ( n = 15), and seawater ( n = 3) were analyzed for 14 organophosphate esters (OPEs). An additional nine Hudson River water samples were collected periodically to delineate seasonal trends in OPE levels. The total concentrations of OPEs were found at part-per-trillion ranges, with average concentrations that ranged from 0.01 ng/L for tripropyl phosphate (TPP) in river water to 689 ng/L for tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBOEP) in lake water. Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TCIPP) was the most abundant compound among the investigated OPEs in all types of water. The concentrations of OPEs in river-, lake-, and rainwater were similar but >3 times higher than those found in tap water. Chlorinated alkyl OPFRs accounted for a major proportion of total concentrations. TCIPP, TBOEP, and triethyl phosphate (TEP) were found in >90% of the samples analyzed. Wet deposition fluxes for 14 OPFRs were estimated, on the basis of the concentrations measured in rainwater in Albany, New York, and the values were between 440 and 5250 ng/m 2 . Among several surface water bodies analyzed, samples from the Hudson River and Onondaga Lake contained elevated concentrations of OPEs. Estimated daily intake of OPEs via the ingestion of drinking water was up to 9.65 ng/kg body weight/day.

Efficient electrochemical remediation of microcystin-LR in tap water using designer TiO2@carbon electrodes

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Sanz Lobón, Germán; Yepez, Alfonso; Garcia, Luane Ferreira; Morais, Ruiter Lima; Vaz, Boniek Gontijo; Carvalho, Veronica Vale; de Oliveira, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues; Luque, Rafael; Gil, Eric De Souza

2017-02-01

Microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) is the most abundant and toxic secondary metabolite produced by freshwater cyanobacteria. This toxin has a high potential hazard health due to potential interactions with liver, kidney and the nervous system. The aim of this work was the design of a simple and environmentally friendly electrochemical system based on highly efficient nanostructured electrodes for the removal of MC-LR in tap water. Titania nanoparticles were deposited on carbon (graphite) under a simple and efficient microwave assisted approach for the design of the electrode, further utilized in the electrochemical remediation assays. Parameters including the applied voltage, time of removal and pH (natural tap water or alkaline condition) were investigated in the process, with results pointing to a high removal efficiency for MC-LR (60% in tap water and 90% in alkaline media experiments, under optimized conditions).

Efficient electrochemical remediation of microcystin-LR in tap water using designer TiO2@carbon electrodes

PubMed Central

Sanz Lobón, Germán; Yepez, Alfonso; Garcia, Luane Ferreira; Morais, Ruiter Lima; Vaz, Boniek Gontijo; Carvalho, Veronica Vale; de Oliveira, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues; Luque, Rafael; Gil, Eric de Souza

2017-01-01

Microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) is the most abundant and toxic secondary metabolite produced by freshwater cyanobacteria. This toxin has a high potential hazard health due to potential interactions with liver, kidney and the nervous system. The aim of this work was the design of a simple and environmentally friendly electrochemical system based on highly efficient nanostructured electrodes for the removal of MC-LR in tap water. Titania nanoparticles were deposited on carbon (graphite) under a simple and efficient microwave assisted approach for the design of the electrode, further utilized in the electrochemical remediation assays. Parameters including the applied voltage, time of removal and pH (natural tap water or alkaline condition) were investigated in the process, with results pointing to a high removal efficiency for MC-LR (60% in tap water and 90% in alkaline media experiments, under optimized conditions). PMID:28145477

[The value of glucose-positive coliform bacteria and potentially pathogenic bacteria as indicators of epidemiological safety of tap water].

PubMed

Zhuravlev, P V; Aleshnia, V V; Panasovets, O P; Morozova, A A; Artemova, T Z; Talaeva, Iu G; Zagaĭnova, A V; Gipp, E K

2012-01-01

Due to intensive anthropogenic pollution of water environment generally accepted indicators of epidemic security of water bodies - common bacteria and thermotolerant coliform bacteria do not always permit to obtain an objective characterization of bacterial contamination of tap water. From the point of view of authors the integral index - glucose positive coliform bacteria most adequately reflect the sanitary-hygienic and epidemiological situation of water bodies. In monitoring for bacterial quality of tap water it is advisable to determine glucose positive coliform bacteria, that will provide the relevance of estimation of the epidemiological safety of water use. According to the method developed by the authors the calculation of the index of population risk of acute intestinal infections occurrence in dependence on the quality of tap water in Azov and Tsimlyansk towns.

[Mutagenicity study of water samples from a waterworks taking Yangtze River as its water source in Jiangsu Province].

PubMed

Xiao, Sanhua; Luo, Lan; Qiao, Qian; Lü, Xuemin; Wang, Yanhui; Feng, Lin; Tang, Fei; Wang, Haiyong; Bie, Nana; Wang, Yuehong

2017-05-01

To understand the occurrence and change of mutagencity of water samples in the process of drinking water treatment and distribution in a waterworks taking Yangtze River as its water source in Jiangsu Province. Large volume of inlet water, finished water and tap water samples were extracted by XAD-2 resin. Mutagencities were assessed by Ames test and a mutation ratio( MR) of 2 or greater was judged as a positive result. Compared with the samples with S9, samples without S9 presented more positive results( P = 0. 005). That water treatment elevated MR values( P = 0. 007) while the pipe transport made MR values down( P = 0. 038) was observed in samples without S9. The tap water showed weaker mutagenicities than the raw water in samples with S9( P = 0. 008). Compared to the raw water samples, the finished water samples showed more positive results(-S9) and lower MR values( + S9, P =0. 002). Significant mutagenicities of water samples from the Yangtze Riverand its processed water were presented, and frame shit and direct mutagens deserved special concern.

Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposures to chloroform and trichloroethene from tap water.

PubMed Central

Weisel, C P; Jo, W K

1996-01-01

Individuals are exposed to volatile compounds present in tap water by ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption. Traditional risk assessments for water often only consider ingestion exposure to toxic chemicals, even though showering has been shown to increase the body burden of certain chemicals due to inhalation exposure and dermal absorption. We collected and analyzed time-series samples of expired alveolar breath to evaluate changes in concentrations of volatile organic compounds being expired, which reflects the rate of change in the bloodstream due to expiration, metabolism, and absorption into tissues. Analysis of chloroform and trichloethene in expired breath, compounds regulated in water, was also used to determine uptake from tap water by each route (inhalation, ingestion, or absorption). Each route of exposure contributed to the total exposure of these compounds from daily water use. Further, the ingestion dose was completely metabolized before entering the bloodstream, whereas the dose from the other routes was dispersed throughout the body. Thus, differences in potential biologically effective doses depend on route, target organ, and whether the contaminant or metabolite is the biologically active agent. Images Figure 1. A Figure 1. B Figure 1. C Figure 2. A Figure 2. B PMID:8834861

Rapid Detection of Melamine in Tap Water and Milk Using Conjugated "One-Step" Molecularly Imprinted Polymers-Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopic Sensor.

PubMed

Hu, Yaxi; Lu, Xiaonan

2016-05-01

An innovative "one-step" sensor conjugating molecularly imprinted polymers and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopic-active substrate (MIPs-SERS) was investigated for simultaneous extraction and determination of melamine in tap water and milk. This sensor was fabricated by integrating silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with MIPs synthesized by bulk polymerization of melamine (template), methacrylic acid (functional monomer), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (cross-linking agent), and 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile (initiator). Static and kinetic adsorption tests validated the specific affinity of MIPs-AgNPs to melamine and the rapid adsorption equilibration rate. Principal component analysis segregated SERS spectral features of tap water and milk samples with different melamine concentrations. Partial least squares regression models correlated melamine concentrations in tap water and skim milk with SERS spectral features. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of melamine in tap water were determined as 0.0019 and 0.0064 mmol/L, while the LOD and LOQ were 0.0165 and 0.055 mmol/L for the determination of melamine in skim milk. However, this sensor is not ideal to quantify melamine in tap water and skim milk. By conjugating MIPs with SERS-active substrate (that is, AgNPs), reproducibility of SERS spectral features was increased, resulting in more accurate detection. The time required to determine melamine in tap water and milk were 6 and 25 min, respectively. The low LOD, LOQ, and rapid detection confirm the potential of applying this sensor for accurate and high-throughput detection of melamine in tap water and milk. © 2016 Institute of Food Technologists®

Whole genome and transcriptome analyses of environmental antibiotic sensitive and multi-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates exposed to waste water and tap water

PubMed Central

Schwartz, Thomas; Armant, Olivier; Bretschneider, Nancy; Hahn, Alexander; Kirchen, Silke; Seifert, Martin; Dötsch, Andreas

2015-01-01

The fitness of sensitive and resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in different aquatic environments depends on genetic capacities and transcriptional regulation. Therefore, an antibiotic-sensitive isolate PA30 and a multi-resistant isolate PA49 originating from waste waters were compared via whole genome and transcriptome Illumina sequencing after exposure to municipal waste water and tap water. A number of different genomic islands (e.g. PAGIs, PAPIs) were identified in the two environmental isolates beside the highly conserved core genome. Exposure to tap water and waste water exhibited similar transcriptional impacts on several gene clusters (antibiotic and metal resistance, genetic mobile elements, efflux pumps) in both environmental P. aeruginosa isolates. The MexCD-OprJ efflux pump was overexpressed in PA49 in response to waste water. The expression of resistance genes, genetic mobile elements in PA49 was independent from the water matrix. Consistently, the antibiotic sensitive strain PA30 did not show any difference in expression of the intrinsic resistance determinants and genetic mobile elements. Thus, the exposure of both isolates to polluted waste water and oligotrophic tap water resulted in similar expression profiles of mentioned genes. However, changes in environmental milieus resulted in rather unspecific transcriptional responses than selected and stimuli-specific gene regulation. PMID:25186059

Influence of storage conditions on aluminum concentrations in serum, dialysis fluid, urine, and tap water.

PubMed

Wilhelm, M; Ohnesorge, F K

1990-01-01

The influence of storage temperature, vessel type, and treatment on alterations of aluminum (Al) concentrations in serum, urine, and dialysis fluid samples was studied at three different concentrations for each sample over an 18-month period. Furthermore, the influence of acidification on Al levels in tap water, urine, and dialysis fluid samples was studied over a four-month period. Al was measured by atomic absorption spectrometry. Sample storage in glass vessels was unsuitable, whereas only minor alterations of Al levels were observed with storage in polypropylene tubes, polystyrene tubes, and Monovettes. By using appropriate plastic containers, acid washing of the vessels showed no improvement. Frozen storage was superior compared with 4 degrees C, whereas storage at -80 degrees C offered no advantage compared with storage at -20 degrees C. Acidification of tap water samples was necessary to stabilize Al levels during storage. No striking effect of acidification on Al levels in urine and dialysis fluid samples was found. It is concluded that longterm storage of serum, urine, tap water, and dialysis fluid samples is possible if appropriate conditions are used.

Can we remove iodine-131 from tap water in Japan by boiling? - Experimental testing in response to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident.

PubMed

Tagami, K; Uchida, S

2011-08-01

Iodine-131 concentrations in tap water higher than 100 BqL(-1) were reported by several local governments in Japan following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. Some individuals in the emergency-response community recommended the boiling of tap water to remove iodine-131. However, the tap water boiling tests in this study showed no iodine-131 loss from the tap water with either short-term boiling (1-10 min) or prolonged boiling (up to 30 min) resulting in up to 3-fold volume reductions. In this situation, boiling was shown to be not effective in removing iodine-131 from tap water; indeed even higher concentrations may result from the liquid-volume reduction accompanying this process. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

[The significance of glucose positive coliform bacteria and potentially pathogenic bacteria as an indicator of epidemiological safety of tap water].

PubMed

Zhuravlev, P V; Aleshnya, V V; Panasovets, O P; Morozova, A A; Artemova, T Z; Talaeva, Yu G; Zagaynova, A V

2013-01-01

Due to intensive anthropogenic pollution of water environment generally accepted indicators of epidemic security of water bodies--common bacteria (CB) and thermotolerant coliform bacteria (TCB) do not always permit to obtain an objective characterization of bacterial contamination of tap water. From the point of view of authors the integral index--glucose positive coliform bacteria most adequately reflect the sanitary-hygienic and epidemiological situation of water bodies. In monitoring for bacterial quality of tap water it is advisable to determine glucose positive coliform bacteria, that will provide the relevance of estimation of the epidemiological safety of water use. According to the method developed by the authors the calculation of the index of population risk of acute intestinal infections (AHI) occurrence in dependence on the quality of tap water in Azov and Tsimlyansk towns.

40 CFR 141.86 - Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR

2014-07-01

... 40 Protection of Environment 23 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Monitoring requirements for lead and... § 141.86 Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water. (a) Sample site location. (1) By the applicable date for commencement of monitoring under paragraph (d)(1) of this section, each water system...

40 CFR 141.86 - Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2013 CFR

2013-07-01

... 40 Protection of Environment 24 2013-07-01 2013-07-01 false Monitoring requirements for lead and... § 141.86 Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water. (a) Sample site location. (1) By the applicable date for commencement of monitoring under paragraph (d)(1) of this section, each water system...

40 CFR 141.86 - Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2012 CFR

2012-07-01

... 40 Protection of Environment 24 2012-07-01 2012-07-01 false Monitoring requirements for lead and... § 141.86 Monitoring requirements for lead and copper in tap water. (a) Sample site location. (1) By the applicable date for commencement of monitoring under paragraph (d)(1) of this section, each water system...

TIME TO PREGNANCY IN RELATION TO TOTAL TRIHALOMETHANE LEVELS IN TAP WATER

EPA Science Inventory

Time to pregnancy in relation to total trihalomethane levels in tap water
Shanna H. Swan, Cuirong Ren, Gayle C. Windham, Laura Fenster, Kirsten Waller. (University of Missouri and California Department of Health Services).

We have previously reported increased risks o...

Relationship between tap water hardness, magnesium, and calcium concentration and mortality due to ischemic heart disease or stroke in The Netherlands.

PubMed

Leurs, Lina J; Schouten, Leo J; Mons, Margreet N; Goldbohm, R Alexandra; van den Brandt, Piet A

2010-03-01

Conflicting results on the relationship between the hardness of drinking water and mortality related to ischemic heart disease (IHD) or stroke have been reported. We investigated the possible association between tap water calcium or magnesium concentration and total hardness and IHD mortality or stroke mortality. In 1986, a cohort of 120,852 men and women aged 5569 years provided detailed information on dietary and other lifestyle habits. Follow-up for mortality until 1996 was established by linking data from the Central Bureau of Genealogy and Statistics Netherlands. We calculated tap water hardness for each postal code using information obtained from all pumping stations in the Netherlands. Tap water hardness was categorized as soft [< 1.5 mmol/L calcium carbonate (CaCO3)], medium hard (1.62.0 mmol/L CaCO3), and hard (> 2.0 mmol/L CaCO3). The multivariate case-cohort analysis was based on 1,944 IHD mortality and 779 stroke mortality cases and 4,114 subcohort members. For both men and women, we observed no relationship between tap water hardness and IHD mortality [hard vs. soft water: hazard ratio (HR) = 1.03; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.851.28 for men and HR = 0.93; 95% CI, 0.711.21 for women) and stroke mortality (hard vs. soft water HR = 0.90; 95% CI, 0.661.21 and HR = 0.86; 95% CI, 0.621.20, respectively). For men with the 20% lowest dietary magnesium intake, an inverse association was observed between tap water magnesium intake and stroke mortality (HR per 1 mg/L intake = 0.75; 95% CI, 0.610.91), whereas for women with the 20% lowest dietary magnesium intake, the opposite was observed. We found no evidence for an overall significant association between tap water hardness, magnesium or calcium concentrations, and IHD mortality or stroke mortality. More research is needed to investigate the effect of tap water magnesium on IHD mortality or stroke mortality in subjects with low dietary magnesium intake.

Whole genome and transcriptome analyses of environmental antibiotic sensitive and multi-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates exposed to waste water and tap water.

PubMed

Schwartz, Thomas; Armant, Olivier; Bretschneider, Nancy; Hahn, Alexander; Kirchen, Silke; Seifert, Martin; Dötsch, Andreas

2015-01-01

The fitness of sensitive and resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in different aquatic environments depends on genetic capacities and transcriptional regulation. Therefore, an antibiotic-sensitive isolate PA30 and a multi-resistant isolate PA49 originating from waste waters were compared via whole genome and transcriptome Illumina sequencing after exposure to municipal waste water and tap water. A number of different genomic islands (e.g. PAGIs, PAPIs) were identified in the two environmental isolates beside the highly conserved core genome. Exposure to tap water and waste water exhibited similar transcriptional impacts on several gene clusters (antibiotic and metal resistance, genetic mobile elements, efflux pumps) in both environmental P. aeruginosa isolates. The MexCD-OprJ efflux pump was overexpressed in PA49 in response to waste water. The expression of resistance genes, genetic mobile elements in PA49 was independent from the water matrix. Consistently, the antibiotic sensitive strain PA30 did not show any difference in expression of the intrinsic resistance determinants and genetic mobile elements. Thus, the exposure of both isolates to polluted waste water and oligotrophic tap water resulted in similar expression profiles of mentioned genes. However, changes in environmental milieus resulted in rather unspecific transcriptional responses than selected and stimuli-specific gene regulation. © 2014 The Authors. Microbial Biotechnology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Society for Applied Microbiology.

The relation of communication to risk judgment and preventive behavior related to lead in tap water.

PubMed

Griffin, R J; Dunwoody, S

2000-01-01

More and more communities are becoming concerned about health risks posed by lead and other health hazards in their drinking water. Our study, applying the model of innovation diffusion to the adoption of preventive health behaviors, found that reliance on health professionals for information about lead in tap water was associated with residents perceiving risk from this hazard, their sense of efficacy in dealing with it, and their adoption of preventive behaviors. Mass media and pamphlets mailed directly to residents were relatively ineffective. Results suggest that interpersonal channels may be the best way to reach individuals who live in areas of highest risk from tap water lead.

Survey and significance of filamentous fungi from tap water.

PubMed

Gonçalves, Ana B; Paterson, R Russell M; Lima, Nelson

2006-05-01

Fungi in drinking water are involved in the production of tastes and odours in water. Health problems are possible, originating from mycotoxins, animal pathogens and allergies. This report concerns the surveillance of mesophilic fungi in tap water and assessment of their potential for causing problems. The methods for the determination of the filamentous fungi (ff) were filtering, swabbing and baiting. Tap water, half-strength corn meal, neopeptone-glucose rose Bengal aureomycin (NGRBA) and oomycete selective agars for the enumeration of colony forming units (cfu) were used. Samples were taken consecutively over 16 months. Filtration and NGRBA gave the highest ff counts. A total of 340 taxa were isolated. There appeared to be a negative correlation between bacterial and yeast (b/y) and ff counts. Highest counts were found in winter months for ff and in the warmer months for b/y. Penicillium (40.6%) and Acremonium (38.8%) were the most frequently isolated ff. There was a difference in the pattern of isolation of the key taxa with season: penicillia predominated in early summer and Acremonium in winter. P. expansum was isolated in high numbers in May 2004. This species is associated with the production of the mycotoxin patulin and the odour secondary metabolite geosmin. P. brevicompactum was detected throughout the sampling period and is known to produce the immunosuppressive drug mycophenolic acid. Acremonium is associated with ocentol production which is responsible for bad tastes and flavours. The remaining taxa were Phialophora sp. (4.1%), Cladosporium sp. (3.5%), Rhizopus stolonifer (2.9%), Chaetomium sp. (0.6%), Alternaria sp. (0.3%), Aspergillus sp. (0.3%), mycelia sterilia (2.6%) and unidentified (6.2%). It is emphasised that few Aspergillus and no Fusarium strains were isolated. Rhizopus stolonifer was obtained. However, none of the fungi isolated at mesophilic temperature used could be described as being involved with pathogenicity per se.

Overnight stagnation of drinking water in household taps induces microbial growth and changes in community composition.

PubMed

Lautenschlager, Karin; Boon, Nico; Wang, Yingying; Egli, Thomas; Hammes, Frederik

2010-09-01

Drinking water quality is routinely monitored in the distribution network but not inside households at the point of consumption. Fluctuating temperatures, residence times (stagnation), pipe materials and decreasing pipe diameters can promote bacterial growth in buildings. To test the influence of stagnation in households on the bacterial cell concentrations and composition, water was sampled from 10 separate households after overnight stagnation and after flushing the taps. Cell concentrations, measured by flow cytometry, increased (2-3-fold) in all water samples after stagnation. This increase was also observed in adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) concentrations (2-18-fold) and heterotrophic plate counts (4-580-fold). An observed increase in cell biovolume and ATP-per-cell concentrations furthermore suggests that the increase in cell concentrations was due to microbial growth. After 5 min flushing of the taps, cell concentrations and water temperature decreased to the level generally found in the drinking water network. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis also showed a change in the microbial composition after stagnation. This study showed that water stagnation in household pipes results in considerable microbial changes. While hygienic risk was not directly assessed, it emphasizes the need for the development of good material validation methods, recommendations and spot tests for in-house water installations. However, a simple mitigation strategy would be a short flushing of taps prior to use. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Towards metering tap water by Lorentz force velocimetry

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Vasilyan, Suren; Ebert, Reschad; Weidner, Markus; Rivero, Michel; Halbedel, Bernd; Resagk, Christian; Fröhlich, Thomas

2015-11-01

In this paper, we present enhanced flow rate measurement by applying the contactless Lorentz Force Velocimetry (LFV) technique. Particularly, we show that the LFV is a feasible technique for metering the flow rate of salt water in a rectangular channel. The measurements of the Lorentz forces as a function of the flow rate are presented for different electrical conductivities of the salt water. The smallest value of conductivity is achieved at 0.06 S·m-1, which corresponds to the typical value of tap water. In comparison with previous results, the performance of LFV is improved by approximately 2 orders of magnitude by means of a high-precision differential force measurement setup. Furthermore, the sensitivity curve and the calibration factor of the flowmeter are provided based on extensive measurements for the flow velocities ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 m·s-1 and conductivities ranging from 0.06 to 10 S·m-1.

Association of drinking-water source and use characteristics with urinary antimony concentrations.

PubMed

Makris, Konstantinos C; Andra, Syam S; Herrick, Lisa; Christophi, Costas A; Snyder, Shane A; Hauser, Russ

2013-03-01

Environmental factors, such as storage time, frequency of bottle reuse and temperature, have been shown to facilitate antimony (Sb) leaching from water- and food-packaging materials. The globally escalating consumption of water packaged in Sb-containing bottles, such as that of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), could increase human daily Sb doses. This study set out to investigate the relationship between drinking-water source, use characteristics, and urinary Sb concentrations (U-Sb) accompanied with survey responses of a healthy (n=35) Cypriot participant pool. One spot urine sample was collected during administration of questionnaire, while a second spot urine sample was collected from the same individual about 7 days later. Urinary and water Sb concentrations were measured with an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. Survey responses showed that bottled water summed over various volumes and plastic types, such as polycarbonate and PET contributed to an average 61% of daily water consumption. Water sources such as tap, mobile stations (explained in a following section), and well water contributed to 24%, 14%, and 2% of an individual's daily water consumption pattern, respectively. Average daily potable water use of both bottled and tap water by individuals consisted of 65% drinking-water, while the remaining 35% was water used for preparing cold and hot beverages, such as, tea, coffee, and juices. A significant (P=0.02) association between per capita water consumption from PET bottles and urinary creatinine-unadjusted concentrations was observed, but this relationship did not remain after inclusion of covariates in a multivariate regression model. In the creatinine-adjusted regression model, only gender (female) was a significant (P<0.01) predictor of U-Sb, after adjusting for several covariates. It is proposed that consumption data collection on various water uses and sources among individuals could perhaps decrease the uncertainty associated with

Calcium contained tap water phenomena: students misconception patterns of acids-bases concept

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Liliasari, S.; Albaiti, A.; Wahyudi, A.

2018-05-01

Acids and bases concept is very important and fundamental concept in learning chemistry. It is one of the chemistry subjects considered as an abstract and difficult concept to understand. The aim of this research was to explore student’s misconception pattern about acids and bases phenomena in daily life, such as calcium contained tap water. This was a qualitative research with descriptive methods. Participants were 546 undergraduate students of chemistry education and chemistry program, and graduate students of chemistry education in West Java, Indonesia. The test to explore students’ misconception about this phenomena was essay test. The results showed that there were five patterns of students’ misconception in explaining the phenomena of calcium carbonate precipitation on heating tap water. Students used irrelevant concepts in explaining this phenomena, i.e. temporary hardness, coagulation, density, and phase concepts. No students had right answer in explaining this phenomena. This research contributes to design meaningful learning and to achieve better understanding.

Irrigation of continent catheterizable ileal pouches: tap water can replace sterile solutions because it is safe, easy, and economical.

PubMed

Birkhäuser, Frédéric D; Zehnder, Pascal; Roth, Beat; Schürch, Leander; Ochsner, Katharina; Willener, Rita; Thalmann, George N; Burkhard, Fiona C; Studer, Urs E

2011-04-01

Continent catheterizable ileal pouches require regular irrigations to reduce the risk of bacteriuria and urinary tract infections (UTIs). Our aim was to compare the UTI rate, patient friendliness, and costs of standard sterile irrigation versus irrigation with tap water. Twenty-three patients participated in a prospective randomized two-arm crossover single-center trial. Aseptic intermittent self-catheterization (ISC) combined with sterile sodium chloride (NaCl) 0.9% irrigation was compared with clean ISC and irrigation with tap water (H(2)O) during two study periods of 90 d each. Patients underwent daily pouch irrigations with NaCl 0.9% solution or tap water. Urine nitrite dipstick tests were evaluated daily; urine culture (UC) and patient friendliness were evaluated monthly. Costs were documented. A total of 3916 study days with nitrite testing and irrigation were analyzed, 1876 (48%) in the NaCl arm and 2040 (52%) in the H(2)O arm. In the NaCl arm, 418 study days (22%) with nitrite-positive dipsticks were recorded, 219 d (11%) in the H(2)O arm, significantly fewer (p=0.01). Of the 149 UCs, 96 (64%) were positive, 48 in each arm, revealing a total of 16 different germs. All patients preferred the H(2)O method. Monthly costs were up to 20 times lower in the H(2)O arm. Pouch irrigation with sterile NaCl 0.9% solution and tap water had comparable rates of positive UC. Irrigation with tap water significantly lowered the incidence of nitrite-positive study days and was substantially less costly and more patient friendly than NaCl irrigation. We therefore recommend the use of tap water (or bottled water) instead of sterile NaCl 0.9% solution for daily irrigation of continent catheterizable ileal pouches. Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12610000618055, http://www.ANZCTR.org.au/ACTRN12610000618055.aspx. Copyright © 2011 European Association of Urology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Bacteriological quality of drinking water from source to household in Ibadan, Nigeria.

PubMed

Oloruntoba, E O; Sridhar, M K C

2007-06-01

The bacteriological quality of drinking water from well, spring, borehole, and tap sources and that stored in containers by urban households in Ibadan was assessed during wet and dry seasons. The MPN technique was used to detect and enumerate the number of coliforms in water samples. Results showed that majority of households relied on wells, which were found to be the most contaminated of all the sources. At the household level, water quality significantly deteriorated after collection and storage as a result of poor handling. Furthermore, there was significant seasonal variation in E. coli count at source (P=0.013) and household (P=0.001). The study concludes that there is a need to improve the microbial quality of drinking water at source and the household level through hygiene education, and provision of simple, acceptable, low-cost treatment methods.

Relation of dietary inorganic arsenic to serum matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) at different threshold concentrations of tap water arsenic

PubMed Central

Kurzius-Spencer, Margaret; Harris, Robin B.; Hartz, Vern; Roberge, Jason; Hsu, Chiu-Hsieh; O’Rourke, Mary Kay; Burgess, Jefferey L.

2015-01-01

Arsenic (As) exposure is associated with cancer, lung and cardiovascular disease, yet the mechanisms involved are not clearly understood. Elevated matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) levels are also associated with these diseases, as well as with exposure to water As. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of dietary components of inorganic As (iAs) intake on serum MMP-9 concentration at differing levels of tap water As. In a cross-sectional study of 214 adults, dietary iAs intake was estimated from 24-h dietary recall interviews using published iAs residue data; drinking and cooking water As intake from water samples and consumption data. Aggregate iAs intake (food plus water) was associated with elevated serum MMP-9 in mixed model regression, with and without adjustment for covariates. In models stratified by tap water As, aggregate intake was a significant positive predictor of serum MMP-9 in subjects exposed to water As ≤10 μg/l. Inorganic As from food alone was associated with serum MMP-9 in subjects exposed to tap water As ≤3 μg/l. Exposure to iAs from food and water combined, in areas where tap water As concentration is ≤10 μg/l, may contribute to As-induced changes in a biomarker associated with toxicity. PMID:25605447

The effectiveness of tap water iontophoresis for palmoplantar hyperhidrosis using a Monday, Wednesday, and Friday treatment regime.

PubMed

Siah, Tee Wei; Hampton, Philip J

2013-03-15

Primary focal hyperhidrosis is a benign condition of unknown etiology. Tap water iontophoresis has long been known to inhibit sweat production. The mechanism of reduced hyperhidrosis by iontophoresis is not completely clear. For operational convenience, our patients received their treatments at different intervals to those recommended by the manufacturer of the iontophoresis unit. We performed a retrospective audit to evaluate the effectiveness of tap water iontophoresis using this regimen. This new treatment regimen was effective at controlling palmoplantar hyperhidrosis. Minimal undesirable effects such as mild skin irritation and erythema were noted but none were severe enough to necessitate discontinuation of treatment. In conclusion, tap water iontophoresis is a safe and effective treatment of palmar and plantar hyperhidrosis when used on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for 4 weeks. Continued treatment is needed to maintain the effect and many patients go on to purchase their own machines. This technique should be considered prior to systemic or aggressive surgical intervention.

Perceptions of tap water temperatures, scald risk and prevention among parents and older people in social housing: a qualitative study.

PubMed

Durand, Mary Alison; Green, Judith; Edwards, Phil; Milton, Sarah; Lutchmun, Suzanne

2012-06-01

Young children and older people are particularly vulnerable to tap water scalding. For children, there are also socio-economic inequalities in risk. Evidence suggests that reducing tap water temperatures in social (public) housing through 'passive' means is effective in reducing risk. However, little is known about parents' or older people's perceptions of scald risk and prevention. This study aimed to document the views of parents and older residents in social housing in an inner-London borough about their tap water temperature, perceived scalding risk and scald prevention strategies. Analysis of twenty in-depth interviews with 11 parents and 10 people aged 65 years or older. Tap water was described as very hot, but participants did not consider themselves at risk, viewing scald prevention as a personal responsibility achieved with a range of everyday, routine strategies. Very hot water was preferred for health- and convenience-related reasons. However, it was felt that others, particularly children, could be scalded, and some concern was expressed about the environmental and financial impacts of excessively hot water. Those seeking to introduce engineering-based scald prevention interventions in social housing should emphasise the potential environmental and financial impacts of water temperature reduction, in addition to promoting safety benefits for vulnerable others. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd and ISBI. All rights reserved.

Endemic cryptosporidiosis and exposure to municipal tap water in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): A case-control study

PubMed Central

Aragón, Tomás J; Novotny, Suzanne; Enanoria, Wayne; Vugia, Duc J; Khalakdina, Asheena; Katz, Mitchell H

2003-01-01

Background In persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Cryptosporidium parvum causes a prolonged, severe diarrheal illness to which there is no effective treatment, and the risk of developing cryptosporidiosis from drinking tap water in non-outbreak settings remains uncertain. To test the hypothesis that drinking tap water was associated with developing cryptosporidiosis, we conducted a matched case-control study among persons with AIDS in San Francisco. Methods Among patients reported to the San Francisco AIDS Registry from May 1996 through September 1998, we compared patients who developed cryptosporidiosis to those who did not. Cases were individually matched to controls based on age, sex, race/ethnicity, CD4+ T lymphocyte count, date of CD4+ count, and date of case diagnosis. Population attributable fractions (PAFs) were calculated. Results The study consisted of 49 cases and 99 matched controls. In the multivariable analysis with adjustments for confounders, tap water consumption inside and outside the home at the highest exposure categories was associated with the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis (inside the home: odds ratio (OR), 6.76; 95% CI 1.37–33.5, and outside the home: OR 3.16; 95% CI 1.23–8.13). The PAF was 85%; that is, the proportion of cases of cryptosporidiosis in San Francisco AIDS patients attributable to tap water consumption could have been as high as 85%. Conclusions Although the results from this observational study cannot be considered definitive, until there is more data, we recommend persons with AIDS, especially those with compromised immune systems, consider avoiding tap water. PMID:12515584

Endemic cryptosporidiosis and exposure to municipal tap water in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): a case-control study.

PubMed

Aragón, Tomás J; Novotny, Suzanne; Enanoria, Wayne; Vugia, Duc J; Khalakdina, Asheena; Katz, Mitchell H

2003-01-06

In persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Cryptosporidium parvum causes a prolonged, severe diarrheal illness to which there is no effective treatment, and the risk of developing cryptosporidiosis from drinking tap water in non-outbreak settings remains uncertain. To test the hypothesis that drinking tap water was associated with developing cryptosporidiosis, we conducted a matched case-control study among persons with AIDS in San Francisco. Among patients reported to the San Francisco AIDS Registry from May 1996 through September 1998, we compared patients who developed cryptosporidiosis to those who did not. Cases were individually matched to controls based on age, sex, race/ethnicity, CD4+ T lymphocyte count, date of CD4+ count, and date of case diagnosis. Population attributable fractions (PAFs) were calculated. The study consisted of 49 cases and 99 matched controls. In the multivariable analysis with adjustments for confounders, tap water consumption inside and outside the home at the highest exposure categories was associated with the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis (inside the home: odds ratio (OR), 6.76; 95% CI 1.37-33.5, and outside the home: OR 3.16; 95% CI 1.23-8.13). The PAF was 85%; that is, the proportion of cases of cryptosporidiosis in San Francisco AIDS patients attributable to tap water consumption could have been as high as 85%. Although the results from this observational study cannot be considered definitive, until there is more data, we recommend persons with AIDS, especially those with compromised immune systems, consider avoiding tap water.

Molecular detection of Fasciola hepatica in water sources of District Nowshehra Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Khan, Imran; Khan, Amir Muhammad; Ayaz, Khan, Sanaullah; Anees, Muhammad; Khan, Shaukat Ali

2012-12-01

Fascioliasis is spread through contamination of water sources and cause morbidity throughout the world. In the current study 300 water samples were processed by PCR for detection of Fasciola hepatica. The overall prevalence in different water sources was 9.66 % (29/300). Highest prevalence was recorded in drain water16 % (16/100) followed by tube well water 10% (4/40), open well water 8 % (8/100) and the lowest was recorded in tap water 1.66 %(1/60). The significant difference P < 0.05 was recorded during data analysis. The highest prevalence was recorded in summer. It was concluded from the study that cleaning and filtration should be adopted to avoid the health hazards against water borne zoonotic parasites.

Assessment of trace elements in terminal tap water of Hunan Province, South China, and the potential health risks.

PubMed

Li, Mansha; Du, Yong; Chen, Lv; Liu, Lulu; Duan, Yanying

2018-05-02

A total of 116 terminal tap water (TTW) samples from Xiangjiang, Zijiang, Yuanjiang, and Lishui river basins of Hunan province were collected and concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mn, Zn, Fe, Al, and Cu were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The results showed that 10% of the water samples exceeded the limit level of Cd established by World Health Organization (WHO) of 0.003 mg L -1 . Three percent of the samples had Fe level and 1% had As level above the WHO limits of 0.3 and 0.01 mg L -1 , respectively. Multivariate statistic approach (cluster analysis and principal component analysis) results revealed that anthropogenic activities and pipeline corrosion were major sources of TTW contamination in Hunan province. The individual and total hazard quotient values estimated by deterministic and probabilistic approaches were both less than 1. However, the mean cancer risk values of Cd were 2.2 × 10 -4 and 1.4 × 10 -4 for Xiangjiang and Yuanjiang river basin, respectively, both greater than 10 -4 . The 95th percentile value of cancer risk for Cr was slightly greater than 10 -4 in Xiangjiang river basins. Long-term exposure to Cd and Cr through tap water consumption poses moderate carcinogenic health risks to the local residents.

An Evolving Choice in a Diverse Water Market: A Quality Comparison of Sachet Water with Community and Household Water Sources in Ghana.

PubMed

Guzmán, Danice; Stoler, Justin

2018-06-11

Packaged water, particularly bagged sachet water, has become an important drinking water source in West Africa as local governments struggle to provide safe drinking water supplies. In Ghana, sachet water has become an important primary water source in urban centers, and a growing literature has explored various dimensions of this industry, including product quality. There is very little data on sachet water quality outside of large urban centers, where smaller markets often mean less producer competition and less government regulation. This study analyzes the microbiological quality of sachet water alongside samples of other common water sources at point-of-collection (POC) and point-of-use (POU) in 42 rural, peri-urban, and small-town Ghanaian communities using the IDEXX Colilert ® 18. Levels of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli detected in sachet water samples were statistically and significantly lower than levels detected in all other water sources at POU, including public taps and standpipes, and statistically similar or significantly lower at POC. In diverse waterscapes where households regularly patch together their water supply from different sources, sachet water appears to be an evolving alternative for safe drinking water despite many caveats, including higher unit costs and limited opportunities to recycle the plastic packaging.

Assessment of variable drinking water sources used in Egypt on broiler health and welfare.

PubMed

ELSaidy, N; Mohamed, R A; Abouelenien, F

2015-07-01

This study assessed the impact of four water sources used as drinking water in Egypt for broiler chickens on its performance, carcass characteristic, hematological, and immunological responses. A total of 204 unsexed 1-day old Indian River broiler chickens were used in this study. They were randomly allocated into four treatment groups of 51 birds in each, with three replicates, 17 birds per replicate. Groups were classified according to water source they had been received into (T1) received farm tap water; (T2) received filtered tap water (T3) received farm stored water at rooftop tanks, (T4) received underground (well) water. All water sources showed no significant differences among treated groups at (p>0.05) for most of the performance parameters and carcass characteristics. However (T2) group showed higher records for body weight (BWT), BWT gain (BWG), feed conversion ratio, bursa weight, serum total protein, globulin (G), albumin (A) and A/G ratio, Ab titer against New castle disease virus vaccine. On the other hand, it showed lower records for water intake (WI), WI/Feed intake ratio, total leukocytes count %, heterophil %, lymphocyte %, H/L ratio, liver weight, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, serum uric acid and creatinine. Where filtered water reverse osmosis showed lowest records for bacterial load, the absence of coliform bacteria, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC) and salinity. On the other hand stored water showed higher numerical values for TDS, EC, alkalinity, salinity, pH, bacterial count, and coliform count. Base on the results of this study, it is concluded that different water sources could safely be used as drinking water for poultry; as long as it is present within the acceptable range of drinking water quality for chickens. Suggesting the benefits of treatment of water sources on improving chickens' health and welfare. Draw attention to the importance of maintaining the hygienic quality

Assessment of variable drinking water sources used in Egypt on broiler health and welfare

PubMed Central

ELSaidy, N.; Mohamed, R. A.; Abouelenien, F.

2015-01-01

Aim: This study assessed the impact of four water sources used as drinking water in Egypt for broiler chickens on its performance, carcass characteristic, hematological, and immunological responses. Materials and Methods: A total of 204 unsexed 1-day old Indian River broiler chickens were used in this study. They were randomly allocated into four treatment groups of 51 birds in each, with three replicates, 17 birds per replicate. Groups were classified according to water source they had been received into (T1) received farm tap water; (T2) received filtered tap water (T3) received farm stored water at rooftop tanks, (T4) received underground (well) water. Results: All water sources showed no significant differences among treated groups at (p>0.05) for most of the performance parameters and carcass characteristics. However (T2) group showed higher records for body weight (BWT), BWT gain (BWG), feed conversion ratio, bursa weight, serum total protein, globulin (G), albumin (A) and A/G ratio, Ab titer against New castle disease virus vaccine. On the other hand, it showed lower records for water intake (WI), WI/Feed intake ratio, total leukocytes count %, heterophil %, lymphocyte %, H/L ratio, liver weight, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, serum uric acid and creatinine. Where filtered water reverse osmosis showed lowest records for bacterial load, the absence of coliform bacteria, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC) and salinity. On the other hand stored water showed higher numerical values for TDS, EC, alkalinity, salinity, pH, bacterial count, and coliform count. Conclusion: Base on the results of this study, it is concluded that different water sources could safely be used as drinking water for poultry; as long as it is present within the acceptable range of drinking water quality for chickens. Suggesting the benefits of treatment of water sources on improving chickens’ health and welfare. Draw attention to

Perineal tap water burns in the elderly: at what cost?

PubMed

Potter, Michael D E; Maitz, Peter K M; Kennedy, Peter J; Goltsman, David

2017-11-01

Burn injuries are expensive to treat. Burn injuries have been found to be difficult to treat in elderly patients than their younger counterparts. This is likely to result in higher financial burden on the healthcare system; however, no population-specific study has been conducted to ascertain the inpatient treatment costs of elderly patients with hot tap water burns. Six elderly patients (75-92 years) were admitted for tap water burns at Concord Hospital during 2010. All costs incurred during their hospitalization were followed prospectively, and were apportioned into 'direct' and 'indirect' costs. Direct costs encompassed directly measurable costs, such as consumables used on the ward or in theatres, and indirect costs included hospital overheads, such as bed and theatre costs. Three males and three females admitted with burns to the buttocks, legs or feet. Total burn surface area (TBSA) ranged from 9-21% (mean 12.8%). Length of stay ranged from 26-98 days (mean 46 days). One patient died, and four required surgical management or grafting. Total inpatient costs ranged from $69 782.33 to $254 652.70 per patient (mean $122 800.20, standard deviation $67 484.46). TBSA was directly correlated with length of stay (P < 0.01) and total cost (P < 0.01). Hot water burns among the elderly are associated with high treatment costs, which are proportional to the size of the burn. The cost of treating this cohort is higher than previously reported in a general Australian burn cohort. © 2016 Royal Australasian College of Surgeons.

Polarization Resistance Measurement in Tap Water: The Influence of Rust Electrochemical Activity

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Vasyliev, Georgii

2017-08-01

Corrosion rate of mild steel in tap water during 4300 h was estimated by LPR and weight-loss methods coupled with OCP measurements. The LPR results were found to be overestimated compared to the weight-loss data within initial 2000 h of exposure. The electrochemical activity of the rust separated from the metal surface was studied by cycling voltammetry using a home-built powder graphite electrode. High redox currents corresponding to the initial 2000 h of exposure were detected. Rust composition was characterized with IR and XRD, and the highest amounts of electrochemically active β- and γ-FeOOH were again detected for the initial 2000 h. Current consumption in rust transformation processes during LPR measurement in the galvanostatic mode accounts for overestimation of the corrosion rate. The time dependence of rust electrochemical activity correlates with OCP variation with time. During initial 2000 h, OCP values are shifted by 50 mV to cathodic side. For the period of a higher rust electrochemical activity, the use of a reduced B is suggested to increase accuracy of LPR technique in tap water.

Magnesium-to-calcium ratio in tap water, and its relationship to geological features and the incidence of calcium-containing urinary stones.

PubMed

Kohri, K; Kodama, M; Ishikawa, Y; Katayama, Y; Takada, M; Katoh, Y; Kataoka, K; Iguchi, M; Kurita, T

1989-11-01

We examined the relationship among magnesium and calcium content in tap water, the geological features and urinary stone incidence in Japan. The magnesium-to-calcium ratio in tap water correlated negatively with the incidence of urolithiasis. There was no correlation between calcium and magnesium concentration in tap water and urinary stone incidence. Geological features in Japan were classified into 5 groups. The magnesium-to-calcium ratio in the basalt areas was higher than in the other areas, while ratio in the granite areas was low. In the sedimentary rock areas calcium and magnesium concentrations were high; the magnesium-to-calcium ratio in these areas was between those of the basalt and granite areas. The limestone areas had a much higher calcium concentration. The incidence of urinary stones in the sedimentary rock and basalt areas was lower than that of the granite areas, while that in the limestone areas was the highest. Thus, the incidence of urinary stone is related to the magnesium-to-calcium ratio in tap water and the geological area.

Reduction in pesticide residue levels in olives by ozonated and tap water treatments and their transfer into olive oil.

PubMed

Kırış, Sevilay; Velioglu, Yakup Sedat

2016-01-01

The effects of different wash times (2 and 5 min) with tap and ozonated water on the removal of nine pesticides from olives and the transfer ratios of these pesticides during olive oil production were determined. The reliability of the analytical methods was also tested. The applied methods of analysis were found to be suitable based on linearity, trueness, repeatability, selectivity and limit of quantification all the pesticides tested. All tap and ozonated water wash cycles removed a significant quantity of the pesticides from the olives, with a few exceptions. Generally, extending the wash time increased the pesticide reduction with ozonated water, but did not make significant differences with tap water. During olive oil processing, depending on the processing technique and physicochemical properties of the pesticides, eight of nine pesticides were concentrated into olive oil (processing factor > 1) with almost no significant difference between treatments. Imidacloprid did not pass into olive oil. Ozonated water wash for 5 min reduced chlorpyrifos, β-cyfluthrin, α-cypermethrin and imidacloprid contents by 38%, 50%, 55% and 61% respectively in olives.

Exposure of children to metals via tap water ingestion at home: Contamination and exposure data from a nationwide survey in France.

PubMed

Le Bot, Barbara; Lucas, Jean-Paul; Lacroix, Françoise; Glorennec, Philippe

2016-09-01

29 inorganic compounds (Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Gd, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nd, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sr, Tl, U, V and Zn) were measured in the tap water of 484 representative homes of children aged 6months to 6years in metropolitan France in 2008-2009. Parents were asked whether their children consumed tap water. Sampling design and sampling weights were taken into account to estimate element concentrations in tap water supplied to the 3,581,991 homes of 4,923,058 children aged 6months to 6years. Median and 95th percentiles of concentrations in tap water were in μg/L: Al: <10, 48.3, As: 0.2, 2.1; B: <100, 100; Ba: 30.7, 149.4; Ca: 85,000, 121,700; Cd: <0.5, <0.5; Ce: <0.5, <0.5; Co: <0.5, 0.8; Cr: <5, <5; Cu: 70, 720; K: 2210, 6740; Fe: <20, 46; Mn: <5, <5; Mo: <0.5, 1.5; Na: 14,500, 66,800; Ni: <2, 10.2; Mg: 6500, 21,200; Pb: <1, 5.4; Sb: <0.5, <0.5; Se: <1, 6.7; Sr: 256.9, 1004; Tl: <0.5, <0.5; U: <0.5, 2.4; V: <1, 1; Zn: 53, 208. Of the 2,977,123 young children drinking tap water in France, some were drinking water having concentrations above the 2011 World Health Organization drinking-water quality guidelines: respectively 498 (CI 95%: 0-1484) over 700μg/L of Ba; 121,581 (CI 95%: 7091-236,070) over 50mg/L of Na; 2044 (CI 95%: 0-6132) over 70μg/L of Ni, and 78,466 (17,171-139,761) over 10μg/L of Pb. Since it is representative, this tap water contamination data can be used for integrated exposure assessment, in conjunction with diet and environmental (dust and soil) exposure data. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Optimization of adenovirus 40 and 41 recovery from tap water using small disk filters.

PubMed

McMinn, Brian R

2013-11-01

Currently, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Information Collection Rule (ICR) for the primary concentration of viruses from drinking and surface waters uses the 1MDS filter, but a more cost effective option, the NanoCeram® filter, has been shown to recover comparable levels of enterovirus and norovirus from both matrices. In order to achieve the highest viral recoveries, filtration methods require the identification of optimal concentration conditions that are unique for each virus type. This study evaluated the effectiveness of 1MDS and NanoCeram filters in recovering adenovirus (AdV) 40 and 41 from tap water, and optimized two secondary concentration procedures the celite and organic flocculation method. Adjustments in pH were made to both virus elution solutions and sample matrices to determine which resulted in higher virus recovery. Samples were analyzed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Most Probable Number (MPN) techniques and AdV recoveries were determined by comparing levels of virus in sample concentrates to that in the initial input. The recovery of adenovirus was highest for samples in unconditioned tap water (pH 8) using the 1MDS filter and celite for secondary concentration. Elution buffer containing 0.1% sodium polyphosphate at pH 10.0 was determined to be most effective overall for both AdV types. Under these conditions, the average recovery for AdV40 and 41 was 49% and 60%, respectively. By optimizing secondary elution steps, AdV recovery from tap water could be improved at least two-fold compared to the currently used methodology. Identification of the optimal concentration conditions for human AdV (HAdV) is important for timely and sensitive detection of these viruses from both surface and drinking waters. Published by Elsevier B.V.

When urban taps run dry: Sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana

PubMed Central

Stoler, Justin; Fink, Günther; Weeks, John R.; Otoo, Richard Appiah; Ampofo, Joseph A.; Hill, Allan G.

2011-01-01

Intraurban differentials in safe drinking water in developing cities have been exacerbated by rapid population growth that exceeds expansion of local water infrastructure. In Accra, Ghana, municipal water is rationed to meet demand, and the gap in water services is increasingly being filled by private water vendors selling packaged “sachet” water. Sachets extend drinking water coverage deeper into low-income areas and alleviate the need for safe water storage, potentially introducing a health benefit over stored tap water. We explore correlates of using sachets as the primary drinking water source for 2,093 women in 37 census areas classified as slums by UN-Habitat, and links between sachet water and reported diarrhea episodes in a subset of 810 children under five. We find that neighborhood rationing exerts a strong effect on a household's likelihood of buying sachet water, and that sachet customers tend to be the poorest of the poor. Sachet use is also associated with higher levels of self-reported overall health in women, and lower likelihood of diarrhea in children. We conclude with implications for sachet regulation in Accra and other sub-Saharan cities facing drinking water shortages. PMID:22018970

Plasma-activation of tap water using DBD for agronomy applications: Identification and quantification of long lifetime chemical species and production/consumption mechanisms.

PubMed

Judée, F; Simon, S; Bailly, C; Dufour, T

2018-04-15

Cold atmospheric plasmas are weakly ionized gases that can be generated in ambient air. They produce energetic species (e.g. electrons, metastables) as well as reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, UV radiations and local electric field. Their interaction with a liquid such as tap water can hence change its chemical composition. The resulting "plasma-activated liquid" can meet many applications, including medicine and agriculture. Consequently, a complete experimental set of analytical techniques dedicated to the characterization of long lifetime chemical species has been implemented to characterize tap water treated using cold atmospheric plasma process and intended to agronomy applications. For that purpose, colorimetry and acid titrations are performed, considering acid-base equilibria, pH and temperature variations induced during plasma activation. 16 species are quantified and monitored: hydroxide and hydronium ions, ammonia and ammonium ions, orthophosphates, carbonate ions, nitrite and nitrate ions and hydrogen peroxide. The related consumption/production mechanisms are discussed. In parallel, a chemical model of electrical conductivity based on Kohlrausch's law has been developed to simulate the electrical conductivity of the plasma-activated tap water (PATW). Comparing its predictions with experimental measurements leads to a narrow fitting, hence supporting the self-sufficiency of the experimental set, I.e. the fact that all long lifetime radicals of interest present in PATW are characterized. Finally, to evaluate the potential of cold atmospheric plasmas for agriculture applications, tap water has been daily plasma-treated to irrigate lentils seeds. Then, seedlings lengths have been measured and compared with untreated tap water, showing an increase as high as 34.0% and 128.4% after 3 days and 6 days of activation respectively. The interaction mechanisms between plasma and tap water are discussed as well as their positive synergy on

Eco-friendly LC-MS/MS method for analysis of multi-class micropollutants in tap, fountain, and well water from northern Portugal.

PubMed

Barbosa, Marta O; Ribeiro, Ana R; Pereira, Manuel F R; Silva, Adrián M T

2016-11-01

Organic micropollutants present in drinking water (DW) may cause adverse effects for public health, and so reliable analytical methods are required to detect these pollutants at trace levels in DW. This work describes the first green analytical methodology for multi-class determination of 21 pollutants in DW: seven pesticides, an industrial compound, 12 pharmaceuticals, and a metabolite (some included in Directive 2013/39/EU or Decision 2015/495/EU). A solid-phase extraction procedure followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (offline SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS) method was optimized using eco-friendly solvents, achieving detection limits below 0.20 ng L -1 . The validated analytical method was successfully applied to DW samples from different sources (tap, fountain, and well waters) from different locations in the north of Portugal, as well as before and after bench-scale UV and ozonation experiments in spiked tap water samples. Thirteen compounds were detected, many of them not regulated yet, in the following order of frequency: diclofenac > norfluoxetine > atrazine > simazine > warfarin > metoprolol > alachlor > chlorfenvinphos > trimethoprim > clarithromycin ≈ carbamazepine ≈ PFOS > citalopram. Hazard quotients were also estimated for the quantified substances and suggested no adverse effects to humans. Graphical Abstract Occurrence and removal of multi-class micropollutants in drinking water, analyzed by an eco-friendly LC-MS/MS method.

Pollution by Nonylphenol in river, tap water, and aquatic in an acid rain-plagued city in southwest China.

PubMed

Jie, Yu; Jie, Zhou; Ya, Luo; Xuesong, Yang; Jing, Yang; Yu, Yang; Jiaqi, Yang; Jie, Xu

2017-06-01

Nonylphenol (NP) has provoked much environmental concern because of their weak estrogenic activities; however, few data are available on the environmental levels of the chemical in China. Environmental or river samples were assayed for NP by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. The concentration for NP measured in Xiangjiang River, ranging from 0.174 to 3.411 μg/L with a mean value of 1.73 μg/L, was lower than the Water Quality Criteria for NP of the US (6.6 μg/L); however, the NP concentration was maintained at a higher level compare to the developed countries and other civil cities. NP concentration in downstream water was markedly higher than that both in midstream and upstream water. Tissue accumulation of NP was observed in aquatics. A ratio of mean concentration of NP in aquatic (chlamys farreri and hemiculter leucisculus) to that in river water was 241 and 1087, respectively. The presence of NP in tap water in two urban districts of Zunyi was common with a detectable rate reached 100.0%. Mean NP concentration in terminal tap water in Huichuan district was six times as high as Honghuagang district, which was above Standards for the Drinking Water Quality for Phenols of China (2 μg/L). The pollution of NP in Xiangjiang River, tap water, and aquatic in Zunyi belongs to moderate or severe level in the world.

Molecular characterization of natural biofilms from household taps with different materials: PVC, stainless steel, and cast iron in drinking water distribution system.

PubMed

Lin, Wenfang; Yu, Zhisheng; Chen, Xi; Liu, Ruyin; Zhang, Hongxun

2013-09-01

Microorganism in drinking water distribution system may colonize in biofilms. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene diversities were analyzed in both water and biofilms grown on taps with three different materials (polyvinyl chloride (PVC), stainless steel, and cast iron) from a local drinking water distribution system. In total, five clone libraries (440 sequences) were obtained. The taxonomic composition of the microbial communities was found to be dominated by members of Proteobacteria (65.9-98.9 %), broadly distributed among the classes Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and Gammaproteobacteria. Other bacterial groups included Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, and Deinococcus-Thermus. Moreover, a small proportion of unclassified bacteria (3.5-10.6 %) were also found. This investigation revealed that the bacterial communities in biofilms appeared much more diversified than expected and more care should be taken to the taps with high bacterial diversity. Also, regular monitor of outflow water would be useful as potentially pathogenic bacteria were detected. In addition, microbial richness and diversity in taps ranked in the order as: PVC < stainless steel < cast iron. All the results interpreted that PVC would be a potentially suitable material for use as tap component in drinking water distribution system.

Monitoring from source to tap: the new paradigm for ensuring water security and quality

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Kroll, Dan

2011-06-01

The threat of terrorist action targeting water supplies is often overlooked for the more historically obvious threats of an air attack or a dirty bomb. Studies have shown that an attack on water is simple to orchestrate, inexpensive and can result in mass casualties. The twin motivators of the terrorist threat to water along with consumer demands for safe and potable supplies has lead to a sea change in the drinking water industry. From a historical perspective, most monitoring in the distribution system as well as source water has been relegated to the occasional snapshot provided by grab sampling for a few limited parameters or the infrequent regulatory testing required by mandates such as the Total Coliform Rule. New technologies are being deployed to ameliorate the threat from both intentional and accidental water contamination. The threat to water and these new technologies are described as well as needs and requirements for new sensors to improve the monitoring structure.

Characterization of large area ZnS(Ag) detector for gross alpha and beta activity measurements in tap water plants

DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI.GOV)

Lunardon, M.; Cester, D.; Mistura, G.

2015-07-01

In this work we present the characterization of a large area 200 x 200 mm{sup 2} EJ-444 scintillation detector to be used for monitoring gross alpha and beta activity in tap water plants. Specific tests were performed to determine the best setup to readout the light from the detector side in order to have the possibility to stack many detectors and get a compact device with total active area of the order of 1 m{sup 2}. Alpha/Beta discrimination, efficiency and homogeneity tests were carried out with alpha and beta sources. Background from ambient radioactivity was measured as well. Alpha/beta real-timemore » monitoring in drinking water is a goal of the EU project TAWARA{sub R}TM. (authors)« less

Reduction of enteric infectious disease in rural China by providing deep-well tap water.

PubMed Central

Wang, Z. S.; Shepard, D. S.; Zhu, Y. C.; Cash, R. A.; Zhao, R. J.; Zhu, Z. X.; Shen, F. M.

1989-01-01

Enteric infectious disease (EID), defined here as bacillary dysentery, viral hepatitis A, El Tor cholera, or acute watery diarrhoea, is an important public health problem in most developing countries. This study assessed the impact on EID of providing deep-well tap water (DWTW) through household taps in rural China. For this purpose, we compared the incidence of EID in six study villages (population, 10,290) in Qidong County that had DWTW with that in six control villages (population 9397) that had only surface water. Both the bacterial counts and chemical properties of the DWTW met established hygiene standards for drinking water. The incidence of EID in the study region was 38.6% lower than in the control region; however, the introduction of DWTW supplies did not significantly affect the incidence of bacillary dysentery. These results indicate that the construction and use of DWTW systems with household taps is associated with decreased incidences of El Tor cholera, viral hepatitis A, and acute watery diarrhoea. Since high construction costs have led many authorities to question the value of DWTW, we carried out a cost-benefit analysis of the programme. The cost of constructing a DWTW system averaged US $36,000 at 1983 prices, or US $10.50 per capita. The combined capital and operating costs of a DWTW system were US $1.46 per capita per annum over its 20-year estimated life. The benefits derived from reductions in cost of illness and savings in time to fetch water were 2.2 times the costs at present values Capital outlays were recouped in a 3.6-year payback period and the provision of DWTW proved highly beneficial in both economic and social terms. PMID:2501042

Release of accumulated arsenic from distribution pipes into tap water after arsenic treatment of source water- presentation

EPA Science Inventory

Toxic arsenic (As) is known to incorporate from source well water onto the scales of distribution system pipes such as iron, copper, galvanized steel and even plastic containing internal buildup of iron coatings (Lytle et al., 2010, 2004; Schock, 2015; Reiber and Dostal, 2000). W...

Contamination of hospital tap water: the survival and persistence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on conventional and 'antimicrobial' outlet fittings.

PubMed

Hutchins, C F; Moore, G; Thompson, K-A; Webb, J; Walker, J T

2017-10-01

Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections have been linked to contaminated hospital taps, highlighting the potential for tap outlet fittings (OF) to harbour biofilm. P. aeruginosa may be transferred to OFs via contaminated cleaning cloths. Suggested interventions include flushing regimens and alternative OF designs. To investigate the transfer of P. aeruginosa from a contaminated cleaning cloth to conventional and 'antimicrobial/antibiofilm' OFs and to determine whether this contamination persists and/or leads to contamination of tap water. Microfibre cloths contaminated with P. aeruginosa (10 8  cfu/mL) were used to wipe four different types of OF [one of conventional design (OF-A) and three marketed as 'antimicrobial' and/or 'antibiofilm' (OF- B, -C and -D)]. OFs were inserted into an experimental water distribution system for up to 24 h. Survival was assessed by culture. Single and multiple water samples were collected and cultured for P. aeruginosa. The median number of P. aeruginosa transferred from cloth to OF was 5.7 × 10 5  cfu (OF-A), 1.9 × 10 6  cfu (OF-B), 1.4 × 10 5  cfu (OF-C) and 2.9 × 10 6  cfu (OF-D). Numbers declined on all OFs during the 24 h period with log reductions ranging from 3.5 (OF-C) to 5.2 (OF-B; P > 0.05). All water samples delivered immediately after OF contamination contained P. aeruginosa at ≥10 cfu per 100 mL. Contamination of water delivered from OF-A persisted despite continued flushing. Water delivered from OF-B did not contain P. aeruginosa beyond the first flush. Contaminated cleaning cloths may transfer P. aeruginosa to OFs, leading to contamination of tap water. Although not removing the potential for contamination, 'antimicrobial/antibiofilm' OFs may prevent P. aeruginosa from continually contaminating water delivered from the outlet. Copyright © 2017 The Healthcare Infection Society. All rights reserved.

Haitian Tap-Taps

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Sterling, Joan

2011-01-01

In the small island country of Haiti, colorful taxis transport the natives to the market. Although the taxis may be crowded with people, goods, and even livestock, it is considered a luxury to ride rather than go on foot. The children's picture book, "Tap-Tap," is a wonderful introduction to the culture of this land. The name…

Water: from the source to the treatment plan

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Baude, I.; Marquet, V.

2012-04-01

Isabelle BAUDE isa.baude@free.fr Lycee français de Vienne Liechtensteinstrasse 37AVienna As a physics and chemistry teacher, I have worked on water from the source to the treatment plant with 27 pupils between 14 and 15 years old enrolled in the option "Science and laboratory". The objectives of this option are to interest students in science, to introduce them to practical methods of laboratory analyses, and let them use computer technology. Teaching takes place every two weeks and lasts 1.5 hours. The theme of water is a common project with the biology and geology teacher, Mrs. Virginie Marquet. Lesson 1: Introduction: The water in Vienna The pupils have to consider why the water is so important in Vienna (history, economy etc.) and where tap water comes from. Activities: Brainstorming about where and why we use water every day and why the water is different in Vienna. Lesson 2: Objectives of the session: What are the differences between mineral waters? Activities: Compare water from different origins (France: Evian, Vittel, Contrex. Austria: Vöslauer, Juvina, Gasteiner and tap water from Vienna) by tasting and finding the main ions they contain. Testing ions: Calcium, magnesium, sulphate, chloride, sodium, and potassium Lesson 3: Objectives of the session: Build a hydrometer Activities: Producing a range of calibration solutions, build and calibrate the hydrometer with different salt-water solutions. Measure the density of the Dead Sea's water and other mineral waters. Lesson 4: Objectives of the session: How does a fountain work? Activities: Construction of a fountain as Heron of Alexandria with simple equipment and try to understand the hydrostatic principles. Lesson 5: Objectives of the session: Study of the physical processes of water treatment (decantation, filtration, screening) Activities: Build a natural filter with sand, stone, carbon, and cotton wool. Retrieve the filtered water to test it during lesson 7. Lesson 6: Visit of the biggest treatment

Bacteriological and physico-chemical quality of drinking water sources in a rural community of Ethiopia.

PubMed

Tsega, N; Sahile, S; Kibret, M; Abera, B

2013-12-01

Accesses to safe water is a universal need however, many of the world's population lack access to adequate and safe water. Consumption of water contaminated causes health risk to the public and the situation is serous in rural areas. To assess the bacteriological and physico-chemical quality of drinking water sources in a rural community of Ethiopia. Water samples were collected from tap, open springs, open dug wells and protected springs for bacteriological analysis of total coliforms and thermotolerant coliforms. The turbidity, pH and temperature were measured immediately after collection. Most drinking water sources were found to have coliform counts above the recommended national and international guidelines and had high sanitary risk scores. There was a statistically significant difference among water sources with respect to TC and TTC (p < 0.05) and there was a statistically significant positive correlation between coliform counts and sanitary risk scores (p < 0.01). Most water sources didn't satisfy the turbidity values recommended by WHO. The water sources were heavily contaminated which suggested poor protection and sanitation practice in the water sources. Source protection strategies as well as monitoring are recommend for this community.

Treatment of primary hyperhidrosis with tap water iontophoresis in paediatric patients: a retrospective analysis.

PubMed

Dogruk Kacar, Seval; Ozuguz, Pinar; Eroglu, Selma; Polat, Serap; Karaca, Semsettin

2014-12-01

Primary hyperhidrosis is an under-recognized condition in children and adolescents. Iontophoresis is the second line of treatment for palmoplantar hyperhidrosis following topical treatment. The studies evaluating the efficacy of iontophoresis in children are limited. We aimed to investigate the efficacy and reliability of tap water iontophoresis in children with primary hyperhidrosis. Twenty-one patients aged under 18 years, who received iontophoresis for primary palmoplantar hyperhidrosis, were included in the study. In our clinic, tap water iontophoresis was administered at regular intervals, starting with five times per week and decreased to once a week on fifth week. Then maintenance sessions once a week for 6 weeks are recommended. The presence of excessive sweating was scored by visual analogue scale (VAS): "0" as continuation of excessive sweating and "10" as the absence of excessive sweating. The demographic and clinical data were collected from files. Also, patients fulfilled a questionnaire for efficacy on follow-up visit. Nineteen patients completed the whole 21 sessions. The mean VAS score was 5.89 ± 1.49 at the end of the 15th session and 6.36 ± 2.06 at the end of the treatment. Side effects were well tolerated. Only seven patients were still free of excessive sweating on third months after treatment. The mean satisfaction score was 4.95 ± 2.38, as measured by VAS where 0 indicated dissatisfaction and 10 indicated high satisfaction. Tap water iontophoresis is an effective method of treatment for primary palmoplantar and axillary hyperhidrosis in paediatric patients. But there are still unanswered questions about the mechanism of action, ideal session intervals and protocols for maximum efficacy.

Tap water iontophoresis in the treatment of pediatric hyperhidrosis.

PubMed

Dagash, Haitham; McCaffrey, Sinead; Mellor, Katie; Roycroft, Agnes; Helbling, Ingrid

2017-02-01

The treatment options for localized hyperhidrosis include antiperspirants, anticholinergics, iontophoresis, botulinum toxin and surgery. Tap water iontophoresis (TWI) involves immersing the affected area in tap water and passing a small electrical current through the area. Our aim was to assess the success of this therapy in a pediatric cohort. Retrospective case note review of all patients younger than 18years who underwent TWI between 2002 and 2015. Demographic data, number of treatment sessions, side effects and overall success were analyzed. Individuals undergo 7 treatments over 4weeks. A positive outcome was determined as an improvement in symptoms. Pre- and posttreatment hyperhidrosis disease severity scale (HDSS) was measured. Data are presented as mean (range). Statistical analysis was by paired t-test. A P value of <0.05 was regarded as significant. There were 43 patients (30 females) with a mean age of 15 (8-17) years. Palmar and/or plantar hyperhidrosis (PPH) was present in 39/43 (91%) patients. Axillary hyperhidrosis (AH) was present in 19/43 (44%) patients. All patients (with the exception of one) underwent 7 sessions (5-7). Side effects included paresthesia (88%), pruritus (26%), pain (26%), erythema (14%), dryness (12%) as well as vesicle formation and abrasions in one patient (2%). A positive outcome was found in 84% (36/43) of patients. There was a significant reduction in mean HDSS (pre 3.5 vs. post 2; P=0.0001). TWI is a safe and effective modality of treatment for both PPH and AH in the pediatric population, with minimal side effects. Pediatric surgeons should offer this treatment option before considering more invasive surgical procedures. IV: Retrospective study. Crown Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Abdominal tap

MedlinePlus

Peritoneal tap; Paracentesis; Ascites - abdominal tap; Cirrhosis - abdominal tap; Malignant ascites - abdominal tap ... abdominal cavity ( most often cancer of the ovaries ) Cirrhosis of the liver Damaged bowel Heart disease Infection ...

Prevalence of pathogenic free-living amoeba and other protozoa in natural and communal piped tap water from Queen Elizabeth protected area, Uganda.

PubMed

Sente, Celsus; Erume, Joseph; Naigaga, Irene; Mulindwa, Julius; Ochwo, Sylvester; Magambo, Phillip Kimuda; Namara, Benigna Gabriela; Kato, Charles Drago; Sebyatika, George; Muwonge, Kevin; Ocaido, Michael

2016-08-03

Pathogenic water dwelling protozoa such as Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Naegleria spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. are often responsible for devastating illnesses especially in children and immunocompromised individuals, yet their presence and prevalence in certain environment in sub-Saharan Africa is still unknown to most researchers, public health officials and medical practitioners. The objective of this study was to establish the presence and prevalence of pathogenic free-living amoeba (FLA), Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Queen Elizabeth Protected Area (QEPA). Samples were collected from communal taps and natural water sites in QEPA. Physical water parameters were measured in situ. The samples were processed to detect the presence of FLA trophozoites by xenic cultivation, Cryptosporidium oocysts by Ziehl-Neelsen stain and Giardia cysts by Zinc Sulphate floatation technique. Parasites were observed microscopically, identified, counted and recorded. For FLA, genomic DNA was extracted for amplification and sequencing. Both natural and tap water sources were contaminated with FLA, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. All protozoan parasites were more abundant in the colder rainy season except for Harmannella spp. and Naegleria spp. which occurred more in the warmer months. The prevalence of all parasites was higher in tap water than in natural water samples. There was a strong negative correlation between the presence of Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. with Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (P < 0.05). The presence of Cryptosporidium spp. showed a significant positive correlation (P < 0.05) with conductivity, pH and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); whereas the presence of Giardia spp. had only a strong positive correlation with TDS. Molecular genotyping of FLA produced 7 Acanthamoeba, 5 Echinamoeba, 2 Hartmannella, 1 Bodomorpha, 1 Nuclearia and 1 Cercomonas partial sequences. All water collection sites were

Hot tap thermowell installation

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Romero, C. A.

1971-01-01

System permits valve housings or other fillings to be installed in live steam lines or water pipes without interrupting their operation, thus eliminating current tapping restrictions. Two basic assemblies for installation under pressure are described.

Outbreak of drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ST219 caused by oral care using tap water from contaminated hand hygiene sinks as a reservoir.

PubMed

Umezawa, Kazuo; Asai, Satomi; Ohshima, Toshio; Iwashita, Hideo; Ohashi, Maya; Sasaki, Mika; Kaneko, Akihiro; Inokuchi, Sadaki; Miyachi, Hayato

2015-11-01

An outbreak of amikacin- and ciprofloxacin-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ST219 in Tokai University hospital's emergency intensive care unit was caused by its colonization in water systems and subsequent spread through oral care using tap water. The outbreak was successfully controlled after replacement of the water system and implementation as of daily cleaning of water taps and oral care with a dry method. It is important to strictly manage the water system in critical care areas. Copyright © 2015 Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Investigation of healthcare-acquired infections associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in taps in neonatal units in Northern Ireland.

PubMed

Walker, J T; Jhutty, A; Parks, S; Willis, C; Copley, V; Turton, J F; Hoffman, P N; Bennett, A M

2014-01-01

In December 2011 and early 2012 four neonates died from Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia in hospitals in Northern Ireland. To assess whether P. aeruginosa was associated with the neonatal unit taps and whether waterborne isolates were consistent with patient isolates. Thirty taps and eight flow straighteners from the relevant hospitals were categorized and dismantled into 494 components and assessed for aerobic colony and P. aeruginosa counts using non-selective and selective agars. P. aeruginosa isolates were typed by variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) analysis. Selected tap components were subjected to epifluorescence and scanning electron microscopy to visualize biofilm. The highest P. aeruginosa counts were from the flow straighteners, metal support collars and the tap bodies surrounding these two components. Complex flow straighteners had a significantly higher P. aeruginosa count than other types of flow straighteners (P < 0.05). Highest aerobic colony counts were associated with integrated mixers and solenoids (P < 0.05), but there was not a strong correlation (r = 0.33) between the aerobic colony counts and P. aeruginosa counts. Representative P. aeruginosa tap isolates from two hospital neonatal units had VNTR profiles consistent with strains from the tap water and infected neonates. P. aeruginosa was predominantly found in biofilms in flow straighteners and associated components in the tap outlets and was a possible source of the infections observed. Healthcare providers should be aware that water outlets can be a source of P. aeruginosa contamination and should take steps to reduce such contamination, monitor it and have strategies to minimize risk to susceptible patients. Copyright © 2013 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pseudo-outbreak of Cupriavidus pauculus infection at an outpatient clinic related to rinsing culturette swabs in tap water.

PubMed

Balada-Llasat, Joan-Miquel; Elkins, Camille; Swyers, Lettie; Bannerman, Tammy; Pancholi, Preeti

2010-07-01

Cupriavidus pauculus is a water microorganism rarely isolated from clinical specimens. We describe a pseudo-outbreak in which multiple strains that were associated with moistening of culturette swabs with tap water were isolated from a single clinic before collecting the patient specimen.

Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities in Hydration Status Among US Adults and the Role of Tap Water and Other Beverage Intake

PubMed Central

Gortmaker, Steven L.; Long, Michael W.; Cradock, Angie L.; Kenney, Erica L.

2017-01-01

Objectives. To evaluate whether differences in tap water and other beverage intake explain differences in inadequate hydration among US adults by race/ethnicity and income. Methods. We estimated the prevalence of inadequate hydration (urine osmolality ≥ 800 mOsm/kg) by race/ethnicity and income of 8258 participants aged 20 to 74 years in the 2009 to 2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Using multivariable regression models, we estimated associations between demographic variables, tap water intake, and inadequate hydration. Results. The prevalence of inadequate hydration among US adults was 29.5%. Non-Hispanic Blacks (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.17, 1.76) and Hispanics (AOR = 1.42; 95% CI = 1.21, 1.67) had a higher risk of inadequate hydration than did non-Hispanic Whites. Lower-income adults had a higher risk of inadequate hydration than did higher-income adults (AOR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.04, 1.45). Differences in tap water intake partially attenuated racial/ethnic differences in hydration status. Differences in total beverage and other fluid intake further attenuated sociodemographic disparities. Conclusions. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in inadequate hydration among US adults are related to differences in tap water and other beverage intake. Policy action is needed to ensure equitable access to healthy beverages. PMID:28727528

Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Disparities in Hydration Status Among US Adults and the Role of Tap Water and Other Beverage Intake.

PubMed

Brooks, Carolyn J; Gortmaker, Steven L; Long, Michael W; Cradock, Angie L; Kenney, Erica L

2017-09-01

To evaluate whether differences in tap water and other beverage intake explain differences in inadequate hydration among US adults by race/ethnicity and income. We estimated the prevalence of inadequate hydration (urine osmolality ≥ 800 mOsm/kg) by race/ethnicity and income of 8258 participants aged 20 to 74 years in the 2009 to 2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Using multivariable regression models, we estimated associations between demographic variables, tap water intake, and inadequate hydration. The prevalence of inadequate hydration among US adults was 29.5%. Non-Hispanic Blacks (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.17, 1.76) and Hispanics (AOR = 1.42; 95% CI = 1.21, 1.67) had a higher risk of inadequate hydration than did non-Hispanic Whites. Lower-income adults had a higher risk of inadequate hydration than did higher-income adults (AOR = 1.23; 95% CI = 1.04, 1.45). Differences in tap water intake partially attenuated racial/ethnic differences in hydration status. Differences in total beverage and other fluid intake further attenuated sociodemographic disparities. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in inadequate hydration among US adults are related to differences in tap water and other beverage intake. Policy action is needed to ensure equitable access to healthy beverages.

Determination of selected pharmaceuticals in tap water and drinking water treatment plant by high-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometer in Beijing, China.

PubMed

Cai, Mei-Quan; Wang, Rong; Feng, Li; Zhang, Li-Qiu

2015-02-01

A simultaneous determination method of 14 multi-class pharmaceuticals using solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS) was established to measure the occurrence and distribution of these pharmaceuticals in tap water and a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) in Beijing, China. Target compounds included seven anti-inflammatory drugs, two antibacterial drugs, two lipid regulation drugs, one antiepileptic drug, and one hormone. Limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) ranged from 0.01 to 1.80 ng/L and 0.05 to 3.00 ng/L, respectively. Intraday and inter-day precisions, recoveries of different matrices, and matrix effects were also investigated. Of the 14 pharmaceutical compounds selected, nine were identified in tap water of Beijing downtown with the concentration up to 38.24 ng/L (carbamazepine), and the concentration levels of detected pharmaceuticals in tap water (<5 ng/L for most pharmaceuticals) were lower than previous studies in other countries. In addition, ten and six pharmaceuticals were measured in raw water and finished water at the concentration ranged from 0.10 to 16.23 and 0.13 to 17.17 ng/L, respectively. Five compounds were detected most frequently in DWTP, namely antipyrine, carbamazepine, isopropylantipyrine, aminopyrine, and bezafibrate. Ibuprofen was found to be the highest concentration pharmaceutical during DWTP, up to 53.30 ng/L. DWTP shows a positive effect on the removal of most pharmaceuticals with 81.2-99.5 % removal efficiencies, followed by carbamazepine with 55.4 % removal efficiency, but it has no effect for removing ibuprofen and bezafibrate.

Geothermal Energy: Tapping the Potential

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Johnson, Bill

2008-01-01

Ground source geothermal energy enables one to tap into the earth's stored renewable energy for heating and cooling facilities. Proper application of ground-source geothermal technology can have a dramatic impact on the efficiency and financial performance of building energy utilization (30%+). At the same time, using this alternative energy…

Occurrence of cardiovascular drugs in the sewage-impacted Vistula River and in tap water in the Warsaw region (Poland).

PubMed

Giebułtowicz, Joanna; Stankiewicz, Albert; Wroczyński, Piotr; Nałęcz-Jawecki, Grzegorz

2016-12-01

In recent years, cardiovascular diseases were the second most common cause of death worldwide. Therefore, the consumption of drugs used to treat cardiovascular diseases is high. So far, there were no such comprehensive reports regarding the presence of cardiovascular drugs in surface and tap waters, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe. The aim of our study was to determine the presence of 30 pharmaceutically active compounds and some of their metabolites, at specific points of the Vistula River and in tap water samples in the Warsaw region. The analysis was performed using the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry method, coupled to solid-phase extraction. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first time where the presence of ciprofibrate in the environment was investigated. Cardiovascular drugs found at the highest concentrations (reaching 1 μg/L or higher) in surface water were beta-blockers, sartans and diuretics. In tap water samples, trace amounts of pharmaceuticals were detected, for almost all target compounds. This highlights their inadequate elimination by the treatment facility used in the Warsaw region. The presence of cardiovascular compounds in the aquatic environment could have a long-term effect even at a low exposure level, since synergy effects amongst pharmaceuticals may occur.

AN INTEGRATED RESEARCH AGENDA TO EVALUATE TAP WATER DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS AND HUMAN HEALTH: PART 1

EPA Science Inventory

An Integrated Research Agenda to Evaluate Tap Water Disinfection Byproducts and Human Health: Part I

Michele Lynberg1, David Ashley 2, Pauline Mendola3, J. R. Nuckols4, Kenneth Cantor5, Benjamin Blount 2, Philip Singer6, Charles Wilkes7, Lorraine Backer1, and Peter Langlo...

Drinking water consumption patterns among adults-SMS as a novel tool for collection of repeated self-reported water consumption.

PubMed

Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Toljander, Jonas; Mattisson, Irene; Åkesson, Agneta; Simonsson, Magnus

2018-03-01

Studies have shown that the average drinking water consumption ranges between 0.075 and 3 L/day for adults with both national and regional differences. For exposure assessment of drinking water hazards, country-specific drinking water consumption data including sources of the consumed water may therefore be warranted. To estimate the amount and source of drinking water consumed among adults in Sweden, we collected self-reported estimates using both traditional methods (telephone interviews, web questionnaire) and a novel method (Short Message Service, SMS questionnaires) in a population from an average sized Swedish municipality. Monthly SMS questionnaires were sent out during one year to obtain longitudinal information as well. SMS showed to be a promising tool for collecting self-reported consumption, as most citizens could participate and the method showed high response rate. Data collected via the SMS questionnaire shows an average consumption of cold tap water of 4.9 glasses/24 h (one glass=200 ml), while the average estimates of cold tap water collected by the traditional methods range from 4.5 to 7.0 glasses/24 h. For statistical distributions, the mean daily consumption of cold tap water for the population was best fitted to a gamma distribution. About 70% of the cold tap water is consumed at home. Based on the results from the SMS study, we suggest using 1 l/day for the average adult population and 2.5 l/day for high consumers for risk assessment of cold tap water consumption. As 46% of the tap water consumed is heated, we suggest using 1.85 l/day for total tap water consumption.

Drinking water consumption patterns among adults—SMS as a novel tool for collection of repeated self-reported water consumption

PubMed Central

Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Toljander, Jonas; Mattisson, Irene; Åkesson, Agneta; Simonsson, Magnus

2018-01-01

Studies have shown that the average drinking water consumption ranges between 0.075 and 3 L/day for adults with both national and regional differences. For exposure assessment of drinking water hazards, country-specific drinking water consumption data including sources of the consumed water may therefore be warranted. To estimate the amount and source of drinking water consumed among adults in Sweden, we collected self-reported estimates using both traditional methods (telephone interviews, web questionnaire) and a novel method (Short Message Service, SMS questionnaires) in a population from an average sized Swedish municipality. Monthly SMS questionnaires were sent out during one year to obtain longitudinal information as well. SMS showed to be a promising tool for collecting self-reported consumption, as most citizens could participate and the method showed high response rate. Data collected via the SMS questionnaire shows an average consumption of cold tap water of 4.9 glasses/24 h (one glass=200 ml), while the average estimates of cold tap water collected by the traditional methods range from 4.5 to 7.0 glasses/24 h. For statistical distributions, the mean daily consumption of cold tap water for the population was best fitted to a gamma distribution. About 70% of the cold tap water is consumed at home. Based on the results from the SMS study, we suggest using 1 l/day for the average adult population and 2.5 l/day for high consumers for risk assessment of cold tap water consumption. As 46% of the tap water consumed is heated, we suggest using 1.85 l/day for total tap water consumption. PMID:28612838

Different Choices of Drinking Water Source and Different Health Risks in a Rural Population Living Near a Lead/Zinc Mine in Chenzhou City, Southern China.

PubMed

Huang, Xiao; He, Liping; Li, Jun; Yang, Fei; Tan, Hongzhuan

2015-11-12

This study aimed to describe the households' choices of drinking water sources, and evaluate the risk of human exposure to heavy metals via different drinking water sources in Chenzhou City of Hunan Province, Southern China. A cross-sectional face-to-face survey of 192 householders in MaTian and ZhuDui village was conducted. The concentrations of heavy metals in their drinking water sources were analyzed. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment was performed according to the method recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In total, 52.60% of the households used hand-pressed well water, and 34.89% used barreled water for drinking. In total, 6.67% of the water samples exceeded the Chinese drinking water standards. The total health risk of five metals is 5.20 × 10(-9)~3.62 × 10(-5). The total health risk of five metals was at acceptable levels for drinking water sources. However, the total risk of using hand-pressed well water's highest value is 6961 times higher than the risk of using tap water. Household income level was significantly associated with drinking water choices. Arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) are priority controlled pollutants in this region. Using safe drinking water (tap water, barreled water and so on) can remarkably reduce the risk of ingesting heavy metals.

Different Choices of Drinking Water Source and Different Health Risks in a Rural Population Living Near a Lead/Zinc Mine in Chenzhou City, Southern China

PubMed Central

Huang, Xiao; He, Liping; Li, Jun; Yang, Fei; Tan, Hongzhuan

2015-01-01

This study aimed to describe the households’ choices of drinking water sources, and evaluate the risk of human exposure to heavy metals via different drinking water sources in Chenzhou City of Hunan Province, Southern China. A cross-sectional face-to-face survey of 192 householders in MaTian and ZhuDui village was conducted. The concentrations of heavy metals in their drinking water sources were analyzed. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment was performed according to the method recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In total, 52.60% of the households used hand-pressed well water, and 34.89% used barreled water for drinking. In total, 6.67% of the water samples exceeded the Chinese drinking water standards. The total health risk of five metals is 5.20 × 10−9~3.62 × 10−5. The total health risk of five metals was at acceptable levels for drinking water sources. However, the total risk of using hand-pressed well water’s highest value is 6961 times higher than the risk of using tap water. Household income level was significantly associated with drinking water choices. Arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) are priority controlled pollutants in this region. Using safe drinking water (tap water, barreled water and so on) can remarkably reduce the risk of ingesting heavy metals. PMID:26569281

Vaccination and the TAP-independent antigen processing pathways.

PubMed

López, Daniel; Lorente, Elena; Barriga, Alejandro; Johnstone, Carolina; Mir, Carmen

2013-09-01

The cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphocyte-mediated cellular response is important for the elimination of virus-infected cells and requires the prior recognition of short viral peptide antigens previously translocated to the endoplasmic reticulum by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). However, individuals with nonfunctional TAP complexes or infected cells with TAP molecules blocked by specific viral proteins, such as the cowpoxvirus, a component of the first source of early empirical vaccination against smallpox, are still able to present several HLA class I ligands generated by the TAP-independent antigen processing pathways to specific cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Currently, bioterrorism and emerging infectious diseases have renewed interest in poxviruses. Recent works that have identified HLA class I ligands and epitopes in virus-infected TAP-deficient cells have implications for the study of both the effectiveness of early empirical vaccination and the analysis of HLA class I antigen processing in TAP-deficient subjects.

Isolation and identification of pathogenic free-living amoeba from surface and tap water of Shiraz City using morphological and molecular methods.

PubMed

Armand, B; Motazedian, M H; Asgari, Q

2016-01-01

Free-living amoebae (FLA) are the most abundant and widely distributed protozoa in the environment. An investigation was conducted to determine the presence of free-living amoebae (FLA), Acanthamoeba and Vermamoeba in waterfronts of parks and squares and tap water of Shiraz City, Iran. FLA are considered pathogenic for human. These ubiquitous organisms have been isolated from different environments such as water, soil, and air. Eighty-two water samples were collected from different places of Shiraz City during the summer of 2013. All samples were processed in Dept. of Parasitology and Mycology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Fars, Iran. Samples were screened for FLA and identified by morphological characters in the cultures, PCR amplification targeting specific genes for each genus and sequencing determined frequent species and genotypes base on NCBI database. Overall, 48 samples were positive for Acanthamoeba and Vermamoeba in non-nutrient agar culture based on morphological characteristics. The PCR examination was done successfully. Sequencing results were revealed T4 (62.96 %) genotypes as the most common genotype of Acanthamoeba in the Shiraz water sources. In addition, T5 (33.33 %) and T15 (3.71 %) were isolated from water supplies. Vermamoeba vermiformis was known the dominant species from this genus. The high frequency of Acanthamoeba spp. and Vermamoeba in different environmental water sources of Shiraz is an alert for the public health related to water sources. The result highlights a need for taking more attention to water supplies in order to prevent illnesses related to free-living amoebae.

Physics on Tap

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Wheeler, Andrew P. S.

2012-01-01

This article aims to describe how to visualize surface tension effects in liquid jets. A simple experiment is proposed using the liquid jet flow from a mains water tap/faucet. Using a modern digital camera with a high shutter speed, it is possible to visualize the instabilities (capillary waves) that form within the jet due to the action of…

A tap water turbidity crisis in Tel Aviv, Israel, due to technical failure: toxicological and risk management issues.

PubMed

Winston, Gary; Lerman, Shlomo; Goldberger, Shalom; Collins, Malcolm; Leventhal, Alex

2003-06-01

Herein, we report on the actual events linked to an ammonia spillage into the main waterline of the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area and its surrounding municipalities. Based upon a large magnitude increase of unknown origin in the turbidity and ammonia levels of the main drinking water supply, area residents were warned of possible serious contamination and advised to refrain from drinking tap water until further notice. Turbidity was later linked only to CaCO3, which was precipitated from the water due to the rise in pH caused by the excessive ammonia levels. The source of the ammonia (a malfunction of the measurement buoy in the ammonia tank) was not identified until several days after the warning was issued. The toxicological implications of the turbidity and ammonia elevations are considered and reconciled with the management strategies that followed. Of consequence to the management of this crisis was the approach of Ministry of Health officials to regard the ammonia, from the onset, as an indicator of several possible sources of origin rather than as a contaminant. Decision-making policies were hampered by ineffective communication between the national water supplier and government health officials. An outcome of this crisis was a heightened awareness of the potential of a water crisis occurring during peace time and not only in association with terrorist activities, to which Israeli citizens are highly sensitized. Finally, the present paper may serve to guide municipal environmental and health officials more appropriately in the event of similar drinking water crises in Israel or elsewhere.

Drinking water sources, availability, quality, access and utilization for goats in the Karak Governorate, Jordan.

PubMed

Al-Khaza'leh, Ja'far Mansur; Reiber, Christoph; Al Baqain, Raid; Valle Zárate, Anne

2015-01-01

Goat production is an important agricultural activity in Jordan. The country is one of the poorest countries in the world in terms of water scarcity. Provision of sufficient quantity of good quality drinking water is important for goats to maintain feed intake and production. This study aimed to evaluate the seasonal availability and quality of goats' drinking water sources, accessibility, and utilization in different zones in the Karak Governorate in southern Jordan. Data collection methods comprised interviews with purposively selected farmers and quality assessment of water sources. The provision of drinking water was considered as one of the major constraints for goat production, particularly during the dry season (DS). Long travel distances to the water sources, waiting time at watering points, and high fuel and labor costs were the key reasons associated with the problem. All the values of water quality (WQ) parameters were within acceptable limits of the guidelines for livestock drinking WQ with exception of iron, which showed slightly elevated concentration in one borehole source in the DS. These findings show that water shortage is an important problem leading to consequences for goat keepers. To alleviate the water shortage constraint and in view of the depleted groundwater sources, alternative water sources at reasonable distance have to be tapped and monitored for water quality and more efficient use of rainwater harvesting systems in the study area is recommended.

Children's drinking water: parental preferences and implications for fluoride exposure.

PubMed

Sriraman, Natasha K; Patrick, Patricia A; Hutton, Kara; Edwards, Karen S

2009-01-01

The purposes of this study were to: describe children's drinking water sources; determine if any demographic factors are associated with water choice; describe parents' reasons for selecting bottled water; and determine parents' ability to provide enough information about their drinking water for providers to assess children's fluoride exposure. Subjects were parents of children 6 months to 15-years-old. A questionnaire was verbally administered in English or Spanish. Chi-square analyses were used to evaluate associations among study variables. Of 194 parents, 134 (69%) gave their children bottled water either exclusively or with tap water. Bottled water use was not significantly associated with the primary source of tap water, parent's education level, or household income. Reasons for giving children bottled water included: fear of contaminants in tap water; taste and/or smell of tap water; and convenience of bottled water. For parents using bottled water, over 65% did not know the brand's fluoride content. Barriers to an accurate fluoride assessment include frequent bottled water use and parental uncertainty about its fluoride content. By initiating communication with parents and educating them about fluoride sources, health care and dental providers may be able to better evaluate the adequacy of children's fluoride exposure and decide whether fluoride supplementation is necessary.

A fiber-coupled 9xx module with tap water cooling

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Schleuning, D.; Anthon, D.; Chryssis, A.; Ryu, G.; Liu, G.; Winhold, H.; Fan, L.; Xu, Z.; Tanbun-Ek, T.; Lehkonen, S.; Acklin, B.

2016-03-01

A novel, 9XX nm fiber-coupled module using arrays of highly reliable laser diode bars has been developed. The module is capable of multi-kW output power in a beam parameter product of 80 mm-mrad. The module incorporates a hard-soldered, isolated stack package compatible with tap-water cooling. Using extensive, accelerated multi-cell life-testing, with more than ten million device hours of test, we have demonstrated a MTTF for emitters of >500,000 hrs. In addition we have qualified the module in hard-pulse on-off cycling and stringent environmental tests. Finally we have demonstrated promising results for a next generation 9xx nm chip design currently in applications and qualification testing

Genotyping, physiological features and proteolytic activities of a potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba sp. isolated from tap water in Brazil.

PubMed

Magliano, Ana C M; da Silva, Flávia Maia; Teixeira, Marta M G; Alfieri, Silvia C

2009-11-01

Acanthamoeba spp., known to cause keratitis and granulomatous encephalitis in humans, are frequently isolated from a variety of water sources. Here we report for the first time the characterization of an Acanthamoeba sp. (ACC01) isolated from tap water in Brazil. This organism is currently being maintained in an axenic growth medium. Phylogenetic analysis based on SSU rRNA gene sequences positioned the new isolate in genotype T4, closest to the keratitis-causing isolate, A. polyphaga ATCC 30461 ( approximately 99% similarity). Acanthamoeba ACC01 and A. polyphaga 30461 both grew at 37 degrees C and were osmotically resistant, multiplying in hyperosmolar medium. Both isolates secreted comparable amounts of proteolytic enzymes, including serine peptidases that were optimally active at a near neutral/alkaline pH and resolved identically in gelatin gels. Incubation of gels at pH 4.0 with 2mM DTT also indicated the secretion of similar cysteine peptidases. Altogether, the results point to the pathogenic potential of Acanthamoeba ACC01.

The Effect of Different Boiling and Filtering Devices on the Concentration of Disinfection By-Products in Tap Water

PubMed Central

Carrasco-Turigas, Glòria; Villanueva, Cristina M.; Goñi, Fernando; Rantakokko, Panu; Nieuwenhuijsen, Mark J.

2013-01-01

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are ubiquitous contaminants in tap drinking water with the potential to produce adverse health effects. Filtering and boiling tap water can lead to changes in the DBP concentrations and modify the exposure through ingestion. Changes in the concentration of 4 individual trihalomethanes (THM4) (chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and bromoform (TBM)), MX, and bromate were tested when boiling and filtering high bromine-containing tap water from Barcelona. For filtering, we used a pitcher-type filter and a household reverse osmosis filter; for boiling, an electric kettle, a saucepan, and a microwave were used. Samples were taken before and after each treatment to determine the change in the DBP concentration. pH, conductivity, and free/total chlorine were also measured. A large decrease of THM4 (from 48% to 97%) and MX concentrations was observed for all experiments. Bromine-containing trihalomethanes were mostly eliminated when filtering while chloroform when boiling. There was a large decrease in the concentration of bromate with reverse osmosis, but there was a little effect in the other experiments. These findings suggest that the exposure to THM4 and MX through ingestion is reduced when using these household appliances, while the decrease of bromate is device dependent. This needs to be considered in the exposure assessment of the epidemiological studies. PMID:23476675

Assessment of the Extraction Methods for Monitoring Phthalate Emerging Contaminants in Groundwater and Tap Water

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Cotto, I.; Padilla, I. Y.; De Jesús, N. H.; Torres, P. M.

2015-12-01

Trace organic contaminants such as phthalates, among other chemicals of emerging concerns, have not historically been considered as pollutants but are being detected in water, posing a potential risk to public health and the environment. One of the most common phthalates of particular concern is di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a plasticizer normally found in plastics and consumer products, including: cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, medical devices, food packages, water bottles, and wiring cables. DEHP has been associated with preterm birth, a major cause of neonatal mortality and health complications. This study aims at monitoring the presence and concentration of DEHP and other phthalates in groundwater and tap water systems in Puerto Rico, which has one of the highest rates of preterm birth in the U.S. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests a liquid-liquid extraction method that uses methylene chloride as the preferred organic solvent for the extractions. This work presents modified EPA methods that reduce the volume of sample and solvent used, lower the time of analysis, increase productivity, and decrease hazards and waste. Distribution coefficient of DEHP between methylene chloride and water are estimated and related to sample extraction efficiency. Research results indicate that DEHP is in fact distributed between water and methylene chloride with a distribution coefficient average value of 1.24. The study concludes that the sample and solvent volumes have influence on the efficiency but have not an effect on the distribution coefficient. The tests show higher extraction efficiencies for lower DEHP concentrations and higher extraction volumes. Results from the water analysis show presence of DEHP in 55% of groundwater and 44% of tap water samples, indicating a potential exposure through water.

The δ2H and δ18O of tap water from 349 sites in the United States and selected territories

USGS Publications Warehouse

Coplen, Tyler B.; Landwehr, Jurate M.; Qi, Haiping; Lorenz, Jennifer M.

2013-01-01

Because the stable isotopic compositions of hydrogen (δ2H) and oxygen (δ18O) of animal (including human) tissues, such as hair, nail, and urine, reflect the δ2H and δ18O of water and food ingested by an animal or a human and because the δ2H and δ18O of environmental waters vary geographically, δ2H and δ18O values of tap water samples collected in 2007-2008 from 349 sites in the United States and three selected U.S. territories have been measured in support of forensic science applications, creating one of the largest databases of tap water δ2H and δ18O values to date. The results of replicate isotopic measurements for these tap water samples confirm that the expanded uncertainties (U = 2μc) obtained over a period of years by the Reston Stable Isotope Laboratory from δ2H and δ18O dual-inlet mass spectrometric measurements are conservative, at ±2‰ and ±0.2 ‰, respectively. These uncertainties are important because U.S. Geological Survey data may be needed for forensic science applications, including providing evidence in court cases. Half way through the investigation, an isotope-laser spectrometer was acquired, enabling comparison of dual-inlet isotope-ratio mass spectrometric results with isotope-laser spectrometric results. The uncertainty of the laser-based δ2H measurement results for these tap water samples is comparable to the uncertainty of the mass spectrometric method, with the laser-based method having a slightly lower uncertainty. However, the δ18O uncertainty of the laser-based method is more than a factor of ten higher than that of the dual-inlet isotoperatio mass spectrometric method.

Drinking water quality assessment.

PubMed

Aryal, J; Gautam, B; Sapkota, N

2012-09-01

Drinking water quality is the great public health concern because it is a major risk factor for high incidence of diarrheal diseases in Nepal. In the recent years, the prevalence rate of diarrhoea has been found the highest in Myagdi district. This study was carried out to assess the quality of drinking water from different natural sources, reservoirs and collection taps at Arthunge VDC of Myagdi district. A cross-sectional study was carried out using random sampling method in Arthunge VDC of Myagdi district from January to June,2010. 84 water samples representing natural sources, reservoirs and collection taps from the study area were collected. The physico-chemical and microbiological analysis was performed following standards technique set by APHA 1998 and statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 11.5. The result was also compared with national and WHO guidelines. Out of 84 water samples (from natural source, reservoirs and tap water) analyzed, drinking water quality parameters (except arsenic and total coliform) of all water samples was found to be within the WHO standards and national standards.15.48% of water samples showed pH (13) higher than the WHO permissible guideline values. Similarly, 85.71% of water samples showed higher Arsenic value (72) than WHO value. Further, the statistical analysis showed no significant difference (P<0.05) of physico-chemical parameters and total coliform count of drinking water for collection taps water samples of winter (January, 2010) and summer (June, 2010). The microbiological examination of water samples revealed the presence of total coliform in 86.90% of water samples. The results obtained from physico-chemical analysis of water samples were within national standard and WHO standards except arsenic. The study also found the coliform contamination to be the key problem with drinking water.

Comparing microbial water quality in an intermittent and continuous piped water supply.

PubMed

Kumpel, Emily; Nelson, Kara L

2013-09-15

Supplying piped water intermittently is a common practice throughout the world that increases the risk of microbial contamination through multiple mechanisms. Converting an intermittent supply to a continuous supply has the potential to improve the quality of water delivered to consumers. To understand the effects of this upgrade on water quality, we tested samples from reservoirs, consumer taps, and drinking water provided by households (e.g. from storage containers) from an intermittent and continuous supply in Hubli-Dharwad, India, over one year. Water samples were tested for total coliform, Escherichia coli, turbidity, free chlorine, and combined chlorine. While water quality was similar at service reservoirs supplying the continuous and intermittent sections of the network, indicator bacteria were detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in samples from taps supplied intermittently compared to those supplied continuously (p < 0.01). Detection of E. coli was rare in continuous supply, with 0.7% of tap samples positive compared to 31.7% of intermittent water supply tap samples positive for E. coli. In samples from both continuously and intermittently supplied taps, higher concentrations of total coliform were measured after rainfall events. While source water quality declined slightly during the rainy season, only tap water from intermittent supply had significantly more indicator bacteria throughout the rainy season compared to the dry season. Drinking water samples provided by households in both continuous and intermittent supplies had higher concentrations of indicator bacteria than samples collected directly from taps. Most households with continuous supply continued to store water for drinking, resulting in re-contamination, which may reduce the benefits to water quality of converting to continuous supply. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Airborne exposure to trihalomethanes from tap water in homes with refrigeration-type and evaporative cooling systems.

PubMed

Kerger, Brent D; Suder, David R; Schmidt, Chuck E; Paustenbach, Dennis J

2005-03-26

This study evaluates airborne concentrations of common trihalomethane compounds (THM) in selected living spaces of homes supplied with chlorinated tap water containing >85 ppb total THM. Three small homes in an arid urban area were selected, each having three bedrooms, a full bath, and approximately 1000 square feet; two homes had standard (refrigeration-type) central air conditioning and the third had a central evaporative cooling system ("swamp cooler"). A high-end water-use pattern was used at each home in this exposure simulation. THM were concurrently measured on 4 separate test days in tap water and air in the bathroom, living room, the bedroom closest to the bathroom, and outside using Summa canisters. Chloroform (trichloromethane, TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), and dibromochloromethane (DBCM) concentrations were quantified using U.S. EPA Method TO-14. The apparent volatilization fraction consistently followed the order: TCM > BDCM > DBCM. Relatively low airborne THM concentrations (similar to outdoors) were found in the living room and bedroom samples for the home with evaporative cooling, while the refrigeration-cooled homes showed significantly higher THM levels (three- to fourfold). This differential remained after normalizing the air concentrations based on estimated THM throughput or water concentrations. These findings indicate that, despite higher throughput of THM-containing water in homes using evaporative coolers, the higher air exchange rates associated with these systems rapidly clears THM to levels similar to ambient outdoor concentrations.

Evaluation of biochemical urinary stone composition and its relationship to tap water hardness in Qom province, central Iran.

PubMed

Moslemi, Mohammad Kazem; Saghafi, Hossein; Joorabchin, Seyed Mohammad Amin

2011-01-01

The aim of this study was to evaluate the biochemical stone composition in general population of Qom province, central Iran, and its relationship with high tap water hardness. In a prospective study, from March 2008 to July 2011, biochemical analysis of urinary stones in patients living in Qom province for at least 5 years was performed. Stones were retrieved by spontaneous passage, endoscopic or open surgery, and after extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy. Demographic findings and the drinking water supply of patients were evaluated and compared with biochemical stone analysis. Stone analysis was performed in 255 patients. The most dominant composition of urinary stones was calcium oxalate (73%), followed by uric acid (24%), ammonium urate (2%), and cystine (1%). The peak incidence of urinary stone was in patients in their forties. Overall male to female ratio was 4.93:1. The dominant stone composition in inhabitants of central Iran, where tap water hardness is high, was calcium oxalate stones. On the basis of this study, biochemical urinary stone composition of Qom does not differ from other regions of Iran with lower water hardness.

Microcystins from tap water could be a risk factor for liver and colorectal cancer: a risk intensified by global change.

PubMed

Martínez Hernández, Juan; López-Rodas, V; Costas, E

2009-05-01

An increasing number of people drink water from fresh water supply reservoirs. However, with the global change a lot of reservoirs become eutrophic, which facilitates the occurrence of toxin-producing cyanobacterial blooms. Microcystins (powerful hepatotoxic water-soluble heptapeptides) are the most important cyanobacterial toxins affecting humans. High doses of microcystins produce hepatic necrosis. Consequently, WHO Guidelines limit microcystins to 1 ppb in drinking waters. However, microcystins are present frequently in tap water at lower doses. Here, we hypothesized that chronic consume of tap water containing low doses of microcystins may be a risk factor for liver and colorectal cancer. Two kinds of evidences support this hypothesis. On one hand some epidemiological data (mainly in China). On the other hand, the molecular mechanism of microcystins toxicity (inhibition of protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2) is just like okadaic acid (a potent tumor promoter). Cancer risk from drinking water is certainly less than smoking, occupational exposures or some foods. But it is significant and with a rapid increase of toxic cyanobacterial blooms by eutrophycation, become more frequent.

A large community outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with consumption of drinking water contaminated by river water, Belgium, 2010.

PubMed

Braeye, T; DE Schrijver, K; Wollants, E; van Ranst, M; Verhaegen, J

2015-03-01

SUMMARY On 6 December 2010 a fire in Hemiksem, Belgium, was extinguished by the fire brigade with both river water and tap water. Local physicians were asked to report all cases of gastroenteritis. We conducted a retrospective cohort study among 1000 randomly selected households. We performed a statistical and geospatial analysis. Human stool samples, tap water and river water were tested for pathogens. Of the 1185 persons living in the 528 responding households, 222 (18·7%) reported symptoms of gastroenteritis during the time period 6-13 December. Drinking tap water was significantly associated with an increased risk for gastroenteritis (relative risk 3·67, 95% confidence interval 2·86-4·70) as was place of residence. Campylobacter sp. (2/56), norovirus GI and GII (11/56), rotavirus (1/56) and Giardia lamblia (3/56) were detected in stool samples. Tap water samples tested positive for faecal indicator bacteria and protozoa. The results support the hypothesis that a point-source contamination of the tap water with river water was the cause of the multi-pathogen waterborne outbreak.

The influence of TAP1 and TAP2 gene polymorphisms on TAP function and its inhibition by viral immune evasion proteins.

PubMed

Praest, P; Luteijn, R D; Brak-Boer, I G J; Lanfermeijer, J; Hoelen, H; Ijgosse, L; Costa, A I; Gorham, R D; Lebbink, R J; Wiertz, E J H J

2018-06-04

Herpesviruses encode numerous immune evasion molecules that interfere with the immune system, particularly with certain stages in the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway. In this pathway, the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a frequent target of viral immune evasion strategies. This ER-resident transporter is composed of the proteins TAP1 and TAP2, and plays a crucial role in the loading of viral peptides onto MHC class I molecules. Several variants of TAP1 and TAP2 occur in the human population, some of which are linked to autoimmune disorders and susceptibility to infections. Here, we assessed the influence of naturally occurring TAP variants on peptide transport and MHC class I expression. In addition, we tested the inhibitory capacity of three viral immune evasion proteins, the TAP inhibitors US6 from human cytomegalovirus, ICP47 from herpes simplex virus type 1 and BNLF2a from Epstein-Barr virus, for a series of TAP1 and TAP2 variants. Our results suggest that these TAP polymorphisms have no or limited effect on peptide transport or MHC class I expression. Furthermore, our study indicates that the herpesvirus-encoded TAP inhibitors target a broad spectrum of TAP variants; inhibition of TAP is not affected by the naturally occurring polymorphisms of TAP tested in this study. Our findings suggest that the long-term coevolution of herpesviruses and their host did not result in selection of inhibitor-resistant TAP variants in the human population. Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Identification of yellow-pigmented bacteria isolated from hospital tap water in Japan and their chlorine resistance.

PubMed

Furuhata, Katsunori; Kato, Yuko; Goto, Keiichi; Saitou, Keiko; Sugiyama, Jun-Ichi; Hara, Motonobu; Fukuyama, Masahumi

2007-06-01

Twenty-five yellow chromogenic strains isolated from hospital tap water samples collected nationwide were identified by partial 16S rDNA sequencing. In addition, the chlorine resistance of the isolates was experimentally investigated. The results showed that of the strains tested, 12 strains (48.0%) were Sphingomonas ursincola/natatoria, which was most frequently identified, followed by 2 strains (8.0%) of Mycobacterium frederiksbergense and 1 strain (4.0%) each of Sphingomonas adhaesiva, Sphingopyxis witflariensis and Porphyrobacter donghaensis. The other strains were not identified clearly but they belonged to the order of Alphaproteobacteria. On the other hand, the identification results by sequencing and biochemical property testing were not consistent in any of the strains, showing that it was difficult to accurately identify the yellow chromogenic bacteria in tap water based on only their biochemical properties. When the 25 isolates were exposed to 0.1 mg/l residual free chlorine for 1 minute, 22 isolates (88.0%) survived. When the CT (Concentration Time) value killing 99.99% of the bacteria was investigated in 6 of these survivors, M. frederiksbergense (Y-1 strain) was most resistant to chlorine with the CT value of 32 mg x min/l, followed by S. ursincola/natatoria (Y-7 strain) with the CT value of 3.3 mg x min/l. The CT values of Y-5 (Sphingomonas sp.), Y-27 (S. ursincola/natatoria) and Y-21 (Asticacaulis sp.) were within the range of 0.9-0.1 mg x min /l. Of the 6 strains, S. adhaesiva (Y-10) showed the weakest resistance with the CT value of 0.03 mg x min/l. It was clarified that most yellow chromogenic bacteria isolated from hospital tap water were Sphingomonas spp., and these bacteria were experimentally resistant to chlorine.

Comparison of soymilk, powdered milk, Hank's balanced salt solution and tap water on periodontal ligament cell survival.

PubMed

Moazami, Fariborz; Mirhadi, Hosein; Geramizadeh, Bita; Sahebi, Safoura

2012-04-01

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of soymilk, powdered milk, and Hank's balanced salt solution (HBSS) to maintain human periodontal ligament (PDL) cell viability in vitro. PDL cells were obtained from extracted healthy third molars and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagles medium (DMEM). The cultures were exposed for 1, 2, 4, and 8 h to experimental solutions (tap water served as negative control and DMEM as positive control) at 37°C. The viable cells were then counted using the trypan blue exclusion technique. Data were analyzed by using one-way anova, post hoc Scheffe and two-way anova test. Statistical analysis showed that HBSS, powdered baby formula, and soymilk maintain cell viability equally well in different periods of times. Tap water cannot keep cells viable as well as other solutions. Soymilk and powdered baby formula can be recommended as suitable storage media for avulsed teeth for up to 8 h. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S.

Risk Assessment of Exposure to Lead in Tap Water among Residents of Seri Kembangan, Selangor State, Malaysia

PubMed Central

C. S., Lim; M. S., Shaharuddin; W. Y., Sam

2013-01-01

Introduction: A cross sectional study was conducted to estimate risk of exposure to lead via tap water ingestion pathway for the population of Seri Kembangan (SK). Methodology: By using purposive sampling method, 100 respondents who fulfilled the inclusive criteria were selected from different housing areas of SK based on geographical population distribution. Residents with filtration systems installed were excluded from the study. Questionnaires were administered to determine water consumption-related information and demographics. Two water samples (first-flushed and fully-flushed samples) were collected from kitchen tap of each household using HDPE bottles. A total of 200 water samples were collected and lead concentrations were determined using a Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (GFAAS). Results: Mean lead concentration in first-flushed samples was 3.041± SD 6.967µg/L and 1.064± SD 1.103µg/L for fully-flushed samples. Of the first-flushed samples, four (4) had exceeded the National Drinking Water Quality Standard (NDWQS) lead limit value of 10µg/L while none of the fully-flushed samples had lead concentration exceeded the limit. There was a significant difference between first-flushed samples and fully-flushed samples and flushing had elicited a significant change in lead concentration in the water (Z = -5.880, p<0.05). It was also found that lead concentration in both first-flushed and fully flushed samples was not significantly different across nine (9) areas of Seri Kembangan (p>0.05). Serdang Jaya was found to have the highest lead concentration in first-flushed water (mean= 10.44± SD 17.83µg/L) while Taman Universiti Indah had the highest lead concentration in fully-flushed water (mean=1.45± SD 1.83µg/L). Exposure assessment found that the mean chronic daily intake (CDI) was 0.028± SD 0.034µgday-1kg-1. None of the hazard quotient (HQ) value was found to be greater than 1. Conclusion: The overall quality of water supply in SK

Risk assessment of exposure to lead in tap water among residents of Seri Kembangan, Selangor state, Malaysia.

PubMed

Lim, C S; Shaharuddin, M S; Sam, W Y

2012-11-21

A cross sectional study was conducted to estimate risk of exposure to lead via tap water ingestion pathway for the population of Seri Kembangan (SK). By using purposive sampling method, 100 respondents who fulfilled the inclusive criteria were selected from different housing areas of SK based on geographical population distribution. Residents with filtration systems installed were excluded from the study. Questionnaires were administered to determine water consumption-related information and demographics. Two water samples (first-flushed and fully-flushed samples) were collected from kitchen tap of each household using HDPE bottles. A total of 200 water samples were collected and lead concentrations were determined using a Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (GFAAS). Mean lead concentration in first-flushed samples was 3.041± SD 6.967µg/L and 1.064± SD 1.103µg/L for fully-flushed samples. Of the first-flushed samples, four (4) had exceeded the National Drinking Water Quality Standard (NDWQS) lead limit value of 10µg/L while none of the fully-flushed samples had lead concentration exceeded the limit. There was a significant difference between first-flushed samples and fully-flushed samples and flushing had elicited a significant change in lead concentration in the water (Z = -5.880, p<0.05). It was also found that lead concentration in both first-flushed and fully flushed samples was not significantly different across nine (9) areas of Seri Kembangan (p>0.05). Serdang Jaya was found to have the highest lead concentration in first-flushed water (mean= 10.44± SD 17.83µg/L) while Taman Universiti Indah had the highest lead concentration in fully-flushed water (mean=1.45± SD 1.83µg/L). Exposure assessment found that the mean chronic daily intake (CDI) was 0.028± SD 0.034µgday-1kg-1. None of the hazard quotient (HQ) value was found to be greater than 1. The overall quality of water supply in SK was satisfactory because most of the

Identification, toxicity and control of iodinated disinfection byproducts in cooking with simulated chlor(am)inated tap water and iodized table salt.

PubMed

Pan, Yang; Zhang, Xiangru; Li, Yu

2016-01-01

Chlorine/chloramine residuals are maintained in drinking water distribution systems to prevent microbial contamination and microorganism regrowth. During household cooking processes (e.g., soup making), the residual chlorine/chloramines in tap water may react with the iodide in iodized table salt to form hypoiodous acid, which could react with remaining natural organic matter in tap water and organic matter in food to generate iodinated disinfection byproducts (I-DBPs). However, I-DBPs formed during cooking with chloraminated/chlorinated tap water are almost completely new to researchers. In this work, by adopting precursor ion scan of m/z 127 using ultra performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, many new polar I-DBPs formed during cooking with chloraminated/chlorinated tap water were detected and proposed with structures, of which 3-iodo-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 3-iodo-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3-iodo-4-hydroxy-5-methylbenzoic acid, diiodoacetic acid, 3,5-diiodo-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 3,5-diiodo-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 2,6-diiodo-4-nitrophenol, 2,4-diiodo-6-nitrophenol, and 2,4,6-triiodophenol were confirmed with standard compounds. With the aid of ultra fast liquid chromatography/ion trap-time of flight-mass spectrometry, molecular formula identification of five new I-DBPs (C8H5O4I, C7H4NO4I, C8H5O5I, C7H4NO5I, and C8H6O3I2) was achieved. A developmental toxicity with a recently developed sensitive bioassay was conducted for the newly identified I-DBPs, suggesting that phenolic I-DBPs (except for iodinated carboxyphenols) were about 50-200 times more developmentally toxic than aliphatic I-DBPs. The major I-DBPs in a baseline simulated cooking water sample were determined to be from 0.72 to 7.63 μg/L. Polar I-DBPs formed under various disinfection and cooking conditions were compared, and suggestions for controlling their formation were provided. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of biochemical urinary stone composition and its relationship to tap water hardness in Qom province, central Iran

PubMed Central

Moslemi, Mohammad Kazem; Saghafi, Hossein; Joorabchin, Seyed Mohammad Amin

2011-01-01

Purpose The aim of this study was to evaluate the biochemical stone composition in general population of Qom province, central Iran, and its relationship with high tap water hardness. Materials and methods In a prospective study, from March 2008 to July 2011, biochemical analysis of urinary stones in patients living in Qom province for at least 5 years was performed. Stones were retrieved by spontaneous passage, endoscopic or open surgery, and after extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy. Demographic findings and the drinking water supply of patients were evaluated and compared with biochemical stone analysis. Results Stone analysis was performed in 255 patients. The most dominant composition of urinary stones was calcium oxalate (73%), followed by uric acid (24%), ammonium urate (2%), and cystine (1%). The peak incidence of urinary stone was in patients in their forties. Overall male to female ratio was 4.93:1. Conclusion The dominant stone composition in inhabitants of central Iran, where tap water hardness is high, was calcium oxalate stones. On the basis of this study, biochemical urinary stone composition of Qom does not differ from other regions of Iran with lower water hardness. PMID:22163171

Assessment of drinking water quality at the tap using fluorescence spectroscopy.

PubMed

Heibati, Masoumeh; Stedmon, Colin A; Stenroth, Karolina; Rauch, Sebastien; Toljander, Jonas; Säve-Söderbergh, Melle; Murphy, Kathleen R

2017-11-15

Treated drinking water may become contaminated while travelling in the distribution system on the way to consumers. Elevated dissolved organic matter (DOM) at the tap relative to the water leaving the treatment plant is a potential indicator of contamination, and can be measured sensitively, inexpensively and potentially on-line via fluorescence and absorbance spectroscopy. Detecting elevated DOM requires potential contamination events to be distinguished from natural fluctuations in the system, but how much natural variation to expect in a stable distribution system is unknown. In this study, relationships between DOM optical properties, microbial indicator organisms and trace elements were investigated for households connected to a biologically-stable drinking water distribution system. Across the network, humic-like fluorescence intensities showed limited variation (RSD = 3.5-4.4%), with half of measured variation explained by interactions with copper. After accounting for quenching by copper, fluorescence provided a very stable background signal (RSD < 2.2%) against which a ∼2% infiltration of soil water would be detectable. Smaller infiltrations would be detectable in the case of contamination by sewage with a strong tryptophan-like fluorescence signal. These findings indicate that DOM fluorescence is a sensitive indicator of water quality changes in drinking water networks, as long as potential interferents are taken into account. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.

Factors affecting continued use of ceramic water purifiers distributed to tsunami-affected communities in Sri Lanka.

PubMed

Casanova, Lisa M; Walters, Adam; Naghawatte, Ajith; Sobsey, Mark D

2012-11-01

There is little information about continued use of point-of-use technologies after disaster relief efforts. After the 2004 tsunami, the Red Cross distributed ceramic water filters in Sri Lanka. This study determined factors associated with filter disuse and evaluate the quality of household drinking water. A cross-sectional survey of water sources and treatment, filter use and household characteristics was administered by in-person oral interview, and household water quality was tested. Multivariable logistic regression was used to model probability of filter non-use. At the time of survey, 24% of households (107/452) did not use filters; the most common reason given was breakage (42%). The most common household water sources were taps and wells. Wells were used by 45% of filter users and 28% of non-users. Of households with taps, 75% had source water Escherichia coli in the lowest World Health Organisation risk category (<1/100 ml), vs. only 30% of households reporting wells did. Tap households were approximately four times more likely to discontinue filter use than well households. After 2 years, 24% of households were non-users. The main factors were breakage and household water source; households with taps were more likely to stop use than households with wells. Tap water users also had higher-quality source water, suggesting that disuse is not necessarily negative and monitoring of water quality can aid decision-making about continued use. To promote continued use, disaster recovery filter distribution efforts must be joined with capacity building for long-term water monitoring, supply chains and local production. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Physico-chemical Analysis, Microbial Isolation, Sensitivity Test of the Isolates and Solar Disinfection of Water Running in Community Taps and River Kandutura in Nakuru North Sub-county, Kenya

PubMed Central

Waithaka, Paul N; Maingi, John Muthini; Nyamache, Anthony Kebira

2015-01-01

Nakuru North sub-county is a peri-urban area which has both dry and wet seasons. Its residents rely mostly on untreated water sources for daily water needs due to unreliable water supply from the urban council. However, this water has not been evaluated on its quality despite residents solely depending on it. This study was aimed at determining the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of water drawn from River Kandutura and water taps in Nakuru North sub-county. In addition, the study was aimed at carrying out sensitivity test of the isolates to antibiotics and determining effectiveness of solar disinfection in water treatment. A total of 510 water samples; river (255) and taps (255) were collected and analyzed between January and December 2013. Antimicrobial sensitivity test was carried out using Kirby Bauer disk diffusion test. Out of five hundred and ten (510) samples examined for microorganisms, 36.86 % (188/510) were positive for E. coli, Shigella and Salmonella. Water used by Nakuru North sub-county residents is highly contaminated thus posing public health risk. Solar disinfection experiment indicated a possibility of effective decontamination of water up on exposure to sun light for 3-5 h. E. coli showed the highest resistance (26.3 %) followed by Salmonella (17.4 %) while Shigella showed the least (17.1 %). However, there was no significant deference (p=0.98) in resistance among total coliforms, Total heterotrophic and Salmonella at 0.05 level of significant. There is a need to enforce laws and policies on proper waste disposal as part of water pollution control. PMID:26464611

Herbicides and their transformation products in source-water aquifers tapped by public-supply wells in Illinois, 2001-02

USGS Publications Warehouse

Mills, Patrick C.; McMillan, William D.

2004-01-01

During 2001-02, ground-water samples were collected from 117 public-supply wells distributed throughout Illinois to evaluate the occurrence of herbicides and their transformation products in the State?s source-water aquifers. Wells were selected using a stratified-random method to ensure representation of the major types of source-water aquifers in the State. Samples were analyzed for 18 herbicides and 18 transformation products, including 3 triazine and 14 chloroacetanilide products. Herbicide compounds (field-applied parent herbicides and their transformation products) were detected in 34 percent of samples. A subset of samples was collected unfiltered to determine if analytical results for herbicides in unfiltered samples are similar to those in paired filtered samples and, thus, can be considered equally representative of herbicide concentrations in ground water supplied to the public. The study by the U.S. Geological Survey was done in cooperation with the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. Parent herbicides were detected in only 4 percent of all samples. The six most frequently detected herbicide compounds (from 5 to 28 percent of samples) were chloroacetanilide transformation products. The frequent occurrence of transformation products and their higher concentrations relative to those of most parent herbicides confirm the importance of obtaining information on transformation products to understand the mobility and fate of herbicides in ground-water systems. No sample concentrations determined during this study exceeded current (2003) Federal or State drinking-water standards; however, standards are established for only seven parent herbicides. Factors related to the occurrence of herbicide compounds in the State?s source-water aquifers include unconsolidated and unconfined conditions, various hydrogeologic characteristics and well-construction aspects at shallow depths, and proximity to streams. Generally, the closer an aquifer (or well location) is

Mycobacterium mucogenicum and other non-tuberculous mycobacteria in potable water of a trauma hospital: a potential source for human infection.

PubMed

Fernandez-Rendon, E; Cerna-Cortes, J F; Ramirez-Medina, M A; Helguera-Repetto, A C; Rivera-Gutierrez, S; Estrada-Garcia, T; Gonzalez-Y-Merchand, J A

2012-01-01

This study examined the frequency of occurrence of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) in potable water samples from a main trauma hospital in Mexico City. Sixty-nine potable water samples were collected, 23 from each source: cistern, kitchen tap and bathroom showers. Of the 69 samples, 36 harboured NTM species. Twenty-nine of the 36 isolates were Mycobacterium mucogenicum, two Mycobacterium rhodesiae, one Mycobacterium peregrinum, one Mycobacterium fortuitum and three were Mycobacterium spp. Hospital potable water harbouring NTM represents a potential source for nosocomial infections, therefore we suggest that hospital potable water microbiological guidelines should include testing for NTM species. Copyright © 2011 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A Novel Liquid-Liquid Extraction for the Determination of Sertraline in Tap Water and Waste Water at Trace Levels by GC-MS.

PubMed

Koçoğlu, Elif Seda; Bakırdere, Sezgin; Keyf, Seyfullah

2017-09-01

A simple, green and fast analytical method was developed for the determination of sertraline in tap and waste water samples at trace levels by using supportive liquid-liquid extraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Different parameters affecting extraction efficiency such as types and volumes of extraction and supporter solvents, extraction period, salt type and amount were optimized to get lower detection limits. Ethyl acetate was selected as optimum extraction solvent. In order to improve the precision, anthracene-D10 was used as an internal standard. The calibration plot of sertraline was linear from 1.0 to 1000 ng/mL with a correlation coefficient of 0.999. The limit of detection value under the optimum conditions was found to be 0.43 ng/mL. In real sample measurements, spiking experiments were performed to check the reliability of the method for these matrices. The spiking experiments yielded satisfactory recoveries of 91.19 ± 2.48%, 90.48 ± 5.19% and 95.46 ± 6.56% for 100, 250 and 500 ng/mL sertraline for tap water, and 85.80 ± 2.15% and 92.43 ± 4.02% for 250 and 500 ng/mL sertraline for waste water.

Assessment of bacteriological quality of drinking water from various sources in Amritsar district of northern India.

PubMed

Malhotra, Sita; Sidhu, Shailpreet K; Devi, Pushpa

2015-08-29

Safe water is a precondition for health and development and is a basic human right, yet it is still denied to hundreds of millions of people throughout the developing world. Water-related diseases caused by insufficient safe water supplies, coupled with poor sanitation and hygiene, cause 3.4 million deaths a year, mostly in children. The present study was conducted on 1,317 drinking water samples from various water sources in Amritsar district in northern India. All the samples were analyzed to assess bacteriological quality of water for presumptive coliform count by the multiple tube test. A total of 42.9% (565/1,317) samples from various sources were found to be unfit for human consumption. Of the total 565 unsatisfactory samples, 253 were from submersible pumps, 197 were from taps of piped supply (domestic/public), 79 were from hand pumps, and 36 were from various other sources A significantly high level of contamination was observed in samples collected from submersible pumps (47.6%) and water tanks (47.3%), as these sources of water are more exposed and liable to contamination. Despite continuous efforts by the government, civil society, and the international community, over a billion people still do not have access to improved water resources. Bacteriological assessment of all sources of drinking should be planned and conducted on regular basis to prevent waterborne dissemination of diseases.

Multistate Evaluation of an Ultrafiltration-Based Procedure for Simultaneous Recovery of Enteric Microbes in 100-Liter Tap Water Samples▿

PubMed Central

Hill, Vincent R.; Kahler, Amy M.; Jothikumar, Narayanan; Johnson, Trisha B.; Hahn, Donghyun; Cromeans, Theresa L.

2007-01-01

Ultrafiltration (UF) is increasingly being recognized as a potentially effective procedure for concentrating and recovering microbes from large volumes of water and treated wastewater. Because of their very small pore sizes, UF membranes are capable of simultaneously concentrating viruses, bacteria, and parasites based on size exclusion. In this study, a UF-based water sampling procedure was used to simultaneously recover representatives of these three microbial classes seeded into 100-liter samples of tap water collected from eight cities covering six hydrologic areas of the United States. The UF-based procedure included hollow-fiber UF as the primary step for concentrating microbes and then used membrane filtration for bacterial culture assays, immunomagnetic separation for parasite recovery and quantification, and centrifugal UF for secondary concentration of viruses. Water samples were tested for nine water quality parameters to investigate whether water quality data correlated with measured recovery efficiencies and molecular detection levels. Average total method recovery efficiencies were 71, 97, 120, 110, and 91% for φX174 bacteriophage, MS2 bacteriophage, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens spores, and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, respectively. Real-time PCR and reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) for seeded microbes and controls indicated that tap water quality could affect the analytical performance of molecular amplification assays, although no specific water quality parameter was found to correlate with reduced PCR or RT-PCR performance. PMID:17483281

[Investigation on contamination of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water in Jiangsu Province].

PubMed

Bi-Xian, N I; Ming-Xue, S; Xiang-Zhen, X U; Xiao-Ting, W; Yang, D; Xiao-Lin, J

2017-05-17

Objective To know the contamination status of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water of Jiangsu Province, so as to provide the evidence for producing hygiene and safety drinking water. Methods A total of 28 water plants of 13 cities in Jiangsu Province were selected, and the source water (10 L), chlorinated water (100 L) and tap water (100 L) were collected separately in each site. The water samples were then treated by filtration, washing, centrifuging concentration, immune magnetic separation, and immunofluorescent assay, to detect the numbers of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts. Results Totally 84 samples from 13 cities were collected, including 28 source water, 28 chlorinated water and 28 tap water samples. Among the chlorinated water and tap water samples, no Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were found. However, Giardia cysts were detected in 3 (10.71%, 3/28) source water samples (Yancheng, Lianyungang, Changzhou cities), with the density of 1 cyst/10 L of all. Cryptosporidium oocysts were also detected in 3 (10.71%, 3/28) source water samples (Nanjing, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou cities), with the density of 1 oocyst/10 L of all. Conclusions The source water in partial areas of Jiangsu Province has been contaminated by Giardia and Cryptosporidium . To ensure the safety of drinking, the regulation of source water and surveillance of drinking water should be strengthened.

Occurrence of nitrosamines and their precursors in drinking water systems around mainland China.

PubMed

Bei, Er; Shu, Yuanyuan; Li, Shixiang; Liao, Xiaobin; Wang, Jun; Zhang, Xiaojian; Chen, Chao; Krasner, Stuart

2016-07-01

N-Nitrosamines (NAs) in drinking water have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to their high carcinogenicity, frequent occurrence, and their potential regulation. During the past three years, we have collected about 164 water samples of finished water, tap water, and source water from 23 provinces, 44 cities from large cities to small towns, and 155 sampling points all over China. The occurrence of NAs in the finished and tap water was much higher in China than that in the U.S. Nine NAs were measured and NDMA had the highest concentration. The occurrence of NDMA was in 33% of the finished waters of water treatment plants and in 41% of the tap waters. The average NDMA concentration in finished and tap waters was 11 and 13 ng/L, respectively. Formation potentials (FPs) of source waters were examined with an average NDMA FP of 66 ng/L. Large variations in NA occurrence were observed geographically in China and temporally in different seasons. The Yangtze River Delta area, one sub-area in East China, had the highest concentrations of NAs, where the average NDMA concentrations in the finished and tap water were 27 and 28.5 ng/L, respectively, and the average NDMA FP in the source water was 204 ng/L. NA control may be achieved by applying breakpoint free chlorination and/or advanced treatment of ozone - granular activated carbon process to remove the NA precursors before disinfection. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Transporters associated with antigen processing (TAP) in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.): molecular cloning and characterization of TAP1 and TAP2.

PubMed

Pinto, Rute D; Pereira, Pedro J B; dos Santos, Nuno M S

2011-11-01

The transporters associated with antigen processing (TAP), play an important role in the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway. In this work, sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) TAP1 and TAP2 genes and transcripts were isolated and characterized. Only the TAP2 gene is structurally similar to its human orthologue. As other TAP molecules, sea bass TAP1 and TAP2 are formed by one N-terminal accessory domain, one core membrane-spanning domain and one canonical C-terminal nucleotide-binding domain. Homology modelling of the sea bass TAP dimer predicts that its quaternary structure is in accordance with that of other ABC transporters. Phylogenetic analysis segregates sea bass TAP1 and TAP2 into each subfamily cluster of transporters, placing them in the fish class and suggesting that the basic structure of these transport-associated proteins is evolutionarily conserved. Furthermore, the present data provides information that will enable more studies on the class I antigen presentation pathway in this important fish species. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Drinking water treatment is not associated with an observed increase in neural tube defects in mice

PubMed Central

Melin, Vanessa E.; Johnstone, David W.; Etzkorn, Felicia A.

2018-01-01

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) arise when natural organic matter in source water reacts with disinfectants used in the water treatment process. Studies have suggested an association between DBPs and birth defects. Neural tube defects (NTDs) in embryos of untreated control mice were first observed in-house in May 2006 and have continued to date. The source of the NTD-inducing agent was previously determined to be a component of drinking water. Tap water samples from a variety of sources were analyzed for trihalomethanes (THMs) to determine if they were causing the malformations. NTDs were observed in CD-1 mice provided with treated and untreated surface water. Occurrence of NTDs varied by water source and treatment regimens. THMs were detected in tap water derived from surface water but not detected in tap water derived from a groundwater source. THMs were absent in untreated river water and laboratory purified waters, yet the percentage of NTDs in untreated river water were similar to the treated water counterpart. These findings indicate that THMs were not the primary cause of NTDs in the mice since the occurrence of NTDs was unrelated to drinking water disinfection. PMID:24497082

Assessment of potable water quality including organic, inorganic, and trace metal concentrations.

PubMed

Nahar, Mst Shamsun; Zhang, Jing

2012-02-01

The quality of drinking water (tap, ground, and spring) in Toyama Prefecture, Japan was assessed by studying quality indicators including major ions, total carbon, and trace metal levels. The physicochemical properties of the water tested were different depending on the water source. Major ion concentrations (Ca(2+), K(+), Si(4+), Mg(2+), Na(+), SO(4)(2-), HCO(3)(-), NO(3)(-), and Cl(-)) were determined by ion chromatography, and the results were used to generate Stiff diagrams in order to visually identify different water masses. Major ion concentrations were higher in ground water than in spring and tap water. The relationship between alkaline metals (Na(+) and K(+)), alkaline-earth metals (Ca(2+) and Mg(2+)), and HCO(3)(-) showed little difference between deep and shallow ground water. Toyama ground, spring, and tap water were all the same type of water mass, called Ca-HCO(3). The calculated total dissolved solid values were below 300 mg/L for all water sources and met World Health Organization (WHO) water quality guidelines. Trace levels of As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Mo, Ni, V, Zn, Sr, and Hg were detected in ground, spring, and tap water sources using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry, and their levels were below WHO and Japanese water quality standard limits. Volatile organic carbon compounds were quantified by headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and the measured concentrations met WHO and Japanese water quality guidelines. Total trihalomethanes (THMs) were the major contaminant detected in all natural drinking water sources, but the concentration was highest in tap water (37.27 ± 0.05 μg/L). Notably, THMs concentrations reached up to 1.1 ± 0.05 μg/L in deep ground water. The proposed model gives an accurate description of the organic, inorganic, and trace heavy metal indicators studied here and may be used in natural clean water quality management. © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

NASA/UK TAP

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

1987-01-01

The purpose of the Technology Applications Program (TAP) is to provide problem solving information and assistance to both the public and private sectors in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, with emphasis primarily in the public sector. The TAP accesses over 1200 online computer databases, including files from the U.S., Canada, Europe, and Australia. During the 1985 to 1986 contract period, TAP responded to 645 inquiries which resulted in an increase of 16 percent over the 1984 to 1985 contract period. The activities of TAP for the 1985 to 1986 contract period are summarized.

Tapping Into Water: Key Considerations for Achieving Excellence in School Drinking Water Access

PubMed Central

Hecht, Kenneth; Hampton, Karla E.; Grumbach, Jacob M.; Braff-Guajardo, Ellen; Brindis, Claire D.

2014-01-01

Objectives. We examined free drinking water access in schools. Methods. We conducted cross-sectional interviews with administrators from 240 California public schools from May to November 2011 to examine the proportion of schools that met excellent water access criteria (i.e., location, density, type, maintenance, and appeal of water sources), school-level characteristics associated with excellent water access, and barriers to improvements. Results. No schools met all criteria for excellent water access. High schools and middle schools had lower fountain:student ratios than elementary schools (odds ratio [OR] = 0.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.02, 0.20; OR = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.12, 0.70). Rural schools were more likely to offer a nonfountain water source than city schools (OR = 5.0; 95% CI = 1.74, 14.70). Newer schools were more likely to maintain water sources than older schools (OR = 0.98; 95% CI = 0.97, 1.00). Schools that offered free water in food service areas increased from pre- to postimplementation of California’s school water policy (72%–83%; P < .048). Barriers to improving school water included cost of programs and other pressing concerns. Conclusions. Awareness of the benefits related to school drinking water provision and funding may help communities achieve excellence in drinking water access. PMID:24832141

Randomised controlled trial of thermostatic mixer valves in reducing bath hot tap water temperature in families with young children in social housing: A protocol

PubMed Central

Kendrick, Denise; Stewart, Jane; Coupland, Carol; Hayes, Michael; Hopkins, Nick; McCabe, Debbie; Murphy, Robert; O'Donnell, George; Phillips, Ceri; Radford, David; Ryan, Jackie; Smith, Sherie; Groom, Lindsay; Towner, Elizabeth

2008-01-01

Background Each year in the UK 2000 children attend emergency departments and 500 are admitted to hospital following a bath water scald. The long term effects can include disability, disfigurement or psychological harm and repeated skin grafts may be required as the child grows. The costs of treating a severe scald are estimated at 250,000 GBP. Children living in the most deprived wards are at greatest risk of thermal injuries; hospital admission rates are three times that for children living in the least deprived wards. Domestic hot water, which is usually stored at around 60 degrees Celsius, can result in a second-degree burn after 3 seconds and a third-degree burn after 5 seconds. Educational strategies to encourage testing of tap water temperature and reduction of hot water thermostat settings have largely proved unsuccessful. Legislation in the USA mandating pre-setting hot water heater thermostats at 49 degrees Celsius was effective in reducing scald injuries, suggesting passive measures may have a greater impact. Thermostatic mixer valves (TMVs), recently developed for the domestic market, fitted across the hot and cold water supply pipes of the bath, allow delivery of water set at a fixed temperature from the hot bath tap. These valves therefore offer the potential to reduce scald injuries. Design/Methods A pragmatic, randomised controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of TMVs in reducing bath hot tap water temperatures in the homes of families with young children in rented social housing. Two parallel arms include an intervention group and a control group where the intervention will be deferred. The intervention will consist of fitting a TMV (set at 44 degrees Celsius) by a qualified plumber and provision of educational materials. The control arm will not receive a TMV or the educational materials for the study duration but will be offered the intervention after collection of follow-up data 12 months post randomisation. The primary outcome measure will

More than just tapping: index finger-tapping measures procedural learning in schizophrenia.

PubMed

Da Silva, Felipe N; Irani, Farzin; Richard, Jan; Brensinger, Colleen M; Bilker, Warren B; Gur, Raquel E; Gur, Ruben C

2012-05-01

Finger-tapping has been widely studied using behavioral and neuroimaging paradigms. Evidence supports the use of finger-tapping as an endophenotype in schizophrenia, but its relationship with motor procedural learning remains unexplored. To our knowledge, this study presents the first use of index finger-tapping to study procedural learning in individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (SCZ/SZA) as compared to healthy controls. A computerized index finger-tapping test was administered to 1169 SCZ/SZA patients (62% male, 88% right-handed), and 689 healthy controls (40% male, 93% right-handed). Number of taps per trial and learning slopes across trials for the dominant and non-dominant hands were examined for motor speed and procedural learning, respectively. Both healthy controls and SCZ/SZA patients demonstrated procedural learning for their dominant hand but not for their non-dominant hand. In addition, patients showed a greater capacity for procedural learning even though they demonstrated more variability in procedural learning compared to healthy controls. Left-handers of both groups performed better than right-handers and had less variability in mean number of taps between non-dominant and dominant hands. Males also had less variability in mean tap count between dominant and non-dominant hands than females. As expected, patients had a lower mean number of taps than healthy controls, males outperformed females and dominant-hand trials had more mean taps than non-dominant hand trials in both groups. The index finger-tapping test can measure both motor speed and procedural learning, and motor procedural learning may be intact in SCZ/SZA patients. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Rapid and ratiometric detection of hypochlorite with real application in tap water: molecules to low cost devices (TLC sticks).

PubMed

Goswami, Shyamaprosad; Manna, Abhishek; Paul, Sima; Quah, Ching Kheng; Fun, Hoong-Kun

2013-12-25

We have designed a chemodosimeter DPNO (weak fluorescence) which can be oxidized to HPNO (strong blue fluorescence) by OCl(-) with high selectivity and sensitivity in a ratiometric approach with a noticeably lower detection limit. The sensor could be useful for the detection of hypochlorites in tap water.

Presence of the β-triketone herbicide tefuryltrione in drinking water sources and its degradation product in drinking waters.

PubMed

Kamata, Motoyuki; Asami, Mari; Matsui, Yoshihiko

2017-07-01

Triketone herbicides are becoming popular because of their herbicidal activity against sulfonylurea-resistant weeds. Among these herbicides, tefuryltrione (TFT) is the first registered herbicide for rice farming, and recently its distribution has grown dramatically. In this study, we developed analytical methods for TFT and its degradation product 2-chloro-4-methylsulfonyl-3-[(tetrahydrofuran-2-yl-methoxy) methyl] benzoic acid (CMTBA). TFT was found frequently in surface waters in rice production areas at concentrations as high as 1.9 μg/L. The maximum observed concentration was lower than but close to 2 μg/L, which is the Japanese reference concentration of ambient water quality for pesticides. However, TFT was not found in any drinking waters even though the source waters were purified by conventional coagulation and filtration processes; this was due to chlorination, which transforms TFT to CMTBA. The conversion rate of TFT to CMBA on chlorination was almost 100%, and CMTBA was stable in the presence of chlorine. Moreover, CMTBA was found in drinking waters sampled from household water taps at a similar concentration to that of TFT in the source water of the water purification plant. Although the acceptable daily intake and the reference concentration of CMTBA are unknown, the highest concentration in drinking water exceeded 0.1 μg/L, which is the maximum allowable concentration for any individual pesticide and its relevant metabolites in the European Union Drinking Directive. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Synthesis and characterization of triazole based supramolecule for interaction with cefuroxime in tap water and blood plasma.

PubMed

Ahmed, Farid; Perveen, Samina; Shah, Kiramat; Shah, Muhammad Raza; Ahmed, Shakil

2018-01-01

In this study a new calix[4]arene triazole 5 was successfully synthesized using click reaction and characterized through UV-visible, FT-IR, 1 H NMR spectroscopes and Mass Spectrometry. The supramolecular interaction of compound 5 towards commonly used drugs has been carried out using UV-Visible spectroscopy. The supramolecule 5 showed characteristic enhancement in the absorbance intensity after mixing with Cefuroxime at pH (2-12). Compound 5 displayed considerably good interactions with cefuroxime in the presence of other drugs. Compound 5 exhibits linear relationship with cefuroxime concentration in the range of (10-80µM) with regression value of 0.9954. The standard deviation for 50µM Cefuroxime was found to be 0.01 and the limit of detection for cefuroxime was calculated to be 2µM. Job's plot experiments showed 1:1 (5: cefuroxime) binding stoichiometry between compound 5 and cefuroxime. Supramolecule 5 displayed fairly good spectrophotometric recognition of Cefuroxime in human blood plasma and tap water thus showing that the ingredients of tap water and plasma sample was inert in the recognition of cefuroxime. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Simultaneous Determination of 13 Priority Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Tehran’s Tap Water and Water for Injection Samples Using Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro Extraction Method and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

PubMed Central

Sadeghi, Ramezan; Kobarfard, Farzad; Yazdanpanah, Hassan; Eslamizad, Samira; Bayate, Mitra

2016-01-01

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are classified as persistent and carcinogenic organic pollutants. PAHs contamination has been reported in water. Many of relevant regulatory bodies such as EU and EPA have regulated the limit levels for PAHs in drinking water. In this study, 13 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in tap water samples of Tehran and water for injection. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction procedure combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used for the extraction and determination of PAHs in the samples. Under the optimized conditions, the range of extraction recoveries and relative standard deviations (RSDs) of PAHs in water using internal standard (anthracene-d10) were in the range of 71-90% and 4-16%, respectively. Limit of detection for different PAHs were between 0.03 and 0.1 ngmL-1. The concentration of PAHs in all tap water as well as water for injection samples were lower than the limit of quantification of PAHs. This is the first study addressing the occurrence of PAHs in water for injection samples in Iran using dispersive liquid-liquid micro extraction procedure combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. PMID:27642318

Molybdenum distributions and variability in drinking water from England and Wales.

PubMed

Smedley, P L; Cooper, D M; Lapworth, D J

2014-10-01

An investigation has been carried out of molybdenum in drinking water from a selection of public supply sources and domestic taps across England and Wales. This was to assess concentrations in relation to the World Health Organization (WHO) health-based value for Mo in drinking water of 70 μg/l and the decision to remove the element from the list of formal guideline values. Samples of treated drinking water from 12 water supply works were monitored up to four times over an 18-month period, and 24 domestic taps were sampled from three of their supply areas. Significant (p < 0.05) differences were apparent in Mo concentration between sources. Highest concentrations were derived from groundwater from a sulphide-mineralised catchment, although concentrations were only 1.5 μg/l. Temporal variability within sites was small, and no seasonal effects (p > 0.05) were detected. Tap water samples collected from three towns (North Wales, the English Midlands, and South East England) supplied uniquely by upland reservoir water, river water, and Chalk groundwater, respectively, also showed a remarkable uniformity in Mo concentrations at each location. Within each, the variability was very small between houses (old and new), between pre-flush and post-flush samples, and between the tap water and respective source water samples. The results indicate that water distribution pipework has a negligible effect on supplied tap water Mo concentrations. The findings contrast with those for Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, and Cd, which showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in concentrations between pre-flush and post-flush tap water samples. In two pre-flush samples, concentrations of Ni or Pb were above drinking water limits, although in all cases, post-flush waters were compliant. The high concentrations, most likely derived from metal pipework in the domestic distribution system, accumulated during overnight stagnation. The concentrations of Mo observed in British drinking water, in

Freely Chosen Index Finger Tapping Frequency Is Increased in Repeated Bouts of Tapping.

PubMed

Hansen, Ernst Albin; Ebbesen, Brian Duborg; Dalsgaard, Ane; Mora-Jensen, Mark Holten; Rasmussen, Jakob

2015-01-01

Healthy individuals (n = 40) performed index finger tapping at freely chosen frequency during repeated bouts and before and after near-maximal muscle action consisting of 3 intense flexions of the index finger metacarpal phalangeal joint. One experiment showed, unexpectedly, that a bout of tapping increased the tapping frequency in the subsequent bout. Thus, a cumulating increase of 8.2 ± 5.4% (p < .001) occurred across 4 bouts, which were all separated by 10 min rest periods. Follow-up experiments revealed that tapping frequency was still increased in consecutive bouts when rest periods were extended to 20 min. Besides, near-maximal muscle activation, followed by 5 min rest, did not affect the tapping frequency. In conclusion, freely chosen tapping frequency was increased in repeated bouts of tapping, which were separated by 10-20 min rest periods. The observed phenomenon is suggested to be termed repeated bout rate enhancement.

Comparison of Particle-Associated Bacteria from a Drinking Water Treatment Plant and Distribution Reservoirs with Different Water Sources.

PubMed

Liu, G; Ling, F Q; van der Mark, E J; Zhang, X D; Knezev, A; Verberk, J Q J C; van der Meer, W G J; Medema, G J; Liu, W T; van Dijk, J C

2016-02-02

This study assessed the characteristics of and changes in the suspended particles and the associated bacteria in an unchlorinated drinking water distribution system and its reservoirs with different water sources. The results show that particle-associated bacteria (PAB) were present at a level of 0.8-4.5 × 10(3) cells ml(-1) with a biological activity of 0.01-0.04 ng l(-1) ATP. Different PAB communities in the waters produced from different sources were revealed by a 16S rRNA-based pyrosequencing analysis. The quantified biomass underestimation due to the multiple cells attached per particle was ≥ 85%. The distribution of the biologically stable water increased the number of cells per particle (from 48 to 90) but had minor effects on the PAB community. Significant changes were observed at the mixing reservoir. Our results show the characteristics of and changes in suspended PAB during distribution, and highlight the significance of suspended PAB in the distribution system, because suspended PAB can lead to a considerable underestimation of biomass, and because they exist as biofilm, which has a greater mobility than pipe-wall biofilm and therefore presents a greater risk, given the higher probability that it will reach the customers' taps and be ingested.

Comparison of Particle-Associated Bacteria from a Drinking Water Treatment Plant and Distribution Reservoirs with Different Water Sources

PubMed Central

Liu, G.; Ling, F. Q.; van der Mark, E. J.; Zhang, X. D.; Knezev, A.; Verberk, J. Q. J. C.; van der Meer, W. G. J.; Medema, G. J.; Liu, W. T.; van Dijk, J. C.

2016-01-01

This study assessed the characteristics of and changes in the suspended particles and the associated bacteria in an unchlorinated drinking water distribution system and its reservoirs with different water sources. The results show that particle-associated bacteria (PAB) were present at a level of 0.8–4.5 × 103 cells ml−1 with a biological activity of 0.01–0.04 ng l−1 ATP. Different PAB communities in the waters produced from different sources were revealed by a 16S rRNA-based pyrosequencing analysis. The quantified biomass underestimation due to the multiple cells attached per particle was ≥ 85%. The distribution of the biologically stable water increased the number of cells per particle (from 48 to 90) but had minor effects on the PAB community. Significant changes were observed at the mixing reservoir. Our results show the characteristics of and changes in suspended PAB during distribution, and highlight the significance of suspended PAB in the distribution system, because suspended PAB can lead to a considerable underestimation of biomass, and because they exist as biofilm, which has a greater mobility than pipe-wall biofilm and therefore presents a greater risk, given the higher probability that it will reach the customers’ taps and be ingested. PMID:26832989

Source Water Protection Basics

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

Defines drinking water sources (source water), identifies drinking water sources, and describes source water assessments and protection, roles of government and organizations in drinking water source protection

Removal of 16 pesticide residues from strawberries by washing with tap and ozone water, ultrasonic cleaning and boiling.

PubMed

Lozowicka, Bozena; Jankowska, Magdalena; Hrynko, Izabela; Kaczynski, Piotr

2016-01-01

The effects of washing with tap and ozone water, ultrasonic cleaning and boiling on 16 pesticide (ten fungicides and six insecticides) residue levels in raw strawberries were investigated at different processing times (1, 2 and 5 min). An analysis of these pesticides was conducted using gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorous and electron capture detection (GC-NPD/ECD). The processing factor (PF) for each pesticide in each processing technique was determined. Washing with ozonated water was demonstrated to be more effective (reduction from 36.1 to 75.1 %) than washing with tap water (reduction from 19.8 to 68.1 %). Boiling decreased the residues of the most compounds, with reductions ranging from 42.8 to 92.9 %. Ultrasonic cleaning lowered residues for all analysed pesticides with removal of up to 91.2 %. The data indicated that ultrasonic cleaning and boiling were the most effective treatments for the reduction of 16 pesticide residues in raw strawberries, resulting in a lower health risk exposure. Calculated PFs for alpha-cypermethrin were used to perform an acute risk assessment of dietary exposure. To investigate the relationship between the levels of 16 pesticides in strawberry samples and their physicochemical properties, a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Tapping mode SPM local oxidation nanolithography with sub-10 nm resolution

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Nishimura, S.; Ogino, T.; Takemura, Y.; Shirakashi, J.

2008-03-01

Tapping mode SPM local oxidation nanolithography with sub-10 nm resolution is investigated by optimizing the applied bias voltage (V), scanning speed (S) and the oscillation amplitude of the cantilever (A). We fabricated Si oxide wires with an average width of 9.8 nm (V = 17.5 V, S = 250 nm/s, A = 292 nm). In SPM local oxidation with tapping mode operation, it is possible to decrease the size of the water meniscus by enhancing the oscillation amplitude of cantilever. Hence, it seems that the water meniscus with sub-10 nm dimensions could be formed by precisely optimizing the oxidation conditions. Moreover, we quantitatively explain the size (width and height) of Si oxide wires with a model based on the oxidation ratio, which is defined as the oxidation time divided by the period of the cantilever oscillation. The model allows us to understand the mechanism of local oxidation in tapping mode operation with amplitude modulation. The results imply that the sub-10 nm resolution could be achieved using tapping mode SPM local oxidation technique with the optimization of the cantilever dynamics.

Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of metal(oid)s in tap water from Ilam city, Iran.

PubMed

Fakhri, Yadolah; Saha, Narottam; Ghanbari, Sahebeh; Rasouli, Milad; Miri, Ali; Avazpour, Moayed; Rahimizadeh, Aziz; Riahi, Seyed-Mohammad; Ghaderpoori, Mansour; Keramati, Hassan; Moradi, Bigard; Amanidaz, Nazak; Mousavi Khaneghah, Amin

2018-04-20

One of the most important pathways for exposure to metals is drinking water ingestion. Chronic or acute exposure to metals can endanger the health of the exposed population, and hence, estimation of human health risks is crucial. In the current study for the first time, the concentrations of Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) in 120 collected tap water samples (2015, July-November) from Ilam city, Iran were investigated using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Also, the metal-induced carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for consumers exposed to tap drinking water were calculated. The average (range) concentrations of Hg, Zn, As, Pb and Co were defined as 0.40 ± 0.10 μg/L (ND-0.9 μg/L), 5014 ± 5707 μg/L (2900.00-5668.33 μg/L), 21.008 ± 2.876 μg/L (3.5-62 μg/L), 30.38 ± 5.56 μg/L (6-87 μg/L), and 11.34 ± 1.61 μg/L (0.1-50 μg/L), respectively. Average concentrations of all examined metals were significantly higher than WHO and national standard recommended limits. The ranking order of metals concentrations in the tap drinking water was Zn > Pb > As > Co > Hg. Except for Hg and Co, at least one age group consumers were at considerable non-carcinogenic risks induced by Zn, As and Pb [Target Hazard Quotient (THQ > 1)]. The rank order of age groups consumers based on THQ and Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was <1 years >1-9 years > 20 + years > 10-19 years. The calculated ILCR for As in all age groups were higher than 10 -3 value. All age groups of consumers in Ilam city, especially infants (<1 years) and children (1-10 years), are at considerable non-carcinogenic and carcinogenesis risk. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Safety on Tap: A Citizen's Drinking Water Handbook.

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Loveland, David Gray; Reichheld, Beth

This citizen's guide to ensuring a safe supply of drinking water for all provides the information and analysis that individuals need to understand the issues and to participate in local decision making. The sources of drinking water, the types of human activities that results in contamination, and the contaminants that are of most concern are…

A post-implementation evaluation of ceramic water filters distributed to tsunami-affected communities in Sri Lanka.

PubMed

Casanova, Lisa M; Walters, Adam; Naghawatte, Ajith; Sobsey, Mark D

2012-06-01

Sri Lanka was devastated by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. During recovery, the Red Cross distributed approximately 12,000 free ceramic water filters. This cross-sectional study was an independent post-implementation assessment of 452 households that received filters, to determine the proportion still using filters, household characteristics associated with use, and quality of household drinking water. The proportion of continued users was high (76%). The most common household water sources were taps or shallow wells. The majority (82%) of users used filtered water for drinking only. Mean filter flow rate was 1.12 L/hr (0.80 L/hr for households with taps and 0.71 for those with wells). Water quality varied by source; households using tap water had source water of high microbial quality. Filters improved water quality, reducing Escherichia coli for households (largely well users) with high levels in their source water. Households were satisfied with filters and are potentially long-term users. To promote sustained use, recovery filter distribution efforts should try to identify households at greatest long-term risk, particularly those who have not moved to safer water sources during recovery. They should be joined with long-term commitment to building supply chains and local production capacity to ensure safe water access.

A method for improving reliability and relevance of LCA reviews: the case of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of tap and bottled water.

PubMed

Fantin, Valentina; Scalbi, Simona; Ottaviano, Giuseppe; Masoni, Paolo

2014-04-01

The purpose of this study is to propose a method for harmonising Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) literature studies on the same product or on different products fulfilling the same function for a reliable and meaningful comparison of their life-cycle environmental impacts. The method is divided in six main steps which aim to rationalize and quicken the efforts needed to carry out the comparison. The steps include: 1) a clear definition of the goal and scope of the review; 2) critical review of the references; 3) identification of significant parameters that have to be harmonised; 4) harmonisation of the parameters; 5) statistical analysis to support the comparison; 6) results and discussion. This approach was then applied to the comparative analysis of the published LCA studies on tap and bottled water production, focussing on Global Warming Potential (GWP) results, with the aim to identify the environmental preferable alternative. A statistical analysis with Wilcoxon's test confirmed that the difference between harmonised GWP values of tap and bottled water was significant. The results obtained from the comparison of the harmonised mean GWP results showed that tap water always has the best environmental performance, even in case of high energy-consuming technologies for drinking water treatments. The strength of the method is that it enables both performing a deep analysis of the LCA literature and obtaining more consistent comparisons across the published LCAs. For these reasons, it can be a valuable tool which provides useful information for both practitioners and decision makers. Finally, its application to the case study allowed both to supply a description of systems variability and to evaluate the importance of several key parameters for tap and bottled water production. The comparative review of LCA studies, with the inclusion of a statistical decision test, can validate and strengthen the final statements of the comparison. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All

Physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water of different sources, Jimma zone, Southwest Ethiopia.

PubMed

Yasin, Mohammed; Ketema, Tsige; Bacha, Ketema

2015-10-05

The quality of drinking water has always been a major health concern, especially in developing countries, where 80% of the disease cases are attributed to inadequate sanitation and use of polluted water. The inaccessibility of potable water to large segment of a population in the rural communities is the major health concern in most part of developing countries. This study was designed to evaluate the physico-chemical and bacteriological qualities of drinking water of different sources in the study area. The study was conducted at Serbo town and selected kebeles around the same town in Kersa district of Jimma Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Socio-demographic characteristics of the study populations were gathered using structured and pre-tested questionnaires. Standard microbiological methods were employed for determination of bacterial load and detection of coliforms. Physico-chemical analyses [including total dissolved substances (TDS), total suspended substances (TSS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate and phosphate concentrations, turbidity and electrical conductivities] were conducted following guidelines of American Public Health Association and WHO. Correlations among measured parameters of water samples collected from different water sources were computed using SPSS software (version 20). Only 18.1% (43/237) of the study population had access to tap water in the study area. More than 50% of the community relies on open field waste disposal. Members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus and Pseudomonas were among dominant bacterial isolates in the water samples. All water samples collected from unprotected water sources were positive for total coliforms and fecal coliforms (FC). Accordingly, FC were detected in 80% of the total samples with counts ranging between 0.67 and 266.67 CFU/100 ml although 66.67% of tap water samples were negative for FC. The recorded temperature and pH ranged between 20.1-29.90 °C and 5.64-8.14, respectively. The lowest and

Does improved access to water supply by rural households enhance the concept of safe water at the point of use? A case study from deep rural South Africa.

PubMed

Jagals, P

2006-01-01

The concept of safe water is defined by three principles: the health-related quality must be suitable, the supply/source must be accessible and the water must constantly be available in quantities sufficient for the intended use. If any one (or more) of these three elements is missing from a water services improvement programme, providing safe water is not successfully achieved. A study in a deep rural area in South Africa showed that providing small communities, using untreated river water as their only water source, with good quality water through a piped distribution system and accessible at communal taps did not fall within our parameters of safe water. The parameters for measuring the three principles were: absence of Escherichia coli in drinking water samples; accessibility by improving tap distances to within 200 m from each household; availability by assessing whether households have at least 25 L per person per day. Results show that although E. coli levels were reduced significantly, households were still consuming water with E. coli numbers at non-compliant levels. Access (distance) was improved from an average of 750 m from households to river source to an average of 120 m to new on-tap source points. This did not result in significant increases in household quantities, which on average remained around 18 L per person per day.

Disinfection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis in drinking tap water using ultraviolet germicidal irradiation.

PubMed

Schiavano, Giuditta Fiorella; De Santi, Mauro; Sisti, Maurizio; Amagliani, Giulia; Brandi, Giorgio

2017-09-13

Nontuberculous mycobacteria are resistant to conventional water treatments, and are opportunistic human pathogen, particularly in hospitalized patients. The aim of this investigation was to assess the effectiveness of an ultraviolet UV-C lamp treatment against Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis in drinking tap water. Ultraviolet treatments (0-192 mJ/cm 2 ) were performed using UV lamp immerged onto cylindrical glass tubes containing artificially contaminated water. The results showed that susceptibility to UV varied considerably according to the strains and the diameter of the tube. With a dose of 32 mJ/cm 2 , a significant inactivation (p < .05) of 3 log (99.9%) or more was obtained in only 5 of the 14 strains. To obtain a complete inactivation of all strains an irradiation of 192 mJ/cm 2 was needed, a dose that is much higher than the limits recommended by the international standards for UV disinfection of drinking water. In conclusion, it may be difficult to standardize a UV dose for the elimination of waterborne mycobacteria.

Human drinking water compared with river waters throughout the United States with respect to their stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopic composition

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Landwehr, J. M.; Coplen, T. B.; Qi, H.

2009-04-01

The composition of stable isotopes of hydrogen (^2H) and oxygen (^18O) in animal tissues, such as hair, nail, teeth and bone, has been used to trace migrations and geographic origin of individuals. Variations of these isotopic ratios in tissue are known to show significant correlations with the isotopic composition of ingested water, as well as with diet and other oxygen sources. Drinking water in natural ecosystems is defined by what is locally available for animal consumption, primarily surface waters such as streams, ponds, lakes, seeps, springs, etc. Tap water provides the drinking water in many human ecosystems. It may derive from local sources but can also draw on more diverse sources, such as large rivers with watersheds larger than those of local creeks, deep ground waters or even imported supplies, which may be isotopically distinct from local ecosystem supplies. Because of the potentially complex hydrologic pathways of water sources available in either animal or human ecosystems, the stable isotopic composition of these supplies may differ significantly from that of the (weighted average) local precipitation which is sometimes used to represent local water supplies. For example, water samples taken from three different taps in Washington, D.C., USA, on August 15, 2007, had measured ^2H and ^18O values of -41.7 per mill and -6.13 per mill, -41.7 per mill and -6.06 per mill, and -42.2 per mill and -6.22 per mill, respectively. A water sample taken on the same day from the Potomac River, which is the source of the D.C. water supply, had ^2H and ^18O values of -41.7 per mill and -6.06 per mill, respectively, consistent with that of the urban tap water. However, precipitation samples collected locally in Reston, Virginia, USA, had ^2H and ^18O values of -16.1 per mill and -3.13 per mill, respectively, for the week ending on August 15, 2007; -17.5 per mill and -3.40 per mill, respectively, for the month preceding August 15, 2007; and -13.6 per mill and -3

Perceptional and socio-demographic factors associated with household drinking water management strategies in rural Puerto Rico.

PubMed

Jain, Meha; Lim, Yili; Arce-Nazario, Javier A; Uriarte, María

2014-01-01

Identifying which factors influence household water management can help policy makers target interventions to improve drinking water quality for communities that may not receive adequate water quality at the tap. We assessed which perceptional and socio-demographic factors are associated with household drinking water management strategies in rural Puerto Rico. Specifically, we examined which factors were associated with household decisions to boil or filter tap water before drinking, or to obtain drinking water from multiple sources. We find that households differ in their management strategies depending on the institution that distributes water (i.e. government PRASA vs community-managed non-PRASA), perceptions of institutional efficacy, and perceptions of water quality. Specifically, households in PRASA communities are more likely to boil and filter their tap water due to perceptions of low water quality. Households in non-PRASA communities are more likely to procure water from multiple sources due to perceptions of institutional inefficacy. Based on informal discussions with community members, we suggest that water quality may be improved if PRASA systems improve the taste and odor of tap water, possibly by allowing for dechlorination prior to distribution, and if non-PRASA systems reduce the turbidity of water at the tap, possibly by increasing the degree of chlorination and filtering prior to distribution. Future studies should examine objective water quality standards to identify whether current management strategies are effective at improving water quality prior to consumption.

Perceptional and Socio-Demographic Factors Associated with Household Drinking Water Management Strategies in Rural Puerto Rico

PubMed Central

Jain, Meha; Lim, Yili; Arce-Nazario, Javier A.; Uriarte, María

2014-01-01

Identifying which factors influence household water management can help policy makers target interventions to improve drinking water quality for communities that may not receive adequate water quality at the tap. We assessed which perceptional and socio-demographic factors are associated with household drinking water management strategies in rural Puerto Rico. Specifically, we examined which factors were associated with household decisions to boil or filter tap water before drinking, or to obtain drinking water from multiple sources. We find that households differ in their management strategies depending on the institution that distributes water (i.e. government PRASA vs community-managed non-PRASA), perceptions of institutional efficacy, and perceptions of water quality. Specifically, households in PRASA communities are more likely to boil and filter their tap water due to perceptions of low water quality. Households in non-PRASA communities are more likely to procure water from multiple sources due to perceptions of institutional inefficacy. Based on informal discussions with community members, we suggest that water quality may be improved if PRASA systems improve the taste and odor of tap water, possibly by allowing for dechlorination prior to distribution, and if non-PRASA systems reduce the turbidity of water at the tap, possibly by increasing the degree of chlorination and filtering prior to distribution. Future studies should examine objective water quality standards to identify whether current management strategies are effective at improving water quality prior to consumption. PMID:24586302

Finger tapping and pre-attentive sensorimotor timing in adults with ADHD.

PubMed

Hove, Michael J; Gravel, Nickolas; Spencer, Rebecca M C; Valera, Eve M

2017-12-01

Sensorimotor timing deficits are considered central to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the tasks establishing timing impairments often involve interconnected processes, including low-level sensorimotor timing and higher level executive processes such as attention. Thus, the source of timing deficits in ADHD remains unclear. Low-level sensorimotor timing can be isolated from higher level processes in a finger-tapping task that examines the motor response to unexpected shifts of metronome onsets. In this study, adults with ADHD and ADHD-like symptoms (n = 25) and controls (n = 26) performed two finger-tapping tasks. The first assessed tapping variability in a standard tapping task (metronome-paced and unpaced). In the other task, participants tapped along with a metronome that contained unexpected shifts (±15, 50 ms); the timing adjustment on the tap following the shift captures pre-attentive sensorimotor timing (i.e., phase correction) and thus should be free of potential higher order confounds (e.g., attention). In the standard tapping task, as expected, the ADHD group had higher timing variability in both paced and unpaced tappings. However, in the pre-attentive task, performance did not differ between the ADHD and control groups. Together, results suggest that low-level sensorimotor timing and phase correction are largely preserved in ADHD and that some timing impairments observed in ADHD may stem from higher level factors (such as sustained attention).

[Survey on the contamination of microcystin-LR in water supply of Shanghai city].

PubMed

Wu, He-yan; Zheng, Li-xing; Su, Jin; Shi, Wei

2005-03-01

To study the pollution level of microcystin-LR in water supply of Shanghai city and the removal efficacy for microcystin-LR through routine water treatment technique. High performance liquid chromatogram (HPLC) was applied to determine the concentration of microcystin-LR in source water, water samples after various water treatment procedures and tap water. The concentration of microcystin-LR varied with sampling seasons and sites and reached peak during summer and fall. The maximum of microcystin-LR was 2.38 microg/L in source water. Coagulation plus chlorine disinfection were found to be effective for the removal of microcystin-LR, while the remove rate through filtration was not significant. And it could also be detected in tap water as high as 1.27 microg/L. The source waters of Shanghai city were polluted by cyanobacteria toxins represented by microcystin-LR. The source water in suburb was more polluted. Routine water treatment techniques can not remove the toxins effectively.

Occurrence of antidepressant residues in the sewage-impacted Vistula and Utrata rivers and in tap water in Warsaw (Poland).

PubMed

Giebułtowicz, Joanna; Nałęcz-Jawecki, Grzegorz

2014-06-01

Antidepressants, even at low concentrations, can reveal some adverse effects on aquatic life due to disturbing homeostasis throughout the central and peripheral nervous system both in vertebrates and invertebrates. To date there have not been any reports regarding the presence of these pharmaceuticals in surface and tap waters in Eastern Europe. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine the presence of 21 antidepressant pharmaceuticals at specific points of the main Polish river - the Vistula, a smaller river of the Warsaw region - the Utrata, as well as in tap water samples of Warsaw. Samples were collected twice at one month intervals and analysed using solid-phase extraction (SPE) technique coupled with the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) method operated under the multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). This is the first study where active compounds such as moclobemid or trazodone in the environment have been investigated. Environmental risk assessment of antidepressants in Poland was estimated on the basis of annuals sale data extracted from the NFZ (Narodowy Fundusz Zdrowia-National Health Service) base of reimbursed pharmaceuticals(1). Predicted environmental concentration (PEC) of target pharmaceuticals were compared with their measured concentration (MEC). Moreover, the application of the EMEA/CHMP guideline for environmental risk assessment of the antidepressants was discussed. The highest concentration of antidepressants was observed in the small river Utrata. In tap water only trace amounts of antidepressants including citalopram (up to 1.5ng/l), mianserin (up to 0.9ng/l), sertraline (<3.1ng/l), moclobemid (up to 0.3ng/l) and venlafaxine (up to 1.9ng/l) were detected. However this highlights their inadequate elimination in the drinking waste treatment facility. The presence of antidepressants in drinking water and the aquatic environment could have long-term effects even at low exposure level

Finger-tapping motion analysis in cervical myelopathy by magnetic-sensor tapping device.

PubMed

Miwa, Toshitada; Hosono, Noboru; Mukai, Yoshihiro; Makino, Takahiro; Kandori, Akihiko; Fuji, Takeshi

2013-08-01

Case-control study. The purpose of this study is to determine finger motion of patients with cervical myelopathy during finger-tapping cycles. A major symptom of patients with compressive cervical myelopathy is finger clumsiness. Therefore, understanding finger motion is prerequisite in assessing the severity of myelopathy. The popular grip-and-release test evaluates only the number of motion cycles, which is insufficient to fully describe complex finger motion. Forty-three patients with cervical myelopathy and 41 healthy controls tapped their index fingers against their thumbs as rapidly as possible for 30 seconds and the motion was recorded by a magnetic-sensor coil attached to the nail surface. Output signals were stored in a computer, which automatically calculated tapping frequency, distance moved, ratio of opening/closing velocity and the SD of the tapping interval. The SD of the tapping interval was significantly greater and all other measures were significantly smaller in patients with cervical myelopathy, than in healthy controls. All indices significantly improved after surgical decompression of the cervical spine. Distance moved (Pearson correlation coefficient: r=0.590, P<0.001) and the SD of the tapping interval (r=-0.451; P=0.002) were significantly correlated with the Japanese Orthopedic Association score (neurological scale). The quantitative evaluation of finger paralysis was performed by this tapping device. Speed and regularity in repetitive motion of fingers were correlated with the severity of cervical myelopathy.

Elution Is a Critical Step for Recovering Human Adenovirus 40 from Tap Water and Surface Water by Cross-Flow Ultrafiltration

PubMed Central

Shi, Hang; Xagoraraki, Irene; Bruening, Merlin L.

2016-01-01

ABSTRACT This paper examines the recovery of the enteric adenovirus human adenovirus 40 (HAdV 40) by cross-flow ultrafiltration and interprets recovery values in terms of physicochemical interactions of virions during sample concentration. Prior to ultrafiltration, membranes were either blocked by exposure to calf serum (CS) or coated with a polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEM). HAdV 40 is a hydrophobic virus with a point of zero charge between pH 4.0 and pH 4.3. In accordance with predictions from the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory, the preelution recovery of HAdV (rpre) from deionized water was higher with PEM-coated membranes (rprePEM = 74.8% ± 9.7%) than with CS-blocked membranes (rpreCS = 54.1% ± 6.2%). With either membrane type, the total virion recovery after elution (rpost) was high for both deionized water (rpostPEM = 99.5% ± 6.6% and rpostCS = 98.8% ± 7.7%) and tap water (rpostPEM = 89% ± 15% and rpostCS = 93.7% ± 6.9%). The nearly 100% recoveries suggest that the polyanion (sodium polyphosphate) and surfactant (Tween 80) in the eluent disrupt electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions between the virion and the membrane. Addition of EDTA to the eluent greatly improved the elution efficacy (rpostCS = 88.6% ± 4.3% and rpostPEM = 87.0% ± 6.9%) with surface water, even when the organic carbon concentration in the water was high (9.4 ± 0.1 mg/liter). EDTA likely disrupts cation bridging between virions and particles in the feed water matrix or the fouling layer on the membrane surface. For complex water matrices, the eluent composition is the most important factor for achieving high virion recovery. IMPORTANCE Herein we present the results of a comprehensive physicochemical characterization of HAdV 40, an important human pathogen. The data on HAdV 40 surface properties enabled rigorous modeling to gain an understanding of the energetics of virion-virion and virion-filter interactions. Cross-flow filtration for concentration and recovery

Ultrasensitive and selective gold film-based detection of mercury (II) in tap water using a laser scanning confocal imaging-surface plasmon resonance system in real time.

PubMed

Zhang, Hongyan; Yang, Liquan; Zhou, Bingjiang; Liu, Weimin; Ge, Jiechao; Wu, Jiasheng; Wang, Ying; Wang, Pengfei

2013-09-15

An ultrasensitive and selective detection of mercury (II) was investigated using a laser scanning confocal imaging-surface plasmon resonance system (LSCI-SPR). The detection limit was as low as 0.01ng/ml for Hg(2+) ions in ultrapure and tap water based on a T-rich, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)-modified gold film, which can be individually manipulated using specific T-Hg(2+)-T complex formation. The quenching intensity of the fluorescence images for rhodamine-labeled ssDNA fitted well with the changes in SPR. The changes varied with the Hg(2+) ion concentration, which is unaffected by the presence of other metal ions. The coefficients obtained for ultrapure and tap water were 0.99902 and 0.99512, respectively, for the linear part over a range of 0.01-100ng/ml. The results show that the double-effect sensor has potential for practical applications with ultra sensitivity and selectivity, especially in online or real-time monitoring of Hg(2+) ions pollution in tap water with the further improvement of portable LSCI-SPR instrument. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Self-Advancing Step-Tap Drills

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Pettit, Donald R.; Camarda, Charles J.; Penner, Ronald K.; Franklin, Larry D.

2007-01-01

Self-advancing tool bits that are hybrids of drills and stepped taps make it possible to form threaded holes wider than about 1/2 in. (about 13 mm) without applying any more axial force than is necessary for forming narrower pilot holes. These self-advancing stepped-tap drills were invented for use by space-suited astronauts performing repairs on reinforced carbon/carbon space-shuttle leading edges during space walks, in which the ability to apply axial drilling forces is severely limited. Self-advancing stepped-tap drills could also be used on Earth for making wide holes without applying large axial forces. A self-advancing stepped-tap drill (see figure) includes several sections having progressively larger diameters, typically in increments between 0.030 and 0.060 in. (between about 0.8 and about 1.5 mm). The tip section, which is the narrowest, is a pilot drill bit that typically has a diameter between 1/8 and 3/16 in. (between about 3.2 and about 4.8 mm). The length of the pilot-drill section is chosen, according to the thickness of the object to be drilled and tapped, so that the pilot hole is completed before engagement of the first tap section. Provided that the cutting-edge geometry of the drill bit is optimized for the material to be drilled, only a relatively small axial force [typically of the order of a few pounds (of the order of 10 newtons)] must be applied during drilling of the pilot hole. Once the first tap section engages the pilot hole, it is no longer necessary for the drill operator to apply axial force: the thread engagement between the tap and the workpiece provides the axial force to advance the tool bit. Like the pilot-drill section, each tap section must be long enough to complete its hole before engagement of the next, slightly wider tap section. The precise values of the increments in diameter, the thread pitch, the rake angle of the tap cutting edge, and other geometric parameters of the tap sections must be chosen, in consideration of

A Clonal Lineage of Fusarium oxysporum Circulates in the Tap Water of Different French Hospitals

PubMed Central

Sautour, Marc; Gautheron, Nadine; Laurent, Julie; Aho, Serge; Bonnin, Alain; Sixt, Nathalie; Hartemann, Philippe; Dalle, Frédéric; Steinberg, Christian

2016-01-01

ABSTRACT Fusarium oxysporum is typically a soilborne fungus but can also be found in aquatic environments. In hospitals, water distribution systems may be reservoirs for the fungi responsible for nosocomial infections. F. oxysporum was previously detected in the water distribution systems of five French hospitals. Sixty-eight isolates from water representative of all hospital units that were previously sampled and characterized by translation elongation factor 1α sequence typing were subjected to microsatellite analysis and full-length ribosomal intergenic spacer (IGS) sequence typing. All but three isolates shared common microsatellite loci and a common two-locus sequence type (ST). This ST has an international geographical distribution in both the water networks of hospitals and among clinical isolates. The ST dominant in water was not detected among 300 isolates of F. oxysporum that originated from surrounding soils. Further characterization of 15 isolates by vegetative compatibility testing allowed us to conclude that a clonal lineage of F. oxysporum circulates in the tap water of the different hospitals. IMPORTANCE We demonstrated that a clonal lineage of Fusarium oxysporum inhabits the water distribution systems of several French hospitals. This clonal lineage, which appears to be particularly adapted to water networks, represents a potential risk for human infection and raises questions about its worldwide distribution. PMID:27663024

[Investigation of the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in different water sources in Mersin province, Turkey].

PubMed

Aslan, Gönül; Bayram, Gül; Otağ, Feza; Direkel, Sahin; Taylan Özkan, Ayşegül; Ceber, Kemal; Emekdaş, Gürol

2012-01-01

Cryptosporidium is an intracellular protozoon that causes enteritis in human and animals. Contaminated water and food are the major sources for the transmission of oocysts via oral-fecal route. It is reported that the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis is higher in developing countries than developed countries because of inefficient sanitation and disinfection facilities for drinking water. The most frequently detected species is Cryptosporidium parvum leading to high morbidity in healthy subjects and also fatal infections in immunocompromised patients. The acid-fast staining method is widely used in the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis. Nowadays, Cryptosporidium could easily be detected in water supplies and asymptomatic carriers by molecular techniques to obtain epidemiological data. In this study it was aimed to detect and identify Cryptosporidium oocysts in different water sources in Mersin province, Turkey. A total of 135 water samples (70 taps, 50 wells and 15 sewage) collected from city center (n= 25) and from Tarsus (n= 32), Mezitli (n= 33) and Karaduvar (n= 45) counties between March 2007 and May 2009 were included in the study. Water samples in 10 liter volumes, were filtered by 0.45 µm pore-sized membrane filter vacuum/ pressure pumping technique. Cryptosporidium oocysts in filtrates were detected by modified cold Kinyoun acid-fast stain (MCK) technique and also identified and typed by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. MCK yielded three and PCR yielded seven positive results. All the strains were identified as C.parvum by PCR-RFLP method. All of the three MCK-positive samples were also found positive with PCR, however four PCR positive samples were MCK-negative. Thus, the prevalence of C.parvum was estimated as 5.2% (7/135) in our region. Of seven positive samples, one was a sewage water sample collected from the city center, while the remaining (two tap water, two well water and two sewage water samples

Water Sources and Quantity for Energy Development in Colorado's Denver-Julesburg Basin

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Waskom, R.; Kallenberger, J.; Boone, K.; Plombon, B.; Ryan, J. N.

2014-12-01

Over the past decade, Colorado has experienced a significant rise in oil and gas development with the greatest concentration of activity occurring in the Denver-Julesburg Basin (DJB) in the Northeast corner of the state. According to the Colorado Oil and Gas Association, as of June 2014, there are approximately 52,200 active oil and gas wells statewide, with over 21,300 located in Weld County, the epicenter of the DJB. In this water-scarce region, much attention is paid to the source and quantity of water being used to produce energy. This information is not readily accessible, but is of great importance to many. In response, our research team is undertaking an evaluation of water quantity impacts and tradeoffs associated with oil and gas development. Technological advancements in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing require additional sources of water - about 2.8 million gallons of per well (Goodwin et al.). The statewide water use for hydraulic fracturing is estimated to be less than 0.1%; however, on a local scale, when water is transferred from agricultural and municipal uses to industrial use, there are economic, environmental and social tradeoffs. Unfortunately, the pathway of a particular water transfer and its associated tradeoffs can be difficult to predict and quantify, further complicating the ability of local and state stakeholders to make sound and informative decisions about energy development. Energy companies are implementing new strategies to ensure reliable water supplies for their operations. These include tapping into non-tributary aquifers to help reduce competition for fully appropriated surface and tributary groundwater sources and recycling and reusing wastewater that results from the drilling and extraction practices. Many conflicting perspectives shape the water-energy discussion in the DJB so non-biased scientific data plays an important role in addressing the questions surrounding water use for energy development. This

Lead and Copper Tap Sample Site Plan Instructions

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This document may be used by public water systems in Wyoming and on EPA R8 Tribal Lands as a guide for how to properly complete their lead and copper tap sample site plans to comply with the Lead and Copper Rule.

Occurrence of immunosuppressive drugs and their metabolites in the sewage-impacted Vistula and Utrata Rivers and in tap water from the Warsaw region (Poland).

PubMed

Giebułtowicz, Joanna; Nałęcz-Jawecki, Grzegorz

2016-04-01

Immunosuppresive therapy following organ transplant frequently includes treatment with tacrolimus and mycophenolic acid derivatives. These pharmaceuticals may enter the environment through wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and may have a potentially harmful effect on aquatic biota. Tacrolimus, mycophenolic acid and their metabolites were measured at specific points of a large Polish river (Vistula), a smaller river (Utrata) and in tap water samples from the Warsaw region. Analysis was performed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, after solid phase extraction for water samples, or QuEChERS extraction for sediments. Residues of tacrolimus were below quantitation limits in both water and sediment samples. However, in water samples mycophenolic acid concentrations were measured at up to 180 ng L(-1) downstream of WWTP outfalls. No immunosuppressive drugs were detected in tap water. Concentrations of mycophenolic acid exceeded the predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) value in some Polish surface water, and risk calculations predicted at least twice higher concentrations in some other countries of the European Union. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of these immunosuppressive drug concentrations in the environment. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The quality of drinking water stored in canteens of field soldiers as a potential source of enteric diseases.

PubMed

Gavrieli, Benjamin; Potasman, Israel; Armon, Robert H

2010-06-01

Israel Defense Forces (IDF) guidelines for drinking water require the use of water only from sources that have been inspected and authorized by a medical expert. This study aimed to compare canteen water quality of two military units (infantry and armoured corps), to search for sources of possible microbial contamination and to look for any impact on gastrointestinal symptoms. Statistical analysis revealed that canteens of armoured corp soldiers were significantly more contaminated compared to those of infantry soldiers. Outdoor taps and water in trailers were found to harbour significantly higher numbers of microbial indicators compared to showers/lavatory sources; however, the numbers were much lower compared to canteens. Canteen water retention for more than one day revealed significantly increased numbers of examined microbial parameters, possibly due to secondary contamination or regrowth. Gastrointestinal symptoms were not significantly different between the two units despite the significant canteen water quality difference. An odds ratio evaluation was conducted on 45 exposure-illness combinations based on gastrointestinal symptoms, exposure and soldiers affiliation. Out of these 45 combinations only 14 resulted in odds ratio > 1, where 3 had high values (7.44, 7.46 and 11.2) suggesting a possible connection between diarrhoea and/or vomiting versus coliphages and faecal coliforms.

Differences in dissolved organic matter between reclaimed water source and drinking water source.

PubMed

Hu, Hong-Ying; Du, Ye; Wu, Qian-Yuan; Zhao, Xin; Tang, Xin; Chen, Zhuo

2016-05-01

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) significantly affects the quality of reclaimed water and drinking water. Reclaimed water potable reuse is an effective way to augment drinking water source and de facto reuse exists worldwide. Hence, when reclaimed water source (namely secondary effluent) is blended with drinking water source, understanding the difference in DOM between drinking water source (dDOM) and reclaimed water source (rDOM) is essential. In this study, composition, transformation, and potential risk of dDOM from drinking water source and rDOM from secondary effluent were compared. Generally, the DOC concentration of rDOM and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) content in reclaimed water source were higher but rDOM exhibited a lower aromaticity. Besides, rDOM comprises a higher proportion of hydrophilic fractions and more low-molecular weight compounds, which are difficult to be removed during coagulation. Although dDOM exhibited higher specific disinfection byproducts formation potential (SDBPFP), rDOM formed more total disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during chlorination including halomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) due to high DOC concentration. Likewise, in consideration of DOC basis, rDOM contained more absolute assimilable organic carbon (AOC) despite showing a lower specific AOC (normalized AOC per unit of DOC). Besides, rDOM exhibited higher biotoxicity including genotoxicity and endocrine disruption. Therefore, rDOM presents a greater potential risk than dDOM does. Reclaimed water source needs to be treated carefully when it is blended with drinking water source. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Diversity, Physiochemical and Phylogenetic Analyses of Bacteria Isolated from Various Drinking Water Sources.

PubMed

Eid, Neveen H; Al Doghaither, Huda A; Kumosani, Taha A; Gull, Munazza

2017-01-01

To evaluate the indigenous bacterial strains of drinking water from the most commercial water types including bottled and filtered water that are currently used in Saudi Arabia. Thirty randomly selected commercial brands of bottled water were purchased from Saudi local markets. Moreover, samples from tap water and filtered water were collected in sterilized glass bottles and stored at 4°C. Biochemical analyses including pH, temperature, lactose fermentation test (LAC), indole test (IND), methyl red test (MR), Voges-Proskauer test (VP), urease test (URE), catalase test (CAT), aerobic and anaerobic test (Ae/An) were measured. Molecular identification and comparative sequence analyses were done by full length 16S rRNA gene sequences using gene bank databases and phylogenetic trees were constructed to see the closely related similarity index between bacterial strains. Among 30 water samples tested, 18 were found positive for bacterial growth. Molecular identification of four selected bacterial strains indicated the alarming presence of pathogenic bacteria Bacillus spp . in most common commercial types of drinking water used in Saudi Arabia. The lack of awareness about good sanitation, poor personal hygienic practices and failure of safe water management and supply are the important factors for poor drinking water quality in these sources, need to be addressed.

The pH of water from various sources: an overview for recommendation for patients with atopic dermatitis.

PubMed

Kulthanan, Kanokvalai; Nuchkull, Piyavadee; Varothai, Supenya

2013-07-01

Patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) have increased susceptibility to irritants. Some patients have questions about types of water for bathing or skin cleansing. We studied the pH of water from various sources to give an overview for physicians to recommend patients with AD. Water from various sources was collected for measurement of the pH using a pH meter and pH-indicator strips. Bottled drinking still water had pH between 6.9 and 7.5 while the sparkling type had pH between 4.9 and 5.5. Water derived from home water filters had an approximate pH of 7.5 as same as tap water. Swimming pool water had had pH between 7.2 and 7.5 while seawater had a pH of 8. Normal saline and distilled water had pH of 5.4 and 5.7, respectively. Facial mineral water had pH between 7.5 and 8, while facial makeup removing water had an acidic pH. Normal saline, distilled water, bottled sparkling water and facial makeup removing water had similar pH to that of normal skin of normal people. However, other factors including benefits of mineral substances in the water in terms of bacteriostatic and anti-inflammation should be considered in the selection of cleansing water.

The pH of water from various sources: an overview for recommendation for patients with atopic dermatitis

PubMed Central

Kulthanan, Kanokvalai; Varothai, Supenya

2013-01-01

Background Patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) have increased susceptibility to irritants. Some patients have questions about types of water for bathing or skin cleansing. Objective We studied the pH of water from various sources to give an overview for physicians to recommend patients with AD. Methods Water from various sources was collected for measurement of the pH using a pH meter and pH-indicator strips. Results Bottled drinking still water had pH between 6.9 and 7.5 while the sparkling type had pH between 4.9 and 5.5. Water derived from home water filters had an approximate pH of 7.5 as same as tap water. Swimming pool water had had pH between 7.2 and 7.5 while seawater had a pH of 8. Normal saline and distilled water had pH of 5.4 and 5.7, respectively. Facial mineral water had pH between 7.5 and 8, while facial makeup removing water had an acidic pH. Conclusion Normal saline, distilled water, bottled sparkling water and facial makeup removing water had similar pH to that of normal skin of normal people. However, other factors including benefits of mineral substances in the water in terms of bacteriostatic and anti-inflammation should be considered in the selection of cleansing water. PMID:23956962

Combustion performance and exhaust emissions fuelled with non-surfactant water-in-diesel emulsion fuel made from different water sources.

PubMed

Ahmad, Mohamad Azrin; Yahya, Wira Jazair; Ithnin, Ahmad Muhsin; Hasannuddin, A K; Bakar, Muhammad Aiman Abu; Fatah, Abdul Yasser Abd; Sidik, Nor Azwadi Che; Noge, Hirofumi

2018-06-14

Non-surfactant water-in-diesel emulsion fuel (NWD) is an alternative fuel that has the potential to reduce major exhaust emissions while simultaneously improving the combustion performance of a diesel engine. NWD comprises of diesel fuel and water (about 5% in volume) without any additional surfactants. This emulsion fuel is produced through an in-line mixing system that is installed very close to the diesel engine. This study focuses mainly on the performance and emission of diesel engine fuelled with NWD made from different water sources. The engine used in this study is a direct injection diesel engine with loads varying from 1 to 4 kW. The result shows that NWD made from tap water helps the engine to reduce nitrogen oxide (NO x ) by 32%. Rainwater reduced it by 29% and seawater by 19%. In addition, all NWDs show significant improvements in engine performance as compared to diesel fuel, especially in the specific fuel consumption that indicates an average reduction of 6%. It is observed that all NWDs show compelling positive effects on engine performance, which is caused by the optimum water droplet size inside NWD.

Biomechanical loading on the upper extremity increases from single key tapping to directional tapping.

PubMed

Qin, Jin; Trudeau, Matthieu; Katz, Jeffrey N; Buchholz, Bryan; Dennerlein, Jack T

2011-08-01

Musculoskeletal disorders associated with computer use span the joints of the upper extremity. Computing typically involves tapping in multiple directions. Thus, we sought to describe the loading on the finger, wrist, elbow and shoulder joints in terms of kinematic and kinetic difference across single key switch tapping to directional tapping on multiple keys. An experiment with repeated measures design was conducted. Six subjects tapped with their right index finger on a stand-alone number keypad placed horizontally in three conditions: (1) on single key switch (the number key 5); (2) left and right on number key 4 and 6; (3) top and bottom on number key 8 and 2. A force-torque transducer underneath the keypad measured the fingertip force. An active-marker infrared motion analysis system measured the kinematics of the fingertip, hand, forearm, upper arm and torso. Joint moments for the metacarpophalangeal, wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints were estimated using inverse dynamics. Tapping in the top-bottom orientation introduced the largest biomechanical loading on the upper extremity especially for the proximal joint, followed by tapping in the left-right orientation, and the lowest loading was observed during single key switch tapping. Directional tapping on average increased the fingertip force, joint excursion, and peak-to-peak joint torque by 45%, 190% and 55%, respectively. Identifying the biomechanical loading patterns associated with these fundamental movements of keying improves the understanding of the risks of upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders for computer keyboard users. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copper in household drinking water in the city of Zagreb, Croatia.

PubMed

Pizent, Alica; Butković, Sanja

2010-09-01

Copper concentration was estimated in tap water samples obtained from 70 households in Zagreb, serviced by a public water supply system. First-draw and flushed samples of tap water were collected in the morning and total copper concentration was determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with Zeeman-effect background correction. We also estimated the contribution of plumbing material to copper concentrations in tap water. In households with copper pipes, median and range copper values were 310 μg L-1 [(27 to 632) μg L-1] in first-draw samples and 16 μg L-1 [(5 to 52) μg L-1] in flushed samples. Corresponding values for households with galvanised pipes were 140 μg L-1 [(11 to 289) μg L-1] and 8 μg L-1 [(1 to 42) μg L-1], respectively. Copper concentrations in household tap water in Zagreb were far below the proposed safe limits set by the Croatian and WHO regulations and EPA standards, and drinking water in Zagreb is not a significant source of copper exposure.

TAPS for Pupils

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Earle, Sarah

2018-01-01

By placing the Focused Assessment approach within the TAPS pyramid framework, schools are beginning to find a number of ways in which learning in science can be enhanced for pupils. The quotations in this article provide examples of the ways in which science subject leaders (SSL) describe the impact of TAPS on their pupils.

49 CFR 192.151 - Tapping.

Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR

2010-10-01

... 49 Transportation 3 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Tapping. 192.151 Section 192.151 Transportation... BY PIPELINE: MINIMUM FEDERAL SAFETY STANDARDS Design of Pipeline Components § 192.151 Tapping. (a) Each mechanical fitting used to make a hot tap must be designed for at least the operating pressure of...

A Clonal Lineage of Fusarium oxysporum Circulates in the Tap Water of Different French Hospitals.

PubMed

Edel-Hermann, Véronique; Sautour, Marc; Gautheron, Nadine; Laurent, Julie; Aho, Serge; Bonnin, Alain; Sixt, Nathalie; Hartemann, Philippe; Dalle, Frédéric; Steinberg, Christian

2016-11-01

Fusarium oxysporum is typically a soilborne fungus but can also be found in aquatic environments. In hospitals, water distribution systems may be reservoirs for the fungi responsible for nosocomial infections. F. oxysporum was previously detected in the water distribution systems of five French hospitals. Sixty-eight isolates from water representative of all hospital units that were previously sampled and characterized by translation elongation factor 1α sequence typing were subjected to microsatellite analysis and full-length ribosomal intergenic spacer (IGS) sequence typing. All but three isolates shared common microsatellite loci and a common two-locus sequence type (ST). This ST has an international geographical distribution in both the water networks of hospitals and among clinical isolates. The ST dominant in water was not detected among 300 isolates of F. oxysporum that originated from surrounding soils. Further characterization of 15 isolates by vegetative compatibility testing allowed us to conclude that a clonal lineage of F. oxysporum circulates in the tap water of the different hospitals. We demonstrated that a clonal lineage of Fusarium oxysporum inhabits the water distribution systems of several French hospitals. This clonal lineage, which appears to be particularly adapted to water networks, represents a potential risk for human infection and raises questions about its worldwide distribution. Copyright © 2016, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Effects of Water Bottle Materials and Filtration on Bisphenol A Content in Laboratory Animal Drinking Water.

PubMed

Honeycutt, Jennifer A; Nguyen, Jenny Q T; Kentner, Amanda C; Brenhouse, Heather C

2017-05-01

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in the polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins that are found in laboratory animal husbandry materials including cages and water bottles. Concerns about BPA exposure in humans has led to investigations that suggest physiologic health risks including disruptions to the endocrine system and CNS. However, the extent of exposure of laboratory animals to BPA in drinking water is unclear. In the first study, we compared the amount of BPA contamination in water stored in plastic bottles used in research settings with that in glass bottles. The amount of BPA that leached into water was measured across several time points ranging from 24 to 96 h by using a BPA ELISA assay. The results showed that considerable amounts of BPA (approximately 0.15 μg/L) leached from polycarbonate bottles within the first 24 h of storage. In the second study, BPA levels were measured directly from water taken from filtered compared with unfiltered taps. We observed significantly higher BPA levels in water from unfiltered taps (approximately 0.40 μg/L) compared with taps with filtration systems (approximately 0.04 μg/L). Taken together, our findings indicate that the use of different types of water bottles and water sources, combined with the use of different laboratory products (food, caging systems) between laboratories, likely contribute to decreased rigor and reproducibility in research. We suggest that researchers consider reporting the types of water bottles used and that animal care facilities educate staff regarding the importance of flushing nonfiltered water taps when filling animal water bottles.

Effects of Water Bottle Materials and Filtration on Bisphenol A Content in Laboratory Animal Drinking Water

PubMed Central

Honeycutt, Jennifer A; Nguyen, Jenny Q T; Kentner, Amanda C; Brenhouse, Heather C

2017-01-01

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in the polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins that are found in laboratory animal husbandry materials including cages and water bottles. Concerns about BPA exposure in humans has led to investigations that suggest physiologic health risks including disruptions to the endocrine system and CNS. However, the extent of exposure of laboratory animals to BPA in drinking water is unclear. In the first study, we compared the amount of BPA contamination in water stored in plastic bottles used in research settings with that in glass bottles. The amount of BPA that leached into water was measured across several time points ranging from 24 to 96 h by using a BPA ELISA assay. The results showed that considerable amounts of BPA (approximately 0.15 μg/L) leached from polycarbonate bottles within the first 24 h of storage. In the second study, BPA levels were measured directly from water taken from filtered compared with unfiltered taps. We observed significantly higher BPA levels in water from unfiltered taps (approximately 0.40 μg/L) compared with taps with filtration systems (approximately 0.04 μg/L). Taken together, our findings indicate that the use of different types of water bottles and water sources, combined with the use of different laboratory products (food, caging systems) between laboratories, likely contribute to decreased rigor and reproducibility in research. We suggest that researchers consider reporting the types of water bottles used and that animal care facilities educate staff regarding the importance of flushing nonfiltered water taps when filling animal water bottles. PMID:28535862

Trends in urinary arsenic among the U.S. population by drinking water source: Results from the National Health and Nutritional Examinations Survey 2003-2014.

PubMed

Welch, Barrett; Smit, Ellen; Cardenas, Andres; Hystad, Perry; Kile, Molly L

2018-04-01

In 2001, the United States revised the arsenic maximum contaminant level for public drinking water systems from 50µg/L to 10µg/L. This study aimed to examine temporal trends in urinary arsenic concentrations in the U.S. population from 2003 to 2014 by drinking water source among individuals aged 12 years and older who had no detectable arsenobetaine - a biomarker of arsenic exposure from seafood intake. We examined data from 6 consecutive cycles of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2003-2014; N=5848). Total urinary arsenic (TUA) was calculated by subtracting arsenobetaine's limit of detection and detectable arsenocholine from total arsenic. Additional sensitivity analyses were conducted using a second total urinary arsenic index (TUA2, calculated by adding arsenite, arsenate, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid). We classified drinking water source using 24-h dietary questionnaire data as community supply (n=3427), well or rain cistern (n=506), and did not drink tap water (n=1060). Geometric means (GM) of survey cycles were calculated from multivariate regression models adjusting for age, gender, race/ethnicity, BMI, income, creatinine, water source, type of water consumed, recent smoking, and consumption of seafood, rice, poultry, and juice. Compared to 2003-2004, adjusted TUA was 35.5% lower in 2013-2014 among the general U.S. Stratified analysis by smoking status indicated that the trend in lower TUA was only consistent among non-smokers. Compared to 2003-2004, lower adjusted TUA was observed in 2013-2014 among non-smoking participants who used community water supplies (1.98 vs 1.16µg/L, p<0.001), well or rain cistern users (1.54 vs 1.28µg/L, p<0.001) and who did not drink tap water (2.24 vs 1.53µg/L, p<0.001). Sensitivity analyses showed consistent results for participants who used a community water supplier and to a lesser extent those who did not drink tap water. However, the sensitivity analysis showed overall exposure

Concentration of enteric viruses from tap water using an anion exchange resin-based method.

PubMed

Pérez-Méndez, A; Chandler, J C; Bisha, B; Goodridge, L D

2014-09-01

Detecting low concentrations of enteric viruses in water is needed for public health-related monitoring and control purposes. Thus, there is a need for sensitive, rapid and cost effective enteric viral concentration methods compatible with downstream molecular detection. Here, a virus concentration method based on adsorption of the virus to an anion exchange resin and direct isolation of nucleic acids is presented. Ten liter samples of tap water spiked with different concentrations (10-10,000 TCID50/10 L) of human adenovirus 40 (HAdV-40), hepatitis A virus (HAV) or rotavirus (RV) were concentrated and detected by real time PCR or real time RT-PCR. This method improved viral detection compared to direct testing of spiked water samples where the ΔCt was 12.1 for AdV-40 and 4.3 for HAV. Direct detection of RV in water was only possible for one of the three replicates tested (Ct of 37), but RV detection was improved using the resin method (all replicates tested positive with an average Ct of 30, n=3). The limit of detection of the method was 10 TCID50/10 L for HAdV-40 and HAV, and 100 TCID50/10 L of water for RV. These results compare favorably with detection limits reported for more expensive and laborious methods. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Postoperative socket irrigation with drinking tap water reduces the risk of inflammatory complications following surgical removal of third molars: a multicenter randomized trial.

PubMed

Ghaeminia, H; Hoppenreijs, Th J M; Xi, T; Fennis, J P; Maal, T J; Bergé, S J; Meijer, G J

2017-01-01

The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of postoperative irrigation of the socket with drinking tap water on inflammatory complications following lower third molar removal. A multicenter randomized controlled trial was carried out from June 2013 to June 2014. In one arm of the study, patients were instructed to irrigate the tooth socket and surgical site with a Monoject® Curved 412 Tip Syringe (Tyco/healthcare-Kendall, Mansfield, MA, USA) with tap water. In a second arm of the study, the standard postoperative instructions did not include irrigation instructions. The incidences of alveolar osteitis and wound infection were recorded for each group and analyzed by the Fisher's exact test. A total of 280 patients with 333 mandibular third molars were analyzed. According to the intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis, inflammatory complications occurred in 18 cases in the Monoject® group (11.4 %) compared to 34 cases (19.1 %) in the control group (p = 0.04). These complications were associated with significant worse outcomes regarding quality of life, pain, and trismus and caused significantly more missed days of work or study. Female gender, age >26, bone removal, deep impacted third molars, less experienced surgeons, and a high amount of debris at the surgical site were also identified as risk factors for developing inflammatory complications following lower third molar removal. Irrigation of the surgical site with drinking tap water using a curved syringe following removal of third molars is effective in reducing the risk of inflammatory complications. Water is a very accessible, cost-effective irrigant without side effects and the results from this study have proven that it can be used to reduce the risk of inflammatory complications and associated morbidity following lower third molar removal.

Testing plant use of mobile vs immobile soil water sources using stable isotope experiments.

PubMed

Vargas, Ana I; Schaffer, Bruce; Yuhong, Li; Sternberg, Leonel da Silveira Lobo

2017-07-01

We tested for isotope exchange between bound (immobile) and mobile soil water, and whether there is isotope fractionation during plant water uptake. These are critical assumptions to the formulation of the 'two water worlds' hypothesis based on isotope profiles of soil water. In two different soil types, soil-bound water in two sets of 19-l pots, each with a 2-yr-old avocado plant (Persea americana), were identically labeled with tap water. After which, one set received isotopically enriched water whereas the other set received tap water as the mobile phase water. After a dry down period, we analyzed plant stem water as a proxy for soil-bound water as well as total soil water by cryogenic distillation. Seventy-five to 95% of the bound water isotopically exchanged with the mobile water phase. In addition, plants discriminated against 18 O and 2 H during water uptake, and this discrimination is a function of the soil water loss and soil type. The present experiment shows that the assumptions for the 'two water worlds' hypothesis are not supported. We propose a novel explanation for the discrepancy between isotope ratios of the soil water profile and other water compartments in the hydrological cycle. © 2017 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2017 New Phytologist Trust.

Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns.

PubMed

Daria, Sonya; Sugar, Naomi F; Feldman, Kenneth W; Boos, Stephen C; Benton, Scott A; Ornstein, Amy

2004-05-01

Experience with several, previously unreported, intentional face-first immersion burns led us to evaluate the distribution of inflicted and unintentional immersion scald burns in a hospital series. (1) Authors' clinical and legal practices; (2) Burn center at regional Level 1 trauma hospital. : (1) Case series of face-first, inflicted immersion burn victims; (2) Consecutive hospitalized scald burn victims younger than 5 years old, 1/3/1996 to 3/25/2000. (1) Individual case reports; (2) Retrospective records review. Simple descriptive statistics, Fisher Exact test and t test. (1) Six cases of inflicted head and neck immersion injury are described. Four were tap water and 2 food/drink scalds. (2) 22/195 hospitalized victims had sustained immersion burns, 13 from tap water and 9 from other fluids. Six (46%) tap water immersions and no (0%) other immersions had inflicted injuries (P = 0.05). Two of the tap water immersions and one other source immersion included burning of the head and neck. Of these, one tap water immersion, but no other immersion, was inflicted. In no patients were head and neck injuries the sole or predominant site of scalding. In all, 9 children sustained inflicted scalds. Bilateral lower extremity tap water immersion scalds occurred in 100% (6/6) of abusive and 29% (2/7) of unintentional injuries (P = 0.02). Buttock and perineal injuries occurred in 67% (4/6) inflicted versus 29% (2/7) unintentional tap water immersion scalds (P = 0.28). Other fluids caused bilateral lower extremity immersion burns in 3/9 (33 %) unintentionally injured patients, but no abused children (NS). Craniofacial immersion injury, although seen by the authors in legal cases, is infrequent. It was present incidentally in one inflicted tap water burn in the consecutive hospital series. This series affirms the predominance of bilateral lower extremity burns in inflicted tap water immersions. Buttock/perineal immersions were more common with abuse than with unintentional injury.

Prevalence, characteristics and correlates of enteric pathogenic protozoa in drinking water sources in Molyko and Bomaka, Cameroon: a cross-sectional study.

PubMed

Nsoh, Fuh Anold; Wung, Buh Amos; Atashili, Julius; Benjamin, Pokam Thumamo; Marvlyn, Eba; Ivo, Keumami Katte; Nguedia, Assob Jules Clément

2016-11-08

Access to potable water remains a major challenge particularly in resource-limited settings. Although the potential contaminants of water are varied, enteric pathogenic protozoa are known to cause waterborne diseases greatly. This study aimed at investigating the prevalence, characteristics and correlates of enteric pathogenic protozoa in drinking water sources in Buea, Cameroon. A cross-sectional study was conducted using 155 water samples collected from various drinking sources (boreholes, springs, taps and wells). Each sample was subjected to physicochemical examinations (pH, turbidity, odour and sliminess) and parasitological analysis (wet mount, modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain) to determine the presence of enteric pathogenic protozoa. A data collection tool was used to note characteristics of collected samples and the data was analysed using EPI-INFO Version 3.5.3. The overall prevalence of enteric pathogenic protozoa in water sources was 62.6 %. Eight species of enteric protozoa were observed with Cryptosporidium parvum being the most predominant (45.8 %). Spring water was the most contaminated source with enteric protozoa (85.7 %) while pipe borne water had all eight species of protozoa identified. A pH of 6 was the only significant factor associated with the prevalence of these pathogens in water sources. The prevalence of enteric protozoa in water sources in Molyko and Bomaka is high, spring water is the most contaminated water source and Cryptosporidium parvum is the most common protozoa contaminating water. A water pH of 6 is associated to the prevalence of protozoa. Community members need to be educated to treat water before drinking to avoid infection by enteric protozoa in water and further studies with larger samples of water need to be conducted to find other correlates of the presence of protozoa in water.

Exposure assessment of radon in the drinking water supplies: a descriptive study in Palestine

PubMed Central

2012-01-01

Background Radon gas is considered as a main risk factor for lung cancer and found naturally in rock, soil, and water. The objective of this study was to determine the radon level in the drinking water sources in Nablus city in order to set up a sound policy on water management in Palestine. Methods This was a descriptive study carried out in two phases with a random sampling technique in the second phase. Primarily, samples were taken from 4 wells and 5 springs that supplied Nablus city residents. For each source, 3 samples were taken and each was analyzed in 4 cycles by RAD 7 device manufactured by Durridge Company. Secondly, from the seven regions of the Nablus city, three samples were taken from the residential tap water of each region. Regarding the old city, ten samples were taken. Finally, the mean radon concentration value for each source was calculated. Results The mean (range) concentration of radon in the main sources were 6.9 (1.5-23.4) Becquerel/liter (Bq/L). Separately, springs and wells' means were 4.6 Bq/L and 9.5 Bq/L; respectively. For the residential tap water in the 7 regions, the results of the mean (range) concentration values were found to be 1.0 (0.9-1.3) Bq/L. For the old city, the mean (range) concentration values were 2.3 (0.9-3.9) Bq/L. Conclusions Except for Al-Badan well, radon concentrations in the wells and springs were below the United State Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminated level (U.S EPA MCL). The level was much lower for tap water. Although the concentration of radon in the tap water of old city were below the MCL, it was higher than other regions in the city. Preventive measures and population awareness on radon's exposure are recommended. PMID:22243625

Exposure assessment of radon in the drinking water supplies: a descriptive study in Palestine.

PubMed

Al Zabadi, Hamzeh; Musmar, Samar; Issa, Shaza; Dwaikat, Nidal; Saffarini, Ghassan

2012-01-13

Radon gas is considered as a main risk factor for lung cancer and found naturally in rock, soil, and water. The objective of this study was to determine the radon level in the drinking water sources in Nablus city in order to set up a sound policy on water management in Palestine. This was a descriptive study carried out in two phases with a random sampling technique in the second phase. Primarily, samples were taken from 4 wells and 5 springs that supplied Nablus city residents. For each source, 3 samples were taken and each was analyzed in 4 cycles by RAD 7 device manufactured by Durridge Company. Secondly, from the seven regions of the Nablus city, three samples were taken from the residential tap water of each region. Regarding the old city, ten samples were taken. Finally, the mean radon concentration value for each source was calculated. The mean (range) concentration of radon in the main sources were 6.9 (1.5-23.4) Becquerel/liter (Bq/L). Separately, springs and wells' means were 4.6 Bq/L and 9.5 Bq/L; respectively. For the residential tap water in the 7 regions, the results of the mean (range) concentration values were found to be 1.0 (0.9-1.3) Bq/L. For the old city, the mean (range) concentration values were 2.3 (0.9-3.9) Bq/L. Except for Al-Badan well, radon concentrations in the wells and springs were below the United State Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminated level (U.S EPA MCL). The level was much lower for tap water. Although the concentration of radon in the tap water of old city were below the MCL, it was higher than other regions in the city. Preventive measures and population awareness on radon's exposure are recommended.

Modeling lead concentration in drinking water of residential plumbing pipes and hot water tanks.

PubMed

Chowdhury, Shakhawat; Kabir, Fayzul; Mazumder, Mohammad Abu Jafar; Zahir, Md Hasan

2018-09-01

Drinking water is a potential source of exposure to lead (Pb), which can pose risk to humans. The regulatory agencies often monitor Pb in water treatment plants (WTP) and/or water distribution systems (WDS). However, people are exposed to tap water inside the house while water may stay in the plumbing premise for several hours prior to reaching the tap. Depending on stagnation period and plumbing premise, concentrations of Pb in tap water can be significantly higher than the WDS leading to higher intake of Pb than the values from WDS or WTP. In this study, concentrations of Pb and water quality parameters were investigated in WDS, plumbing pipe (PP) and hot water tanks (HWT) for 7months. The samples were collected and analyzed on bi-weekly basis for 7 times a day. Several linear, non-linear and neural network models were developed for predicting Pb in PP and HWT. The models were validated using the additional data, which were not used for model development. The concentrations of Pb in PP and HWT were 1-1.17 and 1-1.21 times the Pb in WDS respectively. Concentrations of Pb were higher in summer than winter. The models showed moderate to excellent performance (R 2 =0.85-0.99) in predicting Pb in PP and HWT. The correlation coefficients (r) with the validation data were in the ranges of 0.76-0.90 and 0.97-0.99 for PP and HWT respectively. The models can be used for predicting Pb in tap water, which can assist to better protect the humans. Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.

NHEXAS PHASE I ARIZONA STUDY--METALS IN WATER ANALYTICAL RESULTS

EPA Science Inventory

The Metals in Water data set contains analytical results for measurements of up to 11 metals in 314 water samples over 211 households. Sample collection was undertaken at the tap and any additional drinking water source used extensively within each residence. The primary metals...

"Bottled or Tap?" A Controversy for Science, Economics, and Society

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Lapham, Steven S.

2009-01-01

Every year, Americans spend billions of dollars on bottled water. They purchase a bottle from the vending machine or buy a case at the grocery, no longer considering the water that's freely available from their taps. As consumers and as citizens, however, Americans should pause to study the personal and public consequences of this choice. In this…

Biofilm Composition and Threshold Concentration for Growth of Legionella pneumophila on Surfaces Exposed to Flowing Warm Tap Water without Disinfectant

PubMed Central

Bakker, Geo L.; Italiaander, Ronald; Veenendaal, Harm R.; Wullings, Bart A.

2017-01-01

ABSTRACT Legionella pneumophila in potable water installations poses a potential health risk, but quantitative information about its replication in biofilms in relation to water quality is scarce. Therefore, biofilm formation on the surfaces of glass and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) in contact with tap water at 34 to 39°C was investigated under controlled hydraulic conditions in a model system inoculated with biofilm-grown L. pneumophila. The biofilm on glass (average steady-state concentration, 23 ± 9 pg ATP cm−2) exposed to treated aerobic groundwater (0.3 mg C liter−1; 1 μg assimilable organic carbon [AOC] liter−1) did not support growth of the organism, which also disappeared from the biofilm on CPVC (49 ± 9 pg ATP cm−2) after initial growth. L. pneumophila attained a level of 4.3 log CFU cm−2 in the biofilms on glass (1,055 ± 225 pg ATP cm−2) and CPVC (2,755 ± 460 pg ATP cm−2) exposed to treated anaerobic groundwater (7.9 mg C liter−1; 10 μg AOC liter−1). An elevated biofilm concentration and growth of L. pneumophila were also observed with tap water from the laboratory. The Betaproteobacteria Piscinibacter and Methyloversatilis and amoeba-resisting Alphaproteobacteria predominated in the clones and isolates retrieved from the biofilms. In the biofilms, the Legionella colony count correlated significantly with the total cell count (TCC), heterotrophic plate count, ATP concentration, and presence of Vermamoeba vermiformis. This amoeba was rarely detected at biofilm concentrations of <100 pg ATP cm−2. A threshold concentration of approximately 50 pg ATP cm−2 (TCC = 1 × 106 to 2 × 106 cells cm−2) was derived for growth of L. pneumophila in biofilms. IMPORTANCE Legionella pneumophila is the etiologic agent in more than 10,000 cases of Legionnaires' disease that are reported annually worldwide and in most of the drinking water-associated disease outbreaks reported in the United States. The organism proliferates in biofilms

Biofilm Composition and Threshold Concentration for Growth of Legionella pneumophila on Surfaces Exposed to Flowing Warm Tap Water without Disinfectant.

PubMed

van der Kooij, Dick; Bakker, Geo L; Italiaander, Ronald; Veenendaal, Harm R; Wullings, Bart A

2017-03-01

Legionella pneumophila in potable water installations poses a potential health risk, but quantitative information about its replication in biofilms in relation to water quality is scarce. Therefore, biofilm formation on the surfaces of glass and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) in contact with tap water at 34 to 39°C was investigated under controlled hydraulic conditions in a model system inoculated with biofilm-grown L. pneumophila The biofilm on glass (average steady-state concentration, 23 ± 9 pg ATP cm -2 ) exposed to treated aerobic groundwater (0.3 mg C liter -1 ; 1 μg assimilable organic carbon [AOC] liter -1 ) did not support growth of the organism, which also disappeared from the biofilm on CPVC (49 ± 9 pg ATP cm -2 ) after initial growth. L. pneumophila attained a level of 4.3 log CFU cm -2 in the biofilms on glass (1,055 ± 225 pg ATP cm -2 ) and CPVC (2,755 ± 460 pg ATP cm -2 ) exposed to treated anaerobic groundwater (7.9 mg C liter -1 ; 10 μg AOC liter -1 ). An elevated biofilm concentration and growth of L. pneumophila were also observed with tap water from the laboratory. The Betaproteobacteria Piscinibacter and Methyloversatilis and amoeba-resisting Alphaproteobacteria predominated in the clones and isolates retrieved from the biofilms. In the biofilms, the Legionella colony count correlated significantly with the total cell count (TCC), heterotrophic plate count, ATP concentration, and presence of Vermamoeba vermiformis This amoeba was rarely detected at biofilm concentrations of <100 pg ATP cm -2 A threshold concentration of approximately 50 pg ATP cm -2 (TCC = 1 × 10 6 to 2 × 10 6 cells cm -2 ) was derived for growth of L. pneumophila in biofilms. IMPORTANCE Legionella pneumophila is the etiologic agent in more than 10,000 cases of Legionnaires' disease that are reported annually worldwide and in most of the drinking water-associated disease outbreaks reported in the United States. The organism proliferates in biofilms on surfaces

Lead and tap water

MedlinePlus

... EPA) to set and enforce standards to protect public drinking water systems. The Agency requires water suppliers to produce annual water quality reports. These reports include information about lead amounts. The reports are available to ...

Spontaneous eye blinks are entrained by finger tapping.

PubMed

Cong, D-K; Sharikadze, M; Staude, G; Deubel, H; Wolf, W

2010-02-01

We studied the mutual cross-talk between spontaneous eye blinks and continuous, self-paced unimanual and bimanual tapping. Both types of motor activities were analyzed with regard to their time-structure in synchronization-continuation tapping tasks which involved different task instructions, namely "standard" finger tapping (Experiment 1), "strong" tapping (Experiment 2) requiring more forceful finger movements, and "impulse-like" tapping (Experiment 3) where upward-downward finger movements had to be very fast. In a further control condition (Experiment 4), tapping was omitted altogether. The results revealed a prominent entrainment of spontaneous blink behavior by the manual tapping, with bimanual tapping being more effective than unimanual tapping, and with the "strong" and "impulse-like" tapping showing the largest effects on blink timing. Conversely, we found no significant effects of the tapping on the timing of the eye blinks across all experiments. The findings suggest a functional overlap of the motor control structures responsible for voluntary, rhythmic finger movements and eye blinking behavior.

Occurrence of thyroid hormone activities in drinking water from eastern China: contributions of phthalate esters.

PubMed

Shi, Wei; Hu, Xinxin; Zhang, Fengxian; Hu, Guanjiu; Hao, Yingqun; Zhang, Xiaowei; Liu, Hongling; Wei, Si; Wang, Xinru; Giesy, John P; Yu, Hongxia

2012-02-07

Thyroid hormone is essential for the development of humans. However, some synthetic chemicals with thyroid disrupting potentials are detectable in drinking water. This study investigated the presence of thyroid active chemicals and their toxicity potential in drinking water from five cities in eastern China by use of an in vitro CV-1 cell-based reporter gene assay. Waters were examined from several phases of drinking water processing, including source water, finished water from waterworks, tap water, and boiled tap water. To identify the responsible compounds, concentrations and toxic equivalents of a list of phthalate esters were quantitatively determined. None of the extracts exhibited thyroid receptor (TR) agonist activity. Most of the water samples exhibited TR antagonistic activities. None of the boiled water displayed the TR antagonistic activity. Dibutyl phthalate accounted for 84.0-98.1% of the antagonist equivalents in water sources, while diisobutyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate also contributed. Approximately 90% of phthalate esters and TR antagonistic activities were removable by waterworks treatment processes, including filtration, coagulation, aerobic biodegradation, chlorination, and ozonation. Boiling water effectively removed phthalate esters from tap water. Thus, this process was recommended to local residents to reduce certain potential thyroid related risks through drinking water.

Conducting Source Water Assessments

EPA Pesticide Factsheets

This page presents background information on the source water assessment steps, the four steps of a source wter assessment, and how to use the results of an assessment to protect drinking water sources.

Bidet toilet seats with warm-water tanks: residual chlorine, microbial community, and structural analyses.

PubMed

Iyo, Toru; Asakura, Keiko; Nakano, Makiko; Yamada, Mutsuko; Omae, Kazuyuki

2016-02-01

Despite the reported health-related advantages of the use of warm water in bidets, there are health-related disadvantages associated with the use of these toilet seats, and the bacterial research is sparse. We conducted a survey on the hygienic conditions of 127 warm-water bidet toilet seats in restrooms on a university campus. The spray water from the toilet seats had less residual chlorine than their tap water sources. However, the total viable microbial count was below the water-quality standard for tap water. In addition, the heat of the toilet seats' warm-water tanks caused heterotrophic bacteria in the source tap water to proliferate inside the nozzle pipes and the warm-water tanks. Escherichia coli was detected on the spray nozzles of about 5% of the toilet seats, indicating that the self-cleaning mechanism of the spray nozzles was largely functioning properly. However, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was detected on about 2% of the toilet seats. P. aeruginosa was found to remain for long durations in biofilms that formed inside warm-water tanks. Infection-prevention measures aimed at P. aeruginosa should receive full consideration when managing warm-water bidet toilet seats in hospitals in order to prevent opportunistic infections in intensive care units, hematology wards, and other hospital locations.

Rapid detection of total and viable Legionella pneumophila in tap water by immunomagnetic separation, double fluorescent staining and flow cytometry.

PubMed

Keserue, Hans-Anton; Baumgartner, Andreas; Felleisen, Richard; Egli, Thomas

2012-11-01

We developed a rapid detection method for Legionella pneumophila (Lp) by filtration, immunomagnetic separation, double fluorescent staining, and flow cytometry (IMS-FCM method). The method requires 120 min and can discriminate 'viable' and 'membrane-damaged' cells. The recovery is over 85% of spiked Lp SG 1 cells in 1 l of tap water and detection limits are around 50 and 15 cells per litre for total and viable Lp, respectively. The method was compared using water samples from house installations in a blind study with three environmental laboratories performing the ISO 11731 plating method. In 53% of the water samples from different taps and showers significantly higher concentrations of Lp were detected by flow cytometry. No correlation to the plate culture method was found. Since also 'viable but not culturable' (VNBC) cells are detected by our method, this result was expected. The IMS-FCM method is limited by the specificity of the used antibodies; in the presented case they target Lp serogroups 1-12. This and the fact that no Lp-containing amoebae are detected may explain why in 21% of all samples higher counts were observed using the plate culture method. Though the IMS-FCM method is not yet fit to completely displace the established plating method (ISO 11731) for routine Lp monitoring, it has major advantages to plating and can quickly provide important insights into the ecology of this pathogen in water distribution systems. © 2012 The Authors. Microbial Biotechnology © 2012 Society for Applied Microbiology and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Lower extremity kinetics in tap dance.

PubMed

Mayers, Lester; Bronner, Shaw; Agraharasamakulam, Sujani; Ojofeitimi, Sheyi

2010-01-01

Tap dance is a unique performing art utilizing the lower extremities as percussion instruments. In a previous study these authors reported decreased injury prevalence among tap dancers compared to other dance and sports participants. No biomechanical analyses of tap dance exist to explain this finding. The purpose of the current pilot study was to provide a preliminary overview of normative peak kinetic and kinematic data, based on the hypothesis that tap dance generates relatively low ground reaction forces and joint forces and moments. Six professional tap dancers performed four common tap dance sequences that produced data captured by the use of a force platform and a five-camera motion analysis system. The mean vertical ground reaction force for all sequences was found to be 2.06+/-0.55 BW. Mean peak sagittal, frontal, and transverse plane joint moments (hip, knee, and ankle) ranged from 0.07 to 2.62 N.m/kg. These small ground reaction forces and joint forces and moments support our hypothesis, and may explain the relatively low injury incidence in tap dancers. Nevertheless, the analysis is highly complex, and other factors remain to be studied and clarified.

Cytogenotoxicity screening of source water, wastewater and treated water of drinking water treatment plants using two in vivo test systems: Allium cepa root based and Nile tilapia erythrocyte based tests.

PubMed

Hemachandra, Chamini K; Pathiratne, Asoka

2017-01-01

Biological effect directed in vivo tests with model organisms are useful in assessing potential health risks associated with chemical contaminations in surface waters. This study examined the applicability of two in vivo test systems viz. plant, Allium cepa root based tests and fish, Oreochromis niloticus erythrocyte based tests for screening cytogenotoxic potential of raw source water, water treatment waste (effluents) and treated water of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) using two DWTPs associated with a major river in Sri Lanka. Measured physico-chemical parameters of the raw water, effluents and treated water samples complied with the respective Sri Lankan standards. In the in vivo tests, raw water induced statistically significant root growth retardation, mitodepression and chromosomal abnormalities in the root meristem of the plant and micronuclei/nuclear buds evolution and genetic damage (as reflected by comet scores) in the erythrocytes of the fish compared to the aged tap water controls signifying greater genotoxicity of the source water especially in the dry period. The effluents provoked relatively high cytogenotoxic effects on both test systems but the toxicity in most cases was considerably reduced to the raw water level with the effluent dilution (1:8). In vivo tests indicated reduction of cytogenotoxic potential in the tested drinking water samples. The results support the potential applications of practically feasible in vivo biological test systems such as A. cepa root based tests and the fish erythrocyte based tests as complementary tools for screening cytogenotoxicity potential of the source water and water treatment waste reaching downstream of aquatic ecosystems and for evaluating cytogenotoxicity eliminating efficacy of the DWTPs in different seasons in view of human and ecological safety. Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Entry of Yersinia pestis into the viable but nonculturable state in a low-temperature tap water microcosm.

PubMed

Pawlowski, David R; Metzger, Daniel J; Raslawsky, Amy; Howlett, Amy; Siebert, Gretchen; Karalus, Richard J; Garrett, Stephanie; Whitehouse, Chris A

2011-03-16

Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, has caused several pandemics throughout history and remains endemic in the rodent populations of the western United States. More recently, Y. pestis is one of several bacterial pathogens considered to be a potential agent of bioterrorism. Thus, elucidating potential mechanisms of survival and persistence in the environment would be important in the event of an intentional release of the organism. One such mechanism is entry into the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state, as has been demonstrated for several other bacterial pathogens. In this study, we showed that Y. pestis became nonculturable by normal laboratory methods after 21 days in a low-temperature tap water microcosm. We further show evidence that, after the loss of culturability, the cells remained viable by using a variety of criteria, including cellular membrane integrity, uptake and incorporation of radiolabeled amino acids, and protection of genomic DNA from DNase I digestion. Additionally, we identified morphological and ultrastructural characteristics of Y. pestis VBNC cells, such as cell rounding and large periplasmic spaces, by electron microscopy, which are consistent with entry into the VBNC state in other bacteria. Finally, we demonstrated resuscitation of a small number of the non-culturable cells. This study provides compelling evidence that Y. pestis persists in a low-temperature tap water microcosm in a viable state yet is unable to be cultured under normal laboratory conditions, which may prove useful in risk assessment and remediation efforts, particularly in the event of an intentional release of this organism.

Entry of Yersinia pestis into the Viable but Nonculturable State in a Low-Temperature Tap Water Microcosm

PubMed Central

Pawlowski, David R.; Metzger, Daniel J.; Raslawsky, Amy; Howlett, Amy; Siebert, Gretchen; Karalus, Richard J.; Garrett, Stephanie; Whitehouse, Chris A.

2011-01-01

Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, has caused several pandemics throughout history and remains endemic in the rodent populations of the western United States. More recently, Y. pestis is one of several bacterial pathogens considered to be a potential agent of bioterrorism. Thus, elucidating potential mechanisms of survival and persistence in the environment would be important in the event of an intentional release of the organism. One such mechanism is entry into the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state, as has been demonstrated for several other bacterial pathogens. In this study, we showed that Y. pestis became nonculturable by normal laboratory methods after 21 days in a low-temperature tap water microcosm. We further show evidence that, after the loss of culturability, the cells remained viable by using a variety of criteria, including cellular membrane integrity, uptake and incorporation of radiolabeled amino acids, and protection of genomic DNA from DNase I digestion. Additionally, we identified morphological and ultrastructural characteristics of Y. pestis VBNC cells, such as cell rounding and large periplasmic spaces, by electron microscopy, which are consistent with entry into the VBNC state in other bacteria. Finally, we demonstrated resuscitation of a small number of the non-culturable cells. This study provides compelling evidence that Y. pestis persists in a low-temperature tap water microcosm in a viable state yet is unable to be cultured under normal laboratory conditions, which may prove useful in risk assessment and remediation efforts, particularly in the event of an intentional release of this organism. PMID:21436885

Impact of water treatment on the contribution of faucets to dissolved and particulate lead release at the tap.

PubMed

Cartier, Clément; Nour, Shokoufeh; Richer, Benoit; Deshommes, Elise; Prévost, Michèle

2012-10-15

A field study was performed in a building complex to investigate the extent and sources of lead (Pb) release in tap water and brass material was found to be the main contributor in the very first draw (250 mL). Based on these results, a pilot installation was built to study Pb leaching from old and new faucets in the presence and absence of a connection to Cu piping. Four water quality conditions were tested: i) no treatment; ii) addition of 0.8 mg P/L of orthophosphate; iii) pH adjustment to 8.4; and iv) adjustment to a higher chloride to sulfate mass ratio (CSMR; ratio from 0.3 to 2.9). Pb concentrations in samples taken from the faucets without treatment ranged from 1 to 52 μg/L, with a mean of 11 μg/L. The addition of orthophosphate @ 0.8 mg P/L (OrthoP) was the most effective treatment for all types of faucets tested. On average, OrthoP reduced mean Pb leaching by 41%, and was especially effective for new double faucets (70%). In the presence of orthophosphates, the relative proportion of particulate Pb (Pbpart) (>0.45 μm) increased from 31% to 54%. However, OrthoP was not efficient to reduce Zn release. The higher CSMR condition was associated with greater dezincification of yellow brass but not of red brass. Corrosion control treatment influenced Pb concentration equilibrium, directly impacting maximal exposure. Significantly higher Pb release (3 fold) was observed for 1 of the 8 faucets connected to Cu exposed to high CSMR water, suggesting the presence of galvanic corrosion. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Survey of fluoride levels in vended water stations.

PubMed

Jadav, Urvi G; Archarya, Bhavini S; Velasquez, Gisela M; Vance, Bradley J; Tate, Robert H; Quock, Ryan L

2014-01-01

This study sought to measure the fluoride concentration of water derived from vended water stations (VWS) and to identify its clinical implications, especially with regard to caries prevention and fluorosis. VWS and corresponding tap water samples were collected from 34 unique postal zip codes; samples were analyzed in duplicate for fluoride concentration. Average fluoride concentration in VWS water was significantly lower than that of tap water (P < 0.001). Fluoride concentration in the VWS water ranged from <0.01 ppm to 0.04 ppm, with a mean concentration of 0.02 ppm (±0.02 ppm). Patients utilizing VWS as their primary source of drinking water may not be receiving optimal caries preventive benefits; thus dietary fluoride supplementation may be indicated. Conversely, to minimize the risk of fluorosis in infants consuming reconstituted infant formula, water from a VWS may be used.

An Environmental Friendly Procedure for Photometric Determination of Hypochlorite in Tap Water Employing a Miniaturized Multicommuted Flow Analysis Setup

PubMed Central

Borges, Sivanildo S.; Reis, Boaventura F.

2011-01-01

A photometric procedure for the determination of ClO− in tap water employing a miniaturized multicommuted flow analysis setup and an LED-based photometer is described. The analytical procedure was implemented using leucocrystal violet (LCV; 4,4′,4′′-methylidynetris (N,N-dimethylaniline), C25H31N3) as a chromogenic reagent. Solenoid micropumps employed for solutions propelling were assembled together with the photometer in order to compose a compact unit of small dimensions. After control variables optimization, the system was applied for the determination of ClO− in samples of tap water, and aiming accuracy assessment samples were also analyzed using an independent method. Applying the paired t-test between results obtained using both methods, no significant difference at the 95% confidence level was observed. Other useful features include low reagent consumption, 2.4 μg of LCV per determination, a linear response ranging from 0.02 up to 2.0 mg L−1  ClO−, a relative standard deviation of 1.0% (n = 11) for samples containing 0.2 mg L−1  ClO−, a detection limit of 6.0 μg L−1  ClO−, a sampling throughput of 84 determinations per hour, and a waste generation of 432 μL per determination. PMID:21747732

Self-advancing step-tap tool

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Pettit, Donald R. (Inventor); Penner, Ronald K. (Inventor); Franklin, Larry D. (Inventor); Camarda, Charles J. (Inventor)

2008-01-01

Methods and tool for simultaneously forming a bore in a work piece and forming a series of threads in said bore. In an embodiment, the tool has a predetermined axial length, a proximal end, and a distal end, said tool comprising: a shank located at said proximal end; a pilot drill portion located at said distal end; and a mill portion intermediately disposed between said shank and said pilot drill portion. The mill portion is comprised of at least two drill-tap sections of predetermined axial lengths and at least one transition section of predetermined axial length, wherein each of said at least one transition section is sandwiched between a distinct set of two of said at least two drill-tap sections. The at least two drill-tap sections are formed of one or more drill-tap cutting teeth spirally increasing along said at least two drill-tap sections, wherein said tool is self-advanced in said work piece along said formed threads, and wherein said tool simultaneously forms said bore and said series of threads along a substantially similar longitudinal axis.

Gaining Momentum, Losing Ground. Tapping America's Potential (TAP) Progress Report, 2008. Executive Summary

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

Tapping America's Potential, 2008

2008-01-01

In July 2005, Business Roundtable and fifteen of America's most prominent business organizations--Tapping America's Potential, the TAP coalition--issued a report stating that "one of the pillars of American economic prosperity--U.S. scientific and technological superiority--is beginning to atrophy even as other nations are developing their own…

A comparitive clinical study between self tapping and drill free screws as a source of rigid orthodontic anchorage.

PubMed

Gupta, Nishant; Kotrashetti, S M; Naik, Vijay

2012-03-01

Self-tapping miniscrews are commonly being used as a temporary anchorage device for orthodontic purpose. A prerequisite for the insertion of these screws is the preparation of a pilot hole, which is time consuming and may result in damage to nerves, tooth root, drill bit breakage and thermal necrosis of bone. On the other hand the design of drill-free screws enables them to be inserted without drilling. The aim of this prospective study was to compare the stability and clinical response of the soft tissue around the self tapping and drill free screws when used for orthodontic anchorage for en mass retraction of maxillary anterior teeth. The study sample consisted of 20 patients requiring retraction of maxillary anterior teeth. The screws were placed in the alveolar bone between maxillary 2nd premolar and 1st molar bilaterally at the junction of attached gingiva and moveable mucosa. Pilot hole was drilled on the side which was selected for insertion of the self tapping screw under copious irrigation, after which it was inserted. Drill free screw was inserted on the contralateral side without predrilling. All screws were immediately loaded with 150-200 gm of retraction force. Patients were recalled for regular follow up for a period of 6 months. If the screws became mobile or showed any signs of inflammation during the course of the study, they were considered to be a failure. After a period of 6 months an overall success rate of 77.5% was noted. Four self tapping and five drill-free screws failed during the study. There was no statistically significant difference between the two types of screws with respect to success/failure. Mobility was found to be the major cause for the failure. Both self-tapping and the drill-free screws are effective anchorage units. But the latter have an edge over the conventional self-tapping screws because of decrease in operative time, little bone debris, less thermal damage, lower morbidity, and minimal patient discomfort as

Analysis of black fungal biofilms occurring at domestic water taps. II: potential routes of entry.

PubMed

Heinrichs, Guido; Hübner, Iris; Schmidt, Carsten K; de Hoog, G Sybren; Haase, Gerhard

2013-06-01

Formation of tenacious and massive black biofilms was occasionally observed at the water-air interphase of water taps and in associated habitats at several locations in Germany. Exophiala lecanii-corni was proven to be the dominant component of these biofilms. Water utility companies were interested to understand by which route fungi building these black biofilms enter their habitat at affected sites in domestic sanitary. A wide variety of fungi is known to be common in wet indoor environments, as well as in the drinking water resources. Two possible routes of entry are therefore considered as follows: (a) distribution by the drinking water system or (b) a retrograde route of colonisation. Previous compositional analysis revealed that the black constituents of biofilms primarily belong to the herpotrichiellaceous black yeast and relatives. Therefore, a systematic search for black fungi in the drinking water system was performed using Sabouraud's glucose agar medium with chloramphenicol and erythritol-chloramphenicol agar as isolation media. Cadophora malorum was the dominant fungus in the investigated drinking water systems, and samples taken from the house connections (n = 50; 74 %, <200 cfu/L), followed by a so far undescribed Alternaria sp. (28 %; <10 cfu/L) and E. castellanii (26 %; <10 cfu/L). Of note, C. malorum was not present in any previously analysed biofilm. Since E. lecanii-corni was not found in any water sample from the distribution system tested, but represented the most abundant species in dark biofilms previously analysed, a retrograde route of contamination in case of E. lecanii-corni can be assumed.

Weber (slope) analyses of timing variability in tapping and drawing tasks.

PubMed

Spencer, Rebecca M C; Zelaznik, Howard N

2003-12-01

Timing variability in continuous drawing tasks has not been found to be correlated with timing variability in repetitive finger tapping in recent studies (S. D. Robertson et al., 1999; H. N. Zelaznik, R. M. C. Spencer, & R. B. Ivry, 2002). Furthermore, the central component of timing variability, as measured by the slope of the timing variance versus the square of the timed interval, differed for tapping and drawing tasks. On the basis of those results, the authors posited that timing in tapping is explicit and as such uses a central representation of the interval to be timed, whereas timing in drawing tasks is implicit, that is, the temporal component is an emergent property of the trajectory produced. The authors examined that hypothesis in the present study by determining the linear relationship between timing variance and squared duration for tapping, circle-drawing, and line-drawing tasks. Participants (N = 50) performed 1 of 5 tasks: finger tapping, line drawing in the x dimension, line drawing in the y dimension, continuous circle drawing timed in the x dimension, or continuous circle drawing timed in the y dimension. The slopes differed significantly between finger tapping, line drawing, and circle drawing, suggesting separable sources of timing variability. The slopes of the 2 circle-drawing tasks did not differ from one another, nor did the slopes of the 2 line-drawing tasks differ significantly, suggesting a shared timing process within those tasks. Those results are evidence of a high degree of specificity in timing processes.

Traffic Aware Planner (TAP) Flight Evaluation

NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

Maris, John M.; Haynes, Mark A.; Wing, David J.; Burke, Kelly A.; Henderson, Jeff; Woods, Sharon E.

2014-01-01

NASA's Traffic Aware Planner (TAP) is a cockpit decision support tool that has the potential to achieve significant fuel and time savings when it is embedded in the data-rich Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) airspace. To address a key step towards the operational deployment of TAP and the NASA concept of Traffic Aware Strategic Aircrew Requests (TASAR), a system evaluation was conducted in a representative flight environment in November, 2013. Numerous challenges were overcome to achieve this goal, including the porting of the foundational Autonomous Operations Planner (AOP) software from its original simulation-based, avionics-embedded environment to an Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) platform. A flight-test aircraft was modified to host the EFB, the TAP application, an Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) processor, and a satellite broadband datalink. Nine Evaluation Pilots conducted 26 hours of TAP assessments using four route profiles in the complex eastern and north-eastern United States airspace. Extensive avionics and video data were collected, supplemented by comprehensive inflight and post-flight questionnaires. TAP was verified to function properly in the live avionics and ADS-B environment, characterized by recorded data dropouts, latency, and ADS-B message fluctuations. Twelve TAP-generated optimization requests were submitted to ATC, of which nine were approved, and all of which resulted in fuel and/or time savings. Analysis of subjective workload data indicated that pilot interaction with TAP during flight operations did not induce additional cognitive loading. Additionally, analyses of post-flight questionnaire data showed that the pilots perceived TAP to be useful, understandable, intuitive, and easy to use. All program objectives were met, and the next phase of TAP development and evaluations with partner airlines is in planning for 2015.

Plumbing system shock absorbers as a source of Legionella pneumophila.

PubMed

Memish, Z A; Oxley, C; Contant, J; Garber, G E

1992-12-01

Water distribution systems have been demonstrated to be a major source of nosocomial legionellosis. We describe an outbreak in our institution in which a novel source of Legionella pneumophila was identified in the plumbing system. After an outbreak of 10 cases of legionellosis in our hospital, recommended measures including superheating of the hot water to 80 degrees C, hyperchlorination to 2 ppm, and flushing resulted in no new cases in the following 5 years. Recently, despite these control measures, three new cases occurred. Surveillance cultures of shower heads and water tanks were negative; cultures of tap water samples remained positive. This prompted a search for another reservoir. Shock absorbers installed within water pipes to decrease noise were suspected. One hundred twenty-five shock absorbers were removed and cultured. A total of 13 (10%) yielded heavy growth of L. pneumophila (serogroup 1). Since their removal, no new cases have been found and the percentage of positive results of random tap water culture has dropped from 20% to 5%. This is the first report that identifies shock absorbers as a possible reservoir for L. pneumophila. We recommend that institutions with endemic legionellosis assess the water system for possible removal of shock absorbers.

Fluctuations of ground-water levels in Lee County, Florida, in 1975 water year

USGS Publications Warehouse

O'Donnell, T. H.

1977-01-01

During the 1975 water year, rainfall was about average at Page Field, Florida, and from 20-25 percent below average at Lehigh Acres and Sanibel Island. Water levels were monitored in 57 observation wells in Lee County, Florida. Of the 23 wells that tap the water-table aquifer, one record high and 5 record low water levels were established. Record low water levels were established in 5 of 20 wells that tap the sandstone aquifer and in 1 of 10 wells that tap the upper Hawthorn aquifer. A record high water level was established in 1 of 3 wells that tap the lower Hawthorn aquifer. (Woodard-USGS)

Source Water Quality Monitoring

EPA Science Inventory

Presentation will provide background information on continuous source water monitoring using online toxicity monitors and cover various tools available. Conceptual and practical aspects of source water quality monitoring will be discussed.

Assessment of leg muscle activity using toe tapping in patients with Parkinson's disease: comparison of two types of toe tapping.

PubMed

Taniguchi, Seira; Peper, Ferdinand; Shimokawa, Tetsuya

2018-05-01

[Purpose] This study investigates two types of toe tapping, i.e., "closed," with both feet on the floor, and "open," in which the foot does not touch the ground, and evaluates their usefulness in combination with monitoring of muscle activity during toe tapping. [Subjects and Methods] The study enrolled 11 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and 9 controls (Controls). The tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius (GS) muscle activity during toe tapping was measured using surface electromyography. [Results] In closed tapping, the minima in GS activation with the first tap was significantly higher in patients with PD than in Controls. In open tapping, the coefficient of variation (CV) of local maxima in TA activation was significantly higher in patients with PD than in Controls. In both types of tapping, the CV of extrema in GS activities increased with disease duration, but this may be due to the long-term administration of Levodopa, which itself tends to cause excessive GS activities. [Conclusion] Closed tapping is suitable for the assessment of GS activity and can detect excessive activities, which is observed as visible movement. Open tapping, on the other hand, is suitable for assessment of TA activity.

Chemical and microbial characteristics of municipal drinking water supply systems in the Canadian Arctic.

PubMed

Daley, Kiley; Truelstrup Hansen, Lisbeth; Jamieson, Rob C; Hayward, Jenny L; Piorkowski, Greg S; Krkosek, Wendy; Gagnon, Graham A; Castleden, Heather; MacNeil, Kristen; Poltarowicz, Joanna; Corriveau, Emmalina; Jackson, Amy; Lywood, Justine; Huang, Yannan

2017-06-13

Drinking water in the vast Arctic Canadian territory of Nunavut is sourced from surface water lakes or rivers and transferred to man-made or natural reservoirs. The raw water is at a minimum treated by chlorination and distributed to customers either by trucks delivering to a water storage tank inside buildings or through a piped distribution system. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical and microbial drinking water quality from source to tap in three hamlets (Coral Harbour, Pond Inlet and Pangnirtung-each has a population of <2000) on trucked service, and in Iqaluit (population ~6700), which uses a combination of trucked and piped water conveyance. Generally, the source and drinking water was of satisfactory microbial quality, containing Escherichia coli levels of <1 MPN/100 mL with a few exceptions, and selected pathogenic bacteria and parasites were below detection limits using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Tap water in households receiving trucked water contained less than the recommended 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine, while piped drinking water in Iqaluit complied with Health Canada guidelines for residual chlorine (i.e. >0.2 mg/L free chlorine). Some buildings in the four communities contained manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and/or lead (Pb) concentrations above Health Canada guideline values for the aesthetic (Mn, Cu and Fe) and health (Pb) objectives. Corrosion of components of the drinking water distribution system (household storage tanks, premise plumbing) could be contributing to Pb, Cu and Fe levels, as the source water in three of the four communities had low alkalinity. The results point to the need for robust disinfection, which may include secondary disinfection or point-of-use disinfection, to prevent microbial risks in drinking water tanks in buildings and ultimately at the tap.

Monitoring bacterial contamination of piped water supply in rural coastal Bangladesh.

PubMed

Ahsan, Md Sabbir; Akber, Md Ali; Islam, Md Atikul; Kabir, Md Pervez; Hoque, Md Ikramul

2017-10-31

Safe drinking water is scarce in southwest coastal Bangladesh because of unavailability of fresh water. Given the high salinity of both groundwater and surface water in this area, harvested rainwater and rain-fed pond water became the main sources of drinking water. Both the government and non-government organizations have recently introduced pipe water supply in the rural coastal areas to ensure safe drinking water. We assessed the bacteriological quality of water at different points along the piped water distribution system (i.e., the source, treatment plant, household taps, street hydrants, and household storage containers) of Mongla municipality under Mongla Upazila in Bagerhat district. Water samples were collected at 2-month interval from May 2014 to March 2015. Median E. coli and total coliform counts at source, treatment plant, household taps, street hydrants, and household storage containers were respectively 225, 4, 7, 7, and 15 cfu/100 ml and 42,000, 545, 5000, 6150, and 18,800 cfu/100 ml. Concentrations of both of the indicator bacteria reduced after treatment, although it did not satisfy the WHO drinking water standards. However, re-contamination in distribution systems and household storage containers indicate improper maintenance of distribution system and lack of personal hygiene.

Use of an Electronic Tongue System and Fuzzy Logic to Analyze Water Samples

NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)

Braga, Guilherme S.; Paterno, Leonardo G.; Fonseca, Fernando J.

2009-05-01

An electronic tongue (ET) system incorporating 8 chemical sensors was used in combination with two pattern recognition tools, namely principal component analysis (PCA) and Fuzzy logic for discriminating/classification of water samples from different sources (tap, distilled and three brands of mineral water). The Fuzzy program exhibited a higher accuracy than the PCA and allowed the ET to classify correctly 4 in 5 types of water. Exception was made for one brand of mineral water which was sometimes misclassified as tap water. On the other hand, the PCA grouped water samples in three clusters, one with the distilled water; a second with tap water and one brand of mineral water, and the third with the other two other brands of mineral water. Samples in the second and third clusters could not be distinguished. Nevertheless, close grouping between repeated tests indicated that the ET system response is reproducible. The potential use of the Fuzzy logic as the data processing tool in combination with an electronic tongue system is discussed.